The Second TriumvirateThe Second TriumvirateTriumviri respublicae Triumviri respublicae

ConstitenduaConstitendua

Sources for the periodSources for the period

PlutarchPlutarch’’s Lives of s Lives of Antony and BrutusAntony and Brutus

AppianAppian’’s Civil Warss Civil Wars CiceroCicero’’s s ““ Philippics Philippics”” SuetoniusSuetonius’’ Life of Life of

AugustusAugustus Cary, A History of Cary, A History of

RomeRome Scullard, From the Scullard, From the

Gracchi to NeroGracchi to Nero

SenateSenate- Intense rivalries- Intense rivalries

-Jealously protected Jealously protected privileges and powerprivileges and power

-Did not address needs forDid not address needs forreformreform

Landless Roman Peasants- Served in the armies that

had won an empire- Wanted farmland and a minimum

standard of living

Italian AlliesItalian Allies- Served in the armies that Served in the armies that

had won an empirehad won an empire- Wanted citizenship and equalWanted citizenship and equal

TreatmentTreatment

EquitesEquites- Wealthy and distinguished non-senatorsWealthy and distinguished non-senators- Wanted honors and recognition and did Wanted honors and recognition and did not want senators to look down on themnot want senators to look down on them

Roman PlebsRoman Plebs- Laborers and poor of the capitalLaborers and poor of the capital

- Access to grain and bread at Access to grain and bread at affordable pricesaffordable prices

The Period from 44BC- 28bcThe Period from 44BC- 28bc

Formation and breakdown of Formation and breakdown of the Second Triumviratethe Second Triumvirate; ; power power vacuum left by Caesarvacuum left by Caesar’’s death, candidates s death, candidates for power, Senate response, fate of the for power, Senate response, fate of the assassinsassassins

Role of Significant individuals; Role of Significant individuals; Octavian , Antony, CiceroOctavian , Antony, Cicero, , Cleopatra, Fulvia and OctaviaCleopatra, Fulvia and Octavia

Civil War;Civil War; Battle of Mutina, Philippi, Battle of Mutina, Philippi, Perusine, Naulochas and ActiumPerusine, Naulochas and Actium

The Power VacuumThe Power Vacuum The legacy of Julius CaesarThe legacy of Julius Caesar’’s death was s death was

the political vacuum that was left after the the political vacuum that was left after the Ides of March.Ides of March.

CaesarCaesar’’s series of dictatorships and the s series of dictatorships and the many titles and honors granted by the many titles and honors granted by the Senate had effectively dismantled the Senate had effectively dismantled the mechanism of government. Free elections mechanism of government. Free elections had not been held since 49BChad not been held since 49BC

Whoever was to fill the vacuum would Whoever was to fill the vacuum would need wealth and a loyal army.need wealth and a loyal army.

AugustusAugustusDavid ShotterDavid Shotter

““Caesar's assassination on the Ides (15th) of March, 44 BC Caesar's assassination on the Ides (15th) of March, 44 BC threw into turmoil the plans and feelings of his adoptive son. threw into turmoil the plans and feelings of his adoptive son. No less was the turmoil that descended upon the Republic, No less was the turmoil that descended upon the Republic, for Caesar's murderers, led by Marcus Brutus and Cassius, for Caesar's murderers, led by Marcus Brutus and Cassius, apparently had no plans for the future other than believing apparently had no plans for the future other than believing that the death of the tyrant would automatically lead to the that the death of the tyrant would automatically lead to the restoration of the Republic. In practice, this meant little restoration of the Republic. In practice, this meant little more than that the nobility would be free to resume their more than that the nobility would be free to resume their self-indulgent pursuit of wealth, honour and glory. Such self-indulgent pursuit of wealth, honour and glory. Such freedom had little to offer those left on the margins-the freedom had little to offer those left on the margins-the equestrians, the people, the legions and the provincials.equestrians, the people, the legions and the provincials.””

Octavian and AntonyOctavian and AntonyHeirs apparent?Heirs apparent?

As individuals what do they have and what do As individuals what do they have and what do they lack to take up the mantle of Caesar?they lack to take up the mantle of Caesar?

OCTAVIANSources of power

NAME OF CAESAR:Patrician birth

ClientaleLoyal army

Wealth?

MARK ANTONYSOURCES OF POWER

•In possession of CaesarS will•Consul for 44BC

•Loyalty of veterans•From the Civil War

PERSONAL QUALITIESPERSONAL QUALITIES ““Antony grew up a very beautiful youth, but, by the Antony grew up a very beautiful youth, but, by the

worst of misfortunes, he fell into the acquaintance worst of misfortunes, he fell into the acquaintance and friendship of Curio, a man abandoned to his and friendship of Curio, a man abandoned to his pleasures; who, to make Antonypleasures; who, to make Antony’’s dependence upon s dependence upon him a matter of greater necessity, plunged him into him a matter of greater necessity, plunged him into a life of drinking and dissipation, and led him a life of drinking and dissipation, and led him through a course of such extravagance, that he ran, through a course of such extravagance, that he ran, at that early age, into debt to the amount of two at that early age, into debt to the amount of two hundred and fifty talents. …. After this, for some hundred and fifty talents. …. After this, for some short time, he took part with Clodius, the most short time, he took part with Clodius, the most insolent and outrageous demagogue of the time, in insolent and outrageous demagogue of the time, in his course of violence and disorder;his course of violence and disorder;””

