THE SENTENCEPunctuation Marks at the End of a Sentence

§1 At the end of a declarative sentence — one-member or two-member — a full-stop (a period or a dot) is placed to denote fall of tone, completeness of the thought, and a pause.

e.g.The voice dropped to a whisper [G.]. He swung round and walked down the road [Cr.]. Three hundred pounds [Sn.].

§2 At the end of an interrogative sentence, one-member or two-member — a question mark (an interrogation mark) is put to denote interrogation, request, surprise, rise or fall of tone, and a pause.

e.g."What are you talking about?" [Gr.]. "A mutual affection?" [G.].

"Will you kindly see that Mrs. Heron has this note?" [G.].§3 At the end of an exclamatory sentence an exclamation mark is put to denote strong emotion (pain, surprise, delight; strict order), falling tone, completeness of the thought, and a pause.

e.g.It's no good! [Lar.]. "Silence in the court!" [Gor.].

"My dear Adrian! Good of you" [G.].§4 At the end of an imperative sentence a full-stop is used to denote completeness of the thought, falling tone, and a pause, the mood of the verb expressing inducement, request, order.

e.g."Go ahead." [G.]. "Look." [Sn.]. "Sit up," he commanded, "and hold your hands." [Man.].

§5 At the end of an incomplete sentence a dash is placed (sometimes two or three) to denote hesitation, faltering speech, incompleteness of the thought, and rising tone.

e.g."My brother is a soldier — " [G.]. "No fool like an — " [G.]. "I am afraid — " she paused [Gr.].

§6 At the end of a complete sentence — one-member or two-member — dots are often used to denote implication. The dots are placed before a full-stop or any other punctuation mark (PM).

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e.g.Poor father: Not so big after all — and with no one to look after him ... . And every day he had to work and was so tired to be a Mr. Macdonald ... [Man.].

"Phuong told me." "How could she ...?" [Gr.].

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE The Principal Parts

The Subject and the Predicate§7 There is no PM between the subject and the predicate, as they are closely connected, and demand no pause.

e.g.The day went on [Sn.]. With his two very awkward parcels he strode off to his train.

[Man.].§8 Neither is there any PM between the subject and a compound or double predicate.

e.g.Levenford Fair was an annual festival [Gr.]. The sky shone pale [Man]. It was a mistake to have come [Man ]. Then each day I had to wait for the post from England [Sn.].

Note. When the predicative is expressed by an infinitive phrase, a comma sometimes precedes it to denote a pause and emphasis.

e.g.The question was, how to get the pound a week [Sh.].§9 A complex subject, like a simple one, is usually not set off by any PM.

e.g."There is no use you staying out here to work the farm forSam" [Al.].§10 A complex subject may have a detached character, so a comma is placed before it to denote falling tone and a pause.

e.g."It's made quite a difference, your being here" [Gr.]. Odd, his remembering me! [G.].

§11 In an incomplete sentence, when the predicate or the link-verb is omitted, a comma is placed after the subject to denote implication, rising tone, and a pause.

e.g.I am fond of apples; he, of pears [Sk.]. §12 If the predicate contains two or more modal or auxiliary verbs, or several predicatives, a comma (or commas) divides them.

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e.g. Tony must not, should not be ruined through her! [G.]. He no longer felt despondent, but happy, dated, hopeful [Gr.].

§13 The subject is often separated from the predicate by introductory words, detached parts of the sentence, detached or appended clauses, or by a participial construction, so these words, clauses, and constructions are enclosed in commas (brackets or dashes) to denote their parenthetical character and lowered tone. The same in case of an introductory clause.If an interjection comes between the principal parts, there may be an exclamation mark after it.

e.g.Elisabeth Jane, though hungry, willingly postponed serv-ing herself [Har.]. But Oxborrow, alas! was embarrassingly emotional [Gr.]. Their gate, he noted as he went out, was wearing its latch smooth [Ba.].§14 In contracted sentences with two subjects to one predicate there is no PM between the subjects, if they are connected by a conjunction; there is a comma, if the subject is repeated for emphasis (without a conjunction).

e.g. He and Jean wrote cheerfully from the East Coast [G.]. This, this was his first case [Cr.].§15 A contracted sentence containing three or more subjects has usually a conjunction before the last one. Commas are placed between the subjects. If a longer pause is necessary, or if commas come in between to mark off other parts of the sentence, there is a semicolon. Before the conjunction and before the predicate commas are put as well.

e.g. The sworn evidence of six Bolivian muleteers, testifying to the shooting and to its being unprovoked; Hubert's countering statement, the exhibition of his scar, his record, and the evidence of Hallorsen, formed the material on which the magistrate was invited to come to his decision [G.].§16 When the subjects in a contracted sentence are introduced in pairs, these pairs are set off from each other by double commas.

e.g. Cries and confusion, the flashes and reports of pistol shots, and one loud groan, rang in my ears [St.].

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§17 Sometimes the second subject of a contracted sentence has a detached, explanatory character, so it is set off by a comma or double commas, inspite of the conjunction 'and'.

e.g. Arguments arose, and shouted speculations [Cr.]. At length a sound, and an approaching object, proved to them

that the driver of the mail-cart had been as good as his word [Har.].§18 In contracted sentences with two or more predicates to one subject there is usually no PM between the predicates if they are connected by the conjunctions 'and', 'or', 'either... or', 'as well as', 'neither ... nor'. If they are joined by the conjunctions 'but', 'nor', there is a comma between the predicates.

e.g. His daughter sits down and opens a parcel of photographs [Sh.].

There's nothing he can't do or hasn't done [Cr.]. He didn't reply to her, but started the car [Gor.]. He felt shaky and ill at the thought of further trouble [Cr.].§19 If the first predicate of a contracted sentence has dependent words of its own after it, there is usually a comma before the conjunction 'and' to denote isolation.

e.g.He raises his shoe to unlace it, and catches sight of the slippers [Sh.].

Michael resigned his hat, and entered [G.].§20 When a contracted sentence has no conjunction, a comma is placed between the predicates to denote a short pause and enumeration of connected actions. The same in case of a repeated predicate (or a part of the predicate) used for emphasis.

The last predicate is, in most cases, preceded by a conjunction, before which a comma may be put or omitted.

e.g. He never talked, never inquired, never suggested [L.]. He excused himself, went out of the room quickly and entered the telephone booth [Gor.].

The train would not, simply would not go fast enough [Gr.].§21 In case of a longer pause and weaker connection, there is a semicolon between the predicates of long contracted sentences. Also, when there is already a comma in the sentence.

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e.g. She sweeps a litter of disarranged papers out of the way; snatches a sheet of paper from her stationary case, and tries to write. At the third time she gives it up; flings down her pen; grips the table angrily and exclaims [Sn.].

The Secondary PartsThe Object

§22 An object, being closely connected with the predicate of the sentence (or with some verbal), is not set off by any PM.

e.g. He was doing a lot of harm [Gr.]. She can do shorthand [Gr.].§23 In case of enumeration, the objects are separated from each other by commas. The same in case of a repeated object used for emphasis.

e.g. Andrew stood up, instantly surrounded by his friends, by Con, Mary, the astounded Mr. Horner, by people he had never seen before [Cr.].

Yet it brought nothing, nothing [Cr.].§24 When objects are introduced in pairs, joined by the conjunction 'and', each pair is set off by a comma or double commas.

e.g. He took out a thermos and a small spirit stove, a hair brush, a shaving set and a tin of rations [Gr.].§25 A detached object (mostly prepositional) is set off by a comma (or double commas, if placed in the middle of the sentence) to denote a pause.

e.g. To Lewis, Morgan was the nearest human thing to the devil [Pr.]. His resentment, his almost sulky sense of defeat, he put away. [Sn .].

Note. In case of several objects, or object groups, there may also be semicolons between them to denote a longer pause.

e.g. He was accustomed to the East, to dark eyes, languishing, tocurves enticingly disguised; to sex, mystery, teeth like pearls [G.].§26 A complex object is not set off by any PM.

e.g. I heard him talking the other day at a party [Gr.].

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Note. If the second component of a complex object contains several parts, they are divided by commas.

e.g. He knew himself to be raw, inadequately trained, quite capable of making mistakes [Dr.].

The Attribute§27 An attribute is usually closely connected with the noun, or pronoun, it modifies (both in postposition and preposition), so there is no PM between them.

e.g. A small oil lamp burned on the floor [Gr.]. The colour of my eyes were a passport [Gr.].

§28 Homogeneous attributes, including the last one, are divided by commas. The same in case of repetition for emphasis.

e.g. The thin, dark, smallish man, with a face rather like a monkey's, grinned [G.].

He could not endure the presence of Horner, Boland, Mary, and the other witnesses [Cr.].§29 Non-homogeneous attributes are not separated by any PM.

e.g. She wore a fawn-coloured sleeveless jumper and skirt [G.]. She herself was seated in the green plush armchair [Cr.].§30 An attributive group of words (or sentence) preceding the modifying noun is hyphenated.

e.g. There is a sort of Oh-what-a-wicked-world-this-is-and-how-I- wish-I-could-do- something-to- make-it-better-and-nobler expres sion about Montmorency [Jer.].There are no such attributive groups in Ukrainian.§31 An attribute expressed by a participial phrase is usually not set off from the noun it modifies by any PM.

e.g.The bench was on a little rise sloping down the river.§32 Detached attributes mostly follow the words they modify, and are set off by a comma or double commas. Such attributes often go in pairs joined by the conjunction 'and”.

e.g.Arthur Colum, tall, ugly and with a futile violence in every movement, threw the garden towel [Ba.].

Phuong, I thought, had not caught his tone, melancholy and final [Сm.].

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Note. Detached attributes preceding the nouns they modify may have a causal meaning, and are set off by commas as well. They may be adjectives, participles, and participial phrases.

e.g.Lost, bewildered, irritated, Andrew raced through the files — minutes of past meetings [Cr.].

Then, gowned and glowed in the little travesty of a theatre, he was ready [Cr.].§33 A detached attributive participial phrase following the noun it modifies is set off by a comma or double commas.

e.g. He could have sighed with relief when Doctor Bramwell, presiding at the top of the table, viewed the cleared plates [Cr.].§34 A complex attribute is not separated from the noun it modifies by any PM.

e.g. The sound of people moving in the corridor brought him wearily to his feet [Cr.].

The Apposition (A special kind of attribute)§35 An attached (close or undetached) apposition, being closely connected with the noun it modifies, and preceding it, is not separated by any PM from the noun.

e.g. I want Doctor Griffiths to come immediately [Cr.]. Uncle Guthbert [G.].

§36 A detached (or loose) apposition, following the noun it modifies, is set off by a comma or double commas (sometimes by a dash).

e.g. Out of this crowd two jolly girls, Margery and Minnie, soon attached themselves [Cop.].

Trusk's wife, a woman in her late forties, was still unusually handsome [Mo.].

The Adverbial Modifier §37 An adverbial modifier of time, duration, or frequency placed at the beginning, at the end, or in the middle of a sentence, is normally not separated by any PM from the principal parts, being closely connected with the verb it modifies.

e.g. Next moment the door was snatched open again [Ba.].

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Half an hour Lewis worked in the tunnel [Pr.]. One tablespoon every three hours [Cr.].

§38 When a lengthy adverbial modifier of time opens a sentence, it becomes emphatic, and is set off by a comma to indicate rising tone and a pause.

e.g. After a long season in the backwoods, nothing had pleased Roy more than Burton's arguments [Al.]. At the end of five-and-thirty minutes, Harris said "Ah!" [Jer.].

Note. In case of several adverbial modifiers of time, commas di-vide them. Also, in case of repetition.

e.g. I never, never, never want to look a lobar pneumonia in the face again [Cr.]. She thought of that all the days, all the nights.§39 An appositional adverbial modifier of time, having an explanatory or specifying (уточнююче) meaning, is set off by a comma (or double commas).

e.g. On Saturday, the tenth of October, they moved their fur-niture from storage [Gr.].§40 A detached adverbial modifier of time usually comes in the middle (or at the end) of a sentence, and splits it, so it is set off by double commas (or a comma) to denote a pause and isolation.

e.g. My father had, a year past, ceased to be a traveller [Sn.]. All they need do would be to walk round me, and, after that,

take their diploma [Jer.].He's done the surgery, and the visits also, these last three days [Сm .].

§41 Ап adverbial modifier of time, expressed by a participial phrase, having a detached character, is set off by a comma (or double commas), whatever place it may occupy in the sentence.

e.g. Arriving here, he made up his mind to go in, and knock-ing at the door, he was greeted by Mrs. Gerhardt [Dr.].§42 A complex adverbial modifier of time, which is expressed by a Nominative Absolute (Participle) Construction, is always set off by a comma or double commas.

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e.g. At a quarter to ten, his cigar burned down, his stock of stories temporarily exhausted, Freddie yawned slightly and looked at his platinum wrist-watch [Cr.].

The presentation concluded, the lady of title shook hands with the gentleman fishmonger [Cop.].§43 An adverbial modifier of place or direction, whatever place it may occupy in the sentence, is usually not separated from the principal parts by any PM, being closely connected with them.

e.g. He was already around the corner of the lane and being led down the main road [Al.].

To the right were two small rocky mounds in the heart of the lake [Al.].§44 An adverbial modifier of place may have a detached character, so a comma or double commas are used to set it off from the rest of the sentence, to denote rising tone and a pause.

e.g.Outside, it was a windy April day [Sn.]. About noon that same day, on the tiled terrace of their hotel,

he felt a sudden dull pain in the back of his head [G .].§45 An appositional adverbial modifier of place, having an explanatory or specifying meaning, is divided by double commas from the rest of the sentence.

e.g.Above, in my mother's bedroom, the light was also burning [Sn.].Note. Before enumeration of adverbial modifiers of place there is

usually a dash; there are commas between the adverbial modifiers.e.g. Since babyhood she had been abroad but three times — to

Italy, to Paris, to Pyrenees [G.].§46 An adverbial modifier of manner is usually closely linked to the verb or the verbal it modifies, so it is used without any PM in the sentence. e.g. I will listen to you patiently [Sh.]. I found the place with difficulty and almost by accident [Gr.]. He went away without having seen Jennie again [Dr .].

