The Psychology of Personality - WileyThe Psychology of Personality 1 An Overview Chapter Overview: A Preview of Coming Attractions People use the word personality every day. They say,

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1The Psychology of PersonalityAn Overview

Chapter Overview: A Preview of Coming Attractions

People use the word personality every day. They say, “He has such a dynamic personality” or

“She gets her personality from her mother’s side ofthe family.” But most people do not really understandwhat the study of personality is all about. Chapter 1sets the stage for our study of personality. In this chapter, you will learn what personality psycholo-gists mean by personality, as well as the types of ques-tions they ask, the research methods they use, andthe ethical parameters within which they operate.

Chapter Overview

Defining PersonalityHow Personality Psychologists

Define Personality

Common Features ofDefinitions of Personality

Uniqueness of the IndividualConsistency of BehaviorContent and Process of

Personality

The Scope of PersonalityPsychology

Theory DevelopmentPersonality ResearchPersonality DevelopmentPersonality AssessmentApplications in Personality

Psychology

Research Methods inPersonality Psychology

The Clinical ApproachThe Correlational ApproachThe Experimental Approach

Research Ethics: Protectingthe Individual’s Rights

Some Ethical ConcernsSome Solutions to Ethical Issues

Chapter Summary

Glossary

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COPYRIG

HTED M

ATERIAL

Chapter 1 The Psychology of Personality

Defining Personality

Welcome to the psychology of personality! Among allthe research areas in the science of psychology, per-sonality psychology is notable in the way it effortlesslymeshes with the fabric of our lives – our everyday situations, problems, and relationships. You will see thisdemonstrated through the numerous applications of personality research woven throughout every chapterof this text.

This text has been carefully written to help you succeed in the class you are taking. As you read the chapters, you’ll notice a number of special elementsdesigned to help you monitor comprehension. Thechapter outlines show the progression of topics andsubtopics; key terms are printed in boldface; photos,figures, and tables dramatize and organize material; andchapter summaries provide a concise overview of themain points. Each chapter in this book also contains anumber of special feature boxes that will challenge you to zero in on certain aspects of classic personalitytheory, research, assessment, and processes – and toexpand your knowledge of contemporary findings,cross-cultural aspects, and applications of personalitypsychology.

Part I of this text will help you understand the general principles and scope of personality psychology.Part III comprises a survey of basic assumptions, prin-cipal processes, assessment techniques, and practicalapplications associated with each major theoreticalviewpoint. In Part III, you will see a shift in emphasisfrom viewpoints to a consideration of selected topicsaddressing important personal and social issues with arich tradition in personality psychology. I hope that youenjoy learning about the complexity of personality andthe personal insights that come to you as you navigatethis text.

How Personality PsychologistsDefine PersonalityWhat does the word personality mean to you? The waypersonality psychologists define it has changed over the years (McAdams, 1997; Pervin, 1990; Winter &Barenbaum, 1999), reflecting theoretical and empiricaladvancements made in the study of personality, whichyou will be exposed to throughout this book. Think for a moment about the word and how it is used. Now

compare your definition with those of some prominentpersonality psychologists:

● “That which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation” – RaymondB. Cattell (1950, p. 2).

● “The most adequate conceptualization of a person’s behavior in all its detail” – DavidMcClelland (1951, p. 69).

● “A person’s unique pattern of traits” – J. P.Guilford (1959, p. 5).

● “The dynamic organization within the individualof those psychophysical systems that determinehis characteristic behavior and thought” –Gordon W. Allport (1961, p. 28).

● “The distinctive patterns of behavior (includingthoughts as well as ‘affects,’ that is, feelings, andemotions and actions) that characterize eachindividual enduringly” – Walter Mischel (1999, p. 4).

● “Personality represents those characteristics of the person that account for consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving” –Lawrence A. Pervin and Oliver P. John (2001, p. 4).

● “Personality refers to an individual’s character-istic patterns of thought, emotions, and behavior,together with the psychological mechanisms – hidden or not – behind those patterns” – David C.Funder (2001, p. 2).

● Traits of personality “are classified by the adaptive problems they were designed to solve and . . . traits evolve as a function of the adaptiveproblems faced by the organism over evolution-ary time” – Figueredo et al. (2005, p. 871).

After reading these quotations from the experts, you might conclude that there are almost as manydefinitions of personality as there are authors (Pervin,1990) – and you would be right. But note that eachdefinition expresses a common concern for using personality to help predict and explain people’s behavior. Keep in mind that like other complex con-cepts (e.g., the origin of the universe) and interestingphenomena (e.g., why people fall in love) the humanpersonality is not easily defined. Thus, just as you arewilling to accept a diversity of explanations for othercomplex and interesting phenomena in your own life, so should you be willing to accept a diversity of explanations for one of life’s most interesting

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phenomena – the understanding of your personality and those around you. Ideally, as you make your waythrough this text you will develop a healthy tolerancefor diversity and an appreciation that most of theimportant things in life do not come packaged in simple, concise categories.

Common Features ofDefinitions of Personality

Developing a definition of personality that is acceptedby everyone studying personality does seem difficult. But it is useful to identify certain features common tomost of these definitions.

Uniqueness of the IndividualMost definitions of personality include some state-ment about the uniqueness of an individual’s person-ality. This uniqueness can be explained from varioustheoretical viewpoints held by different personalitypsychologists. A biological viewpoint, with its empha-sis on genetics and physiological processes, might con-sider differences in bodily processes (e.g., hormonal levelsand brain functioning ). A dispositional trait viewpointmight assert that certain human qualities are stable evenas they are displayed across diverse settings (e.g., beingconscientious at work and while hiking in the moun-tains). A learning viewpoint, with its emphasis on theeffect of experience on behavior, might consider dis-tinctive reinforcement patterns (e.g., extraversion beingrewarded). A cognitive viewpoint would emphasizeindividual differences in the interpretation of environ-mental cues and the behavioral expectations and consequences associated with these cues (e.g., beingcooperative at work but aggressive when playing tennis). A phenomenological viewpoint might emphas-ize subjective experience and self-determination (e.g.,your career as an expression of your passion for protecting the environment). An evolutionary view-point would emphasize the adaptive significance ofcertain personality characteristics (e.g., aggressivebehavior serves as protection of territory and foodsources). A cross-cultural viewpoint might high-light the impact of societal norms and local customs on the expression of individual differences. And aFreudian viewpoint, with its focus on internal forces,might emphasize early childhood experiences (e.g.,

parent–child interactions). But regardless of the theoretical viewpoint or perspective, any definition ofexplanation of personality should take into account that each person is unique.

Consistency of BehaviorPersonality psychologists generally assume somedegree of continuity in an individual’s personality. As a result, another feature common to most defini-tions of personality is a concern for the consistency of behavior across time and situations. For example, by assuming consistency across time, personality psychologists can link high-risk behavior in highschool (e.g., riding a motorcycle) with a decision in adult-hood to enter a high-risk occupation (e.g., becominga police officer). By assuming consistency across situations, researchers can link the competitive natureof a tennis player with the desire to be the top sales representative in his or her company. If behavioralconsistency did not exist, studying personality wouldmake little sense.

Emphasizing behavioral consistency does not meanan individual’s personality never changes. Concernswith the consistency of behavior are at the heart of some of the most controversial debates in personalitypsychology. The degree of behavioral consistency isinfluenced by the extent to which situational factors,as well as one’s personality, determine thoughts, feel-ings, and behavior.

Content and Process of PersonalityIn the words of highly regarded personality psycholo-gist Gordon W. Allport, “Personality is something that does something” (1937, p. 48). By is something,Allport refers to the content of personality. Each majorpersonality theory discussed in this book offers asomewhat different explanation of the basic content of the human personality. By does something, Allportrefers to the process of personality, the dynamic natureby which the contents of the personality influence theindividual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

The content and process features of personality are interrelated. Across time and situations, the basicmakeup of the human personality directly influences howthe personality operates. For example, some personal-ity psychologists assume that various traits make up the basic content of the human personality and alsoinfluence behavior. They would explain the aggressive

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style of the office tyrant across a variety of situationsas resulting from a personality that contains a com-bination of the traits of aggressiveness and hostility. They would attribute variations in the uniqueness andbehavioral consistency of other office workers to othernumerous combinations of personality traits.

Combining common features to formulate a defini-tion of personality is significant, because it determineshow a personality psychologist views the development,measurement, and modification of the human person-ality. Thus, a definition of personality is far more thansimply a series of words. A summary of the major pointsdiscussed in this section is presented in “Summing It Up:Common Features of Definitions of Personality” above.

The Scope of PersonalityPsychology

The scope of personality psychology goes far beyondsimply defining terms. What do personality psycholo-gists do? Some general areas of study presented in thissection include the formulation and testing of person-ality theories, the developmental aspects of personality,the assessment of personality, and the application of per-sonality psychology to many aspects of our daily lives.

Theory Development: Viewpoints of PersonalityTheory development is one of the most importantareas of study within personality psychology. A theoryis a systematic collection of explanations that are usedto account for a set of observations and predict futureobservations. A theory serves many important pur-poses in the study of personality. A particular theoret-ical viewpoint determines the research questions thatare asked about personality, the methodology used to answer these questions, what is done to influence personality development, and the treatment used tomodify an individual’s personality, if a change is necessary.

Many different theoretical viewpoints of the humanpersonality exist, each explaining personality from a different perspective (Millon & Grossman, 2006;Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2004; Wiggins,1999). Figure 1.1 illustrates how the same behavior isinterpreted differently from various theoretical view-points. None of the different perspectives is right orwrong; they simply vary in how useful they are in help-ing personality psychologists to understand behavior.

As an example of this important point, consider the two contrasting perspectives of personality pro-vided by the biological and cultural viewpoints. The

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Summing It Up Common Features of Definitions of Personality

Common Features

Uniqueness of the Individual: Each person is different.

Uniformity of Behavior: Behavior of the individual is consistent over time and across situations.

Content and Processes: Personality consists of something that influences behavior.

Examples

While Joe responded to receiving a“D” on his history test by reviewingthe quality of his class notes, Samdealt with his “D” by going to alocal pub to “drown” his misery.

Rosemary is very friendly toward herfellow employees at work and herguests at the parties she gives.

Because Mary has failed her Frenchtest, she also expects to fail herpsychology test and, therefore, doesnot study for it that night.

Research Issues

What is the nature of this uniqueness(e.g., unique combinations of traits orgenes or different learning histories)?

To what extent do situational andpersonality factors interact todetermine our behavior?

How do our expectations in onesituation influence our behavior inothers?

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biological viewpoint of personality focuses on biolog-ical processes operating within the individual – such asgenetic makeup, hormonal factors, physiological arousal,and brain chemistry – to explain the operation and

expression of an individual’s personality. The materialpresented in “At the Cutting Edge of Personality:Searching for Genetic Explanations of Personality”exemplifies such a biological explanation.