AntonyAntony

““He had also a very good and noble appearance; his beard was well He had also a very good and noble appearance; his beard was well grown, his forehead large, and his nose aquiline, giving him grown, his forehead large, and his nose aquiline, giving him altogether a bold, masculine look, that reminded people of the faces altogether a bold, masculine look, that reminded people of the faces of Hercules in paintings and sculptures. It was, moreover, an ancient of Hercules in paintings and sculptures. It was, moreover, an ancient tradition, that the Antonys were descended from Hercules .. For, tradition, that the Antonys were descended from Hercules .. For, whenever he had to appear before large numbers, he wore his tunic whenever he had to appear before large numbers, he wore his tunic girt low about the hips, a broadsword on his side, and over all a girt low about the hips, a broadsword on his side, and over all a large, coarse mantle. What might seem to some very insupportable, large, coarse mantle. What might seem to some very insupportable, his vaunting, his raillery, his drinking in public, sitting down by the his vaunting, his raillery, his drinking in public, sitting down by the men as they were taking their food, and eating, as he stood, off the men as they were taking their food, and eating, as he stood, off the common soldierscommon soldiers’’ tables, made him the delight and pleasure of the tables, made him the delight and pleasure of the army. In love affairs, also, he was very agreeable; he gained many army. In love affairs, also, he was very agreeable; he gained many friends by the assistance he gave them in theirs, and took other friends by the assistance he gave them in theirs, and took other peoplepeople’’s raillery upon his own with good-humor. And his generous s raillery upon his own with good-humor. And his generous ways, his open and lavish hand in gifts and favors to his friends and ways, his open and lavish hand in gifts and favors to his friends and fellow-soldiers, did a great deal for him in his first advance to powefellow-soldiers, did a great deal for him in his first advance to power,r,””

OctavianOctavianNicholas of DamascusNicholas of Damascus

““First I shall speak of his birth and breeding, his parents his nurture and First I shall speak of his birth and breeding, his parents his nurture and education from infancy, by means of which he came to such an estate.education from infancy, by means of which he came to such an estate.

His father was Gaius Octavius, a man of senatorial rank. His forbears, His father was Gaius Octavius, a man of senatorial rank. His forbears, renowned for both wealth and justice, left their estates to him, an orphan, at renowned for both wealth and justice, left their estates to him, an orphan, at their death. His guardians spent his money, but he remitting his just claims their death. His guardians spent his money, but he remitting his just claims was satisfied with the remainder.was satisfied with the remainder.

: Octavius, at the age of about nine [twelve?] years, was an object of no little : Octavius, at the age of about nine [twelve?] years, was an object of no little admiration to the Romans, exhibiting as he did great excellence of nature, admiration to the Romans, exhibiting as he did great excellence of nature, young though he was; for he gave an oration before a large crowd and young though he was; for he gave an oration before a large crowd and received much applause from grown men. After his grandmother's death he received much applause from grown men. After his grandmother's death he was brought up by his mother Atia and her husband Lucius Philippus, who was brought up by his mother Atia and her husband Lucius Philippus, who was a descendant of the conquerors Philip of Macedoniawas a descendant of the conquerors Philip of Macedonia

Octavius lived soberly and in moderation; his friends know of something else Octavius lived soberly and in moderation; his friends know of something else about him that was remarkable. For an entire year at the very age at which about him that was remarkable. For an entire year at the very age at which youths, particularly those with wealth, are most wanton, he abstained from youths, particularly those with wealth, are most wanton, he abstained from sexual gratification out of regard for both his voice and his strength.sexual gratification out of regard for both his voice and his strength.””

After CaesarAfter Caesar’’s deaths death ““This was the beginning of good both for himself and all mankind, but This was the beginning of good both for himself and all mankind, but

especially for the state and the entire Roman people. He sent immediately especially for the state and the entire Roman people. He sent immediately to Asia for the to Asia for the moneymoney and means that Caesar had previously dispatched and means that Caesar had previously dispatched for the Parthian War, and when he received it along with a year's tribute for the Parthian War, and when he received it along with a year's tribute from the people of Asia, contenting himself with the portion that had from the people of Asia, contenting himself with the portion that had belonged to Caesar he turned the belonged to Caesar he turned the public property over to the statepublic property over to the state treasury. At that time, too, some of his friends urged him as they had at treasury. At that time, too, some of his friends urged him as they had at Apollonia to go to Caesar's colonies and to Apollonia to go to Caesar's colonies and to levy an armylevy an army, inducing the , inducing the men to join an expedition on his behalf by employing the prestige of the men to join an expedition on his behalf by employing the prestige of the great great name of Caesarname of Caesar. They declared that the soldiers would gladly . They declared that the soldiers would gladly follow the leadership of Caesar's son and would do everything for him; follow the leadership of Caesar's son and would do everything for him; for there persisted among them a wonderful for there persisted among them a wonderful loyaltyloyalty and good will toward and good will toward Caesar and a memory of what they had accomplished with him in his Caesar and a memory of what they had accomplished with him in his lifetime, and they desired under the auspices of Caesar's name to win lifetime, and they desired under the auspices of Caesar's name to win the the powerpower which they had formerly bestowed upon Caesar. However, the which they had formerly bestowed upon Caesar. However, the opportunity for this did not seem to be at hand. He therefore turned his opportunity for this did not seem to be at hand. He therefore turned his attention toward attention toward seeking legallyseeking legally, through a , through a senatorial decreesenatorial decree, the , the dignitydignity his father had held; and he was careful not to acquire the reputation of his father had held; and he was careful not to acquire the reputation of being one who was being one who was ambitious and not a law abiding man.ambitious and not a law abiding man.””

Coins of the First Century BCCoins of the First Century BCNumismatics and self Numismatics and self

representationrepresentationThe number and variety of coins minted during the The number and variety of coins minted during the period testifies to the intense political competitionperiod testifies to the intense political competition

Stage 1: Stage 1: ManeuveringManeuvering(44-43 BCE)(44-43 BCE)

Octavian’s ProblemsMagistracy

Money?Revenge.

Alliances; Optimate or Populare?