Note. When an adverbial modifier of manner, expressed by a gerundial phrase, opens a sentence, it is marked off by a comma.

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e.g. Without saying anything to Christine, he began to look for a convenient consulting-room up West [Cr.].§47 In case of repetition, or in case of several adverbial modifiers of manner, there are commas between them (in spite of a conjunction).

e.g.Tenderly, tenderly he seated and sounded her [Cr.]. On her part Jennie had sincerely, deeply, truly learned to love

this man [Dr.]. Your fortune has been made by screwing, 'and bullying, and

driving, and all sorts of pettifogging tyrany [Sh.].§48 A complex adverbial modifier of manner, like a simple one, is not set off by any PM.

e.g. I couldn't walk down the street without somebody turning to look at her [Mai.].§49 A detached adverbial modifier of manner is set off by a comma or double commas to denote isolation, lowered tone, and a pause.

e.g. And yet never once, with a phrase or look, had he encroached on my private life [Gr.]. And they went into the mountains, mostly in large groups [A.]. But there was an ugly look on his cold, hard face, which spoke, icily, of unforgiving fury [Cr.].§50 Detached adverbial modifiers of manner often come in pairs joined by the conjunction 'and', so these pairs are enclosed in double commas.

e.g."Don't be such a donkey, Bertie," my father muttered to himself, mildly and cheerfully, imitating my mother's constant reproof [Sn.].§51 A detached adverbial modifier of manner is often expressed by a participial phrase, which is always set off by a comma or double commas.

e.g. So Kurelovitch passed his day, moving from the brink of one crisis to another [Gold].§52 An adverbial modifier of purpose, which is expressed by an infinitive, or introduced by the phrase-preposition 'in order' with an infinitive, is not separated from the other parts of the sentence by any PM.

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e.g. Just then my mother came down to join us [Sn.]. He was just going for a walk to stretch his legs [M.].

§53 An adverbial modifier of purpose introduced by the conjunction 'so as' with an infinitive is separated from the predicate by a comma to denote a pause.

e.g. She would have too much of her time lying down, so as to rest the heart [Sn.].

Dr. Francis had come early that morning, so as not to miss the service [Sn.].§54 An adverbial modifier of purpose preceding the principal parts of the sentence is usually set off by a comma, especially when it is lengthy.

e.g. To reach the lecture hall, he had to walk almost half a mile [Car.].

Even for a singing practice, even to get back to an evening with a travel book, he had never left the factory before the fixed time [Sn.].

Note. Between the predicate and the adverbial modifier of purpose there may occur some detached part of the sentence, which is set off by double commas.

e.g. We could not go round, knocking up cottagers and house-holders in the middle of the night, to know if they let apartments [Jer.].§55 A detached adverbial modifier of purpose is set off by a comma (or double commas).

e.g. "But we've left Bobby Kane at the sweet shop, to be called for" [Man.].

Then the Lyttusi broke away silently from the Metaxis, to leave them exposed [Al.].§56 A complex adverbial modifier of purpose is not separated from the predicate by any PM.

e.g. I put on my earphones for Captain Troln to speak to me [Gr.].§57 An adverbial modifier of result (or consequence) is never set off from the predicate by any PM, being closely connected with it.

e.g.The process was too complex to be carried out here [Gr.].Of course Laura and Jose were far too grown up to really

care about such things [Man.].

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Andrew turned to find the landlady at his elbow [Cr.].§58 A complex adverbial modifier of result is not set off from the predicate by any PM.

e.g. The town was not large enough for one to stay quite anonymous [Sn.].§59 An adverbial modifier of cause (or reason) expressed by a prepositional phrase is usually introduced without any PM, being closely connected with the predicate. The prepositions are: 'with', 'for', 'through', 'because of.

e.g. I was beginning to blink with sleepiness [Sn.].He was quite capable of making mistakes through his

inexperience [Cr.]. Andrew could not smile for thinking of his awkwardness [Cr .].

§60 Adverbial modifiers of cause introduced by the prepositions 'because of, 'for', 'what with', 'what between' may have a detached character.

e.g. Hauptwanger, because of this very resistance, determined to win her to his mood and to outwit her father at the same time [Dr.].

Vaughan's bony, ugly face smiled hospitably over a silver canister which, for a reason unexplained, he shook heartily [Cr.].§61 Several adverbial modifiers of cause are separated by commas, and set off by a comma from the principal parts of the sentence.

e.g. What between tipping the man who had brought us home, and paying for the broken skulls, and for having been out four hours and a half, it cost us a pretty considerable number of week's pocket-money, that sail [Jer.].§62 An adverbial modifier of cause expressed by a participial phrase has a detached character, and is set off by a comma or double commas.

e.g. He had gone there to keep warm, being unemployed [Mo.]. I thought I should sleep well, being tired; but I didn't [Jer.].Nick, standing "in the door of the kitchen, had a good view of

the upper bunk [H.].§63 A complex adverbial modifier of cause is set off by a comma or double commas, when expressed by a Nominative Absolute

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Participle Construction; when expressed by a gerundial (or halfgerundial) complex, it is usually not set off by any PM.

e.g. The month being March, the trees were exceptionally like the masts of ships [G.].

The night being hot, they carried the suit out [Brad.]. We stayed at home because of the boy being sick.

§64 An adverbial modifier of condition in post-position introduced by the prepositional group 'but for' or 'in case of is, as a rule, not separated by any PM from the other parts of the sentence, being connected with them, and needing no pause.

e.g. What luck that she had dropped her handkerchief! He would never have known her but for that [G.].§65 An adverbial modifier of condition placed at the head of the sentence is usually set off by a comma to denote rising tone and a pause.

e.g. In case of emergency, ring me up at once. But for you, I should have missed the lecture.§66 An adverbial modifier of condition may have a detached character, so it is set off by a comma to denote falling tone and a pause.

e.g. We could have finished the Metaxists by now, but for this large war [Al.].

It would be always about him, in case of accident [G.].§67 An adverbial modifier of comparison referring to a verb is usually closely connected with it, and not set off by any PM. This modifier is usually introduced by the conjunctions 'as if, 'as though', and the preposition 'like'.

e.g.She crouched down as if to warm herself at that blaze of lilies [Man.]. Mrs. Gerhardt roved to and fro like a person in a dream [Dr.].

She [the car ]. goes like a bird [Cr.].§68 A lot of adverbial modifiers of comparison have become set expressions, and are not set off by any PM from the verbs or adjectives they are compared with. These modifiers are mostly introduced by the conjunction 'as'.

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e.g. Our Else was still as stone [Man.]. I am hungry as the devil [Al.].

He could yet be tender as a woman [Cr.].§69 An adverbial modifier of comparison following an adjective (or adverb) in the comparative degree is not separated from it by any PM. This modifier is introduced by the conjunction 'than'.

e.g. I could understand it no more than the gossip of the birds [Cr.]. I love you better than a brother [Cr.].§70 An adverbial modifier of comparison following an adjective (or an adverb) in the positive degree, and introduced by the connective groups 'as ... as', 'not so ... as', is not set off by any PM.

e.g.Why, it's as simple as falling off a log [Cr.].§71 An adverbial modifier of comparison has often a detached character, so it is set off by a comma or double commas to denote a pause. This modifier is introduced by the conjunctions 'as if, 'as though' and the preposition 'like'.

e.g. All of a sudden they fled, as though in panic. I find it interesting, like a detective story [Gr.].

Two of the gunmen, as if at a signal, detached themselves from the mob [Gold.].

Note. In case of a longer pause the detached character of an adverbial modifier of comparison may be marked by a dash.

e.g.Oh, they come and go — like the snow [Al.].§72 An adverbial modifier of attending circumstances is normally set off by a comma or double commas, as it has a detached, independent character. It is usually expressed by a Nominative Absolute (Participle) Construction, or by the Absolute Construction introduced by the preposition 'with'. It is a complex adverbial modifier.

e.g.Seated in an armchair, his eyes fixed reflectively upon the fire, he had an air of extraordinary tranquillity [Cr.].

He swung round, in his shirt sleeves, his hair sticking to his damp brow [Cr.].

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The squire and Dr. Livesey sat, pipe in hand, on either side of a bright fire [St.].

The girl stayed just as she had been put, with her hands by her sides and her mouth slightly open [Man.].§73 An adverbial modifier of degree is so closely connected with the adjective, adverb, or verb it modifies tha it is never separated from it by any PM.

e.g. The evening train from Cleveland was very late [А.].Nick heard the oarlocks of the other boat quite a way ahead

of them in the mist [H.].§74 Adverbial modifiers of concession introduced by the prepositions 'notwithstanding', 'despite' and the prepositional group 'in spite of” are set off by a comma from the principal parts of the sentence.

e.g. We started, certainly, but in spite of the hot sun one the staring daylight, the pirates no longer ran separate and shouting through the wood [St.].

They were all packed, despite the elongation of the vehicle, like herrings in a tin [Cr.].§75 Adverbial modifiers of exclusion (or substitution introduced by the prepositions 'except', 'save', 'but', 'in stead of, are not set off by any PM, if they are closely con nected with the words they restrict or specify.

e.g. By ten o'clock all but four of the eighteen hundred citi-zens of the town were in bed [A.].§76 When an adverbial modifier of exclusion has a detached character, it is set off by a comma, or enclosed in double commas.

e.g. Really, save for an occasional visit to the office, he seemed to spend a great deal of his time there [Wol.].

There existed about this family, except perhaps for the shily conscious Mary, a careless gaiety which entranced Andrew [Cr.].

Independent ElementsThe Interjection

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§77 An interjection is usually followed by an exclamation mark to denote great emotion: pain, anger, astonishment, acute distress, joy or delight; or several of these feelings combined.

In case of several interjections, there is usually an exclamation mark after each. There may be a dash between two interjections.

e.g. So! They were talking of Wilfrid [G.]. "Weill I think I'll go and confer with the warden" [Al.].

Ohl Ohl OA! It was a little house [Man.]. "Hi\ stop a minute, will you?" [Jer.]. "Uh — OA! When was this?" [Dr.].

§78 In case of an exclamatory sentence, there is usually a comma after the interjection, and an exclamation mark (or a dash) at the end of the sentence.

e.g. "Oh, Doctor Manson! I am relieved to find you in." [Cr.]. Oh — quite the contrary! [S.].

§79 If по great emotion is expressed, nor exclamation but such feelings as pity, sorrow, annoyance, wish, pleasure surprise, approval or disapproval (with 'yes' or 'no'), a comma is put after the interjection.

e.g."Oh, that's too bad." [Hu.]. "Oh, yes, Ruth Suckow came from there." [Hu.].

Note. An interjection may consist of a group of words, so then is an exclamation mark at the end of the group.

e.g. Ah dear me! [S.]. Ah me! My, my! It is warm! [S.].

Direct Address§80 Direct address is divided by a comma or double commas from the sentence to denote its independent character and a pause.

e.g. "Oh, I don't think so, Manson" [Cr.]. "Come along all of you, and lunch with me [Cr.]. "But you have just what you like, Minnie and Margery." [Cop.].

§81 Often some other РМ comes after the direct address an exclamation mark, a question mark, a dash, or a colon in

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exclamatory or interrogative sentences, before introductory words, enumeration or explanation.

e.g. Be careful, children! [S.]. Open it quickly, someone! [Man.].What's your big hurry, Candy-Man? [C.].

ParenthesisIntroductory Words

§82 Introductory words are mainly set off by a comma or double commas from the rest of the sentence to denote their syntactical independence, their detached character, lowered tone, and a pause.

Introductory words are.: —(a) Modal words: actually, apparently, certainly, evidently, indeed, likely, maybe, naturally, perhaps, please, possibly, probably, really, truly.(b) Adverbs having a modal or connective meaning: accordingly, besides, consequently, finally, firstly, fortunately (unfortunately), hence, however, happily (unhappily), luckily (unluckily), moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, rather, secondly, still, therefore, undoubtedly.

e.g. Dinny, indeed, was only now realizing the strain [G.].I will not be long, perhaps [D.]. I shall not, however, be free to marry again till the decree is

confirmed [G.].§83 Introductory modal words are often attached to modal verbs (usually with a suppositional meaning): 'could possibly", 'may perhaps', 'must certainly', 'should probably', 'might as well', etc., these groups expressing double modality, that is, a greater degree of uncertainty, doubt, probability, near certainty, etc. In such cases the modal words are never set off by any PM, being part of a compound modal predicate.

e.g. He could possibly manage, before the surgery, these two calls [Cr.].

Introductory Phrases

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§84 Introductory phrases, like modal words, are usually set off by a comma or double commas. In case of an appositive explanatory meaning, and a longer pause, there may be a dash, double dashes, or brackets.

Introductory phrases are: —(a) prepositional: after all, as a matter of fact, at least by the by,

by the way, for example, in any case, in fact in general, in short, no doubt, of course, on the contrary on the one hand, on the other hand.

(b) infinitival: so to say, to be frank, to begin with to be on the safe side, to be sure, to cut a long story short to say nothing of, to tell the truth.

(c) participial: briefly speaking, frankly speaking, generally speaking, humanly speaking.

e.g. Of course, it was not pleasant for the girl [G.]. What, after all, did an extra five minutes matter [Man.].