The Scope of Personality Psychology 7

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AT THE CUT TING ED GE OF PERSONALIT Y PSYCHOLO GY

Searching for Genetic Explanations ofPersonality

The Gene–Brain–Personality Chain: CreatingSome Important Links

One of the most exciting areas of research in the study of personality psychology has to do with theidentification of genes linked with personality traits(Azar, 2002; Canli, 2006; DiLalla, 2004). Althoughthe term personality is often used to describe the char-acteristic manner in which an individual respondsto environmental conditions (e.g., a “hot-headed indi-vidual” honks her horn when experiencing delays in traffic and expresses anger at the cashier while beingheld up at the checkout line at the supermarket),geneticists studying personality are searching forthe underlying biological bases of these reactions. Thegoal of this research is to identify genes that affectbrain function and then, in turn, to examine howthe brain affects the way individuals interact with andadjust to their environments (Benjamin, Ebstein, &Belmaker, 2002; Nelson, 2006).

Although the possibility that many differentgenes may influence the expression of specific personality traits certainly complicates our under-standing of the genetic influence on personality,some possible links are being identified in thegene–brain–personality relationship (Benjamin et al., 2002). For example, the personality trait of sensation seeking (e.g., a high level of brain arousaland the seeking of new and different experiences),more commonly know as “thrill seeking,” has been linked with a protein-producing gene that is responsible for producing a dopamine receptor in the brain called DRD4 (Zuckerman, 2006).Dopamine, a chemical substance produced in the

brain, stimulates arousal in the brain and triggersbehavioral responses. Investigation of the DRD4gene suggests that it is linked with certain thrill- orsensation-seeking tendencies, such as drug abuseand attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD;Benjamin et al., 2002; Plomin & Crabbe, 2002). Itis possible that an increased presence of this gene creates an elevated level of arousal in the brain thatsome individuals choose to satisfy with the novelty,excitement, and risk associated with drug abuse. Ina similar manner, the inability of individuals withADHD to concentrate, focus their attention, and con-trol their impulses, all of which can lead to learningdisabilities, may be due in part to an elevated arousallevel created by increased presence of this gene.

Researchers do not yet understand how thepresence of the DRD4 gene, along with its inter-action with other genes, influences the way indi-viduals react to their environments. However, thisaspect of the study of the gene–brain–personalitychain has some important implications. For ex-ample, the identification of the DRD4 gene may make it possible to initiate early intervention and precautionary measures for at-risk individuals livingin stressful environments. A similar case could bemade in school environments for children with anelevated risk of ADHD.

Without a doubt, the possible link between an individual’s genetic makeup and personality is one of the most exciting and controversial currentresearch topics in the study of personality psycho-logy (Canli, 2006; DiLalla, 2004; Plomin, 2002;Plomin & Crabbe, 2002). You will read much moreabout this emerging area of research that is at the“cutting edge of personality psychology” in Chapter8, in which the biological aspects of personality arediscussed in greater depth.

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By contrast, the cross-cultural viewpoint of person-ality focuses on influences operating outside of theindividual – such as societal norms, family expectations,and ethnic identification – to explain the operation andexpression of an individual’s personality. The materialpresented in “The Cultural Context of Personality Psy-chology” exemplifies a cultural explanation.

The Cultural Contextof PersonalityPsychology

Cultural Conceptualizations andConsiderations of Personality:Putting Personality in a WorldwidePerspectiveAlthough it is easy to think of individuals as having different personalities, thinking of cultures as having different personalities may be harder. Yet they do.Specifically, North American and Western Europeancountries are characterized by a view of personality thatemphasizes the uniqueness of the individual’s person-ality (Brislin & Lo, 2006; Cross & Markus, 1999). Sucha viewpoint is seen in the definitions of personality pre-sented on p. 4. These definitions tend to emphasize theprincipal role of personality as capturing the uniquenessof the individual, predicting what he or she will do, andexplaining his or her thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

By contrast, Eastern countries such as Japan, India,and China, along with other Asian cultures, are char-acterized by a view of personality that places lessemphasis on the unique personality of the individualand greater focus on the person’s identification with a group, such as family, occupation, or caste, and theexpectations, duties, and roles associated with being a member of that group as the principal source forunderstanding the individual (Brislin & Lo, 2006;Cross & Markus, 1999).

Looking for Love: Personality andPersonal Ads

A dramatic example of the variability in culturalexpression of personality can be seen in the nature of the information placed in “personal ads” (Cross &Markus, 1999, p. 378). The first two ads shown below

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Situation

Stewart isattending aNew Year’sEve party.

While at theparty, Stewartbecomes verynervous andwithdrawnwheneverother peopleapproach him.

PossibleExplanations

BiologicalViewpoint

Stewart’s biochemicalsystem predisposes him

to become “uptight”around people

in social situations,such as parties.

EvolutionaryViewpoint

There is survivalvalue in the tendencyto move away from

those objects that areperceived as a threat.

BehavioralViewpoint

Stewart has neverlearned the

conversational skillsnecessary to make

“small talk” at parties.

PsychoanalyticalViewpoint

Stewart’s socialwithdrawal representsan unconscious desire

to have others takecare of him, as his

mother did in the past.

CognitiveViewpoint

Because he is unable totalk to others at work,Stewart expects to failwhen talking to people

at the party as well

CulturalViewpoint

The overly familiarbehavior of others at

the party is inconsistentwith the traditions

of Stewart’s culturalbackground.

OvertBehavior

Figure 1.1 Explaining the same overt behavior from sixtheoretical viewpoints

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originally appeared in the San Francisco Chronicle, a typical daily metropolitan newspaper:

28 SWM, 6′1″, 160 lbs. Handsome, artistic, ambitious, seeksattractive WF, 24-29, for friendship, romance, and per-manent partnership.

Very attractive, independent SWF, 29, 5′6″, 110 lbs.,loves fine dining, the theater, gardening and quietevenings at home. In search of handsome SWM 28-34 with similar interests.

Now compare these ads with the following two, whichwere placed on the same day in the India Tribune, aCalifornia newspaper with a readership of primarilyimmigrant families from India:

Gujarati Vaishnav parents invite correspondence fromnever married Gujarati well settled, preferably green cardholder from respectable family for green card holderdaughter 29 years, 5′4″, good looking, doing CPA.

Gujarati Brahmin family invites correspondence from a well cultured, beautiful Gujarati girl for 29 years, 5′8″,145 lbs. handsome looking, well settled boy.

The first two ads reflect the typical Western view-point of personality by focusing on the uniqueness ofthe individual and emphasizing individual personalitycharacteristics (e.g., “independent,” “ambitious”) andpersonal interests (e.g., “loves . . . theater, gardening”).The first two ads were placed by the seekers themselves.The second two, on the other hand, were placed by the families of the seekers. Note how they reflect theEastern viewpoint of personality by focusing on inform-ation emphasizing group membership, such as indicat-ing the family’s region of origin in India (e.g., the stateof Gujarat) and the caste of the family (e.g., Vaishnav,Brahmin).

As these ads illustrate, the contrasting expressions of personality in the lives of individuals, from estab-lishing their uniqueness to helping them to attractpotential mates, reflects the viewpoint of personality associated with different cultures. Being aware of andsensitive to these cultural characteristics of personalityis critical to the efforts of personality psychologistswho through their study seek to promote internationalunderstanding. Throughout this text you will be exposedto information that will expand your awareness of“the cultural context of personality psychology.”

Personality psychologists use certain criteria toassess how much better one theory is than another (Hall, Lindzey, & Campbell, 1998; Levy, 1970). The criterion of internal consistency requires that assump-tions, principles, and dynamics of a particular theoryof personality fit with one another. The more logicallythe various pieces of the theory fit together, the morefavorably it is evaluated. The criterion of comprehen-siveness focuses on how many aspects of personality (e.g., morality, aggression, and anxiety) are covered bythe theory. The more comprehensive a theory, themore favorably it is evaluated. The criterion of parsi-mony suggests, all other things being equal, that the simpler a theory is (e.g., fewer assumptions and prin-ciples), the more adequate it is. The criterion of utilityhas to do with how useful the theory is in stimulatingadditional research, predicting various outcomes, orbeing applied to different problems (e.g., personnelselection, reducing shyness, and treating depression).Thus, a good theory is internally consistent, compre-hensive, simple, and useful.

Personality Research: The Testingof TheoryIn addition to developing theories, personality psy-chologists must test those theories through systematicresearch involving hypothesis testing. A hypothesis is a statement made about the relationship between at leasttwo variables in a manner consistent with a particulartheory. For example, a learning theory of aggressionmight propose the following hypothesis: Viewers whosee others rewarded for aggressive behavior will act more aggressively than those who observe others beingpunished for aggressive behavior. To test the hypo-thesized effect of observed outcome for aggressiveness on viewer aggressive behavior, a psychologist might have one group of children watch a videotape showing an adult being rewarded for behaving aggressively. At the same time, an equal number of other childrenwould watch a videotape showing the adult beingscolded for the aggressive behavior. After watching thevideotapes, the children would be allowed to engage in a free-play period while the psychologist monitored the amount of aggressive play through a one-way mirror. Documenting more aggressive behavior in thechildren who observed the adult rewarded rather than scolded for aggressiveness would confirm thehypothesis and support this learning theory of personality.


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Confirming the hypothesis would not mean the re-search was complete. Subsequent research would needto be done to determine whether such variables as thesex or age of the aggressive adult model or the nature ofthe reward (e.g., candy vs. verbal praise) made a differ-ence in the children’s tendency to imitate the aggres-sive behavior. Converging evidence from such additionalresearch would more completely test the theory and allowfor better understanding of the relationship betweenobserved rewards and imitative aggressive behavior.

Based on additional research, a particular theory ofpersonality is modified and refined to account for theobserved results. If the theory cannot be modified tobe consistent with the research results, it is usuallyabandoned and another one is proposed and tested in its place.

Personality Development: TheEmergence of PersonalityResearchers studying personality development examinethose factors contributing to the emergence of an indi-vidual’s personality (Caspi & Roberts, 1999; Costa &McCrae, 1997; Eder & Mangelsdorf, 1997; Halverson& Wampler, 1997; Hayslip, Neumann, Louden, &Chapman, 2006; Lewis, 1999; Pervin, 2002). Examiningfactors from the past can offer insight into the currentstate of an individual’s personality (Block, 1971, 1993;Caspi, 2000; Caspi & Roberts, 1999, 2001; Roberts &Caspi, 2003). For example, examining such childhoodfactors as birth order, family size, parenting practices,and early trauma might provide insight into experiencesof shyness in adulthood.