Antony’s problems?Sympathetic to both sides

Competition of Octavian and LepidusHostile Senate

Cicero, the power broker, Cicero, the power broker, positions himselfpositions himself

““ Atticus I fear the Ides of March have brought us Atticus I fear the Ides of March have brought us nothing except joy and a satisfaction for our hatred nothing except joy and a satisfaction for our hatred and grief…..Twas a fine deed, but half done….Well and grief…..Twas a fine deed, but half done….Well here is Antony posting up( in return for a massive here is Antony posting up( in return for a massive bribe) a law allegedly carried by the Dictator in the bribe) a law allegedly carried by the Dictator in the Assembly under which the Sicilians become Roman Assembly under which the Sicilians become Roman citizens, a thing never mentioned in his citizens, a thing never mentioned in his lifetime!...Octavius is here with me-most respectful lifetime!...Octavius is here with me-most respectful and friendly. His followers call him Caesar, but and friendly. His followers call him Caesar, but Plilippus does not, so neither do I. My judgement is Plilippus does not, so neither do I. My judgement is that he cannot be a good citizen. There are too many that he cannot be a good citizen. There are too many around him. They threaten death to our friends( the around him. They threaten death to our friends( the assassins) and call the present state of things assassins) and call the present state of things intolerable.intolerable.”” April 44BC April 44BC

Cicero to the SenateCicero to the Senate

““ Look at young Gaius Caesar-heLook at young Gaius Caesar-he’’s scarcely s scarcely more than a lad but he has raised a devoted more than a lad but he has raised a devoted army of those veterans of Caesararmy of those veterans of Caesar’’s who have s who have never known defeat…His is an astonishing, I never known defeat…His is an astonishing, I might say superhuman ,quality of mind and might say superhuman ,quality of mind and spirit…we must give him our formal support, spirit…we must give him our formal support, so that his defence of the res publica may be so that his defence of the res publica may be not just his own private enterprise but a not just his own private enterprise but a commision from us.commision from us.”” January 43BC January 43BC

Octavians immediate goalsOctavians immediate goals

““ If he were to ignore the inheritance and If he were to ignore the inheritance and the adoption, he would be betraying Caesar the adoption, he would be betraying Caesar and doing a wrong to the people over the and doing a wrong to the people over the distribution of money to them. As he finished distribution of money to them. As he finished speaking, he burst out with the assertion that speaking, he burst out with the assertion that it was right for him, not simply to put himself it was right for him, not simply to put himself in danger, but actually to die, if when Caesar in danger, but actually to die, if when Caesar had chosen him above everyone else for such had chosen him above everyone else for such a great role, he was to show himself worthy..a great role, he was to show himself worthy..”” Appian Appian

The Deeds of the Divine AugustusThe Deeds of the Divine AugustusWhat were OctavianWhat were Octavian’’s goals?s goals?

How does hindsight affect reliability?How does hindsight affect reliability?Compare the styles of writing between Caesar and Compare the styles of writing between Caesar and

Augustus?Augustus? ““1. In my nineteenth year, on my own initiative and at my own 1. In my nineteenth year, on my own initiative and at my own expense, I expense, I raised an armyraised an army with which I set free the state, which was with which I set free the state, which was oppressed by the oppressed by the domination of a factiondomination of a faction. For that reason, the senate . For that reason, the senate enrolled me in its order by laudatory resolutions, when Gaius Pansa enrolled me in its order by laudatory resolutions, when Gaius Pansa and Aulus Hirtius were consuls (43 B.C.E.), assigning me the place of and Aulus Hirtius were consuls (43 B.C.E.), assigning me the place of a consul in the giving of opinions, and gave me the imperium. With me a consul in the giving of opinions, and gave me the imperium. With me as propraetor, it ordered me, together with the consuls, to take care as propraetor, it ordered me, together with the consuls, to take care lest any detriment befall the state. But the lest any detriment befall the state. But the people made me consulpeople made me consul in in the same year, when the consuls each perished in battle, and they made the same year, when the consuls each perished in battle, and they made me a triumvir for the settling of the state. me a triumvir for the settling of the state.

2. I drove the men who 2. I drove the men who slaughtered my fatherslaughtered my father into exile with a legal into exile with a legal order, punishing their crime, and afterwards, when they waged war on order, punishing their crime, and afterwards, when they waged war on the state, I conquered them in two battles.the state, I conquered them in two battles.””

Cicero finds a vitriolic voiceCicero finds a vitriolic voice ““In that man were combined genius, method, memory, literature, prudence, In that man were combined genius, method, memory, literature, prudence,

deliberation, and industry. He had performed exploits in war which, though deliberation, and industry. He had performed exploits in war which, though calamitous for the republic, were nevertheless mighty deeds. Having for calamitous for the republic, were nevertheless mighty deeds. Having for many years aimed at being a king, he had with great labor, and much many years aimed at being a king, he had with great labor, and much personal danger, accomplished what he intended. He had conciliated the personal danger, accomplished what he intended. He had conciliated the ignorant multitude by presents, by monuments, by largesses of food, and by ignorant multitude by presents, by monuments, by largesses of food, and by banquets; he had bound his own party to him by rewards, his adversaries by banquets; he had bound his own party to him by rewards, his adversaries by the appearances of clemency. Why need I say much on such a subject? He the appearances of clemency. Why need I say much on such a subject? He had already brought a free city, partly by fear, partly by patience, into a habit had already brought a free city, partly by fear, partly by patience, into a habit of slavery. of slavery.

