Prof. dr. sc. Danica ŠkaraProf. dr. sc. Danica ŠkaraUniversity of SplitUniversity of Split

dskara@ffst.hr dskara@ffst.hr

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND COGNITIVE PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF LANGUAGEASPECTS OF LANGUAGE

WEEK 4: LANGUAGE EVOLUTION AND WEEK 4: LANGUAGE EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

ANIMAL LANGUAGEANIMAL LANGUAGE

What is language?What is language?

“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntrily produced symbols.”

Edward Sapir (1921)

A A languagelanguage is a system for encoding is a system for encoding and decodingand decoding

informationinformation. . the term refers to the forms of the term refers to the forms of

communicationcommunication considered peculiar to considered peculiar to humankindhumankind. .

In In linguisticslinguistics the term is extended to the term is extended to refer to the refer to the human cognitive facilityhuman cognitive facility of of creating and using language.creating and using language.

Origin and evolution of Origin and evolution of languagelanguage

To ask where language comes from is to To ask where language comes from is to raise the question of the origin of the raise the question of the origin of the cognitively modern human mind. cognitively modern human mind.

The evolution of modern human The evolution of modern human language required both the development language required both the development of the anatomical apparatus for speech of the anatomical apparatus for speech and also neurological changes in the and also neurological changes in the brain to support language itself, but brain to support language itself, but other species have some of these other species have some of these capabilities without full language ability. capabilities without full language ability.

The frontal lobes are where ideas The frontal lobes are where ideas are created; plans constructed;are created; plans constructed; thoughts joined with their thoughts joined with their associations to form new memories; associations to form new memories; and fleeting perceptions held in and fleeting perceptions held in mind until they are dispatched to mind until they are dispatched to long-term memory or to oblivion. long-term memory or to oblivion.

This brain region is the home of This brain region is the home of consciousness. consciousness. Self-awareness Self-awareness arises here, and emotions are arises here, and emotions are transformed in this place from transformed in this place from physical survival systems to physical survival systems to subjective feelingssubjective feelings. .

The area of the frontal lobe most The area of the frontal lobe most closely associated with the closely associated with the generation of consciousness is in generation of consciousness is in the prefrontal cortex. These four the prefrontal cortex. These four areas, which endow human with areas, which endow human with fucntions fucntions are not available in other are not available in other animal: animal:

1) Belief in divine creation1) Belief in divine creation.  Many .  Many societies throughout history believed societies throughout history believed that language is the gift of the gods to that language is the gift of the gods to humans.  The most familiar is found in humans.  The most familiar is found in Genesis 2:20, which tells us that Adam Genesis 2:20, which tells us that Adam gave names to all living creatures.  gave names to all living creatures.  This belief predicates that humans This belief predicates that humans were created from the start with an were created from the start with an innate capacity to use language.  innate capacity to use language. 

Invention hypothesesInvention hypotheses.. There are There are several hypotheses as to how language several hypotheses as to how language might have been consciously invented might have been consciously invented by humans based on a more primitive by humans based on a more primitive system of hominid communication.  system of hominid communication. 

Each hypothesis is predicated on the Each hypothesis is predicated on the idea that the invention of language idea that the invention of language and its gradual refinement served as a and its gradual refinement served as a continuous impetus to additional continuous impetus to additional human mental development.human mental development.

1) Warning hypothesis1) Warning hypothesis.  Language .  Language may have evolved from warning may have evolved from warning signals such as those used by signals such as those used by animals.  Perhaps language started animals.  Perhaps language started with a warning to others, such as with a warning to others, such as Look outLook out, , RunRun, or , or HelpHelp to alert to alert members of the tribe when some members of the tribe when some lumbering beast was approaching.  lumbering beast was approaching. 

Gestural theoryGestural theory The gestural theory states that The gestural theory states that

human language developed from human language developed from gesturesgestures that were used for simple that were used for simple communication.communication.

Each of the Each of the imitation hypothesesimitation hypotheses might explain how certain isolated might explain how certain isolated words of language developed.  Very words of language developed.  Very few words in human language are few words in human language are verbal verbal iconsicons.  Most are .  Most are symbolssymbols, , displaying an arbitrary relationship displaying an arbitrary relationship of sound and meaning. (Example: of sound and meaning. (Example: the word the word treetree in several languages: in several languages: Spanish Spanish árbolárbol; French ; French arbrearbre; ;

There are three distinct views of There are three distinct views of how language evolved:how language evolved:

SOCIAL > SOCIAL > Language arose through Language arose through increased socialisation in early increased socialisation in early settled communities and the need settled communities and the need for a communication system to for a communication system to support hunting and farming.support hunting and farming.