Personality development is an interactive processinvolving other aspects of human development. Forexample, research indicates that the rate of physicaldevelopment (e.g., being big or small for one’s age)influences personality development during adolescence(Kaplan, 2000; Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001; Shaffer& Kipp, 2007), and these influences on personalitydevelopment can remain into adulthood (Gross & Duke,1980). The gradual effect of various physical changes(e.g., slowing down of motor responses) and socialchanges (e.g., retirement or death of a spouse) on theprocess of personality adjustment in the later years isalso studied by psychologists in the area of personalitydevelopment (Papalia et al., 2001).

As researchers in the field of personality psychologyacquire more knowledge about the factors contributing

to the development of certain aspects of personality, theycan help individuals make decisions about changingand/or developing certain aspects of their own per-sonality or the personality of others. For example, if certain parenting styles are known to foster high self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967; Kaplan 2000) or aheightened sense of independence and achievement(Baumrind, 1971; Kaplan, 2000) in children, thendeliberately adopting those styles will maximize thelikelihood of children developing these personalitycharacteristics.

Personality Assessment: TheMeasurement of PersonalityPersonality assessment refers to the development and use of techniques to accurately and consistently measure different aspects of personality (Aiken &Groth-Marnat, 2006; Cohen & Swerdlik, 2002; Lanyon& Goodstein, 1997). Personality assessment is a vital linkto the other major aspects of personality psychology.Following are some ways researchers use personalityassessment techniques:

● Testing various personality theories (e.g., testanxiety; extraversion vs. introversion).

● Measuring developmental changes in person-ality (e.g., moral reasoning) from childhood toadulthood.

● Evaluating the effectiveness of various psycho-therapies (e.g., a stress-reduction workshop).

Personality psychologists and other professionals alsouse personality assessment in a variety of importantapplications to everyday situations, ranging fromscreening potential job applicants to assisting in the diagnosis of medical problems (Handler & Clemence,2003).

Applications in PersonalityPsychology: Putting PersonalityPsychology to UseThe application of personality psychology involvesutilizing what is known about personality theories,research, development, and assessment to help indi-viduals lead happier, healthier, more productive lives.Effective applications of personality psychology have asolid theoretical framework and are based on systematic

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research. A long-standing application of personalitypsychology is to the area of psychotherapy – the process of treating maladaptive tendencies using principles of psychology (Trull & Phares, 2001).Psychotherapists – those individuals who performpsychotherapy – rely on theories of personality to helpguide their thinking about what factors may havecaused a client’s emotional and behavioral difficultiesand what should be done to modify the client’s problem behavior. In fact, many major theories ofpersonality and techniques of personality assessmentwere developed and refined in the context of the personality theorist’s clinical experience and research(Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2004). Forexample, to test her theory that a person’s self-esteemwill improve as he or she learns to deal successfully withminor failures, a psychotherapist might pose a series ofdifficult social situations (e.g., starting a conversationwith others, asking for a raise at work) to her client andthen help guide the individual through the success-ful resolution of these conflicts, after which the client’sself-esteem would be measured and an increase fromthe beginning of the treatment noted. The results of the research would provide support for the psycho-therapist’s theory about the relationship between self-esteem and response to failure, as well as increase thelikelihood of her using this form of psychotherapy inthe future when dealing with other clients who mighthave similar issues with their self-esteem.

Outside of psychotherapy, the applications of per-sonality research to our daily lives are numerous anddiverse.

Medicine, Health, and Epidemiology Personalityresearchers have examined which personality charac-teristics are linked with sickness (Contrada & Guyll,2001) and how certain personality processes might berelated to mortality (Danner, Snowdon, & Friesen,2001), as well as the role personality factors play in theexperience and treatment of individuals with chronicpain (Arbisi & Seime, 2006; Gatchel & Weisberg,2000). In the area of health, researchers have examinedthe role of personality factors in the progression of HIV(Cole, Kemeny, & Taylor, 1997; DeAngelis, 2002), inthe identification and treatment of the “addiction-prone personality” (Barnes, Murray, Patton, Bentler, & Anderson, 2000), and in the expression of high-risksexual behaviors (e.g., unprotected sex, sex withstrangers; Hoyle, Fejfar, & Miller, 2000). In the studyof epidemiology, the branch of medicine dealing

with the frequency of disease in large populations,researchers are investigating the role of personality asa consequential factor in a variety of social problems,including mental disorders, violence, and health-riskbehaviors (Krueger, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2000).

Business Research from personality psychology hasbeen used in the process of personnel selection(Butcher, Ones, & Cullen, 2006; Ones & Viswesvaran,2001; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). Researchers studyemployees’ effectiveness in diverse occupational settingsranging from sales, telemarketing, and public busdriving (Alge, Gresham, Heneman, Fox, & McMasters,2002; Furnham, 2001; Von Emster & Harrison, 1998)to such high-risk, hazardous-duty occupational settingsas emergency services (e.g., police officers, firefighters,ambulance personnel), nuclear power plants, militaryunits, medical surgical departments, and the airlineindustry (Flin, 2001). The characteristics of effective and ineffective business leaders and executives have been investigated (Emler & Cook, 2001; Timmerman,1997). The personality characteristics of those withgood organizational citizenship (e.g., customer serviceorientation and conscientiousness) and those withantisocial organizational citizenship (e.g., substanceabuse or violence on the job; theft of money, property,or time from an employer), along with evaluating the tests used to assess them (Avis, Kudisch, &Fortunato, 2002; Graham, McDaniel, Douglas, &Snell, 2002; Nicol & Paunonen, 2002; Sommers,Schell, & Vodanovich, 2002), have also been appraisedand identified by researchers utilizing principles ofpersonality psychology (Neuman & Kickul, 1999;Ones & Viswesvaran, 2001).

Technology and Economics Researchers have inves-tigated how individuals judge the personality of othersbased on information obtained from Internet homepages (Goldstein, 1998) and how they infer personal-ity characteristics from computer-generated syntheticvoices (Nass & Lee, 2001), as well as how computer-mediated communication can serve to influence thebehavior of shy individuals during online interactions(Stritzke, Nguyen, & Durkin, 2004). In the study of economics, the relationship between personality andentrepreneurship, time spent working, saving patterns,and everyday financial decision making have beenexamined (Brandstätter, 1997; Carducci & Wong,1998; Webley, Burgoyne, Lea, & Young, 2001; Wong& Carducci, 1991).


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The Law Principles of personality assessment have been used to help in the selection of police officers and in child custody cases (Craig, 2005; Wrightsman, 2001;Wrightsman, Greene, Nietzel, & Fortune, 2002). Know-ledge of personality is used in the development of per-sonality profiles of such criminal offenders as rapists andserial killers (Holmes & Holmes, 2002). Input from personality assessment is used to help in courts todetermine the issue of a defendant’s competency to standtrail (Megargee, 2006), and to assess parents’ knowledgeand beliefs concerning child-rearing practices whenmaking decisions in child custody cases (Aiken, 2003).

History and the Humanities Within the arts and sciences, personality researchers are studying thedynamics of creativity and genius (Aiken, 2003;Simonton, 1999; Therivel, 1998) and the developmentof tests to assess creativity (Aiken, 2003). On a darkernote, researchers have also investigated the nature and dynamics of the “Nazi personality” (Zillmer,Harrower, Ritzler, & Archer, 1995) in an attempt tounderstand the individuals who perpetrated suchatrocities and the conditions fostering the expression

of such a personality, as well as in the interest of pre-venting the expression of such barbarous personalitiesin the future. More recently, research in personality psychology has examined personality characteristics ofneo-Nazis and individuals involved in other racist andhate groups (Berkowitz, 2005). On the more positiveside, researcher have also looked at the personalitycorrelates of those non-Jewish individuals who putthemselves at great risk to rescue and provide shelterto Jews being persecuted during the holocaust(Midlarsky, Jones, & Corley, 2005).

As you see, the study of personality psychology has appli-cations to some of the most interesting and importantaspects of our lives. To help document the significantcontribution personality psychology has made to oureveryday living experiences, I will present to you in everychapter of this book special material designed to illus-trate the practical utility of what you will be studyingin this course. For example, you can read about howthe study of personality psychology is being applied tothe area of automobile design and advertising in the fea-ture entitled “Applications in Personality Psychology.”

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How Automobile Design andAdvertising Are Being Driven by Personality Psychology: The Personalities of Cars and Their DriversAre you what you drive? Automakers are always trying to figure out which factors determine how con-sumers decide to purchase one car over another. And,most recently, one of the biggest mysteries is howfamilies choose between minivans and sports utilityvehicles (SUV). An examination of the two groupsby comparing along such standard demographics as median income, age, occupation, family size, orwhere they live indicates a high degree of similarity,so does little to solve this mystery. However, a look at the personality characteristics of these twogroups reveals two distinctively different personal-ity types (Bradsher, 2000; Coomes, 2002).

● SUV owners: Self-focused type. SUV ownersseem to be less social individuals and more self-oriented people who are concerned withexpressing an image of power and sexualallure. Married SUV drivers like the idea thattheir vehicles could be used for reentering thedating scene. SUV owners are more restless and more attached to luxury and pleasure,have strong conscious or subconscious fears ofcrime, and are less likely to attend churchand do volunteer work.

● Minivan owners: Other-focused type. Minivandrivers tend to be more self-confident, out-going, and more other-focused (e.g., beingmore involved with their family, friends, andcommunity) and are more likely to attendchurch and do volunteer work.

Applications in Personality Psychology

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Why Drivers Drive What They Do:What Driving Really Means

More than just simply identifying the personalitycharacteristics associated with these two personalitytypes, this information helps to clarify the differencesin how members of these groups perceive andinterpret the experience of driving. As an example,while both groups indicate that they want to “be in control” when driving their vehicle, it seems to mean something totally different for the two.Specifically, for the “other-focused” minivan re-spondents, being in control has more to do withsafety, such as being able to park and maneuver whilenavigating traffic and getting elderly individualsand children in and out of the vehicle. On the otherhand, for “self-focused” SUV people, being in con-trol has more to do with controlling the situationand the people around them. Reflecting this self-focused personality style, a large-scale survey by anauto-marketing research company in Santa Ana,California, found that SUV buyers were more likelythan minivan drivers to place a lower value on displaying courtesy on the road, to agree with thestatement that “I’m a great driver,” and to indicatethat they drove faster than the average motorist. For SUV drivers, according to David P. Bostwick,DaimlerChrysler’s director of marketing, “It’s not asafety issue, it’s aggressiveness, it’s the ability to gooff the road” (Bradsher, 2000, p. D-4).

Even though such generalizations might notseem meaningful, automakers have spent a consid-erable amount of money to identify and examinethese two personality types, to the extent that thisresearch on personality characteristics has affectedthe design and marketing of automobiles.