But on the other hand, you must not talk to me as if I were a fool [S.].

Three Men in a Boat (to say nothing of the dog) [Jer.].§85 Some of the above-mentioned words and phrases are used as emphatic words and phrases with a convincing meaning. They are stressed in the sentence, pronounced іn a high pitch, and are, consequently, not marked off by an PM.

e.g. I am sorry to hear it. I am very sorry indeed to hear it [D.]. Of course you have only one son [Sh.].

Words of Affirmation and Negation§86 Words of affirmation: 'yes', 'certainly', and words of negation: 'no', 'certainly' are usually separated from the sentence by a comma to denote falling tone and a pause.

e.g. "Then don't you people matter?" "Yes, they matter" [G.]. "Couldn't we send Steve?" "No, he's far too young" [Gor.].

§87 When 'yes', 'certainly' or 'no' stand alone, or when a longer pause is needed, they are followed by a semicolon or by a full-stop; by an

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exclamation mark to denote an exclamatory meaning, or by a question mark to denote interrogation.

e.g. "You mean: is life worth while at all?" "Yes" [G.]."Are you in debt?" 'Wo!" replied Brodie proudly. "I'm not" [Cr.]. "You say you didn't think you'd be believed? Altogether too

improbable a story?" "No; but the more one speaks the truth, the less one expects to be believed" [G.].

"You've been away a long time." "Yes?" said Amos sharply. It was a cry as much as a question [Mo.].

Note. In fluent speech 'yes' or 'no' may be closely connected with direct address, so there is no PM between them.

e.g. "Oh no sir! I couldn't do that," she replied quickly [Cr.].

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE Independent Clauses Joined Asyndetically

Enumeration of Actions§88 The independent clauses of a compound sentence joined asyndetically are divided by a comma to denote a brief pause, falling tone, and often enumeration of closely connected actions. The copulative conjunction 'and' might be inserted between the clauses.

e.g. One hand went to the heart, the other outstretched toward the flag [Hu.].§89 In case of a longer pause and weaker connection, to denote enumeration of actions, the independent clauses of a compound sentence joined asyndetically are divided by a semicolon, especially if there is a comma, or commas, within these clauses.

e.g. Just one sheep-bell tinkled from a fold on the rise; just one magnolia flower bloomed close to her window [G.].

The doors of the small sitting-room, bedroom, kitchen and bathroom were open; the walls were distempered apple-green, the floors covered with dark-green linoleum [G.].

Adversative Relation§90 The second or third independent clause of a com pound sentence may have an adversative meaning. Such clause is

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introduced by a comma; in case of a longer pause by a semicolon. The adversative conjunction 'but' might be inserted between the clauses.

e.g. He has looked at me with those eyes of his. They do no love; they threaten; they are savage as a wild tiger's [L.].

The man was not just clever, he was wise.Causal Relation

§91 The second or third independent clause of a com pound sentence joined asyndetically may have a causal mean ing. Such clause is mostly introduced by a colon or a dash sometimes by a comma. The causal conjunction 'for' migh be inserted between the clauses.

e.g. No one replied: they had probably not understood [Gr.].I understand it all - a child could understand! [S.].She must have changed the sheet that day - it carried the cold

ness of the laundry [Gr.].Resultative Relation

§92 The second or third independent clause of a compound sentence joined asyndetically may have a resultative meaning, and it is introduced by a comma or a semicolon. The resultative conjunction 'so' might be inserted between the clauses.

e.g. The door was open; sounds came from the kitchen [Man.]. There are a lot of talented young people here, we shall organ-

ize an amateur theatre soon.Explanatory Relation

§93 When the second or third independent clause of a compound sentence has an explanatory meaning, it is introduced by a colon or a semicolon.

e.g. But think: we could have whole columns of newspapers devoted to us for days [G.].

Yes, everything about him told a simple tale; this was a worker [Gold].

Disjunctive Questions§94 Both parts of a disjunctive question, being independent clauses of a compound sentence joined asyndetically, are divided by a

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comma to denote falling tone, connection of meaning, and a short pause.

e.g. You can do that, can't you? [Lee].Note. Sometimes there is a dash between the clauses to denote a

longer pause.e.g. "You didn't throw away any cocoa last time you were

here— did you?" [Man.]. "You'll always tell me when you throw things away-awi'r

you, Mrs. Parker?" [Man.].

Independent Clauses Joined by Conjunctions and Adverbs

§95 The independent clauses of a compound sentence joined by co-ordinative conjunctions or adverbs are usually separated by a comma (or commas) to denote a short pause;by a semicolon, in cases where a full-stop might be put i the conjunction were omitted, to denote a longer pause an weaker connection. There is also a semicolon if there are commas within the independent clauses.

Copulative Co-Ordinatione.g. The people crowded around, and the night policeman put

away his gun [C.]. The loud pitch of John's voice got on his nerves, besides he

could feel a draught round his leg [Wil.]. He had not staggered and sunk down, nor had he gone over in

a long slumping fall [L.]. Mr. Higgins has the gentlemen's bathroom downstairs; and he

has a bath every morning, in cold water [Sh.].Disjunctive Co-Ordination

e.g. On my rising in the morning my preparations were soon made; or, rather, there were practically no preparations make [Leac].

Shall I make you a cup of tea, or would you rather have coffee?

Adversative Co-Ordinatione.g. Babbit did not care to be seen talking with such a fanatic,

but in all the Pullmans he could find no other acquaintance [Lew.].

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He looked a trifle conceited; yet, when he exerted himself, he had an attractive way [Cr.].

He could follow every word; he seemed to take in the sense of thing but a minute afterward he could not have told what he had been reading [Lew.].

Causal Co-Ordinatione.g. Few people were about, for it was really cold [Gor .].

They were tardy in recognizing this, for not one of the Junta liked him [L.].

Resultative Co-Ordinatione.g. Nobody seemed about, so I went in [Gr.].

Dilsey was still sick, so we took Nancy home every night [F.].§96 In compound sentences before 'and', 'but', 'or' the comma may be omitted to denote close connection.

e.g. By nine o'clock of that evening snow lay deep in the streets and the weather had become bitter cold [A.].

To him there seemed only one question: would it be only Steve or would he have to go too? [Gor.].§97 In case of several independent clauses, when the co-ordinative conjunction is repeated, there is a comma before each conjunction.

e.g. It was two months before I could work at all. And the rent came due, and they turned us out — it was winter time, and my wife caught a cold, and it turned to pneumonia, and she died [S.].

The Hansons expected her to go home, and she wanted to get away, and yet she did not want to go home [Dr.].

Asyndetic Co-Ordination plus a Conjunction§98 If a compound sentence contains several clauses enumerating closely connected actions, there are usually commas between the clauses, also before the conjunction introducing the final clause. In case of weaker connection, there is a semicolon between the independent clauses (See § 95).

e.g. The squire raised his gun, the rowing ceased, and we leaned over to the other side to keep the balance [St.].

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Suddenly the schooner in front of me gave a violent yaw, turning, perhaps, through twenty degrees; and almost at the same moment one shout followed another from on board; I could hear feet pounding on the companion ladder [St.].

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

Subject Clauses§99 A subject clause, like the subject of a simple sentence, is not divided by any PM from the rest of the sentence being closely connected with it, since this clause is the sub ject of the whole complex sentence, and only a brief pause is needed.

Neither the place of such clause in the sentence, nor the way of its introduction, influences the punctuation. It may come at the beginning of the sentence, or, when introduced by the anticipatory 'it', at the end.

Subject clauses are joined to the rest of the sentence by means of the conjunction 'that', by the conjunctive adverb 'how', 'why', 'when', 'where', and by the conjunctive pro- nouns 'who', 'what', 'which'.

e.g. What Veronica said was very true [Wil.]. It seemed utterly grotesque to him that he should be standing

there facing a charge of murder [Gor.]. "Now then, children. It's hi time you were washed and

dressed." [Man.].Note. In rare cases there is a comma after a long subject cla to

denote a pause.e.g. Why his widow, of all women, should have come into the

count was the great interrogation [L.]. §100 A predicative clause, like the predicative of a simple sentence, is not marked off by any PM from the rest of the sentence, being closely connected with it, since this clause is the predicative of the whole complex sentence, and only a brief pause is needed.

The way of introduction does not influence the punctuation. These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions 'that', 'as if, 'as though', 'whether', by the conjunctive pronouns 'what', 'who', 'which', and by

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the conjunctive adverbs 'why', 'how', 'when', 'where'. When introduced asyndetically, a predicative clause is marked off by a comma, or by a dash to indicate a longer pause.

e.g. "The trouble with our young men is that they are still too romantic." [Man].

It was as though something of enormous weight were pressing on my chest [Сm.].

This was what he had expected to find in his own home. Perhaps that was why Jean was suddenly trying something she normally considered a waste of time [Al.].

"The trouble with you, Hope, is — you are too young." [Сm.]. The fact is, he is not enough considerate of them.Note. Often some part of the sentence, or some clause, which

should be set off by commas according to the rules of punctuation, comes between the link verb and the predicative clause, thus splitting them.

e.g. The result was that, by the time everything was ready, the tea was waiting [Jer.].

Object Clauses§101 An object clause, like an object of a simple sentence, is not separated by any PM from the principal clause, being closely connected with the verb or the verbal it depends on. Almost no pause is needed before an object clause.

If the object clause precedes the principal clause, there may be a comma between them to denote a pause and emphasis.

Object clauses are often introduced asyndetically; also, by the conjunctions 'that', 'if, 'whether', 'lest', by the conjunctive adverbs 'how', 'when', 'where', 'why', and by the conjunctive pronouns 'what', 'which', 'who'.

(a) following the principal clause: -e.g.I couldn't tell who the speakers were [Gr.].

"I came to see what they were doing with you." [Sn.]. I had long since learned that visiting only brings misery [Leac ].

(b) preceding the principal clause -

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e.g. How long she stayed in that curious torpor, she knew not [G.]. What was great and strong to him, she missed [L.].

Note. There may be a comma before an object clause, if the latter adds a specifying, explanatory meaning to some object of the main clause.

e.g. So you must tell me all about it, what it does and what it makes and sells [Leac.].

Attributive Clauses

Restrictive (or Limiting) Attached Clauses§102 Restrictive attributive clauses are joined to the principal clause either asyndetically ('contact clauses'), or by the relative pronouns 'that', 'which', 'who (whom)', by the relative adverbs 'when', 'where', without any PM to denote close connection with the antecedent in the main clause.

e.g. All I can say is that my whole life is changed [Gor.j Anthony looked past the shelves of books that lined the walls

almost to the ceiling [Gor .]. She had lost a little of that freshness which had always been

her greatest charm [Cr .]. In other words all detective stories reach a point where the

reader gets impatient [Leac].Non-Restrictive (or Descriptive) Detached Clauses

§103 Non-restrictive (or descriptive) attributive clauses introduced by the relative pronouns 'who', 'which', and by the relative adverbs 'when', 'where', are normally set off by a comma or double commas to denote their detached character and the additional information concerning the antecedent in the main clause.

e.g. For a week their rapidly greying father, who could not bear the thought of his evenings alone, kept them with him [Gor.].

The governor, who was an angry man, received them with great courtesy [G.].§104 A descriptive attributive clause modifying the whole principal clause is marked off from the latter by a comma or double commas. Such clauses are introduced by the relative pronoun 'which'.

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e.g. When she wrote a letter, which was seldom, she sent her regards to all her relatives.

Appositive Clauses§105 Appositive attributive clauses modifying abstract nouns, such as 'information', 'feeling', 'thought', 'idea', 'fact', 'notion', 'remark', 'impression', 'expression', etc., are introduced by the conjunctions 'that', 'whether', normally without any PM.

e.g. The Vaughans would probably have come to them to-day but for the fact that they had gone to Switzerland for the skiing [Cr.].

The feeling that such things did not happen persisted with Dinny even after her interview with Adrian [G.].

Andrew had no idea whether he was doing well or badly [Cr.].

Adverbial Clauses(1)

§106 An adverbial clause of time preceding the main clause is normally set off by a comma, like a lengthy adverbial modifier of time, to denote weak dependence, rising tone, and a pause. (This is not a strict rule, some writers omit the comma.)

Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the conjunctions 'when', 'as', 'before', 'after', 'while', 'since', 'till', 'until', 'directly', 'as soon as'.

e.g. When these two came to tea, there would be whispers and glances of understanding [Sn.].

As Andrew stepped out of the platform, the force of the hurricane almost bowled him off his feet [Cr.].§107 When placed in the middle of the main clause, thus splitting it, and acquiring a detached character, an adverbial clause of time, is set off by double commas.

e.g. One evening, he said, after he had been struggling like that, and long after he had quit seeing people, he wrote his second novel [A.].§108 When following the main clause, an adverbial clause of time is usually not set off by any PM, occupying the regular place of an

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adverbial modifier of time, and being tightly attached to the principal clause.

e.g. Ah, we rarely feel the charm of our own tongue until it reaches our ears under a foreign sky [Sh.].

I dislike feeling at home when / am abroad [Sh.]. I remember that we were on the Thames Embankment when

he told me the story [A.].§109 Like an adverbial modifier, an adverbial clause of time may have a detached character, so it is marked off by a comma, even though it follows the principal clause, which is usually pronounced with a falling tone.

e.g. The keen bite of the wind met them, as they stepped out of the cage [Cr.].§110 An appositive adverbial clause of time, following an adverbial modifier of time, is marked off by a comma or double commas, to denote its detached, explanatory and additional character.

e.g. Now, when he had corked the bottle,, the sheriff bit off a chew of apple [Mai.].