With him I can, indeed, compare you as to your desire to reign; but in all With him I can, indeed, compare you as to your desire to reign; but in all other respects you are in no degree to be compared to him. But from the other respects you are in no degree to be compared to him. But from the many evils which by him have been burned into the republic, there is still this many evils which by him have been burned into the republic, there is still this good, that the Roman people has now learned how much to believe every good, that the Roman people has now learned how much to believe every one, to whom to trust itself, and against whom to guard. Do you never think one, to whom to trust itself, and against whom to guard. Do you never think on these things? And do you not understand that it is enough for brave men on these things? And do you not understand that it is enough for brave men to have learned how noble a thing it is as to the act, how grateful it is as to to have learned how noble a thing it is as to the act, how grateful it is as to the benefit done, how glorious as to the fame acquired, to slay a tyrant? the benefit done, how glorious as to the fame acquired, to slay a tyrant? [118]  When men could not bear him, do you think they will bear you? [118]  When men could not bear him, do you think they will bear you? Believe me, the time will come when men will race with one another to do Believe me, the time will come when men will race with one another to do this deed, and when no one will wait for the tardy arrival of an opportunity.this deed, and when no one will wait for the tardy arrival of an opportunity.””

22ndnd Philippic Philippic ““To other men the republic now seemed established, but it did To other men the republic now seemed established, but it did

not appear so at all to me, as I was afraid of every sort of not appear so at all to me, as I was afraid of every sort of shipwreck, as long as you were at the helm. Have I been shipwreck, as long as you were at the helm. Have I been deceived? or, was it possible for that man long to continue deceived? or, was it possible for that man long to continue unlike himself? While you were all looking on, documents unlike himself? While you were all looking on, documents were fixed up over the whole Capitol, and exemptions were were fixed up over the whole Capitol, and exemptions were being sold, not merely to individuals, but to entire states. The being sold, not merely to individuals, but to entire states. The freedom of the city was also being given now not to single freedom of the city was also being given now not to single persons only, but to whole provinces. Therefore, if these acts persons only, but to whole provinces. Therefore, if these acts are to stand,--and stand they can not if the republic stands are to stand,--and stand they can not if the republic stands too,--then, O conscript fathers, you have lost whole provinces; too,--then, O conscript fathers, you have lost whole provinces; and not the revenues only, but the actual empire of the Roman and not the revenues only, but the actual empire of the Roman people has been diminished by a market this man held in his people has been diminished by a market this man held in his own house.own house.””

CiceroCicero’’s Philippicss Philippics

““ Some 20Some 20thth century historians have detected century historians have detected fanaticism and obsession in Cicero at this time, fanaticism and obsession in Cicero at this time, especially so far as his loathing of Antony is especially so far as his loathing of Antony is concerned. . One certainly senses a coarsening of concerned. . One certainly senses a coarsening of his personality….This was the price Cicero was to his personality….This was the price Cicero was to pay for his return to power. Although he held no pay for his return to power. Although he held no public office, the next 6 months saw him become the public office, the next 6 months saw him become the first man in Rome, with as a great a domination first man in Rome, with as a great a domination over the political scene as during his first over the political scene as during his first Consulship.Consulship.”” Everitt Cicero Everitt Cicero

The situation in 43BCThe situation in 43BC““ unstable equilibrium of conflicting elements unstable equilibrium of conflicting elements’’

Brutus and Cassius are In Syria andMacedonia(provinces granted bySenate)Using them to gather troops

Cicero leads the Senate against Antony

Antony declared an outlaw, deprives Decimus Brutus of Gallic province.

Brutus refuses and Antony lays seige at MutinaOctavian rebuffed by Antony

Appeals to Caesar’s veterans in Campania and

raises two legions

Octavian defeats Antony’s legions and two consuls

Are killedAntony escapes

Senate MiscalculationSenate MiscalculationDEJA VUDEJA VU

Assuming that they were now free of the risk of Antony the Senate Assuming that they were now free of the risk of Antony the Senate attempted to discard Octavian. Decimus Brutus was awarded a triumph and attempted to discard Octavian. Decimus Brutus was awarded a triumph and major command and supreme command of the Eastern provinces was major command and supreme command of the Eastern provinces was given to Brutus and Cassiusgiven to Brutus and Cassius

Octavian realized that if Antony was defeated his fathers assassins would Octavian realized that if Antony was defeated his fathers assassins would rule Romerule Rome

Octavian refuses to aid Decimus Brutus against Antony and he is killed. Octavian refuses to aid Decimus Brutus against Antony and he is killed. Octavian sends troops to Rome demanding a ConsulshipOctavian sends troops to Rome demanding a Consulship

When this was resisted Octavian marched on Rome with When this was resisted Octavian marched on Rome with his legions, seized the treasury in order to pay his troops his legions, seized the treasury in order to pay his troops and made arrangements for Consular electionsand made arrangements for Consular elections

Octavian and his cousin Quintus Pedius were elected. They Octavian and his cousin Quintus Pedius were elected. They revoked the decree outlawing Antony and set up a court to revoked the decree outlawing Antony and set up a court to try the assassins. They were found guilty in their absencetry the assassins. They were found guilty in their absence

Octavian was only 19 years oldOctavian was only 19 years old

Ancient SourcesAncient Sources

““Octavian and Antony composed their differences on Octavian and Antony composed their differences on a small islet in the river Lavinius, near the city of a small islet in the river Lavinius, near the city of Mutina. Each had five legions of soldiers whom they Mutina. Each had five legions of soldiers whom they stationed opposite each other… Lepidus by himself stationed opposite each other… Lepidus by himself went before them, searching the island, and waved went before them, searching the island, and waved his military cloak as a signal to them to come.his military cloak as a signal to them to come.”” AppianAppian

What does this passage reveal about the What does this passage reveal about the relative roles of the three men?relative roles of the three men?