Automobile Design: Creating a Car’sPersonality

To match the personality characteristics of the self-focused SUV buyer, SUVs are designed to create a “don’t mess with me attitude,” notesClotaire Rapaille, design consultant to many majorautomakers. To meet this desire for control over theenvironment and others on the road, Rapaille statesSUVs are “designed to be masculine and assertive,with hoods that resemble 18-wheel trucks, vertical

slats across the grilles to give the appearance of a jungle cat’s teeth and flared wheel wells and fend-ers that suggest bulging muscles in a clinched jaw”(Bradsher, 2000, p. D-4). In addition to havingseats mounted higher than those in minivans, SUVsalso include a “high-riding” design that allows thevehicles to navigate rough and rugged terrain andto “get them [the drivers] up in the air and makethem husky,” according to David C. McKinnon,DaimlerChrysler’s director of vehicle exteriordesign (Bradsher, 2000, p. D-4). In sharp contrast,minivans are designed to be more practical (e.g., withstorage bins, cup holders, and removable seats) and to have a more attractive interior that willmake buyers feel as if they are once again “in thewomb,” according to McKinnon (Bradsher, 2000, p. D-4).

Advertising Automobiles: Appealingto Personality

The multimillion-dollar advertising campaigns created to market SUVs and minivans are alsoinfluenced by the identification of the two differentsets of personality characteristics associated withSUV and minivan buyers. Advertisements for minivans tend to reflect the practical nature of thevehicle, with an emphasis on its safety features andon the stream of children getting in and out of it. On the other hand, ads for SUVs tend to stress their “muscular” nature, with an emphasis on thevehicle’s power (e.g., engine size) and strength and ability to climb up and over rugged, mountainousterrain.

Thus the scope of personality psychology embracessuch common experiences as driving a car as wellas such important decisions as buying an expensivecar. In addition, it influences multimillion-dollar deci-sions involving some of the United States’ major cor-porations. The point to be made here is to not onlyto show you how personality psychology is being usedbut to illustrate the depth and complexity of itsinfluence. Throughout this book, you will be pre-sented with many more such applications demon-strating the breadth and complexity of personalitypsychology’s influence.

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A summary of the major ideas discussed in this section is presented in “Summing It Up: The Scope of the Study of Personality Psychology” above. In thenext section, we will examine some of the research methods personality psychologists use to study topicsfalling with the scope of personality psychology.

Research Methods inPersonality Psychology

Personality psychologists use various research methodsin studying personality. The three major approaches are clinical, correlational, and experimental (Pervin,2002). As you will discover in this section, each approachcontributes a unique perspective to our knowledgeabout personality.

The Clinical Approach: Probing theDepths of the IndividualThe characteristic feature of the clinical approach is theattention given to the in-depth study of the individualor a small group of individuals. Three methods illustrat-ing the clinical approach are the case study, the indi-vidual interview, and the analysis of personal documents.

The Case Study

The case study method involves a detailed investigationand description of an individual’s history and currentstatus. A comprehensive case history includes informa-tion about the individual’s past and present family history, educational background, previous history ofemotional or adjustment problems, employment re-cord, and medical history. Researchers elicit this valu-able information by talking directly to the individual,by interviewing family members, friends, or co-workers,or by gaining access to certain records (e.g., college or employment records). See “A Closer Look” on p. 15 for an example of the kind of information gathered aspart of a case study.

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Summing It Up The Scope of the Study of Personality Psychology

Area of Study

Theory Development

Personality Research

Personality Development

Personality Assessment

Application of Personality Psychology

Brief Description

The formulation of theories to helpexplain and predict various aspects ofpersonality

The testing of hypotheses based on aparticular theory through a program ofsystematic research

The investigation of those factorscontributing to the nature of personalitydevelopment across the life span

The development and utilization ofassessment techniques designed tomeasure different aspects of the humanpersonality

The utilization of personality psychologyto help individuals and organizationsfunction more effectively

Related Research Examples

Is the motivating force behind humanbehavior striving for superiority or theresolution of unconscious conflict?

Will individuals with a high score ona measure of test anxiety score loweron a math exam than individuals witha low test-anxiety score?

What personality factors contribute tosuccessful adjustment to aging?

How can you measure a person’s levelof aggression or self-esteem?

How can physicians use personalitytests to diagnose coronary heartdisease?

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he was pursuing the wrong profession. He didn’t seem tohave the personality for it,” Williams said.

Huberty married the former Etna Markland during thisperiod, Williams said, and the couple had two children.

In the 1970s, Huberty appeared to achieve some success. He graduated from Malone with a bachelor’sdegree in sociology after on-again, off-again study there.He went to work as a welder for Babcock & Wilcox,reportedly making $25,000 to $30,000 a year.

He moved to Massillon eight years ago and bought a home and a six-unit apartment building next door,according to James Aslanes, a coworker at Babcock &Wilcox.

Aslanes got to know Huberty there but, before very long,he became wary of him.

“We first became friendly when he found out I wasstudying kung fu,” Aslanes recalled. “He was inquiringabout how to ‘put his daughter into the program’ for somekind of self-defense.”

The two men visited each other’s homes. Aslanes, a gunowner himself, noticed that Huberty’s house was filled withguns: shotguns, rifles, handguns and an Israeli-made Uzimachine gun. While Aslanes said their mutual interest rein-forced their friendship, one incident caused him concern.

“We went shooting one time with the Uzi,” he said,“and he began shooting at a rock. It was dangerous. The bullets might come back to us. It shocked me that anybody that knowledgeable about guns would do that.”

When Huberty was laid off in October 1982 after 10 years’ employment, Aslanes said he became concernedabout making his house payments.

“He became despondent,” Aslanes said. “He worried.He blamed the whole country for his misfortune. He saidthat Ronald Reagan and the government were connivingagainst him. The working class were going to have to pay for this inflation. . . . He became so discouraged that he wrote the Mexican government and applied for residence. . . .

“He bought a lot of food, survival foods. He had tonsand tons of ammunition, and when he left Massillon, I was under the impression that he was going to Mexico,a couple of miles south of Tijuana.”

Huberty was well-known to Massillon police, althoughhe was never charged with a violent crime. Sgt. DonAdams recalled that Huberty’s two German shepherdsrepeatedly harassed motorcycle police.

When calls came in on minor matters, Adamsrecalled, officers often joked that it was “the Hubertys again”because of the numerous complaints that Huberty filedagainst others and the complaints filed against him.Adams said Huberty once was accused of shooting a dogwith an airgun.

In October, 1980, Massillon police charged Huberty with disorderly conduct after a neighborhood quarrel.

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A Closer Look

Piecing Together the Picture of aMass MurdererWhat kind of person would do such a thing? Informa-tion about past and present circumstances of JamesHuberty’s life, as obtained from acquaintances andassorted records, indicated that:

The killer, said neighbors, was “a sour man” who regu-larly exploded in towering rages against his wife Etna andtheir two daughters, 14 and 10. Even the bumper stickeron his car was testy: “I’M NOT DEAF, I’M IGNORINGYOU.” (Time, July 30, 1984, p. 91)

Acquaintances in Ohio were not altogether surprised.One said, “I knew there was something wrong with

him.”Another recalled that when Huberty lost his job at the

Babcock & Wilcox plant in nearby Canton, “He said thatif this was the end of his making a living for his family,he was going to take everyone with him. He was alwaystalking about shooting somebody.”

A portrait of Huberty, drawn from law enforcementofficials and those who knew him, reveals an uncertain manwho shifted directions several times in his life. One personality trait was consistent, however. Huberty struckothers as a loner who did not much like people.

In Canton, Ohio, Brother Dave Lombardl, minister ofthe Trinity Gospel Temple, said he believed Huberty’s prob-lems went back to childhood, when the boy’s motherdeserted the family to become a religious missionary toan Indian reservation. Huberty grew up in Ohio, raisedmainly by his father, Lombardl said.

“He had real inner conflicts,” said Lombardl, whoperformed the marriage ceremony for Huberty and his wife in 1965. “He was pent-up; he was a loner, and he hadkind of an explosive personality. When you talked tohim, you knew he had nervous anxiety and was woundup inside.”

In 1964 and 1965, while attending Malone College inCanton part-time, Huberty became an apprentice morti-cian at Don Williams Funeral Home.

“He was a very clean-cut chap and he was more or lessof a loner type,” Williams recalled yesterday. “He wouldrather just be off by himself.”

Williams said Huberty was better at embalming bod-ies than dealing with clients. “I told him that I thought

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In September 1981, neighbors accused Mrs. Huberty ofthreatening them with a 9mm pistol; she later pleaded guiltyto a disorderly conduct charge, Massillon police said.

Huberty took his family to Southern California sevenmonths ago. San Diego neighbors described Huberty asan angry, unsmiling man.

Although he had recently lost his job, Huberty did notfit the profile of the classically unemployed, according toneighbors. They described the family as well-clothed andHuberty as a clean-cut dresser, “like an executive.”

Police officials said Huberty showed up at the restaur-ant wearing camouflage trousers. According to those whospoke of him yesterday, he had never been seen in suchgarb before.

Although Huberty’s wife was quoted as saying heliked children, some neighbors said he hated them and people of Mexican descent. The massacre at the restau-rant, a neighborhood gathering spot, took a heavy toll ofboth groups. (The Courier-Journal, July 20, 1984, p. A-12)

From Huberty’s father and widow, we get someadditional information:

SAN DIEGO – Adding depth to the portrait of massmurderer James Oliver Huberty, his father and widow havedescribed him as a troubled, hot-tempered man who was often abusive to his family and once tried to kill himself.

Earl V. Huberty said Friday that a combination of medical problems and an unsuccessful career left his son “angry at the whole world.” A clinical psychologist who sat in on an interview Thursday with Huberty’swidow described the slayer’s actions on his final day as a“grandiose last stand.”

In an interview with the San Diego Union publishedFriday, Mrs. Huberty, 41, recalled that last year, when the family still lived in Ohio, her husband tried to kill himself.

She wrested the gun away and hid it, she said, adding, “When I came back, he was sitting on the sofa crying.”

She told the newspaper that a couple of months ago, Huberty said, “You should have let me kill myself.”(The Courier-Journal, July 22, 1984, p. A-10)

Mrs. Huberty said in the interview that her husband“would never have done this . . . if he had been in his rightmind.”

“If he . . . hadn’t been hearing voices . . . I knowdefinitely he would never have killed a child,” she said.“He was very fond of children, extremely fond of children,and he always talked very vehemently about what shouldhappen to people that hurt children.” (The Courier-Journal, July 20, 1984, p. A-1)

While obtaining information from these varioussources does give some understanding of what past and present social and emotional factors may havecontributed to this incident, they make possible only“educated guesses”:

Lt. Paul Ybarrondo, commander of the San Diego PoliceDepartment’s homicide squad, said investigators had notdetermined a motive for the killings.