And then, after two months, when they had reached the point of destination, all at once Heaven relented [Cr.].§111 Adverbial clauses of time introduced by the connective groups 'hardly — when', 'scarcely — when', 'no sooner — than', 'barely — when', 'barely — before' are never set off by any PM from the principal clauses, being very closely connected with them, the first parts of these groups belonging to the principal clauses. -

e.g. No sooner had this letter arrived than her mind was at work planning a meeting [Cr .].

They had barely reached the corner of Radnor Place and stopped to look round when bang! the first can went off [Сm .].

He had barely spoken before the commotion broke [Сm.]. (2)

§112 An adverbial clause of condition preceding the principal clause is usually set off by a comma to denote weak dependence, rising tone, and a pause. (Compare with the adverbial modifier of condition - § 65.) The same in case of inversion.

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Adverbial clauses of condition are introduced by the conjunctions 'if, 'in case', 'unless', 'provided'.

e.g. And if anything should happen, get another car at once [S .]. If you will come to the Foreign Office at ten minutes to six, we

might go round together [G.]. Should you care for a full explanation of the action we are

compelled to take, you may call any day between 1 110 and 1 140 a.m [Gor.].§113 In case an adverbial clause of condition follows the main clause, there is normally no PM before the subordinate clause to denote close connection with, and absolute dependence on the principal clause. (Compare with the adverbial modifier of condition — § 64).

e.g. Don't let me detain you if you wish to see it [Sh.]. The people who came to him or called him were far too poor to

dream of troubling the doctor unless they were really ill [Ст.].§114 Sometimes an adverbial clause of condition has a detached character, showing faint dependence; so there is a comma, even if the subordinate clause follows the main clause, which is usually pronounced with a falling tone.

e.g. She should have cherished it, if her imagination had been caught [Sn.].

How little attention she would have given to that, if it had not concerned herl [G.].

(3)§115 Adverbial clauses of place introduced by the conjunctions 'where', 'wherever' are, like adverbial modifiers of place, not marked off by any PM from the principal clause.

e.g. Andrew began to read where, at college, he had left off [Сm .].We are ready to meet them wherever they like.

(4)§116 An adverbial clause of cause (or reason), like an adverbial modifier of cause, is generally not set off by any PM when placed after the principal clause, to indicate absolute dependence on the

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latter. These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions 'because', 'since', 'as'.

e.g. She was touched by a faint feeling of guilt because she couldn't lock it from the outside [Gr.].§117 An adverbial clause of cause placed at the head of the sentence is normally marked off by a comma to denote weaker dependence on the main clause, rising tone, and a pause.

e.g. Since Dinny said no further word on the subject occupying every mind, no word was said by anyone [G.].

Because he was writing, he, of course, neglected his job, his wife, his kids [A.].§118 An adverbial clause of cause, like an adverbial modifier of cause, may have a detached character; so it is separated by a comma from the principal clause, which is usually pronounced with a falling tone in such case.

e.g. They had had trifling disagreements, because they were both obstinate [M.].

But friend or leman I have none, because I cannot love but one [В.].

(5)§119 An adverbial clause of purpose, like an adverbial modifier of purpose, is usually not set off by any PM from the main clause to denote its attached character. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunctions 'that', 'lest', 'so', 'so that', 'in order that'.

e.g. Candy-Man tried to get up so he could be getting on down the road [C ].

He went in dread of Llewellyn and the Committee lest he should be suddenly dismissed [Cr.].

(6)§120 An adverbial clause of comparison introduced by the conjunctions 'as' — after the adverbs 'as', 'not so' in the principal clause —, 'than' — after the adverbs 'more', 'less', 'better', 'worse', etc. — are usually not set off by any PM to denote their close connection with the principal clause and the adverbs. (Compare with adverbial modifiers of comparison — §§ 68, 69, 70)

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e.g. I was as obstinate as she was [Sn.].But they were not more different than were the two lads [Cop .]. And then, in March, they returned to London, resold the car

for only ten pounds less than they had paid for it [Cr.].§121 Adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the conjunctions 'as if', 'as though' are usually not set off by any PM from the principal clauses to denote close connection with the verbs they modify. (Compare with adverbial modifiers of comparison — § 67). The principal clauses wouldn't be complete without these subordinate clauses.

e.g. At breakfast next morning Christine behaved as though the whole episode were forgotten [Cr.].§122 Adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the conjunctions 'as if, 'as though', mostly after adverbial modifiers of manner or comparison in the principal clauses, which are usually pronounced with a falling tone, may have an explanatory, detached character; so they are marked off by a comma; in case of a longer pause, by a dash. (Compare with the detached adverbial modifier of comparison — § 71)

e.g. I went about quietly, as though she were ill [Sn.]. She was speaking with difficulty, as though she had to think

hard about each word [Sn.]. It was an attack on the unknown, an assault, as though you

had to take some castle [Cr.].§123 Adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the connective adverb groups 'the more — the more', 'the less — the less', 'the sooner — the better', 'the further — the better', 'the harder — the more interesting', etc., are mostly set off by a comma.

e.g. The more he dealt in the habits of animals, the more he knew that he was a man and needed other men [Al.].

(7)§124 Adverbial clauses of result (or consequence), like adverbial modifiers of result, are not marked off by any PM, being, mostly, closely connected with adverbial modifiers of degree in the principal clause.

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Adverbial clauses of result are introduced by the conjunctions 'that' — after the adverb of degree 'so', or the prepositional phrase 'to such an extent' — and 'so that' — often after the adverbs of degree 'very', 'extremely'.

e.g. My appearance disturbed these charming children to such an extent that they rushed up and down the corridor in a frenzied state [Man.].

But he had sandy hair, gone very thin now so that he had to wear it very long on one side [M.].

Note. Adverbial clauses of result are sometimes introduced asyndetically without any PM.

e.g. Denny lit a cigarette, his fingers shaking so violently he could barely hold the match [Ст.].

(8)§125 Adverbial clauses of concession, no matter what place they may occupy in the sentence, are always set off by a comma from the principal clause, having a detached character. (Compare with adverbial modifiers of concession — §74).

These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions 'though', 'although', 'even if, 'even though'; by the adverb 'however', by the pronouns 'whatever', 'whoever', 'whichever', and the connective groups 'no matter how', 'no matter what', 'no matter who', 'no matter which', 'no matter when', 'no matter where'.

e.g."Oh, so you divide up a brawl according to races, no mat-ter who was right?" [Нu.].

I told her that, whatever I did, I should carry my childhood with me [Sn.].

They could see far ahead in the rain, although it was almost noon [Al.].

And even if / were caught, I have committed no offence [S.].§126 In case an adverbial clause of concession is introduced asyndetically, by means of inversion, there is a comma between the two clauses, to denote rising tone of the subordinate clause, which usually precedes the main clause, and a pause.

e.g. Tired as I was, I began to run frantically home [Sn.].

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Pull as I liked, I couldn't budge the downhall [St.]. (9)

§127 An adverbial clause of attending circumstances, like the corresponding adverbial modifier, is marked off by a comma from the principal clause to denote its detached character, falling tone, and a pause. Such clause is introduced by the conjunction 'while'.

e.g. Silently she kissed her mother, while tears fell fast [Dr.].

Double Subordination (послідовне підпорядкування)§128 In case of double or several degrees of subordination, the punctuation remains exactly the same as is necessary before each type of subordinate clause. (See the Complex Sentence.)

Double Degreee.g. Now he began to question if there were not some truth in

what Denny said [Cr.].Third Degree

e.g. The young man was leaning against the mantelshelf, watching him with that strange expression that one sees on the faces of those who are absorbed in a play when some great artist is acting [W.].

Compound Sentences with Subordination§129 Like a compound sentence, a compound sentence including subordination may have a comma, a semicolon, a colon, or a dash between the independent clauses, which may be linked by a conjunction as well.

The punctuation of the subordinate clauses and their ways of connection with the principal clauses depend on the types of the subordinate clauses.

Compound sentences with subordination have two or more independent (co-ordinate) clauses, and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses.

e.g.Scotty's ideal optimism about game could always be counted on, II and though Roy was realist enough to disagree, I he liked to hear it anyway [Al.].

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§130 In long compound sentences with subordination the dependent clauses may be co-ordinated in their turn, that is, the subordinate clauses are homogeneous. These may have their own subordinate clauses. So the relation is:—

Co-ordination ->subordination->co-ordination->subordination.The punctuation in such sentences remains the same as stated in §

129e.g. They had what they could get, || and then, | as Nab for the

twentieth time was audibly wondering | what George was up to I and Margery for the dozenth time was realizing I how splendidly he had run, | George himself reappeared beaming with satisfaction [Cop.].

Complex Sentences with Co-Ordination §131 In complex sentences with co-ordination the homogeneous subordinate clauses are either divided by commas, or linked by the conjunctions 'and', 'or'. There are often both a comma and a conjunction to connect them.

The punctuation between the principal and the subordinate clause depends on the type of the subordinate clause. (See The Complex Sentence.)

e.g. Andrew did not know || that Christine felt lonely | and that she suffered much.

Dulcie forgot everything else for a moment except that she was beautiful, | and that life was about to lift a corner of its mysterious veil for her to observe its wonders [Hen.].§132 In long complex sentences with co-ordination the homogeneous subordinate clauses may have subordination, in their turn, then there may come co-ordination and subordination again.

The relation will thus be: —Subordination-»co-ordination->subordination-»co-ordina-

tion->subordination.The homogeneous clauses are divided, like independent

clauses, by commas, sometimes by semicolons or dashes. The punctuation of other subordinate clauses depends on the typ of these clauses. (See The Complex Sentences.)

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Group-Connectives§133 In complex sentences, in compound sentences with subordination, and in complex sentences with co-ordination, two (even three) conjunctions, or a conjunction and a connective word, often come together, in groups. The following groups may occur: —

(1) two subordinative conjunctions—'because+if','be-cause+though', 'because+when', 'so that + if, 'that+as', 'that+even if, 'that + if, 'that + though', 'that+when';

(2) a co-ordinative and a subordinative conjunction— 'and + as', 'and + as if, 'and + as though', 'and + if, 'and + though', 'and + that', 'and-+because', 'and+when', 'and + that+when, 'and + that + if;

(3) two co-ordinative conjunctions— 'and+so', 'and + yet, 'and+still';

(4) a conjunction and a connective adverb or pronoun— 'and+however', 'and + therefore', 'and+what', 'but+never-theless', 'but + hardly— when', 'if+what .

These groups may be called group-connectives.If some PM is necessary—a comma, a semicolon, or a dash—

it usually comes before the first conjunction; it may come between the two conjunctions, or between the conjunction and the connective word, if the subordinate clause has a detached character, and a pause is needed before this clause.

e.g. She ordered him to set the table, and as he trotted into the living-room, as he hunted through the buffet for knives and forks, he felt utterly at home [Lew.].

You all know that you get chest trouble and that when you do get it you don't get compensation [Cr.].

Introductory or Parenthetical Sentences and Clauses§134 Introductory sentences and clauses are marked off by dashes, or brackets in case of weaker connection, to denote an explanatory, detached, additional character, pauses and lowered voice.

e.g.From the back kitchen (the house was sprawled about without any plan) came the singing of a kettle on the stove [Sn.].

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Then we thought we were going to have supper (we had dis-pensed with tea, so as to save time), but George said, no [Jer.].

There was no funny side — as far as Mr. Minnenick could see — to an air-raid [Ba.].§135 Introductory sentences are often compound or complex sentences.

Such sentences are either enclosed in brackets, or set off by dashes, and may have marks of their own within the brackets, according to the rules of complex or compound sentences.

If an introductory sentence or clause comes at the end of the whole sentence, the full-stop is placed outside the second bracket. But in case of an independent introductory sentence which begins with a capital letter, there is a full-stop before the opening bracket to complete the previous sentence, and another full-stop before the closing bracket to complete the introductory sentence. Instead of a full-stop there may be a question mark or an exclamation mark, if necessary.

A Simple Introductory Sentencee.g. At the foot of the ladder I called up to Pyle, "It's me —

Fowler." (Even then I couldn't bring myself to use my Christian name to him.) [Gr.].

A Compound Introductory Sentencee.g. It (the boat) contained a party of provincial Harrys and

Harriets out for a moonlight sail. (There was not any moon, but that was not their fault.) [Jer.].

A Complex Introductory Sentencee.g. If someone had died there normally — and I can't understand

how they keep alive in those poky little holes — we should still be having our party, shouldn't we? [Man.].

A Subordinate Introductory Clausee.g. I can't say I altogether blame the man (which is doubtless a

great relief to his mind) [Jer.].

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Appended Clauses§136 Appended introductory clauses, having a modal parenthetical meaning, are placed either in the middle, or at the end of a sentence, and are marked off by commas, or by dashes. These clauses are short, consisting, mainly, of a subject and a predicate.

e.g. Dinny Charwell! Chawell! They spelled it, he remembered [G.].The models were very late, very expensive, and mostly, she thought, very unbecoming [G.].

Direct Speech§137 Direct speech is introduced by double (or single) quotation marks (also called 'inverted commas', or 'quotes'), which are placed at the top o f the line, the opening commas being inverted, the closing, regular. The closing commas come after a full-stop, a question mark, an exclamatory mark, or dots. If direct speech comes after the author's words, it is introduced by a colon. Before a new paragraph there is a colon and a dash.

e.g. "Is Mrs. Drouet in?" "No, she has gone to the theatre." [Dr.]. "Gentlemen!" Hightower said. Then he said: "Men! Men!" [F.]. "Which room, old man?" Grimm shouted [F.].He said distinctly: - "Yes, I knew he was not a doctor." [Cr.].