Ancient SourcesAncient Sources ““ This triumvirate was very hateful to the Romans and This triumvirate was very hateful to the Romans and

Antony most of all bore the blame, because he was older Antony most of all bore the blame, because he was older than Caesar and had greater authority than Lepidus, and than Caesar and had greater authority than Lepidus, and withal he was no sooner settled in his affairs but he turned to withal he was no sooner settled in his affairs but he turned to his luxurious and dissolute ways his luxurious and dissolute ways ““ Plutarch Plutarch

““ But upon intelligence that Antony , after his defeat, had But upon intelligence that Antony , after his defeat, had been received by Marcus Lepidus, and that the rest of the been received by Marcus Lepidus, and that the rest of the generals and armies had all declared for the Senate, he , generals and armies had all declared for the Senate, he , without any hesitation, deserted from the part of nobles; without any hesitation, deserted from the part of nobles; alleging as an excuse for his conduct the actions and sayings alleging as an excuse for his conduct the actions and sayings of several amongst them.of several amongst them.”” Suetonius Suetonius

Modern SourcesModern Sources ““ The Triumvirate of Antony , Lepidus and The Triumvirate of Antony , Lepidus and

Octavian was to an even greater extent than the Octavian was to an even greater extent than the partnership of Pompey Caesar and Crassus, an partnership of Pompey Caesar and Crassus, an unstable equilibrium of conflicting elements.unstable equilibrium of conflicting elements.””

““ The best that can be said of the Second The best that can be said of the Second Triumvirate is that it was too bad to last. It was Triumvirate is that it was too bad to last. It was ruinously wasteful in men and wealth and it rested ruinously wasteful in men and wealth and it rested on nothing firmer than a precarious balance of on nothing firmer than a precarious balance of essentially antagonistic ambitions .essentially antagonistic ambitions .”” Cary- A History of Cary- A History of Rome.Rome.

““Unlike the first Triumvirate, which was merely a Unlike the first Triumvirate, which was merely a private agreement between Pompey ,Caesar and private agreement between Pompey ,Caesar and Crassus…the Second Triumvirate was a formal Crassus…the Second Triumvirate was a formal magistracy legally appointed which could dominate magistracy legally appointed which could dominate the Senate and the State.the Senate and the State.”” Scullard Scullard

David ShotterDavid Shotter

““Unlike the essentially private triumvirate of Unlike the essentially private triumvirate of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus in 60 BC, this Pompey, Caesar and Crassus in 60 BC, this Second Triumvirate was formally agreed upon Second Triumvirate was formally agreed upon and given the legal status to act as the and given the legal status to act as the government of Rome and the Empire. But government of Rome and the Empire. But despite its high-sounding purpose-to heal the despite its high-sounding purpose-to heal the Republic's afflictions-its real aim was the Republic's afflictions-its real aim was the service of personal and factional ambitionservice of personal and factional ambition””

Reasons for its FormationReasons for its Formation

The Second Triumvirate came into The Second Triumvirate came into existence in 43BC by means of a tribunes existence in 43BC by means of a tribunes law proposed by P Titius. The purpose of law proposed by P Titius. The purpose of the alliance was officially to set the state in the alliance was officially to set the state in order and to defeat the Republican armies order and to defeat the Republican armies of Brutus and Cassius. Unofficially the of Brutus and Cassius. Unofficially the Triumvirate was a means by which three Triumvirate was a means by which three men in command of large armies could men in command of large armies could pursue their individual aims in defiance of pursue their individual aims in defiance of the Senate. The actions of the Triumvirate the Senate. The actions of the Triumvirate reflect the reasons for its formation.reflect the reasons for its formation.

Actions of the TriumvirateActions of the Triumvirate Octavian to resign his consulship and Ventidius should take it Octavian to resign his consulship and Ventidius should take it

for the rest of the yearfor the rest of the year A A new magistracynew magistracy of Antony ,Octavian and Lepidus should of Antony ,Octavian and Lepidus should

hold for five years with consular powerhold for five years with consular power That these three should designate the yearly magistratesThat these three should designate the yearly magistrates That a distribution of the provinces should be made, That a distribution of the provinces should be made,

giving Antony the whole of Gaul, Spain was given to giving Antony the whole of Gaul, Spain was given to Lepidus while Octavian was to have Africa, Sardinia, Lepidus while Octavian was to have Africa, Sardinia, and Sicilyand Sicily

Only the assignments beyond the Adriatic were postponed as Only the assignments beyond the Adriatic were postponed as these were controlled by Brutus and Cassiusthese were controlled by Brutus and Cassius

Lepidus was to be consul the following year and retain Lepidus was to be consul the following year and retain 3 3 legionslegions….and the other legions divided between Octavian ….and the other legions divided between Octavian and Antony so that each would have and Antony so that each would have twenty legions to lead twenty legions to lead to warto war..

To encourage the army with expectation ofTo encourage the army with expectation of booty booty, they , they promised them eighteen cities of Italy…as though they had promised them eighteen cities of Italy…as though they had been captured from an enemy in war.been captured from an enemy in war.

The final carve of the EmpireThe final carve of the EmpireTreaty of BrundisiumTreaty of Brundisium

ProscriptionsProscriptions The purpose of the proscriptions was to confiscate The purpose of the proscriptions was to confiscate

estates in order to have money and land for their estates in order to have money and land for their troops, and to destroy their enemies. Caesar had troops, and to destroy their enemies. Caesar had shown that clemency did not pay.shown that clemency did not pay.