PHYSIOLOGICAL:PHYSIOLOGICAL: the human the human articulators appear to be specially articulators appear to be specially adapted to language.adapted to language.

NEUROLOGICAL:NEUROLOGICAL: A lay view holds A lay view holds that human beings are able to that human beings are able to master the complexities of language master the complexities of language because they have developed a because they have developed a higher intelligence or a larger brain. higher intelligence or a larger brain.

Nativists vs. empiricistsNativists vs. empiricists Nativist theoriesNativist theories —Chomky is the —Chomky is the

preeminent name here—place the preeminent name here—place the distinctiveness of language in specific distinctiveness of language in specific genetic endowmentgenetic endowment for a specifically for a specifically genetically instructed language module. genetically instructed language module. Under that view, there is minimal learning Under that view, there is minimal learning involved in acquiring a language. involved in acquiring a language.

EEmpiricistsmpiricists like Hobbes and Locke argued like Hobbes and Locke argued that knowledge emerge ultimately from that knowledge emerge ultimately from abstracted abstracted sense impressionssense impressions. .

The precise form of language must The precise form of language must be acquired through exposure to a be acquired through exposure to a speech community. Words are speech community. Words are definitely not inbron, but the definitely not inbron, but the capacity to acquire language and capacity to acquire language and use it creativelyuse it creatively seems to be inborn. seems to be inborn. N. Chomsky calls this ability the LAD N. Chomsky calls this ability the LAD (Language Acquisition Device).(Language Acquisition Device).

Co-evolutionary theoryCo-evolutionary theory There are also There are also coevolutionarycoevolutionary proposals proposals: :

Language is not an instinct and thereLanguage is not an instinct and there is no is no genetically installed linguistic black box in our genetically installed linguistic black box in our brains. Language arose slowly through cognitive brains. Language arose slowly through cognitive and cultural inventiveness. and cultural inventiveness.

Language began as a cognitive adaptation and Language began as a cognitive adaptation and genetic assimilation.genetic assimilation. Cognitive Cognitive effort and genetic effort and genetic assimilation interacted as language and brain co-assimilation interacted as language and brain co-evolved. evolved.

WWe have a vast, open-ended number of frames e have a vast, open-ended number of frames and provisional conceptual assemblies that we and provisional conceptual assemblies that we manipulate. manipulate.

During the last few years the During the last few years the argument that both archaic argument that both archaic H. H. sapiens sapiens and Neanderthals had the and Neanderthals had the brain capacity, neural structure and brain capacity, neural structure and vocal apparatus for an advanced vocal apparatus for an advanced form of vocalization, that should be form of vocalization, that should be called language, is compellingcalled language, is compelling..

Was there one or more than one original Was there one or more than one original language? Was there one or more than one language? Was there one or more than one

invention of language?invention of language?

  There are about 5,000 languages There are about 5,000 languages spoken on Earth today.  We know spoken on Earth today.  We know that there were even more spoken in that there were even more spoken in the past, when most people lived in the past, when most people lived in small bands or tribes rather than in small bands or tribes rather than in large states.large states.

MMonogenesisonogenesis vs. vs.    polygenesispolygenesis

1) 1) The oldest belief is that there was The oldest belief is that there was a single, original language.  The idea a single, original language.  The idea of a single ancestor tongue is known of a single ancestor tongue is known today as today as monogenesismonogenesis. .  In Judeo- In Judeo-Christian tradition, the original Christian tradition, the original language was confused by divine language was confused by divine intervention, as described in the intervention, as described in the story of the Tower of Babel in story of the Tower of Babel in Genesis. Genesis.

The hypothesis of multiple linguistic The hypothesis of multiple linguistic origins that often goes along with origins that often goes along with this hypothesis is known as this hypothesis is known as polygenesispolygenesis. .  Each of the original Each of the original languages then would then have languages then would then have diverged into numerous forms.  The diverged into numerous forms.  The major language families of today major language families of today would be descended from these would be descended from these separate mother tongues.separate mother tongues.

Animal communicationAnimal communication

Transmission of information from Transmission of information from one animal to another by means of one animal to another by means of sound, viisble sign or behavoiur, sound, viisble sign or behavoiur, taste or odour, electrical impulse, taste or odour, electrical impulse, touch, or a combination of these.touch, or a combination of these.

The vehicle for the provision of this The vehicle for the provision of this information is called a information is called a signal.signal.