“I don’t expect that we will,” Ybarrondo said. “You’retalking about getting into a deceased person’s thought pro-cess. We might be able to come up with something in hisbackground. . . . But as far as why he went over the brinkat this very moment, I can’t answer that, and I don’t thinkwe’ll ever be able to.” (The Courier-Journal, July 20, 1984,p. A-1)

Under such conditions, educated guesses seem to be better than nothing. But for more concrete answers,additional systematic research involving in-depth ana-lyses of the case studies of other mass murderers isrequired. For example, personality researchers can beginto compare case studies of other mass murderers in anattempt to identify common personality characteristics(e.g., violent tendencies), underlying dynamics (e.g.,pent-up rage), and life circumstances (e.g., feelings ofalienation). Based on the identification of these com-mon features, a theory could be developed and testedon other violent individuals (e.g., highly violent pris-oners). In this case, a researcher might test a theory linking an excessive hormonal imbalance and feelingsof alienation with the behavior of violent inmates. Ifsuch a link were found, an application of this researchmight be the development and implementation of atreatment program that combines the use of medica-tion to deal with the hormonal imbalance, and teachingof communication skills to reduce feelings of aliena-tion. Finally, an evaluation of the treatment programwould also serve as an additional test of the proposedtheory.

Documenting rare phenomena and helping to test theory are other important functions of the case study.Presenting a detailed case study of the successful treatment of a person with a rare form of dissociativeidentity disorder (previously referred to as multiple-personality disorder or simply multiple personality), inwhich the individual displays two or more complete and

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separate personalities (e.g., a timid 7-year-old girl andan abusive 60-year-old man) without being aware of it, can help to document the existence of the disorder.Beyond just demonstrating the disorder’s existence, a thorough case study can also provide support for test-ing the theory upon which the treatment is based, suchas using hypnosis to help the individual to become awareof and integrate the different personalities. Such resultswould then encourage additional research, with a largernumber of other individuals suffering from dissociativeidentity disorder being treated at different hospitals totest this theory.

The Individual Interview

The individual interview is a one-on-one verbal exchangefor the purpose of obtaining important informationabout the interviewee. The general format is for one indi-vidual to ask a series of specific questions of anotherdesigned to elicit responses that will provide informa-tion for the purpose of addressing a particular issue. Forexample, after giving a client a series of personality tests,the career counselor begins to ask the client questionsabout the conditions under which she would like to work(e.g., “Do you like predictability or unpredictability in your workday?”) in an attempt to match the results of her personality tests (e.g., high conscientiousness and moderate impulsiveness) with specific occupa-tions (e.g., pharmaceutical sales representative – highly

predictable workday – vs. emergency medical techni-cian – very unpredictable workday). However, there ismore to an individual interview than just asking andanswering questions. Conducting a successful inter-view involves establishing rapport and consideringboth verbal and nonverbal communication.

● Establishing rapport. Rapport refers to the posi-tive, warm relationship established between theinterview participants. Establishing rapport makesthe expression of intimate and oftentimes verypainful information much easier. Refrainingfrom expressing disapproval or from appearingjudgmental of the individual’s responses andoffering confidentiality are effective ways toestablish rapport.

● Nonverbal behavior. In addition to the verbalmessage and variety of verbal cues, a skillfulinterviewer is also sensitive to the individual’s nonverbal messages (e.g., posture, gestures, andfacial expressions). Subtle changes in the indi-vidual’s nonverbal messages can help providemore information about the true meaning of theverbal message.

To help illustrate these points, “A Closer Look,” below, examines the dynamics involved in an individualinterview.


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A Closer Look

Interview with a College Student:Sometimes Talking About It Can HelpThe following excerpt illustrates many basic features ofthe individual interview, such as establishing rapportand the progressive “opening up” of the individual to the interviewer. This typifies an initial interview ata university psychological clinic with a student who isburdened by parental pressures, deciding on a major,test anxiety, and alcohol consumption. The commentspresented opposite the dialogue are included to clarify

the interviewer’s objectives and to identify thesignificant topic being explored.

As you have seen, a considerable amount of per-sonal information about the nature of the individual’s problems at school was obtained by asking the rightquestion at the right time. If performed appropriately,the individual interview is a very useful tool. As a side note, if you are having any personal concerns that aretroubling you, consider seeking assistance from yourschool’s counseling center because, as the subtitle of this box indicates, “sometimes talking about it canhelp.”

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Chapter 1 The Psychology of Personality18

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Interview Dialogue

INTERVIEWER (I): Could you tell me why youdecided to come to our clinic today?CLIENT (C): Well, I’m having real difficulties in school.I: OK I’d like to briefly explain what I hope we canaccomplish in the next hour, to give you a clear ideaof what to expect and how this interview can help you.

Maybe we could start by talking about how youdecided to come to come to the clinic at this particu-lar point in your life.C: I can’t have my way. My parents won’t let me.I: Your parents have a powerful and hurtful impact onyou. I hear you very clearly. I’m just wondering whatyou’d do if you could magically have control of yourown future?C: Well, I guess I’d change my major to theatre, that’swhere my interests and talents are.I: I’d like to explore that, but first, let’s get a picture ofwhat it’s like to be in your family. Could you describeyour family, and how you fit it?

Comments

Interviewer highlights significance of client’s choice tocome to the clinic at this particular time.

Interviewer provides basic goals and guidelines toreduce the client’s uncertainty and to promote positiveexpectations.Open-ended question, but with a focus of “why now?”

Acknowledges client’s belief, but challenges the hopelessness.Facilitates exploration of alternatives.

Holds off on specific issues, to get a general background.

(after some discussion about 20 minutes into the session)

I: Tell me about your relationships with friends,including both casual and close friends of both sexes.C: Well, I’m afraid I’ll flunk out of the university if I don’t get over feeling anxious about tests (begins toclasp hands nervously and blushes while looking at the ground, some light laughter also).I: I notice that you seem to be worried. Troubles at schoolcan really be painful.C: Especially when your parents are pressuring you toget into law school.

Exploring social relationships.

Nonverbal cues reflecting anxiety.

Gentle acknowledgment of client’s nonverbal cues anddistress.An important tie-in: the family plays a role as well asschool problems.

(after some discussion about 15 minutes later)

I: Well, you’ve given an excellent sketch of severalimportant areas in your life. Have we missed someimportant sides of you or your situation?C: I don’t know if it’s relevant, but I’m concerned abouthow much I’ve been drinking lately.I: Why don’t you tell me more about it.

Relying on client to fill in gaps.

Another important life concern.

(after some discussion about 15 minutes later)

I: We may not have covered everything, but I’d like touse our remaining time to summarize my understand-ing of you and your situation, and then to have us bothdiscuss what you might do next.

Acknowledges that more information may still beneeded, but makes sure to provide a summary and adiscussion of the client’s alternatives.

(Adapted from Kendall & Norton-Ford, 1982, pp. 209–211)

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In sharp contrast to his public appearance, Nixon’s private appearance when alone was very somber and projected a senseof weakness and defeat.

9, 1974, the 37th president, Richard Nixon, became theonly person in U.S. history to resign the nation’s high-est office. He did so because of his personal knowledgeof the burglary of the Democratic headquarters in theWatergate Hotel, his efforts to cover it up, and hisattempts to obstruct a subsequent investigation into theincident by the FBI. At the time of his resignation, Nixonwas probably one of the most reviled figures in theUnited States.

What would make a man do such things? What was his personality like? How might the study of per-sonality psychology help us answer these questions? Apossible answer might come from conducting a psycho-biography – that is, a detailed psychological case study of an individual (Elms, 1976, 1994). In his bookPersonality and Politics, Alan Elms (1976) illustrates how psychobiographies have been used to study the personality of famous politicians. In a discussion of the psychobiographies of President Nixon, Elms notesthat:

Nixon’s formal statement of resignation from thePresidency was a calm and controlled performance. . . .It could almost have been the retirement speech by arespected President turning over the reins to his electedsuccessor, or perhaps a State of the Union orationdesigned to comfort more than inform. It certainly

Analysis of Personal Documents

A third research method characteristic of the clinicalapproach is the analysis of personal documents.According to Allport (1961), a personal document is “anyfreely written or spoken record that intentionally or unin-tentionally yields information regarding the structureand dynamics of the author’s life” (p. 401). Personaldocuments include diaries, letters, autobiographies,and verbatim recordings. For a closer look at someexcerpts taken from personal documents, read the feature “A Closer Look” below.

A Closer Look

Words from the Heart: Excerptsfrom the Personal Documents ofPresident Nixon’s Public andPrivate Farewell SpeechesIn what is considered to be the lowest point in the his-tory of the presidency of the United States, on August

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informed the audience very little about Nixon’s internalstate. (p. 103)

In contrast, in his farewell speech to his staff, “withsweat and tears streaming down his face” (Elms, 1976,p. 103), Nixon seems to have been speaking words fromthe heart. During a more emotional part of his speech,Nixon remembers his mother:

Nobody will ever write a book about my mother. Well, Iguess all of you would say this about your mother: mymother was a saint. And I think of her two boys dying oftuberculosis, nursing four others in order that she couldtake care of my older brother for three years in Arizonaand seeing each of them die. And when they died it waslike one of her own. Yes, she will have no books writtenabout her. But she was a saint. (p. 103)

In his closing remarks, Nixon becomes philosophical:

Because the greatness comes not only when things go alwaysgood for you, but the greatness comes when you’re reallytested, when you take some knocks and some disap-pointments, when sadness comes. . . . Always give your best.Never get discouraged. Never be petty. Always remember,others may hate you, but those who hate you don’t winunless you hate them. And then you destroy yourself. (p. 104)

Bruce Mazlish (1973), in his rather detailed psycho-biography of Nixon, emphasized many of the themesnoted in his speeches as a means of identifying some of the major influences on the characteristics of Nixon’s personality. For example, according toMazlish, Nixon’s “Protestant ethics” traits – emphasiz-ing planning, hard work, and persistence – wereinfluenced by his mother and maternal grandmother.On the other hand, an analysis of the personal record-ing made in his office revealed that his good qualities– intelligence, determination, a desire for world peace– were overtaken by more base elements of his personality – doing whatever needed to be done, no matter how dishonest, to achieve his goals and tohumiliate and destroy his opponents and perceivedenemies (Commire, 1994).

Information from such personal documents madepossible some insights into Nixon’s private personality

not seen in public. Such personal insights reflect the realheartache and disappointment Nixon felt, as well asdemonstrating his sense of vulnerability and senti-mentality, which the most powerful leader in the freeworld had to hold in check when projecting a brave,bold front while appearing on the world stage. Whenhe could let his guard down, Nixon’s personality was less a reflection of extreme public power than one of defeat and, both literally and metaphorically, resignation.

Finally, as you will see throughout this book, psy-chobiographies have helped us understand how lifeevents served to shape the personalities not only of politi-cians and other historical figures but also of manyfamous personality psychologists, as well as otherinfluential psychologists, and the viewpoints of per-sonality they expressed in their work (Runyan, 2006).For a good general introduction to the use of psy-chobiographies to gain insights into the work of manyfamous psychologists, see Runyan’s (2006) article,“Psychobiography and the Psychology of Science:Understanding Relations between the Life and Work ofIndividual Psychologists.”