They resulted in the death of 300 Senators and They resulted in the death of 300 Senators and 2000 equites , including Cicero. See Appian2000 equites , including Cicero. See Appian

Those Republicans that managed to escape joined Those Republicans that managed to escape joined Sextus PompeySextus Pompey

Read Appian for the ill omens seen in RomeRead Appian for the ill omens seen in Rome 130+ senators (Livy) 130+ senators (Livy)

200 senators + 2000 equites (Appian) 200 senators + 2000 equites (Appian) 300 senators + 3000 equites (Plutarch) 300 senators + 3000 equites (Plutarch) Only one ex-consul known (Cicero), out of nearly Only one ex-consul known (Cicero), out of nearly 100 known names 100 known names

Death of a Death of a ““learned man and a learned man and a lover of his countrylover of his country””

""Cicero heard [his pursuers] coming and ordered his servants to set the Cicero heard [his pursuers] coming and ordered his servants to set the litter [in which he was being carried] down where they were. He…looked litter [in which he was being carried] down where they were. He…looked steadfastly at his murderers. He was all covered in dust; his hair was steadfastly at his murderers. He was all covered in dust; his hair was long and disordered, and his face was pinched and wasted with his long and disordered, and his face was pinched and wasted with his anxieties - so that most of those who stood by covered their faces while anxieties - so that most of those who stood by covered their faces while Herennius was killing him. His throat was cut as he stretched his neck Herennius was killing him. His throat was cut as he stretched his neck out from the litter….By Antony's orders Herennius cut off his head and out from the litter….By Antony's orders Herennius cut off his head and his hands.his hands.”” Plutarch Plutarch

Antony then had Cicero's head and hands nailed to Antony then had Cicero's head and hands nailed to the speaker's podium in the Senate as a warning to the speaker's podium in the Senate as a warning to others. Cicero's son, also named Marcus, who was in others. Cicero's son, also named Marcus, who was in Greece at this time, was not executed. He became Greece at this time, was not executed. He became consul in 30 BC under Octavian, who had defeated consul in 30 BC under Octavian, who had defeated Antony after the Second Triumvirate collapsed. As Antony after the Second Triumvirate collapsed. As consul, the younger Marcus got to announce consul, the younger Marcus got to announce Antony's suicide to the Senate. It is unfortunate that Antony's suicide to the Senate. It is unfortunate that we have no record of this speech. we have no record of this speech.

Stage 2;

Elimination of

Rivals

Antony &Octavian

Octavian

Antony

Octavian

Brutus &Cassius

LuciusAntonius &

Fulvia

Sextus Pompey

Antony &Cleopatra

Battle of Philippi 42BC

The Perusine War41BC

Battle of Naulochus36BC

Battle of Actium31BC

AN UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM OF CONFLICTING ELEMENTS

““Such being his temper, the last and crowning mischief that Such being his temper, the last and crowning mischief that could befall him came in the love of Cleopatra, to awaken could befall him came in the love of Cleopatra, to awaken

and kindle to fury passions that as yet lay still and dormant and kindle to fury passions that as yet lay still and dormant in his nature, and to stifle and finally corrupt any elements in his nature, and to stifle and finally corrupt any elements that yet made resistance in him of goodness and a sound that yet made resistance in him of goodness and a sound

judgment. He fell into the snare thus.judgment. He fell into the snare thus.””

Women and Power: the making Women and Power: the making and breaking of Amicitaeand breaking of Amicitae

““Antony was so captivated by her that, while Fulvia his wife maintained his Antony was so captivated by her that, while Fulvia his wife maintained his quarrels in Rome against Caesar by actual force of arms, quarrels in Rome against Caesar by actual force of arms,

Caesar had an elder sister, not of the whole blood, for Attia was his mother's Caesar had an elder sister, not of the whole blood, for Attia was his mother's name, hers Ancharia. This sister, Octavia, he was extremely attached to, as name, hers Ancharia. This sister, Octavia, he was extremely attached to, as indeed she was, it is said, quite a wonder of a woman. indeed she was, it is said, quite a wonder of a woman.

"I shall be miserable," said she, "without redress; for on what side soever victory "I shall be miserable," said she, "without redress; for on what side soever victory falls, I shall be sure to be a loser." Caesar was overcome by these entreaties, and falls, I shall be sure to be a loser." Caesar was overcome by these entreaties, and advanced in a peaceable temper to Tarentum, where those that were present advanced in a peaceable temper to Tarentum, where those that were present beheld a most stately spectacle; a vast army the up by the shore, and as great a beheld a most stately spectacle; a vast army the up by the shore, and as great a fleet in the harbour, all without the occurrence of friends, and other expressions fleet in the harbour, all without the occurrence of friends, and other expressions of joy and kindness, passing from one armament to the other. Antony first of joy and kindness, passing from one armament to the other. Antony first entertained Caesar, this also being a concession on Caesar's part to his sister; entertained Caesar, this also being a concession on Caesar's part to his sister; and when at length an agreement was made between them, that Caesar should and when at length an agreement was made between them, that Caesar should give Antony two of his legions to serve him in the Parthian war, and that Antony give Antony two of his legions to serve him in the Parthian war, and that Antony should in return leave with him a hundred armed galleys, Octavia further should in return leave with him a hundred armed galleys, Octavia further obtained of her husband, besides this, twenty light ships for her brother, and of obtained of her husband, besides this, twenty light ships for her brother, and of her brother, a thousand foot for her husband. So, having parted good friends, her brother, a thousand foot for her husband. So, having parted good friends, Caesar went immediately to make war with Pompey to conquer Sicily. And Caesar went immediately to make war with Pompey to conquer Sicily. And Antony, leaving in Caesar's charge his wife and children, and his children by his Antony, leaving in Caesar's charge his wife and children, and his children by his former wife Fulvia, set sail for Asia.former wife Fulvia, set sail for Asia.

AntonyAntony’’s undoings undoing But the mischief that thus long had lain still, the passion for But the mischief that thus long had lain still, the passion for

Cleopatra, which better thoughts had seemed to have lulled Cleopatra, which better thoughts had seemed to have lulled and charmed into oblivion, upon his approach to Syria and charmed into oblivion, upon his approach to Syria gathered strength again, and broke out into a flame. gathered strength again, and broke out into a flame.