§138 In Interrupted direct speech both parts are included in double quotes. There is a comma before the author's words (inside the quotes), and a comma after them. If necessary, there may be other marks instead of the commas.

e.g."It's—it's frightfully smart—but," she smiled, "somehow it doesn't quite seem you!" [Cr.].

"Pull back that quilt, will you, George?" he said. "I'd rather not touch it." [H].

"Huh? No elephants' ears? What do you know about that!" Rogers turned to Babbitt. "Pedro says the elephants' ears are all out!" [Lew.].

Note. In rare cases direct speech is introduced without any quotation marks. Single quotation marks are sometimes used to introduce direct speech.

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e.g. He played half a minute only. Then he looked at her and said, It sounds good.

I think it's wonderful, Emma said.I don't mean what I did, Ben said. I mean the piano. I mean

the piano itself. It has a fine tone, especially for a little piano. A middle-aged clerk came over and said, How do you do? Hello, Ben said. This is a swell one. [Sar.].

Non- Direct Speech §139 Non-direct speech, which introduces thoughts, meditations, somebody's out-loud speaking to oneself, has usually no quotation marks. It is set off from the author's words by a comma, or double commas if interrupted. In rare cases, there are quotation marks to introduce non-direct speech.

e.g. He had to see him before he went back, he had said [Gor.]. So, he said to himself, we did well to stop the quarrelling [H.]. "Now mother can have a new coat next winter," Nancy Lee

thought [Hu.].

QUOTATIONS§ 140 Quotations are enclosed in quotation marks. In case of a secondary quotation (a quotation within a quotation), there are outer quotes (double) and inner quotes (single). Secondary quotations are usually found within direct speech.

e.g. He was their "little mystery", their "big patriot" [L.]. But he had never heard them "talk business" together [Wol.]. "I'm just simply crazy about that 'Water Boy' thing you sing,"

she said [P.].§141 Names of sputniks, lunniks; books, poems, songs, plays, films, newspapers, magazines; theatres, cinemas; ships, boats, schooners; hotels, restaurants, inns, clubs, offices, etc., may be written in italics instead of being enclosed in quotes, when quoted.

Articles are italicized before such nouns i f they belong to the names; if they do not, they are not.

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Also, when quotes are used, articles are enclosed within them if they belong to the names; if they do not, they are placed outside the quotes.

e.g. He had been a member of the crew of the smuggling schooner Halcyon [L.].

The Hornet owed him fifteen dollars, for The Peri and the Pearl [L.].

Foreign, Ironical, Obsolete, and New Words§142 Foreign and ironical words, obsolete and newly introduced words, strange or unusual words, are enclosed in quotes, double or single. Within direct speech single quotes are used to introduce such words.

e.g.It was his "think-machine" that had gone wrong [L.]. "Bourgeois", "trader's den"—Brissenden's epithets repeated

themselves in his mind [L .]. "What are you going to play?" "'Under the Gaslight'," said

Mr. Quincel, mentioning Augustin Daly's famous production [Dr.].Note. Words that do not belong to the text at all, such as

translations or extra explanations, names of authors or newspapers, years and places of edition, phonetic transcription, etc., are enclosed in square brackets.

Titles and Subtitles§143 Titles and subtitles in books, in newspapers, and in stories, have no full-stops at the end. But there are exclamation marks in exclamatory titles; question marks, in interrogative titles; and dots, in implicative titles.

e.g. BREAD MAY BE DEARER (The Tribune) THE GREAT INTERROGATION [L.].

§144 In decimal fractions there is a period between the whole number and the fractional.e.g. 0.5(o [ou] point five)375.2525.005

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§ 151 Compound numerals are hyphenated when spelled.e.g. twenty-four; fifty-five; twenty-two thousand five hundred

and sixty-three

Carried Words§145 When a word is divided and a part of it is carried to the next line, a hyphen should be put at the end of the first line.

e.g. dele-gation §146 The following rules should be observed when words are divided and their parts are carried to the next line: —

(1) In compound words the second (or third) component is carried to the next line, whether the word is (a) hyphenated, or (b) non-hyphenated.

e.g. (a) South-West, good-natured, self-admitted, pure-bred, team-mates, forget-me-not

(b) Micro-scope, some-thing, second-handed, down-trodden, under-go, buck-weat

(2) Monosyllabic words are not divided. Here also belongmonosyllabic words containing diphthongs or triphthongs.

e.g.stop, sport; reads, green, seen; mission, hyphen; changed, worked; lone, home; flower, power

(3) Words consisting of two or more syllables should beparted in pronounced syllables, 'each of them commencing, ifpossible, with a consonant'. Single letters are never carried,nor left behind in the previous line.

e.g. dig-ni-ty, in-di-vi-du-al, con-spira-tor, but: other (not: o-ther)

(4) A doubled consonant in the root may always be divided.Also any two consonants coming between two vowels.e.g.com-mit-tee, com-mu-ni-ca-t,ion (5) The letter h in ch, sh, ph, th, tch is inseparable, each

of these digraphs being one sound. Here belongs also thedigraph gh which is not pronounced.

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e.g. arith-me-tic, teach-er, or-phan, diph-thong, butch-er, daugh-ter

(6) In derivatives the suffixes and prefixes are separatedfrom the root (if the pronunciation of the root remains un-changed). Additional consonants (used to preserve the pronunciation) before suffixes are carried as well.

e.g. un-change-able, un-qual-i-fied, in-dif-fer-ence, con-cen-tra-tion, pre-oc-cu-pied, dis-a-gree-ment, nour-ish-ment, com-part-ment, prac-ti-cal-ly; add-ing, lock-ing, shoot-ing, speaking;

but: put-ting, snap-ping; wri-ting (not writ-mg, since the pronunciation would be changed); weak-er, short-er, small-er; big-ger, hot-ter; start-ed, ex-ploit-ed, add-ed;

but: em-bar-rassed (-ed is not a syllable)

EXERCISES1 The Sentence

Exercise 1 Explain the use of the punctuation marks at the end of the following sentences.

1 "What!" screamed mother. "Come straight down to the dining-room this instant." [Man.]. The Macdonalds lived in the next-door house. Five children they were [Man.]. 2 "Would you like to see my hands, Doctor?" "Yes." Now he did smile. "I hope you don't regret the diet." "Regret it!" She surrendered her hands to him in a passion of gratitude. "Look! Completely cured. Not a single spot on them. You don't know how much it means to me - I can't tell you - such cleverness" [Cr.]. 3 She used to look at me and ask: "How is this morning, my friend?" I said often: "A little better than yesterday, I think. Not perfect." For it was difficult to disappoint her. A bright concern came to her eyes, intensely alive in the old face."Ah," she said, "when autumn is here, perhaps we shall both be better." [Sn.]. 4 "And how do you like the colour of the cow, Mr. Tuckahue?" "The -the cow?" Tuckahue stammered [Mai.]. 5 I'll remember it (the acci-dent) again after the party's over, she decided. And somehow that seemed quite the best plan [Man.].

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Exercise 2 Put the missing punctuation marks at the end of the sentences, and explain the reasons for using them.

1 "What was your reaction, Dinny"2 "I knew him" 3 "Only a week"4 "And ten years""Oh! don't tell me that a glimpse and three words at a

wedding" [G.].2"And when did you have your last meal" she asked

softlyBut at that moment the door-handle turned."Rosemary, may I come in" I t was Philip."Of course". He came in "Oh, I'm so sorry" he said, and stopped and stared"It's quite all right" said Rosemary, smiling "This is my friend, Miss" "Smith, madam" said the languid figure, who was strangely still and unafraid [Man.].

3 Our eyes met | She was in some way moved | Aftera moment she said, in the same tone |"Look | I want to go to this ball | Let me give you a present | Let me buy you a suit" |"I can't do that" |"Are you too proud | "I suppose so," I said |She took my hand |4 Then he laughed, a long, thin laugh "Come out, Jean,"he called |

"Jean is not here" | "You lie" |"See here," Anthony heard himself saying, this is my flat, and

you'd better go before I throw you out | You're drunk | Get home to bed" [Gor.].5 Who says the age of romance is dead | Who says there are no longer giants on, the earth in these days [Wol.].

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6 The pledge we wore—I wear it still;But where is thine—Ah! Where art thou | Oft have I born the weight ofill, But never bent beneath till now [B.].Exercise 3 Find in some book a page containing mostly direct" speech. Analyse the use of the punctuation marks at the end of the sentences.

2 The Simple Sentence (1) The Subject and the Predicate

Exercise 4 Explain the use of the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Underline the subjects with one line; the predicates, with two.1 At last he rose, found a volume, sat down again and turned its pages [G.]. 2 There was no aggravation in Roy, no self-pity, and no bitterness [Al.]. 3 He put on his coat and found his mug and plate and knife and went outside [Al.]. 4 To discover him at Rolliver's, to sit there for an hour or two by his side and dismiss all thought and care of the children during the interval, made her happy [Har.]. 5 Pretty good surprise, eh, Chris? Me getting it (the car) and licencing it and everything and never saying a word to you [Cr.]. 6 Stephen looked at him with some little irresolution for a moment, and then seemed to make up his mind [D.]. 7 Age, especially when it strives to be self-reliant and cheerful, finds much consideration among the poor [D.]. 8 Boleskey's sudden diffidences (робость), self-depreciation, fits of despair, irritated him [G.]. 9 The gentleman takes out a Baedeker; places a chair for himself; and then, before sitting down, looks at Cokane [Sh.]. Exercise 5 Put the missing punctuation marks, and give the reasons for using them.1 I found some matches climbed on a table lit the gas lamp then settled down to read [Sn.]. 2 The old man swallowed was silent a moment and then said faintly, "It's nutty!" [Man.]. 3 The boss took up a pen picked the fly out of the ink and shook it on to a piece of blotting-paper [Man.]. 4 There was no smile on his lips no geniality in his eyes [L.]. 5 Her eyes were bright excited [Cr.]. 6 He greeted

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her absent-mindedly went upstairs then came down to tea [Cr.]. 7 She transferred a small parcel from her right hand to the crook of her left arm gripped her shopping-bag firmly by its German-silver frame opened it with a capable click and drew from its orderly interior a little black-bound book and a neatly sharpened pencil [P.]. 8 His soul certainly was sick to death [W.]. 9 Dorian Gray put his hat and coat upon the table and passed into the library [W.]. 10 "Well! How much to-day?" He did not could not answer [Cr.]. 11 My wife Dalton and I went to a restaurant for lunch [G.]. 12 He looked round—everywhere the same unmoving faces the same entrancement and fierce stillness [G.]. 13 Snow lay deep in the streets of Winesburg [A.]. 14 But Mrs. Spears seemed to take it so much for granted [Man.].

(2) The ObjectExercise 6 Explain the use of the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Underline the objects, and classify them.1 He should have waited and faced Sam with the offer of a hired man, instead of leaving it for Sam to accept [Al.]. 2 In this, weight and strength didn't count [Al.]. 3 Or, finally, for those readers with an interest in simple mechanics, the following illustration may suffice [Wol.]. 4 He wrote two more notes. One, to Mr. Bounderby, announcing his retirement from that part of the country. The other, similar in effect, to Mr. Gradgrind [D.]. 5 He looked grimly around, under his shaggy eyebrows, at the new carpets under his feet, the long oak extention table covered with a white cloth and set with new dishes, at the pictures on the walls, the bright, clean kitchen [Dr.]. 6 On his part Lester went away feeling a slight sense of opposition to, but also of sympathy for, his brother. He was not so terribly bad—not different from other men [Dr.]. 7 To her the main point at issue was her leaving him or his leaving her. To him this recent interference was obviously the chief matter for discussion and consideration [Dr.]. Exercise 7 Put punctuation marks where necessary, and explain the

reasons for using them.1 To both my parents to Aunt Milly to Aunt Milly's husband that income seemed riches almost unimaginable riches [Sn.]. 2 For her

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more than for most people everything in the future had been interesting [Sn.]. 3 The drowning man catches at the straw [D.]. 4 To a reader interested in history the following illustration may make the operation of the system plain [Wol.]. 5 In thirty years I have never bought any shirtings from him. Collars I buy elsewhere and hosiery I have never worn [Leac.]. 6 As a matter of fact he was proud of his room; he liked to have it admired, especially by old Woodifield [Man.]. 7 Every week he put a dollar and a half in a little iron bank against a rainy day [Dr.].

(3) The AttributeExercise 8 Analyse the use of the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Underline the detached attributes.1 It was a long room, coloured yellow. On the wall opposite William someone had painted a young man, over life-size, with very wobbly (неустойчивые) legs, offering a wide-eyed daisy to a young woman who had one very short arm and one very long, thin one [Man.]. 2 But at that moment the woman at the fire turned round. Her face, puffed up (надменное), red, with swollen eyes and swollen lips, looked terrible [Man.]. 3 They awe (внушают страх) us, these strange stars, so cold, so clear [Jer.]. 4 The bad temper, mentioned by May Sethby, and sensed by them all, was evidenced by physical proofs. Now he appeared with a cut lip, a blackened cheek or a swollen ear [L.]. 5 Danny, battered and heroic, still kept coming up [L.]. 6 The days of waiting, of hanging about, were finished for Andrew [Cr.]. 7 The voices of the visitors would rise at first - angry, discontented, matter-of-fact, with nasal twang (гнусавость), or guttural drawl [G.]. 8 The tracks had given place to roads, running firm, straight, and black between the trees under brilliant sunshine [G.J]. 9 To the little girl he was a figure to be feared and avoided [Man.]. 10 A young lady, gloved and hatted, with a dust coat on, is sitting in the window-seat [Sh.]. Exercise 9 Put the missing punctuation marks in the following sentences, and explain the reasons for using them.1 Her eyes wide apart and alive slanted upwards in that same attractive oriental way [Gor.]. 2 All this time I had had a fear acute

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but never mentioned that my father might have to go to prison [Sn.]. 3 He's a perfectly reasonable quite intelligible decent fellow [M.]. 4 Confused unhappy browbeaten (напуганная) Betty stood irresolutely [M.]. 5 A number of kites small and large were sailing through the air [M.]. 6 He fell face downwards in the grass blind deaf half-dead with fear [Ba.]. 7 Here was something forbidding terrible inscrutable [L.]. 8 This also was a warmly carpeted restful sunny room with a superb view of the river [Cr.]. 9 The consciousness of being hunted snared tracked down had begun to dominate him [W.]. 10 One evening he found Boleskey deep in conversation with a pale disheveled-looking person [G.]. 11 There was nothing to answer [Man.]. 12 She could see clearly his fine straight eyebrows [Man.]. 13 His punches weak and futile at first became stiff and accurate [L.].