Different contexts require different Different contexts require different kinds of information and thus kinds of information and thus different signals. different signals.

The number of signals in a species’ The number of signals in a species’ repertoire can range from 5 or 6 in repertoire can range from 5 or 6 in the simplest non-social animals to 10-the simplest non-social animals to 10-20 in social insects, such as bees and 20 in social insects, such as bees and ants, or to 30-40 in social vertebrates, ants, or to 30-40 in social vertebrates, such as wolves and primates.such as wolves and primates.

Design features of human Design features of human languagelanguage

The following properties of human language have The following properties of human language have been argued to separate it from animal been argued to separate it from animal communication:communication:

Arbitrariness:Arbitrariness: There is no rational relationship There is no rational relationship between a sound or sign and its meaning. (There between a sound or sign and its meaning. (There is nothing intrinsically "housy" about the word is nothing intrinsically "housy" about the word "house".)"house".)

Cultural transmission:Cultural transmission: Language is passed from Language is passed from one language user to the next, consciously or one language user to the next, consciously or unconsciously.unconsciously.

Discreteness:Discreteness: Language is composed of discrete Language is composed of discrete units that are used in combination to create units that are used in combination to create meaning.meaning.

Displacement:Displacement: Languages can be used to Languages can be used to communicate ideas about things that are not communicate ideas about things that are not in the immediate vicinity either spatially or in the immediate vicinity either spatially or temporally.temporally.

Duality:Duality: Language works on two levels at Language works on two levels at once, a surface level and a semantic once, a surface level and a semantic (meaningful) level.(meaningful) level.

Metalinguistics:Metalinguistics: Ability to discuss language Ability to discuss language itself.itself.

Productivity:Productivity: A finite number of units can be A finite number of units can be used to create an infinite number of used to create an infinite number of utterances.utterances.

Animals and language?Animals and language?

Is language use a uniquely Is language use a uniquely human ability? human ability? Parrots - can memorize chunks of Parrots - can memorize chunks of

human speechhuman speechPolly wanna cracker

But are they really producing utterances But are they really producing utterances based on an underlying meaning?based on an underlying meaning?

Animals and language?Animals and language?

Is language use a uniquely Is language use a uniquely human ability?human ability?

Tweet chirp chirp warble

warble chirp.

Bird use songs to serve territorial Bird use songs to serve territorial and courtship functions.and courtship functions.

Can songs be used productively?Can songs be used productively?

Translation: Translation: this is my treethis is my tree

Animals and language?Animals and language?

Is language use a uniquely human Is language use a uniquely human ability?ability?

• Angle of the dance indicates direction• Rate of looping indicates distance

Honey bees dance to indicate where Honey bees dance to indicate where a source of nectar is. a source of nectar is.

Some examplesSome examples

Animals - use a variety of methods Animals - use a variety of methods to communicateto communicate Dogs barkDogs bark Birds singBirds sing Bees danceBees dance People talk - we use People talk - we use language language (as well (as well

as other methods) for communicationas other methods) for communication

Animals and language?Animals and language?

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness

Displacement Displacement

ProductivityProductivity

DiscretenessDiscreteness

Semanticity Semanticity Duality of Duality of

patterningpatterning

Parrot DogBirdsong

Bee dance

Human Language

?????

Research with apesResearch with apes, like that of , like that of Francine PattersonFrancine Patterson with with KokoKoko or or Herbert Terrace with Herbert Terrace with NimNim ChimpskyChimpsky, suggested that apes are capable of , suggested that apes are capable of using language that meets some of using language that meets some of these requirements. However, no these requirements. However, no experiment has shown a non-human experiment has shown a non-human being to be proficient in all of these being to be proficient in all of these areas.areas.

Can Chimpanzees Talk?Can Chimpanzees Talk?

ConclusionConclusion

It seems that we have a ‘language organ’ which It seems that we have a ‘language organ’ which other species do not possess, a segment of our other species do not possess, a segment of our brain which is triggered by a storage of brain which is triggered by a storage of development.development.

The results suggest that while chimpanzees and The results suggest that while chimpanzees and gorillas are quite intelligent they are not capable of gorillas are quite intelligent they are not capable of human language. Rather they have a primitive human language. Rather they have a primitive version of the semantic ability children use to begin version of the semantic ability children use to begin learning language. Human beings seem to have a learning language. Human beings seem to have a different kind of intelligence!different kind of intelligence!

Language has been shaped over many generations Language has been shaped over many generations into a system which reflects the way human into a system which reflects the way human thought is structured.thought is structured.