Achieving an in-depth understanding of an indi-vidual’s feelings and behavior involves much more than simply reading personal documents. As Allport(1961) notes, “Anyone, of course, can read these documents and form interpretations in a common-sense way” (p. 406). To go beyond common sense,researchers in personality psychology might conduct a content analysis of the document. A content analysisis a systematic assessment of the themes, ideas, andexpressions presented in a document. In one form of content analysis, a researcher can identify the majoroverlapping themes by asking different raters to readthe document and indicate what themes they observe.The “Applications in Personality Psychology” feature onp. 21 illustrates how the content analysis of personaldocuments is used to help increase our understandingof one of the most tragic examples of human suffering– suicide.

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Closing Statements: ContentAnalysis of Suicide NotesPsychologists and other mental health professionalscannot currently explain why people commit suicide.But researchers continue to analyze the contents of suicide notes in an attempt to better understandthe motives and feelings of those who kill themselves(Leenaars, 1989: Lester & Linn, 1998; Stirman &Pennebaker, 2001). For example, Stirman andPennebaker (2001) compared approximately 300poems by 9 suicidal and nonsuicidal poets andfound that the writings of the suicidal poets used morefirst-person singular references (e.g., I, me, my),supporting the notion that suicidal individuals aremore socially detached from others and preoccupiedwith the self. In a very early and important study,Tuckman, Kleiner, and Lavell (1959) attempted toinvestigate more directly the writings of suicidalindividuals by examining the suicide notes left bysome. More specifically, of the 724 suicides exam-ined, they found that approximately 24 percent leftnotes. Analyzing their content revealed four generalemotional categories: positive, negative, neutral,and mixed affect.

● Positive emotional content. Fifty-one percent of the notes express what might be defined aspositive affect, such as expressing affection, gratitude, and concern for others:

Please forgive me and please forget me. I’llalways love you. All I have was yours. No oneever did more for me than you, oh please prayfor me please. (p. 60)

● Negative (hostile) emotional content. Only 6 pre-cent of the notes were classified as expressingprimarily hostile or negative affect:

I hate all of you and all of your family and I hope you never have peace of mind. I hope I haunt this house as long as you live here

and I wish you all the bad luck in the world. (p. 60)

● Neutral emotional content. Twenty-five per-cent of the notes contained a generally neutralaffective tone. As you read the following note,notice it conveys neither a sense of anger nora sense of relief, just a sense of order:

To Whom It May Concern,I, Mary Smith, being of sound mind, do this

day, make my last will as follows – I bequeathmy rings, Diamond and Black Opal to mydaughter-in-law, Doris Jones and any otherpersonal belongings she might wish. Whatmoney I have in my savings account and mychecking account goes to my dear father, as hewon’t have me to help him. To my husband, EdSmith, I leave my furniture and car.

I would like to be buried as close to thegrave of John Jones as possible. (Darbonne,1969, p. 50)

● Mixed emotional content. Eighteen percent ofthe notes were classified as having a mixedemotional content, containing a combinationof both positive and negative affect:

I am sorry I have to take this way out. But youcan see there’s no other way. She would just giveme and the kids a hard time for the rest of ourlives, also the club deal is away out of myhands. Contact. S——— about the Girls and theM———s about B———. All the money Ihave in the world is here. May God Bless youand your family and may he look after mine.

May she rot in hell after me. (Tuckman et al., 1959, p. 60)

Information gained from such content analysis is used to test theories of suicide, assess others’reactions to it, and help individuals working with suicidal persons in such places as mental hospitals,counseling centers, and suicide intervention telephonecenters (Comer, 2001).

Applications in Personality Psychology

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Evaluating the Clinical Approach:Strengths and Limitations

Being aware of the characteristic strengths and limita-tions of the clinical approach will make evaluating itsuse easier.

Following are some strengths of the clinicalapproach:

● In-depth understanding of the individual. Amajor strength of the clinical approach is that it offers several ways of studying a particularindividual or small group of individuals in con-siderable detail. An example is studying the per-sonality development of female state governors inthe 20th century.

● Studying development and adjustment processesover time. Taking an in-depth look at an indi-vidual over time makes it possible to observedevelopmental changes and their presumedeffects (Funder, Parke, Tomlinson-Keasey, &Widaman, 1993). An example is a therapistexamining changes in a client’s self-esteem andjob satisfaction over a two-year period.

● Investigating extreme and rare events. Studyingextreme and rare events is made possible with theclinical approach. As an example, investigating thecoping skills of survivors of a murderous prisoner-of-war camp makes studying the extremes ofpersonality adaptability possible. Because theyare so rare, such events must be studied when theycan be found, and in as much depth as possible.

The following are some limitations of the clinicalapproach:

● Limited generalizability. The issue of generaliz-ability involves extending the findings about onegroup of individuals to another group. Findingsbased on the clinical approach typically use a smallnumber of individuals, which limits their exten-sion to other groups. For example, it is unclearhow information about the coping skills of ahandful of prisoner-of-war camp survivors maybe generalized to the development of a survivaltraining program taught to thousands of other soldiers.

● Personal biases. The personal nature of the clinical approach introduces subject and re-searcher biases.

Subject biases are systematic alterations in the recallof an individual when reporting information toa researcher. Subjects may withhold informationout of embarrassment or “fill in the gaps” of distant events.Researcher biases are tendencies to gather andinterpret information in a manner consistentwith the researcher’s point of view. For example,a researcher testing a theory of sibling rivalry mayoveremphasize the role of siblings when study-ing the personality development of U.S. presidents.

Thus, the clinical approach provides a variety of methods for in-depth study of individuals or a smallgroup of individuals. A summary of the main pointsdiscussed in this section is presented in “Summing ItUp: Characteristic Methods of the Clinical Approach” and “Summing It Up: Characteristic Strengths andLimitations of the Clinical Approach” opposite. In the next section, you will examine the correlation approach in the study of personality psychology.

The Correlational Approach:Knowledge by AssociationAs we have seen, the clinical approach providesinsights into the personality of an individual or a verysmall number of individuals by identifying importantpersonality variables. By contrast, the major purpose ofcorrelational research is to investigate the extent to whichany two variables are associated with one another. Forexample, a researcher might be interested in studyingthe relationship between shyness and loneliness or theneed for achievement and worker productivity.

The Scatter Plot: IllustratingRelationships

A scatter plot is a graph summarizing the scoresobtained by many individuals on two different variables.Figure 1.2a is a scatter plot showing the relationshipbetween scores on a measure of shyness and a measureof loneliness. Each point on the scatter plot representsan individual’s score for the two different variables. Forexample, the point on the scatter plot correspondingto Mike’s scores indicates a score of 12 on the measureof loneliness and 20 on the measure of shyness.Interpreting correlational relationships involves iden-tifying the direction and strength of the relationshipbetween the two variables.

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Summing It Up Characteristic Methods of the Clinical Approach

Method

Case Study

Individual Interview

Analysis of Personal Documents

Function

Provides a comprehensiveinvestigation of past and presentfactors contributing to the behaviorof an individual or small group ofindividuals

Obtains personal and vitalinformation about an individualthrough systematically askingquestions within an environmentdesigned to elicit trust andcooperation in the individualanswering the questions

Yields information about thepersonality of a particularindividual through the systematicanalysis of information found insuch personal documents as letters,speeches, stored files, and records

Application

By talking with other members of theNative American tribe, the culturalanthropologists began to develop aprofile of the social skills andpersonality qualities used in theselection of the tribe’s chief.

During an interview, the potentialmilitary recruit expresses views aboutwanting to join the military to dealwith her feelings of inadequacy and torebel against what she considered astoo much control over her personaland social life by her parents.

Looking at the records of the chat-room discussions stored on thecomputer of the high school shooterindicated a desire to please others,feelings of rejection, loneliness, andhate, and a history of interests in gunsand playing violent video games.

Summing It Up Characteristic Strengths and Limitations of the Clinical Approach

Factor or Process

Understanding of the individual can be in depth

Developmental processes can be studied over time

Extreme and rare events can be investigated

Limited generalizability

Personal bias

Strength or Limitation

Strength

Strength

Strength

Limitation

Limitation

Description

Various techniques are available to facilitatedetailed study of research participants.

Developmental changes in participants’thoughts and behaviors can be monitoredand predicted.

Unusual phenomena can be illustrated anddocumented.

Typically small sample sizes limitresearchers’ ability to generalize findings tolarger or more diverse groups.

Individuals may distort findings viaselective reporting of information;researchers may distort findings via theirown interpretations.

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Correlational Relationships: Identifying Associations

The direction of a correlational relationship revealshow the two variables are related. The two basic pat-terns indicating direction are the positive and negativecorrelational relationships. The general pattern ofassociation of a positive correlational relationshipreveals that as the scores on one variable increase, thecorresponding scores on the other variable also tend to increase. Figure 1.2a shows that as the loneliness scores increase, the corresponding shyness scores alsotend to increase. The general pattern of association ofa negative correlational relationship reveals that as thescores on one variable increase, the correspondingscores on the other variable tend to decrease. Figure 1.2bshows that as the shyness scores increase, the corres-ponding self-esteem scores tend to decrease.

The Correlational Coefficient: Assessing the Strength of theCorrelational Relationship

After determining the direction, the next step is toassess the strength of the correlational relationship bydetermining the extent to which scores on the two

variables are related. The index used to indicate thestrength of association between two variables is called the correlation coefficient and is symbolized bythe letter r. The strength of the association between twovariables is reflected in a value ranging from r = +1.00to 0.00 to −1.00 and is determined by a specific statis-tical formula. The closer to +1.00 or −1.00 the value for r, the stronger the association between the twovariables. In a similar manner, the closer to zero thevalue of r, the weaker the association between the twovariables.

The strongest relationship possible between twovariables is r = +1.00 or −1.00. Figure 1.3a indicates that there is a perfect positive correlational relationship(r = +1.00) between the scores on measures of aggres-siveness and hostility. Figure 1.3e indicates that thereis a perfect negative correlational relationship (r = −1.00)between a measure of shyness and a popularity rating.In a perfect positive correlation, the value for one variable is associated with one and only one value ofthe second variable, creating a straight line on thegraph. As will be discussed in more detail below, the correlation between two variables does not meanthat one variable caused the changes in the values of the other variable, only that the changes in values arerelated.

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Figure 1.2 Scatter plots illustrating a positive and negative correlational relationship

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Perfect correlational relationships in personalityresearch are extremely rare. A less-than-perfect corre-lational relationship indicates that a particular score onone variable is not necessarily associated with one andonly one value on the second variable, creating somespread in the scores in the scatter plot. Figure 1.3b isan example of a moderately strong positive correlationalrelationship (r = +.55) between friendliness and hon-esty. Figure 1.3d is an example of a moderately strongnegative correlational relationship (r = −.67) betweenargumentativeness and number of friends.