AppositionsExercise 10 Underline the appositions, classify them, and put the missing punctuation marks in the following sentences.1 But they were a practical breed the men of the Northland with a wholesome disregard for theories and a firm grip on facts [L.]. 2 He was Owen the secretary [Cr.]. 3 In vain her stepmother Agatha the Angular urged her to marry [Leac.]. 4 Sissy was at her mother's side; and Jane her sister now ten or twelve years old was in the room [D.]. 5 Only he himself the old sick member was silent [G.]. 6 Richard the only son had taken over the managing directorship of the Company [Cr.]. 7 "Go on, Hen!" said Aunt Wilmet in a flattered voice [G.]. 8 Aunt Em is here and my Uncle Hilary and his wife [G.]. 9 Her son Stephen comes in [Sh.].

(4) Adverbial ModifiersExercise 11 Explain the use or absence of the punctuation marks. Underline the adverbial modifiers of attending circumstances.

1 But now he ran, head down, stumbling among the tus socks (пучки) of grass, breath catching in his throat, thoughtand sensations crowding on each other [Man.]. 2 All that was best in him he hid away, as if ashamed of it [G.]. 3 After washing his feet outside the

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kitchen door, Roy went upstairs to put on clean clothing for supper [Al.]. 4 Roy pushed his canoe out of the small rock inlet, one foot on the rock and the other in the canoe [Al.]. 5 Roy was bowling down the slope towards the road, his plunging feet raising dust for the wind [Al.]. 6 Samson shot with his own gun and missed, the lead balls disappearing through the roof, the enormous explosion deafening them as it echoed off the close walls [Al.]. 7 He was too hungry and tired to read [Man.]. 8 Then Night, like some great loving mother, gently lays her hand upon our fevered heads [Jer.]. 9 To his ears came a great roar, as of the sea, and he saw Danny Ward [L.]. 10 Rivera, on his knees, scrubbing, looked up, with suspended brush, his bare arms flecked with soapy, dirty water [L.]. 11 Half an hour later, with Edward upstairs and comfortable again, Andrew came to the kitchen, raging [Cr.]. 12 Strung with anticipation, Andrew stumped up and down the hall, striving to collect his ideas [Cr.]. 13 She was a better soldier than he [Cr.]. 14 He raised his eyes to find Robert Abbey contemplating him with a friendly, half-humorous smile [Cr.]. 15 What with the steepness of the incline, the thick tree stumps, and the soft sand, he and his crutch were as helpless as a ship in stays [St.]. 16 The main sail hung drooped like a banner. She was stock-still, but for the current [St.]. Exercise 12 Put commas where necessary, and think of explanations.

1 Mrs. Hilary being at a meeting the brothers had tea by themselves [G.]. 2 He moved forward as if to examine the horse's legs [G.]. 3 His clothes were ragged like a beggar's [Jer.]. 4 There was something venomous and snake-like in the boy's black eyes. They burned like cold fire as with a vast concentrated bitterness [L.]. 5 Only today just now have I learned that [L.]. 6 Suddenly as though arriving at a decision he sat erect [Mai.]. 7 He was too tired to go further [H.]. 8 She went dead-white with temper and disappointment [Cr.]. 9 Outside he stood at the gate [Cr.]. 10 Andrew was too tense to smile [Cr.]. 11 Having sealed and posted this letter he went into the dining room [G.]. 12 Then for some strange reason it appeared entirely to be his (fault) [Cr.]. 13 Hope despite his undergraduate

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humour and a natural tendency to flippancy (несерьезность) was well endowed with brains [Cr.]. 14 After the meeting and on subsequent evenings young lady members of the League - normally active in the streets only upon flag days - could be seen distributing gruesome antivivisection folders each bearing an illustration of a partially disembowelled dog [Cr.]. 15 So this year I am making all my plans to get away for a couple of weeks of moose hunting along with my brother George and my friend Tom Gass [Leac.]. 16 Beneath his coat of mail Guido carried a miniature of Isolde carved on ivory. He had found it at the bottom of the castle crag between the castle and the old town of Ghent at its foot [Leac.]. 17 Often in the mornings he would go to the Mirabel 1 Garden to smoke his cigar [G.]. 18 Her round face shone like freshly washed china [Man.]. 19 This case is as simple as black and white [Lee.].

Revision ExercisesExercise 13 Explain the use of the commas in the following sentences.

1 Usually it was a source of interest, of slightly shocking interest, to my mother [Sn.]. 2 Without warning, without any kind of reason, I was seized with a sense of overwhelming dread [Sn.]. 3 I never knew such a strange creature, yet harmless, mind you, as the baby unborn [Sn.]. 4 After that, he sat down and wrote out a prescription, and folded it up and gave it me [Sn.]. 5 The voice had not stopped singing. It went on, rich, virile, masculine, from verse to verse of the hymn. Shooting up like a stem through the rubbish the voice seemed to rise and branch out powerfully, luxuriantly and even theatrically, like a tree, until everything was in its shade [P.]. 6 The elder man, very tall, in a brown suit and brown buckskin shoes, lounged, with his hands in his trouser pockets, and his long, weathered, good-looking face masked in a sort of shrewd scepticism [G.]. 7 And you did it, not casually and occasionally, but deliberately and systematically, as your business policy [S.]. 8 Before our supper, Harris and George and I were quarrelsome and snappy and ill-tempered; after our supper, we sat and beamed on one another [Jer.].

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9 "Who?" Andrew asked, astonished [Cr.]. 10 He paused, as if to gather his forces for description, and went on. "Tall, as a young tree, with eyes like the sky" [G.]. Exercise 14 Underline the adverbial modifiers, and classify them. Explain the use of the punctuation marks.

1 Wealth that you and your class have acquired by knavery and cunning, by bribary and fraud (обман), by every form of economic violence and cruelty! by the bying of franchises and public privileges, by watering stocks and misrepresenting values, by rebates and midnight traffics, by adulterating products, by cornering markets, by beating down wages and screwing up prices! [S.]. 2 Meanwhile Clare was meditating, verily. He was becoming ill with thinking; eaten out with thinking, withered by thinking [Наг.]. 3 My aunt was deeply interested in them, and walked up and down the room with her arms folded for more than two hours afterwards. On this occasion she was so much disturbed in mind as to find it necessary to open the bedroom door, and make a course for herself, comprising the full extent of the bedrooms from wall to wall [D.]. 4 Keesh lived long ago on the rim of the polar sea, was headman of his village through many and prosperous years, and died full of honors with his name on the lips of men [L.]. 5 That night, at eleven o'clock, they set out through the brisk and busy streets for Doctor Llewellyn's house, Glynmawr [Cr.]. Exercise 15 Put punctuation marks where necessary, and explain the reasons for using them.

1 To most people there not only to my mother the 'failure' of Mr. Eliot was something more interesting to talk about than the prospect of a war [Sn.]. 2 For a fortnight I was told nothing [Sn.]. 3 Like a sort of animated doll she moved obediently [Mo.]. 4 And yet as though overcome she flung down on a coach and pressed her hands to her eyes [Man.]. 5 He shuddered taking off an immense white silk scarf [Man.]. 6 On the floor and on the shelves and benches were the vegetables of Jack's summer and autumn crops pumpkins beet corn potatoes even green tomatoes apples cucumbers and a few jars of dried peas [Al.]. 7 Zel Saint was a small man shorter than Roy and

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thin. The Gauls of Saint Helen said he looked like a wizened little French priest cadaverous in the cheek piercing in the eye dark in the jowl and mean—all men in his body [Al.]. 8 To sleep in the rooms of the Junta meant access to their secrets to the lists of names to the addresses of comrades down on Mexican soil [L.]. 9 All at once with a quick pang he was conscious of his nervousness his inexperience his complete unpreparedness for such a task [Cr.]. 10 Their evenings together were even happier than before [Cr.]. 1 1 "Kurelovitch Kurelovitch has come" ran a murmur like wind through a forest [Gold].

Detached Parts of a SentenceExercise 1 6 Study the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Classify the detached parts of the sentences and underline them.

1 While the doll's house stood in the courtyard they might ask the girls at school, two at a time, to come and look [Man.]. 2 George said he never saw so much thoughtful sadness concentrated into one glance before, as when, at the lock, that young couple grasped the idea that, for the last two miles, they had been towing the wrong boat [Jer.]. 3 "And what had I better do about it, sir?" asked Durbeyfield, after a pause [Har.]. 4 Durbeyfield, leaning back, and with his eyes closed luxuriously, was waving his hand above his head, and singing, in a slow recitative [Har.]. 5 I fear you would never see me again, save to bury me [L.]. 6 So thinking, and in famous spirits, I began to set my face homeward [St.]. 7 In the front room Andrew found Doctor Bramwell, unshaven, without his collar and tie, wearing a serious air, seated at the table, pen in hand [Cr.]. 8 Firmly, he caught hold of himself [Cr.]. 9 Fresh-complexioned, with blond hair, a nicely cut suit, and black opal links in his projecting cuffs, Freddie was a well-turned out figure, not good-looking - his features were very ordinary - but good-natured, smart [Cr.]. 10 Up, up they shot, out of the depths [Cr.]. 1 1 I repeated the familiar story. A quiet room, removed from any church bells, or crowing cocks, or little boys' schools, or railway stations. "There are none of such anywhere near here," said Madame, looking very surprised. "I have a very

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beautiful room to let, and quite unexpectedly." [Man.]. 12 One couldn't wish for a more ideal place to treat one's cases. High up, in the centre of a pine wood; isolated; glassed balconies, a special airconditioning system to ensure perfect purity and constant temperature in winter [Cr.]. 13 Then they went in - not too soon - to dinner [Cr.]. 14 We've been trying to find you, on your rounds, all morning [Cr.]. 15 With the approach of Christmas the weather turned colder - crisp frosty days and still, starry nights [Cr.]. Exercise 17 Put the missing punctuation marks in the following sentences. Underline and classify the detached parts of the sentences.

1 Rosemary laughing leaned against the door and said: "I picked her up in Curson Street." [Man.]. 2 Andrew abruptly recalled from the contemplation of his own affairs told Morgan to wait [Cr.]. 3 Pale-lipped his heart pounding in his side Andrew followed the secretary back into the committee room [Cr.]. 4 After that she ate better [Hu.]. 5 Gill tapped threw open a communicating door revealing Miss Mason a nice elderly girl neat and composed seated at a small desk. Rising Miss Mason put down her Times [Cr.]. 6 He drew a long breath of satisfaction stopped scolding Christine and for a few days was fit to live with [Cr.]. 7 Having reached the door he turned the key and opened it [W.]. 8 Dorian was sleeping peacefully lying on his right side with one hand underneath his cheek [W.]. 9 Dill left us early in September to return to Meridian [Lee]. 10 Rozsi pale and tremulous with a half-scared look gave him her hand and quickly withdrawing it shrank behind her sister [G.]. 11 No one save an occasional soldier wore a hat [P.]. 12 Round and round they walked looking and staring [Man.]. 13 Susan was a good dancer precise and light and free [Br.]. 14 Sing of joy and of laughter deep and quiet soundless and rich overflowing the boundaries of hate damming the tides of crass stupidity; releasing freing uplifting. Sing a song of our time little children. Not of hate. Not of war. Sing of love [Abr.]. 15 He was thirty-five years old kept himself very fit was good at court games had a number of big-game fishing records and had just shown himself very publicly to be a coward [H.].

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Introductory Words and PhrasesExercise 18 Explain the use of the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Underline the modal words and phrases with one line; the emphatic words and phrases, with two lines.

1 Three hundred letters, clicked out on the busy tipe-writers (appeals for assistance, for sanctions from the organized labor groups, requests for square news, deals to the editors of newspapers, protests against the highhanded treatment of revolutionists by the United States courts), lay unmailed, awaiting postage [L.]. 2 We have no hospital, let alone an isolation ward [Cr.]. 3 It has been occupied by a young gentleman from Buenos Aires whose father died, unfortunately, and implored him to return home immediately. Quite natural indeed [Man.]. 4 And she couldn't possibly throw it away [Man.]. 5 Of course this has nothing to do with the matter [Man.]. 6 Soon he fell into an attitude of admirable logic - humanly speaking, he simply could not do it [Cr.]. 7 For perhaps five minutes she was absent [Cr.]. 8 He took a long steadying breath. Had it actually come to this? [Cr.]. 9 You look tired, Joseph. No doubt you have been working your fingers to the bone preparing our little home for us [Br.]. Exercise 19 Put the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Underline the introductory words and phrases.

1 But Meg could not possibly go and supervise the men. [Man.]. 2 Take a place like Benham for instance only ten miles out [Cr.]. 3 And in any caseCristine need know nothing at all of the affair [Cr.]. 4 He had in fact a double net cast out [Cr.]. 5 Now indeed he forgot all about his early doubts [Cr.]. 6 Moreover he quite overlooked a possibility emphasized by Aesop [Cr.]. 7 For the present at least he was lost to Andrew [Cr.].