Without meaning it, however, she was damaging Antony by Without meaning it, however, she was damaging Antony by this conduct of hers; for he was hated for wronging such a this conduct of hers; for he was hated for wronging such a woman. 3 He was hated, too, for the woman. 3 He was hated, too, for the distribution which he distribution which he made to his children in Alexandriamade to his children in Alexandria; it was seen to be theatrical ; it was seen to be theatrical and arrogant, and to evince hatred of Rome.and arrogant, and to evince hatred of Rome.””

““To the Romans with their parochial To the Romans with their parochial intolerance of alien lands, religions, and intolerance of alien lands, religions, and absolute kings, Antony had severed his absolute kings, Antony had severed his Roman connectionsRoman connections..”” Suzanne Cross Suzanne Cross

David ShotterDavid Shotter

““Success for Octavian and Agrippa against Sextus Success for Octavian and Agrippa against Sextus Pompeius led in 39 BC to an agreement whereby Pompeius led in 39 BC to an agreement whereby those Republicans who had taken refuge with Sextus those Republicans who had taken refuge with Sextus were allowed to return to Italy. The return of were allowed to return to Italy. The return of members of some extremely prestigious families members of some extremely prestigious families allowed Octavian to claim credit for their allowed Octavian to claim credit for their rehabilitation: importantly they could be used to add rehabilitation: importantly they could be used to add distinction to Octavian's Caesarian faction and thus distinction to Octavian's Caesarian faction and thus save him from the appearance of regality from which save him from the appearance of regality from which Julius Caesar had suffered because of the absence of Julius Caesar had suffered because of the absence of such luminaries.such luminaries.””

David ShotterDavid Shotter

““Octavian, the leader of the Octavian, the leader of the Caesarian faction, was now the Caesarian faction, was now the champion of Republicans and the champion of Republicans and the defender of patriotism, defender of patriotism, nationalism and traditional nationalism and traditional respectability; the contrast with respectability; the contrast with the faction of Julius Caesar could the faction of Julius Caesar could not have been greater.not have been greater.””

Antony loses in the war of Antony loses in the war of propagandapropaganda

STAGE 3 Final Confrontation

David ShotterDavid Shotter

““The west was being prepared for a war that The west was being prepared for a war that was portrayed not for what it really was-a civil was portrayed not for what it really was-a civil war fought between two rivals for political war fought between two rivals for political supremacy-but as a great national crusade to supremacy-but as a great national crusade to defend Rome's integrity against Oriental defend Rome's integrity against Oriental barbarism and corruption. Italy swore to barbarism and corruption. Italy swore to defend its champion in the forthcoming defend its champion in the forthcoming crusade; 'Italy United' was the battle-cry for crusade; 'Italy United' was the battle-cry for the campaign against Antony and Cleopatra.the campaign against Antony and Cleopatra.””

Changing Power RatiosChanging Power Ratios

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1stQtr

2ndQtr

3rdQtr

4thQtr

OctavianAntonyLepidus

OctavianOctavian’’s s attack upon attack upon Sextus was the Sextus was the turning point in turning point in his career. With his career. With 500-600 ships 500-600 ships and 45 legions and 45 legions at his disposal at his disposal he had so far he had so far outstripped outstripped Antony that his Antony that his partner could no partner could no longer catch uplonger catch up

Battle of ActiumBattle of Actium The fleets which met at Actium The fleets which met at Actium

consisted of large polyremes from fours consisted of large polyremes from fours up to tens in the joint Greek and up to tens in the joint Greek and Roman fleet of Mark Anthony against Roman fleet of Mark Anthony against Octavian's fleet in which none of the Octavian's fleet in which none of the galleys were larger than sixes, and most galleys were larger than sixes, and most were smaller. The pendulum in were smaller. The pendulum in shipbuilding now swung the other way shipbuilding now swung the other way so that the large polyremes were so that the large polyremes were outclassed and outmanoeuvred by outclassed and outmanoeuvred by Octavian's lighter, faster fleet. Octavian's lighter, faster fleet.

The battle of Actium was the last major The battle of Actium was the last major sea battle for three hundred years. The sea battle for three hundred years. The Roman Republic had already Roman Republic had already eliminated most of its potential naval eliminated most of its potential naval rivals and the defeat of the rivals and the defeat of the Greek/Egyptian navy at Actium Greek/Egyptian navy at Actium destroyed the one remaining sea power destroyed the one remaining sea power which might have constituted a threat which might have constituted a threat to Roman control of the Mediterranean to Roman control of the Mediterranean sea lanes. Rome emerged as the sea lanes. Rome emerged as the undisputed master of the undisputed master of the Mediterranean.Mediterranean.

Any understanding of Actium must consider the later influence of Augustan propaganda.

Early historians saw the victory belonging toOctavian. Egyptian sources suggest that it was

meant as cover for the escape of Antony and Cleopatra. Yet others suggest that Antony feared the disloyalty of his

soldiers fighting against the son of Caesar

THE ACTIUM PROJECTTHE ACTIUM PROJECTA Research ProjectA Research Project

of The University of South Florida andof The University of South Florida andThe Greek Ministry of CultureThe Greek Ministry of Culture

Just before the battle Just before the battle began, the fleets faced began, the fleets faced one another in long one another in long parallel lines and launched parallel lines and launched thousands of stone balls thousands of stone balls at one another. at one another.

Strategy at Strategy at ActiumActium

The forces of Antony and Cleopatra, camped near the swampy lowlands of Cape Actium, had been depleted by malaria before the battle even began--severely reducing the contingent of oarsmen. Supply lines had been cut, further weakening morale and support. Faced with a bleak situation that worsened every day, Antony burned those ships he could no longer man and prepared with Cleopatra to withdraw southward from the gulf with as much of his force as possible.