The scatter plot in Figure 1.3c illustrates an uncor-related relationship (r = .00) between scores on meas-ures of sincerity and introversion. In uncorrelatedrelationships, the association between the two vari-ables is extremely weak or nonexistent. In assessing thestrength of a correlational relationship through visual

inspection, a general rule of thumb is the less spread in the scores on the scatter plot, the stronger therelationship.

The Third-Variable Problem: LookingBeyond the Observed Relationship

Interpreting correlational relationships is madedifficult by the potential presence of third variables. The third-variable problem exists when the observed relationship between two variables is actually pro-duced by their relationship with another unobserved,or third, variable. Figure 1.4a illustrates a relationshipbetween shyness and test anxiety. Figure 1.4b illustrateshow this relationship is explained by considering therelationship of these two variables to a third variable –self-consciousness.


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Interpreting correlational relationships involvesconsidering the direction and strength of the relation-ship and the third-variable problem.

Evaluating the Correlational Approach:Strengths and Limitations

An understanding of the correlational approach alsoinvolves considering its strengths and limitations. Thefollowing are some characteristic strengths of thisapproach:

● Exploring and identifying relationships. Animportant use of the correlational approach is in searching for relationships among variables

during early stages of research. A personalitypsychologist might first explore the relationshipof shyness with such variables as self-esteem,social anxiety, self-consciousness, and lonelinessto determine the strongest correlations and thebest research potential.

● Ethical considerations. Using the correlationalapproach, researchers can investigate someimportant problems that they could not ordinar-ily study because of ethical restrictions. For example, it is not ethically permissible for aresearcher to separate children from their parentsin order to study personality development insingle-parent families. But it is possible to cor-relate information about personality variables

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(a) A proposed relationship between shyness and test anxiety

(b) A proposed relationship between shyness, test anxiety, and the third variable of self-conciousness

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by studying children who are already in single-parent families.

Here are some characteristic limitations of the correlational approach:

● The third-variable problem. The possibility of third variables going unidentified by theresearcher decreases a thorough understanding of the relationship between two variables. Butbeing aware of potential third variables and taking them into consideration can minimizetheir negative impact.

● Undetermined causal relationships. While thecorrelational approach can identify the nature andstrength of the relationship between two variables,this does not mean that one variable causes thechange in the other to occur. For example, in therelationship between shyness and self-esteem (seeFigure 1.2b), it is not known whether shynesscauses people to have low self-esteem or havinglow self-esteem causes people to be shy. Unfor-tunately, the results from such a correlational studydo not tell researchers which explanation, if either,is correct. This is a serious limitation, since thegoal of most personality research is to explain whythe human personality operates as it does.

Thus, the correlational approach makes it possibleto study the nature and the magnitude of the relation-ship between two variables of interest to personality psychologists. A summary of the main points dis-cussed in this section is presented in “Summing It Up:Characteristic Features of the Correlational Approach”opposite, and “Summing It Up: Characteristic Strengthsand Limitations of the Correlational Approach” on p. 29. In the next section, you will examine the experimental approach to the study of personality psychology.

The Experimental Approach:Knowledge by SystematicInterventionThe correlational approach can determine the degreeto which two variables are associated, but not thecausal nature of the relationship. Personality psycho-logists searching for causal relationships pursue knowledge by systematic intervention using the experimental approach.

Basic Principles of the ExperimentalApproach: Intervention, Observation,and Control

The experimental research approach requires threeelements: intervention, observation, and control. Thelogic of the approach involves investigating how the systematic intervention of one variable creates changesthat can be observed in a second variable. At the sametime, researchers attempt to control for outside factorsthat might also produce changes in the second variable.

Systematic Intervention Establishing a causal rela-tionship involves determining that varying the level ofone variable produces corresponding changes in a sec-ond variable. The independent variable is the factor thatyou believe causes the change in the second variable.For example, psychotherapists might wish to investigatehow receiving positive comments causes changes in theself-esteem of clients. They divide 30 clients into threegroups of 10 with the first group receiving five positivecomments per 1-hour session, the second receiving 20positive comments, and the third receiving no positivecomments. The independent variable is the number ofpositive comments.

Observation The behavior affected by the independ-ent variable and being observed is called the dependentvariable. The dependent variable in this example is the change in the clients’ self-esteem. Figure 1.5 summarizes the changes in the clients’ self-esteem byplotting the group mean (i.e., arithmetic average) of the self-esteem scores for each of the three feedbackgroups.

Experimental Control Experimental control refersto the extent to which researchers control for the pos-sibility that other explanations may account for theresults observed. There are many ways to increaseexperimental control; following are three of the mostcommon:

● Randomly assigning subjects. Decreases in experi-mental control occur whenever there is the possibility of bias in the way researchers assignindividuals to different conditions of the ex-periment. Random assignment is a proceduredesigned to help control for biases in selec-tion. According to the principle of random


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assignment, all research participants have anequal chance of being exposed to the different levels of the independent variable. For example,because individuals who have morning appoint-ments may be somewhat different in age oremployment status, assigning all clients withmorning appointments to the no-feedback con-dition creates a bias. To avoid this bias, thegroup to which a client is assigned could bebased on the order in which their names are

drawn out of a box. This procedure increases thelikelihood that the outcome of the study is dueto the treatment itself rather than to the com-position of the groups.

● Standardizing procedures. Standardization ofprocedures involves treating all of the subjects in a similar manner. In this way, the only differ-ence among individuals in each group is the treat-ment produced by variations in the independentvariable. Standardization of procedures might

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Summing It Up Characteristic Features of the Correlational Approach

Characteristic Feature

Types of Correlational Relationships

Positive Relationship

Negative Relationship

Uncorrelated Relationship

The Correlation Coefficient

The Index of the Correlation Coefficient

The Strength of the Association

The Third-Variable Problem

Description

A scatter plot provides a visualrepresentation of the nature of therelationship between two variables.

As the value of one variable getslarger, the corresponding value of thesecond variable shows an increase.

As the value of one variable getslarger, the corresponding value of thesecond variable shows a decrease.

As the value of one variable changes,there is no systematic pattern in thechange of the second variable.

A numerical value indicates thestrength of association between twovariables.

The index of the correlationcoefficient is symbolized by the letterr and a value ranging from r = +1.00to r = 0.00 to r = −1.00.

The closer the value to r = +1.00 or r = −1.00, the stronger theassociation between the twovariables. The closer the value to r = 0.00, the weaker the relationship.

The researcher fails to consider thepossible presence of an outsidevariable correlated with the twovariables being considered.

Example

A researcher looks at the relationshipbetween test anxiety and testperformance.

As scores on the measure of test anxietyget higher, heart-rate scores of thestudents also get higher.

The higher the score on the measure oftest anxiety, the lower the grade thestudents believe they will obtain on themath test.

There is no identifiable pattern ofchange between the scores of testanxiety and friendliness.

The correlation coefficient of therelationship between self-esteem andloneliness is rather low.

The correlation of self-esteem and testanxiety is r = −.48 while the correlationof self-esteem and creativity is r = +.35.

The relationship between self-esteemand depression is stronger than thatbetween self-esteem and creativity.

The correlation between self-esteem anddepression may be due to the style ofparenting experienced by the individual.

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include such things as testing subjects in roomswith similar lighting and temperature and ataround the same time of day, or presenting theinstructions on a tape recorder. As an example,to control for the possibility of acting friendlierwhen giving feedback than when not givingfeedback, researchers must maintain a neutralfacial expression and speak in a similar mannerand tone of voice to all individuals.

● Using a control group. The control group containsindividuals who are otherwise treated the sameas other groups but are not exposed to the treat-ment conditions of the independent variable. Thecontrol group serves as a basis of comparison forthe treatment groups. In the self-esteem example(Figure 1.5), the group receiving no positivefeedback is the control group.

Experimental control is not an either–or situation;it varies in degree. Experimental control is increasedthrough careful planning of the research. Careful plan-ning helps to control for or eliminate other factors thatcan serve as erroneous explanations of the results.


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Summing It Up Characteristic Strengths and Limitations of the Correlational Approach


Exploring and Identifying Relationships

Ethical and Procedural Considerations

The Third-Variable Problem

Undetermined Causal Relationships


Strength

Strength

Limitation

Limitation

Description

The correlational method provides an efficientmeans of exploring and identifying relationshipsbetween variables of interest in the early stages oftheory development.

The correlational method makes it possible toinvestigate questions that could not normally beaddressed due to serious ethical (e.g., harmingpeople) or procedural (e.g., being at the site of anatural disaster to study stress reactions) limitations.

The problem of interpreting correlationalrelationships results when the researcher fails toconsider the presence of outside variables.

The nature of correlational research does not makeit possible to determine the causal relationshipbetween two variables. Such causal statements arenecessary if researchers desire to explain theoperation of the human personality.

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Meta-Analysis: A tool for theComparison of Experimental Research

Meta-analysis is a statistical technique used in deter-mining the consistency and magnitude of the findingsfrom different experimental studies that address asimilar issue by combining and averaging their results.Meta-analysis is an important technique because itmakes possible the identification of general trendsacross the many different studies on a particular topic,and aids in the interpretation of these trends. Althoughthe actual statistical computations for performing ameta-analysis are complex and well beyond the scopeof this discussion, the underlying logic of this techniqueis very simple.

Meta-analysis has been used to address the criticalissue of gender differences in aggressive behavior(Archer, 2004; Eagly & Steffen, 1986; Hyde, 1984,1986). An excellent example of how meta-analysis is used to identify general trends in these differences in aggressive behavior is the work of John Archer of the University of Central Lancashire in the UnitedKingdom. In a recent meta-analysis, Archer (2004)examined the results of 200 different studies thatlooked at sex differences in different forms of aggres-sion (e.g., hitting, verbal, and nonphysical forms ofaggression) from different perspectives (e.g., self-report ratings and ratings from teachers and peers) in various real-world settings (e.g., school, military base, prison) across 13 different countries. Some of the general trends that were observed in this meta-analysis indicated that males displayed a greateramount of physical (e.g., hitting) and dangerous (e.g.,use of weapons) aggression than females, who were morelikely to use indirect or relational forms of aggression(e.g., deliberate social exclusion and ostracism).Another more general but important finding was thatthe magnitude of the differences varied depending on the methods of aggression observed (e.g., directobservation of behavior vs. peer ratings vs. self-reportvs. teacher ratings), suggesting a certain amount ofambiguity in the expression, measurement, and inter-pretation of gender differences in aggression (Archer,2004; Hyde, 2005)

Because it would not be possible to examine somany different factors in a single study, the ability to make comparisons across a number of differentstudies contributes significantly to our understanding ofsex differences in aggression. Another rather extensivemeta-analysis of 133 studies drawn from 17 countries

assessed the extent to which conformity was related to certain general cultural characteristics (Bond &Smith, 1996). You can explore additional examplesand more information about meta-analysis in Meta-analysis: New Developments and Applications in Med-ical and Social Sciences (Schulze, Holling, & Böhning,2003) and Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis(Torgerson, 2003).