Inter lectionsExercise 20 Explain the use ot the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Point out the meanings of the interjections.

1 "Oh yes!" the Warden insisted [Al.J]. 2 "Ahl There's a pretty sight for you," Roy said to the exhausted Scotty [Al.] 3 When Danny

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stripped, there were ohs! and ahs! of delight. [L.]. 4 Bahl it makes me sickl Got a match? [L.]. 5 "Oh! Oh! Oh!" A young fellow—raised a moan of pain [L.]. 6 Ah! and now you are going to have a hard time on the river for a change [Jer.]. 7 Hi! Tom-Dick? can't you hear? [Jer.]. 8 Tut! Tut! I seem to have forgotten some of my essentials [Cr.]. 9 Aaaah! He won't talk! He won't talk! [Mal.]. 10 Oh, I wish I hadn't sent him that letter telling him to take care of himself [Man.]. 11 "I am going to whip you for this," he said. "Oh, no, no! she screamed, cowering down under the bedclothes [Man.]. 12 "Tuk-tuk-tuk," clucked the cook like an agitated hen [Man.]. Exercise 2 1 Put punctuation marks where necessary. Underline the interjections.

1 "Hugh" she sighed [Man.]. 2 "Ah I have talked quite enough for to-day," said Lord Henry, smiling [W.]. 3 Oh I am sorry I didn't see him. Did he leave any message? [W.]. 4 "Oh dear me I'm sorry to hear that," said the literary gentleman in a shocked tone [Man. ]. 5 Ah but he's known her all his life. 6 "Oh" he said, gently, "you walked so carefully on the stairs [Brad.]. 7 "Oh do go on, Isabell!" "Oh oh oh" [Man.]. 8 "Oh no Oh no" cried Isabel's voice [Man.]. 9 "What a picture!" cried the ladies. Oh the ducks Oh the lambs Oh the sweets Oh the pets [Man.]. 10 Ah There's a taxi now [Man.]. 1 1 Oh Ah My name's Jack Musk-ham [G.].

3 The Compound SentenceExercise 22 Study the use of the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Point out how the independent clauses are joined. What are the relations between the clauses joined asyndetically? 1 It was a bitter threat, but there was no violence in it. Young Frank smiled at Roy, and the meal continued in silence [Al]. 2 Roy knew about the debts: but farmers were expected to have debts [Al.]. 3 Our Else was looking at her with big, imploring eyes; she was frowning; she wanted to go [Man.]. 4 He was doing his utmost to please her; yet there seemed no limit to her demands [Cr.]. 5 Letters were no use; he had no talent for expressing himself on paper; anything he could write would undoubtedly convey a wrong impression. [Cr.]. 6

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It was setting dark in the swamps, and he had ten miles to go [C.]. 7 You give them an inch, and they all walk over you [P.]. 8 We always chat a little—we are such a family party [Man.]. 9 They exchanged a hand-grip, and, still unnaturally steady, she went out and down the stairs [G.]. Exercise 23 Put the punctuation marks in the following compound sentences, and give the reasons for using them.

1 My mother would give me some pennies to buy sweets or a magazine and they (my parents) left to find a room by themselves [Sn.]. 2 Andy had left her no obligation remained social laws did not count Andy had gone for good [AL]. 3 Old Woodifield paused but the boss made no reply [Man.]. 4 There was no need to stop the fight for Danny did not rise [AL.]. 5 He had not bothered to wash his hands that was a trifle with Con [Cr.]! 6 It was high time for I now began to be tortured with thirst [St.]. 7 He is not going to be sick is he? [G.].

4 The Complex Sentence ( 1 ) Subject, Predicative and Object Clauses

Exercise 24 Explain the use or absence of the punctuation marks. Classify the subordinate clauses, and name the connective words which introduce them.

1 She seemed as though she couldn't understand why Laura was there [Man.]. 2 Yet Vera it was who persuaded the others to give the first trust to Rivera [L.]. 3 Andrew dropped his eyes, sympathizing, yet hardly knowing what to say [Cr.]. 4 They did not know, then, that it was my liver [Jer.]. 5 You know only the front field is tilled [Al.]. Then it was Sam, Sam who would leave the farm [Al.]. He began to do what he'd told her wasn't playing (the piano). Well, all she knew was that it was wonderful [Sar.]. 6 He knew, from past conversations, that every one of the four loathed losing a fifth of his salary [Cr.]. 9 And how strange it was that, instead of having been forced to reveal his own secret, he had succeeded, almost by chance, in wrestling a secret from his friend! [W.].

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Exercise 25 Put punctuation marks where necessary. Define the types of the subordinate clauses.

1 He saw she had not long returned [Cr.]. 2 She ran to him protesting it had all been her fault [Cr.]. 3 It was gratifying to Andrew that he seemed to be expected [Cr.]. 4 Let me relate what happened [Leac]. 5 I can only say that it was a beautiful piece of engineering. 6 She walked out into a fine morning and wondered where on earth she should go [G.]. 7 It was not till the end of August that my father's case was published [Sn.]. 8 It was imperative that he should not miss his last shot [L.]. 9 Besides he knew he would have moonlight by which to return [L.]. 10 After two days and nights I felt as if I had lived there for a year [D.]. Exercise 26 Find in books 6 complex sentences containing subject, object and predicative clauses, and explain the punctuation.

(2) Attributive ClausesExercise 27 Explain the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Classify the attributive clauses, underline them, and name the connective words which introduce them.

1 The tall man, who had moved to the other side of the statue, was coming back [G.]. 2 He was at the moment the best antidote Dinny could have taken [G.]. 3 They weren't flying the big kite which he was used to, but a new one, on the model for which he had made the designs himself [M.].4 The small dairies to the west, beyond Port-Bredy, in which she had served as supernumerary milkmaid during the spring and summer required no further aid [Har.]. 5 He was absorbed by a rapture in which all fear and doubting were smoothed away [Lew.]. 6 The Eliots, apart from my father, who was unlike the rest, were an intelligent, capable lot without much sensitivity or intuition, whose intelligence was usually higher than their worldly sense [Sn.]. Exercise 28 Write 9 complex sentences containing restrictive, descriptive and appositive subordinate attributive clauses, and punctuate them.

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Exercise 29 Put punctuation marks where necessary. Classify the attributive clauses, and underline their antecedents.

1 The garden in which the cottage stood was surrounded by a wall and could only be entered through a door [Har.]. 2 His mother who was very refined never allowed him to be called Herb or Bertie but always Herbert [M.]. 3 Two or three clerks who on pay-day longed to be taken for millionaires sheepishly danced with telephone-girls and manicure-girls in the narrow space between the tables [Lew.]. 4 I know the sort of people I'm among now [Sh.]. 5 My father used to lie on the grass and tell me about the things he thought about [Abr.]. 6 He sat up suddenly sending Montmorency who had been sleeping the sleep of the just right on the middle of his chest sprawling across the boat [Jer.]. 7 I hereby make a counter-proposition which I am inclined to believe you will accept [Hen.]. 8 Fascination is a game that two can play at [Sh.]. Exercise 30 Find in books 10 complex sentences containing attributive clauses, and explain the punctuation marks.

(3) Adverbial ClausesExercise 31 Explain the use of the punctuation marks. Classify the subordinate clauses and the connective words. Analyse sentences 4 and 5.

1 Though he had finished with trapping, Jack would still come into the bush once a year [Al.]. 2 It was such a tempting picture that Roy hesitated before refusing [Al.]. 3 And the two women stood side by side looking at the slender, flowering tree. Although it was so still it seemed, like the flame of a candle, to stretch up, to point, to quiver in the bright air, to grow taller and taller as they gazed—almost to touch the rim of the round, silver moon [Man.]. 4 "There!" said Denny in a suppressed voice, as though all the secret bitterness of his life escaped into that single word [Cr.]. 5 That was long ago, before you were born [Q.]. 6 Isn't that an indictment of our system? But rotten as it is, I'll accept it [Cr.]. 7 Andrew glanced uncertainly at Christine. They had meant to keep their destination a secret, so that they should be free from all worries, correspondence, interference [Cr.]. 8 All day, Rachael toiled as much as such people must toil,

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whatever their anxieties [D.]. 9 Only the Swedish girl talked, after they had gone [P.]. 10 McAllister was in such a rage that the prime minister fled, to return with the king himself [L.]. Exercise 32 Put the punctuation marks where necessary, and explain the reasons for using them.

1 But after things had been going on like this for several weeks the Sunburys had a surprise for him [M.]. 2 They didn't speak to one another on the Sunday and during the rest of the week though outwardly there was peace between them [M.]. 3 Amos couldn't at first remember whether he had seen this girl before because all Cec's (his son's) girls were almost exactly alike [Mo.]. 4 If he did not see his father before he went home he would not sleep [G.]. 5 Not until after lunch when they (Dinny and Wilfrid) were alone once more with coffee did discomfiture come with the suddenness of a thunderclap in a clear sky [G.]. 6 As Roy approached the bird tried to lift its head to attack. Roy picked up a stick and let the owl get a grip on it with its locked beak. He then pushed the saplings apart so that the owl was freed [Al.]. 7 In a moment he had disappeared crashing through the bush as fast as his thick legs would take him. He did not stop until he heard a familiar voice shouting his name [Al.]. Exercise 33 Compose 10 complex sentences containing various subordinate adverbial clauses, and put the punctuation marks where necessary.

Revision ExercisesExercise 34 Explain the use or absence of the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Classify the subordinate clauses and point out how they are joined to the principal clauses.

1 The children were sent to bed when they had finished their meal, although Frank shouted defiantly that it was only eight o'clock [Al.]. 2 Sam's fault lay in his inability to realize that farming was all planning; never anything else but planning; never buying more seed than you could make money on, never sowing more than you could crop, never selling so much that you left your own cattle and family

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short [A1]. 3 It's all the fault, she decided, as the tall fellow drew something on the back of an envelope, something that was to be looped up or left to hang, of these absurd class distinctions [Man.]. 4 He occasionally gave a smart nod, as if in confirmation of some opinion, though he was not thinking of anything in particular [Har.]. 5 Youth that he was, they could never nerve themselves to dare to question him [L.]. 6 As he went out to pay a call, which had just come in, at 3 Riskin Street, Andrew felt his heart quicken to the day [Cr.]. Exercise 35 Put punctuation marks in the following complex sentences where necessary, and give the reasons for using them.

1 My mother proud in all ways did not like me to know that she was extremely superstitious [Sn.]. 2 She first of all pointed out that though I might have done better than anyone from the local schools no doubt plenty of boys in other places had achieved the same result [Sn.]. 3 Giving Nab his tweed cap he seized Nab's bowler hat and although it was far too small put it on his own hat where it looked much as it would have done on the bust of Homer [Cop.]. 4 Harris said he felt such extraordinary fits of giddiness come over at times that he hardly knew what he was doing [Jer.]. 5 I knew it was my liver that was out of order because I had just been reading a patient liver-pill circular in which were detailed the various symptoms by which a man could tell when his liver was out of order [Jer.]. 6 As William wandered downstairs the maid crossed the hall carrying a lamp [Man.]. 7 Though Roy was happy to be on the last stage home he knew that he would be worried in a moment by the sight of a ruin-ed farmhouse [Al.]. 8 It was Mrs. Andrews who had finally suggested that she continue the arrangement [Al.]. 9 Roy thought this the strangest question the Warden had ever asked [Al.]. Exercise 36 Find in bocks 8 complex sentences containing various subordinate adverbial clauses, and explain the use of the punctuation marks. State how the clauses are joined to the principal clauses.

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Exercise 37 Explain the use or absence of the comma before when, where, which.

1 Those were the days when I felt I must be myself [Sn.]. 2 My plans were half-fancies still, not much grown up since my first days in the office, when I walked round the town hall square at lunch time and dreamed [Sn.]. 3 The moment most illuminative of her state of mind was when Hubert and Jean walked into the hall at Mount street, where they were to stay till after Clare's wedding [G.]. 4 Roy didn't know yet which he liked more: the company that plenty of people in the bush brought him, or the wonderful remoteness which existed when he was alone [Al.]. 5 They stopped at a little inn, where there were some other fellows, and spent the evening with them [Jer.].Exercise 38 Explain the use of the punctuation marks in the following extract. Underline the subordinate clauses and classify them.

I objected to the sea trip strongly. A sea trip does you good when you are going to have a couple of months of it, but, for a week, it is wicked. You start on Monday with the idea implanted in your bosom that you are going to enjoy yourself. You wave an airy adieu to the boys on shore, light your biggest pipe, and swagger about the deck as if you were Captain Cook, Sir Francis Drake, and Christopher Columbus all rolled into one. On Tuesday, you wish you hadn't come. On Wednesday, Thursday and Friday, you wish you were dead. On Saturday, you are able to swallow a little beef tea and to sit up on deck, and answer with a wan (слабая), sweet smile when kind-hearted people ask you how you feel now. On Sunday, you begin to walk about again, and take solid food. And on Monday morning, as, with your bag and umbrella in your hand, you stand by the gunwale, waiting to step ashore, you begin to thoroughly like it [Jerome K. Jerome].Exercise 39 Write a short composition about some trip, and use 3 adverbial clauses, 3 attributive clauses, 2 object clauses, 1 subject clause, and 1 predicative clause. Punctuate the composition.

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Exercise 40 Study the punctuation marks in the following complex sentences. Underline the participle constructions and name their functions in the sentence. Classify the subordinate clauses.