                                                 

                                                                                                                       

Octavian rejects the advances Octavian rejects the advances of Cleopatraof Cleopatra

Octavian’s rise to power highlights the importance of the army in this period. Although he inherited Caesar’s power, his name, his clientale and his troops, more importantly, he was able to learn from Caesar’s mistakes. Through the amassing of troops, ably led by Agrippa, the elimination of his enemies, Brutus, Cassius, Sextus Pompey and finally Marc Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was able to acquire and maintain power. His program of restoration rested on the tactful allusion of republican government and the tight control of military forces.

Why did Octavian succeed ?

What strategies did Octavian What strategies did Octavian use to succeeduse to succeed Octavian combined a number of political , diplomatic and Octavian combined a number of political , diplomatic and

military methods in his takeover of the Roman Empire; military methods in his takeover of the Roman Empire; Octavian took note of the lessons of previous civil wars.Octavian took note of the lessons of previous civil wars. He used his He used his father’s namefather’s name to raise troops and gave to raise troops and gave

himself military backing for his political ambitions.himself military backing for his political ambitions. Octavian knew the benefits of Octavian knew the benefits of amicitaeamicitae. He allied . He allied

himself first with himself first with CiceroCicero and then with and then with AntonyAntony against against the Senate.the Senate.

The Lex Titia, which gave legal credance to the The Lex Titia, which gave legal credance to the Triumvirate showed that Octavian utilized the power of Triumvirate showed that Octavian utilized the power of the the tribunes tribunes as a weapon against the Senate.as a weapon against the Senate.

Octavian chose Octavian chose not to give clemencianot to give clemencia to his enemies to his enemies as his father had done. His treatment of his enemies and as his father had done. His treatment of his enemies and proscriptionsproscriptions were more reminiscent of Sulla than were more reminiscent of Sulla than Caesar.Caesar.

OctavianOctavian’’s methodss methods The most effective weapon he used against Antony was The most effective weapon he used against Antony was

propagandapropaganda. He played on Rome’s fear that Antony . He played on Rome’s fear that Antony planned to establish an Egyptian dynasty to control the planned to establish an Egyptian dynasty to control the Roman EmpireRoman Empire

His understanding of the importance of approval by the His understanding of the importance of approval by the masses led him to masses led him to distribute land and free fooddistribute land and free food and and erect new buildings in Rome. The need to defeat Sextus erect new buildings in Rome. The need to defeat Sextus Pompey was driven not only by the need to eliminate his Pompey was driven not only by the need to eliminate his fathers enemies but also to rid the seas of pirates to fathers enemies but also to rid the seas of pirates to ensure the ensure the corn tradecorn trade..

He promised peace and restoration of the Republic. In this He promised peace and restoration of the Republic. In this sense he showed sense he showed greater patience and diplomacy greater patience and diplomacy towards the Senatetowards the Senate than his predecessors. than his predecessors.

Octavian realized his own shortcomings as a military Octavian realized his own shortcomings as a military general and compensated accordingly.. He was fortunate general and compensated accordingly.. He was fortunate enough to have enough to have AgrippaAgrippa leading the forces to victory at leading the forces to victory at Naulochus and ActiumNaulochus and Actium

“ Octavian..had the initial advantage of prestige which the name Caesar gave him among the soldiery; Agrippa organised victory for him, and Antony played into his hands. But if his success over Antony was largely a gift of fortune, his personel qualities of patience and pernacity enabled him to take his chances at the right moment; and in the second act of his life they enabled him to consolidate his victory as neither Sulla nor Caesar had succeeded in doing.” Cary

Why did Antony Fail?Why did Antony Fail?

He constantly He constantly underestimatedunderestimated Octavian Octavian His Parthian invasion was costly in funds, His Parthian invasion was costly in funds,

men and prestigemen and prestige His association with His association with CleopatraCleopatra, divorce , divorce

from Octavia and Donations of Alexandria, from Octavia and Donations of Alexandria, cost him his dignitas in the eyes of cost him his dignitas in the eyes of Romans. In the war of propaganda Antony Romans. In the war of propaganda Antony suffered dearlysuffered dearly

Finally without leadership AntonyFinally without leadership Antony’’s s soldierssoldiers lost faith in him lost faith in him

Yet again Octavian had learned Yet again Octavian had learned by Caesarby Caesar’’s mistakes.s mistakes.

The triumph that he celebrated The triumph that he celebrated after Actium was a triumph over after Actium was a triumph over

Egypt not AntonyEgypt not Antony

Final WordFinal Word ““ The ultimate basis of the Principate, as established by Augustus, was The ultimate basis of the Principate, as established by Augustus, was

the imperium, unrestricted in scope, which gave its holder the supreme the imperium, unrestricted in scope, which gave its holder the supreme command over the whole army of the Empire, so that all troops took the command over the whole army of the Empire, so that all troops took the military oath of allegiance to him and obeyed his orders. The maius military oath of allegiance to him and obeyed his orders. The maius imperium which the Princeps held was essentially an extraordinary imperium which the Princeps held was essentially an extraordinary imperium, because it conferred the sole independent command over all imperium, because it conferred the sole independent command over all the Roman troops, was not limited to any definite area and after a short the Roman troops, was not limited to any definite area and after a short time, was freed likewise from any temporal restriction. Mommsen long time, was freed likewise from any temporal restriction. Mommsen long ago pointed out that this was the culmination of a series of extraordinary ago pointed out that this was the culmination of a series of extraordinary imperia of a military nature which had been created from time to time imperia of a military nature which had been created from time to time during the last century of the Republic and which must be regarded as during the last century of the Republic and which must be regarded as preparatory steps in the establishment of the Principate. In this respect preparatory steps in the establishment of the Principate. In this respect the career of Pompey the Great especially foreshadowed that of the career of Pompey the Great especially foreshadowed that of Augustus.Augustus.””

A E R BoakA E R Boak