1 Now he would trade in anything with anyone, drawing in as many agencies and new lines as he could; being honest when he had to be honest; being dishonest when it paid well and lost him nothing, including his good name [Al.]. 2 It wouldn't be long before the chinks (щели) in the logs widened, before the roof blew off, the logs split, the floor rotted, before the whole structure fell in [Al.]. 3 And Harris, instead of merely observing, in his most unpleasant tones, that a fellow could hardly help treading on some bit of George's foot, if he had to move about at all within ten yards of where George was sitting, suggesting that George never ought to come into an ordinary sized boat with feet that length, and advising him to hang them over the side, as he would have done before supper, now said: "Oh, I am sorry, old chap." [Jer.].Exercise 41 Punctuate the following complex sentences, and explain the rules orally. Underline the connective words introducing the subordinate clauses. 1 Do you think that they will consent forever to starve and suffer and perish so that your dividends may pile up? [S.]. 2 She found Jose there pacifying the cook who did not look at all terrifying [Man.]. 3 The filling completed Con threw his instruments into a jelly jar containing Lysol which was his light-hearted notion of asepsis and demanded that Andrew should return to the house with him to tea [Cr.]. 4 He almost upset his cup when she addressed him gazing over the top of his head her voice meak apologetic [Cr.]. 5 Mrs. Dore the woman who had fainted came to when the shots went off [O'H.]. 6 She called from the kitchen where she was moving about [Gold]. 7 You were one of the first to go on strike though we hadn't a penny in the housel Last week when the company wanted the men to come back you talked them out of itl [Gold]. 8 When he had finished however and lit a cigarette he suddenly observed her expression [Cr.]. 9 Denny's attitude was so objectionable that Andrew flushed [Cr.].

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Detached Subordinate ClausesExercise 42 Explain the use of the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Underline the detached subordinate clauses, and classify them.

1 Years afterwards I realized that, when I was his pupil, I crassly (абсолютно) underestimated Getliffe as a lawyer [Sn.]. 2 One shut eyes and ears to all that was painful - if one could [G.]. 3 He pulled on the other glove and said that, though it was late, he would run along to church [Sn.]. 4 They took their seats at a little table in a corner of a cosy, dimly-lit room, while a log fire crackled and threw soft shadows across their faces [Gor.]. 5 She was putting on a large straw hat and admiring herself in the mirror over the side-board, when the church bell began to ring [Sn.]. 6 But, lest some one see them and not understand, he would take her to Biddlemeier's Inn, on the outskirts of the city [Lew.].

Introductory Clauses and SentencesExercise 43 Analyse the use of the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Underline the introductory clauses and sentences, and classify them.

1 His eyes rested on hers but an instant - she hadchanced to look up - and she sensed the nameless something that made her pause [L.]. 2 After a shave and a bath - thanks to Annie there was always plenty of boiling water in the tap - he felt less tired [Cr.]. 3 He was an affectionate father, after his manner; but he would probably have described himself (if he had been put, like Sissy Jupe, upon a definition) as "an eminently practical" father [D.]. 4 He came to town on a freight train (long ago now ) and worked at the livery-stable. (That was before autos got to be so common) [Hu.]. Exercise 44 Analyse the punctuation marks. Underline the appended clauses (eight).

1 They're quite near each other, it seems [Man.]. 2 "It is as you always should be," said Harry, "with your hands full of violets." (Rosabel realized that her knees were getting stiff; she sat down on the floor and leant her head against the wall.) [Man.]. 3 His voice

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was decent enough, Jesse admitted [Mai.]. 4 Because "the Company", Joe knew, was somehow a vital, mysterious force in all their lives [Wol.]. 5 The noise of the water drumming in the kettle deadened her pain, it seemed [Man.]. 6 There is, I am certain, a deep moral in this [Leac.]. 7 "Listen!" I came here for a photograph - a picture - something which (mad though it seems) would have looked like me [Leac]. 8 In the South, before the war, they had a saying, I remember, about .a dog and a soldier having the same value [G.]. 9 It was necessary, I knew, to take no notice [Sn.]. 10 Ah! You must find it very draughty, I should fancy [W.].

Double SubordinationDirect and Non-Direct Speech

Exercise 45 Punctuate the following sentences containing double or other degrees of subordination.

1 Dinny asked me if there was anything he could do to show publicly that he wasn't a coward [G.]. 2 He realized with a heavy heart that if all his reborn hopes were killed then he too might just as well be dead [Cr.]. 3 The community of fowls to which Tess had been appointed as superviser nurse surgeon and friend made its headquarters in an old cottage standing in an enclosure that had once been a garden but was now a sanded square. The lower rooms were entirely given over to the birds who walked about them with a proprietary air as though the place had been built by themselves and not by certain people who now lay east and west in the churchyard [Har.]. Exercise 46 Put the missing punctuation marks in the following passage. Compare them with the author's punctuation in the original, and correct your mistakes. Give oral explanations.

Tony Croom approached Melton Mews without thinking of anyone but Clare and failed to observe a shortish man in horn-rimmed spectacles black boots and a claret coloured tie, who looked like the secretary of a learned society. Unob- trusive and unobserved this individual had already travelled with him from Bablock Hythe to Paddington from Padding-ton to the "Coffee House" from the

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"Coffee House" to the corner of Melton News; had watched him enter No. 2 made an entry in a pocket book and with an evening paper in his hand was now waiting for him to come out again. With touching fidelity he read no news keeping his prominent glance on that peacock blue door prepared at any moment to close himself like an umbrella and vanish into the street-scape. And while he waited which was his normal occupation he thought like other citizens of the price of living of the cup of tea which he would like of his small daughter and her collection of foreign stamps and of whether he would now have to pay income tax [G.].Exercise 47 Put the missing punctuation marks in the following extracts, taking into consideration the author's style. Underline the non-direct speech.1 She shut her eyes and turned her head away. Hold on girl she told herself. Hold on tight. Tears won't help. Hold on. You must hold on. Hold on as though your life depended on it. No scenes. No talking till he talks. She held on hard. [Abr.].2 Lanny filled the teapot again. The cookies were all gone and it was as though he hadn't really been away from home.Where's Mabel?So you remember her.Certainly mother. Did you think I had forgotten my only sister?When you didn't ask about her I thought you had. No. I hadn't forgotten [Abr.].3 Your son? She said.Yes I said.A fine boy she said. He resembles you. How much are figs to-day?Ten cents a dozen I said.Are they really good?Yes they are. I ate one five minutes ago.Please try one.She did and tried also a peach and an apricot [Sar.].4 My goodness she thought Aunt Em's birthday and I'd forgotten [G.].

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(5) Compound and Complex SentencesExercise 48 Study the punctuation marks in the following sentences. Point out whether the sentences are complex or compound. Classify the subordinate clauses. Name the number of independent clauses in the compound sentences. 1 Full of his success, his contact with the great, the sophisticated medical world, his ears ringing with Sir Robert Abbey's words, he could not reach Christine fast enough to tell her joyously everything,everything which had taken place. His télégramme would have given her the good news; but now he wished to pour out in detail the full exciting story [Cr.]. 2 She slipped away, and her face seemed to bubble with defiance or laughter; she ran up three steps, stopped, looked at him across her shoulder, and fled on up the stairs [G.]. 3 As he stood there with the morning sun behind him, he saw it all more vividly than he had ever seen it [Abr.]. 4 The sun dropped down the western sky, the shadows lengthened, but the man worked on [L.].(6) Compound Sentences with Subordination Complex Sentences

with Co-OrdinationExercise 49 Point out whether the following sentences are compound with subordination, or complex with co-ordination. Analyse the use of the punctuation marks.

1 Andrew had no idea whether he was doing well or badly: he knew only that his head ached abominably, that his feet were icy, his inside void [Cr.]. 2 In her life she never felt so withdrawn and tearless, so indifferent as to where she went, what she did, or whom she saw [G.]. 3 During these three weeks he had asked himself all sorts of questions: whether he were being made a fool of; whether she were in love with him, what he was doing there, and sometimes at night, with all his candles burning as if he wanted light, the breeze blowing on him through the window, his cigar, half-smoked, in his hand, he sat, an hour or more, staring at the wall [G.]. 4 Sam was so very busy with his own thoughts, that it is probable he would have taken no more notice of the young woman than just raising his head and remarking that she had a very neat pretty figure, if his feelings of

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gallantry had not been most strongly roused by observing that she had no one to help her, and that the carpets seemed too heavy for her single strength [D.].Exercise 50 Explain the use of the punctuation marks in the following paragraphs.

1 The doors of the small sitting-room, bedroom, kitchen and bathroom were open; but the walls were distempered appie green, the floors covered with dark green linoleum. For furniture there was a double bed, and some suit-cases in the bedroom, two armchairs and a small table in the sitting-room; a kitchen table and some bath salts in a glass jar; no rugs, no pictures, no books, but some printed linen curtains to the windows and a hanging cupboard along one whole side of the bedroom, from which Jean had been taking the clothes piled on the bed [G.]. 2 At the church the street forked; to the right past the butcher's, past a row of little houses whose front doors opened on to the pavement; to the left past the public library along the familiar road towards home. There were the houses with 'entries' leading to their back doors, and the neat minute garden in front. There was my aunt's house, with the Builder and Contractor sign over the side gate. Then came ours; one of a pair, older than the rest of this road, three storeys instead of two, red brick like the church, shambling and in need of a coat of paint to cover the sunblisters. Round the bend from the library I could already see the jessamine in the summer twilight. I was in sight of home [Sn.]. 3 One day in November, however, Christine noticed that something unusual had upset him. He came in that evening without hailing her gaily and, though he made pretence of unconcern, she loved him too well not to detect, from the deepened line between his eyes and a score of other minute signs, that he had received an unexpected blow [Cr.].Exercise 51 Find some paragraph in a book describing nature. Give short oral explanations about the use of the punctuation marks.Exercise 52 Put punctuation marks where necessary, and explain the reasons for using them.1 Fresh complexioned with blond brilliant plastered hair a nicely cut suit and black opal links in his projecting cuffs Freddy was a well

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turned out figure not good looking his features were very ordinary but good-natured smart [Cr.].2 The midges were dancing over the water Close to our hands the reeds were high and lush and on the other side of the stream the bank ran up steeply so that we seemed alone alone in the hot still endless afternoon. We had been there all day the whole party of us the ground was littered with our picnic now as the sun began to dip we had become quiet for a party of children We lay lazily looking through the reeds at the glassy water I stretched to pluck a blade of grass the turf was rough and warm beneath the kness [Sn.].3 My mother had been ill and was only just coming down again to breakfast There was a letter for her addressed in a hand that could belong to no one but Uncle Will a fine affected flowing Italian hand developed as an outward mark of superiority with dashes everywhere instead of full stops As she read it my mother's face was pallid with anger [Sn.].4 Andrew descended The next minute while he was gathering himself for the ordeal of his entrance the front door was flung open and he was in the lighted hall being welcomed effusively by a short plump smiling woman of about forty with a shining face and bright bold twinkling eyes [Cr.].Exercise 53 Find in books 4 compound sentences with subordination and 2 complex sentences with co-ordination. Analyse the punctuation in these sentences.Exercise 54 Put the punctuation marks where necessary. Point out whether the sentences are complex with co-ordination or compound with subordination. Classify the subordinate clauses.

1 Having thus settled the sleeping arrangements to the satisfaction of all four of us the only thing left to discuss was what we should take with us and this we had begun to argue when Harris said he'd had enough oratory for one night and proposed that we should go out and have a smile saying that he had found a place round by the square where you could really get a drop of Irish worth drinking [Jer.]. 2 She wiped her face and as she drew her fingers across her brow she saw that the young man was still standing at the

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window gazing at her [Urq.]. 3 I know this is an odd story. I don't understand it myself and if I set it down in black and white it is only with a faint hope that when I have written it I may get a clearer view of it or rather with the hope that some reader better acquainted with the complications of human nature than I am may offer me an explanation that will make it comprehensible to me [M.]. 4 I have even fancied that I know more about you than you know about yourself that I might serve to interpret you to yourself [S.]. 5 By the time he left school he was two inches taller and by the time he stopped growing he was five feet ten [M.]. 6 It was a very small kite but when Herbert saw it swim through the air and felt the little tug it gave his hand he was thrilled and then every Saturday afternoon when his father got back from the city he would pester his parents to hurry over to the common [M.]. 7 The young man said it was the funniest song that had ever been written and that if we liked they would get Herr Slos-senn Boschen whom they knew very well to sing it [Jer.].

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ABBREVIATIONSA. — Sherwood Anderson Abr. — Peter AbrahamsAl. — James AldridgeB. — Lord ByronBa. — A.L. BarkerBrad. — Ray BradburyC. — Erskine CaldwellCar. — Dyson CarterCop. — A.E. CoppardCr. — A.J. CroninD. — Charles DickensDr. — Theodore DreiserF. — William FaulknerG. — John GalsworthyGold — Michael GoldGr. — Graham GreeneGor. — Gerald GordonH. — Ernest HemingwayHar. — Thomas HardyHen. — O. HenryHu. — Langstone Hughes J. — James Joyce Jer. — Jerome K- Jerome Kn. — Nigel Kneale L. — Jack London Lar. — Ring Lardner Leac. — Stephen Leacock Lee — Harper Lee Les. — Doris May LessingLew. — Sinclair LewisM. — W. Somerset Maugham

Mai. — Albert MaitzMan. — Katherine MansfieldMo. — John Moore O'H. — John O'Hara P. — Dorothy Parker Pr. — V.S. Pritchett Q. — Mike Quin S. — Upton Sinclair Sar. — William Saroyan Sh. — Bernard Shaw Sk. — Reginald Skelton Sn. — C.P. Snow St. — Robert Louis StevensonUrq. — Fred Urquhart W. — Oscar Wilde Wils. — Angus Wilson Wol. — Thomas Wolfe

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