Evaluating the Experimental Approach:Strengths and Limitations

The experimental approach is one of the most power-ful research tools personality psychologists have at theirdisposal. But it also has its characteristic strengths andlimitations.

Following are some of the strengths of the experi-mental approach:

● Controlled observations. Much of the researchemploying the experimental approach is labora-tory research, conducted in a very structuredand controlled setting. The major advantage oflaboratory research is that it gives the researchercontrol over how and when the independentvariable is introduced, what the surroundingconditions are like, and how the dependent variable is assessed. Such experimental controlgreatly increases the ability to eliminate alterna-tive explanations of the results.

● Causal explanations. Conclusions about theindependent variable causing observable changesin the dependent variable increase when theexperimental approach is used correctly. Theability to make causal statements creates a level of understanding that allows a researcher to know “why” something happens. Knowing why personality operates the way it does is aprincipal objective of the systematic study ofpersonality psychology.

Following are some characteristic limitations of theexperimental approach:

● Group means vs. the individual. Statements madeabout causal relationships are based on report-ing group means, which indicate how the aver-age person in that group behaved. Studyinggroups of people and reporting group meansindicate the “average” response but may or may

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not accurately describe how each personresponds (Block, 1995; Lamiell, 1997; McAdams,1992). This heavy emphasis on the experimentalstudy of personality and reporting of groupmeans has led some personality psychologists to ask “whatever happened to the person in per-sonality psychology?” (Carlson, 1971, 1984).

● Generalizability of results from the laboratory to thereal world. A concern with research conductedunder well-controlled laboratory conditions ishow fully the results can be generalized to the realworld. For example, how much can studyingfrustration and aggression in college students for45 minutes in a laboratory help researchers inunderstanding the reactions of workers beinglaid off after many years on a job? A partial solu-tion to this issue is to conduct field researchwhenever possible. Field research includes inves-tigations done outside the controlled conditionsof the laboratory in such places as counseling centers, personnel offices, nursing homes, andshopping malls. Although it is somewhat moredifficult when doing field research, the researcherstill attempts to achieve experimental controlover as many external factors as possible.

● Experimenter bias. Experimenter bias refers to any intentional or unintentional influences theexperimenter exerts on the participants of theexperiment to behave in a manner consistentwith his or her hypothesis (Rosenthal, 1966,1969). In the example investigating the effects ofpositive feedback on self-esteem (Figure 1.5),the experimenter might intentionally have beenvery friendly and nice to those individuals while giving them positive feedback and quiteunfriendly to those not receiving any feed-back, in an attempt to find support for thehypothesis. Such behavior is dishonest, inexcus-able, and rare. Much more likely are unintentionalinfluences involving the researcher unwittinglycommunicating to the participants (e.g., smiling,nodding one’s head) when they behave in a way that supports the hypothesis. Employingresearch assistants who are not aware of thehypothesis to carry out the experimental pro-cedures helps to control for such unintentionalbut damaging communication; it is difficult tocommunicate unintentionally what participantsare expected to do if the assistant is unaware of the hypothesis.

Thus, the experimental approach makes it possible forpersonality psychology to investigate cause-and effectrelationships in the study of personality psychology. Asummary of the major points discussed in this sectionis presented in “Summing It Up: Basic Principles of theExperimental Approach” on p. 32, and “Summing ItUp: Characteristic Strengths and Limitations of theExperimental Approach” on p. 33. In the next section,you will examine some of the ethical issues associatedwith the study of personality psychology.

Research Ethics: Protectingthe Individual’s Rights

The participants in personality research have con-tributed greatly to our knowledge of personality. Tomaintain a favorable relationship with them, personal-ity researchers must follow certain ethical standards of behavior. This section presents a discussion of theethical issues associated with conducting personalityresearch and considers some potential solutions.

Some Ethical Concerns: Hurting,Lying, and JustifyingSome of the ethical concerns associated with conduct-ing research in personality psychology include induc-ing stress, using deception, and justifying researchprocedures.

Inducing Stress

Minimizing any emotional harm experienced by participating in personality research is an important ethical concern. But in certain cases, inducing some harmis a byproduct of the type of research. Such is the casewhen the researcher studying the effects of failure onself-esteem or need for achievement gives participantsfalse feedback by telling some of them they did verypoorly on a task and others they did very well.

Deception

Sometimes participants in research attempt to guess whatthe researcher is trying to find out and modify theirbehavior accordingly. Such modifications can alter theresearch results. To help minimize this threat to experi-mental control, researchers may disguise the true

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purpose of the study by employing a certain amountof deception. Deception involves the researcher with-holding the true purpose of the research from theindividual or deliberately misleading him or her as tothe true nature of the experiment (Bröder, 1998;

Ortmann & Hertwig, 1998). The degree of deceptioncan range from modifying the title of the survey to pro-viding the participants with false feedback to staging fakeinjuries, arguments, and property destruction. As anexample, a researcher may have an assistant fake an

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Summing It Up Basic Principles of the Experimental Approach

Basic Principle

Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

Experimental Control

Random Assignment

Standardization of Procedures

The Control Group

Meta-Analysis

Description

This variable is varied systematicallythroughout the experiment to observewhat changes it creates in that aspect ofpersonality being investigated.

This variable is the specific aspect ofpersonality being investigated for changescreated in it by the independent variable.

Precautions are taken by the researcher torule out the possibility of otherexplanations besides the presence of theindependent variable being proposed toaccount for the changes in the dependentvariable.

This technique is used to control for thepossibility of individuals being assigned to groups in a systematic manner byguaranteeing each individual has an equal chance of being assigned to anytreatment group.

Procedures are standardized to make sureindividuals in the different treatmentgroups are treated identically with theexception of the level of the independentvariable.

This group contains subjects who do notreceive any level of the independentvariable and serve as a basis of comparisonfor those groups of subjects who do.

This statistical technique is designed tocompare the outcomes of different studiesexamining a specific issue to determine thesimilarity and strength of the outcomesacross the studies.

Example

A researcher exposes participants toeither a high-, medium-, or no-noisecondition to assess their sensitivity tostress.

The measure of stress sensitivityinvolves assessing changes in muscletension in response to the differentlevels of noise.

To control for other environmentalfactors, the researcher tests eachparticipant separately in the sameroom with the same temperature atthe same time of day.

The participants are assigned to one ofthe three noise conditions by theresearcher drawing the number 1(high), 2 (medium), or 3 (no noise)out of a box.

With the exception of the noise level,all of the participants receive the sameinstructions and forms to completeunder similar room conditions.

The no-noise condition serves as thecontrol group for comparison to thehigh- and medium-noise conditions.

The researcher combines the results of35 other similar studies examining theeffect of different noise levels onvarious types of stress measures todetermine the general effect of noiseon stress reactions.

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epileptic seizure in a busy mall to study the effect ofcertain personality factors on helping behavior instressful situations.

Justifying Research Procedure

Deception is not the rule in personality research; it is justified only as a last resort, when the researcherbelieves that results from such research will contributeto a greater understanding of the human personality.For example, faking injuries may be justified if theresults of the study increase our understanding of how to make people more responsive to the needs ofothers. Allowing researchers to make decisions justify-ing their own research introduces the potential ofbiased judgments. Problems may occur when personalbiases about the importance of one’s research begin to overshadow concerns for the protection of research participants.

Some Solutions to Ethical Issues:Trying to Make Things RightThe ethical issues just described illustrate some of the special considerations personality psychologists

must address when planning the procedures of theirresearch. Some solutions for dealing with these and other ethical considerations include informed consent,debriefing, establishing ethical guidelines, and ethicsreview boards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent involves giving individuals thechance to decide whether they wish to participatebefore the actual start of the research. The decision toparticipate should be based on a reasonable descriptionof the procedures being given to the individuals.Informed consent also involves informing individualsof their right to terminate their participation in theresearch project at any time they wish for any reason.Finally, assuring individuals that their responses will bekept confidential is another important element ofinformed consent.

Debriefing

Debriefing participants after their participation isdesigned to help deal with the issue of deception.During a debriefing session, the researcher explains tothe individual what the purpose of the project was, why

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Summing It Up Characteristic Strengths and Limitations of the Experimental Approach


Controlled Observations

Causal Explanations

Group Means vs. the Individual

Ethical Constraints

Experimental Biases


Strength

Strength

Limitation

Limitation

Limitation

Description

The researcher can exercise control over suchthings as environmental conditions and theadministration of the independent variable.

Controlling for alternative explanationsstrengthens the assumption that theindependent variable caused the changes inthe dependent variable.

Because group means, or the “averageresponse,” are analyzed, the behavior of anyone particular individual is lost.

The administration of certain procedures isethically not possible.

The researcher might communicate a varietyof intentional or unintentional cues to theindividual about what is being investigatedand how the persons “ought to” respond.

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it was necessary to use the deception, and how partic-ipants contributed to the project. The purpose of thedebriefing session is to minimize any harm or ill feel-ings the individual might have experienced during hisor her participation in the research project. In thedebriefing session, explaining what is being studiedand why can help to make the individual’s participa-tion a more educational and rewarding experience. In the example of the research investigating help-ing behavior, the researcher would explain that theassistant’s injury was fake, say that no one outside the study would know how individual participants

behaved, and describe how their participation con-tributed to our understanding of why people help others.

Are such debriefing sessions effective? Research onthe effectiveness of debriefing seems to indicate that whilesome negative reactions to deception are reportedbased on receiving negative feedback (Epley & Huff,1998), most participants perceive such temporary usesof deception as acceptable (Rogers, 1980) and expressmore positive feelings about psychological researchwhen such deception is followed by a thoroughdebriefing session (Smith & Richardson, 1983).

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Summing It Up Some Ethical Concerns and Possible Solutions in Conducting Personality Research

Ethical Concern

Inducing Stress and Psychological Harm

Deception

Justification of Research Procedures

Description

Research participants mayexperience psychologicaldiscomfort owing to thenature of the proceduresused by the researcher.

Investigators maywithhold a certain amountof information ordeliberately misleadresearch participantsregarding the actualpurpose of the research.

Investigators mayexaggerate the importanceof the research as a meansof justifying stress-producing procedures.

Possible Solution

Informed consent: Givingparticipants theopportunity to decide,based on a reasonabledescription of theprocedures, if they wish to participate in the research project.

Debriefing: After completingtheir participation, theindividuals are given acomplete explanation of theresearch, the rationale forthe deception, and howtheir participationcontributed to the research.

Ethical guidelines: There arecodes of conduct thatresearchers must followwhen conducting researchin personality.Ethical review boards:Individuals not associatedwith the research projectevaluate it to make sure itmeets standard ethicalguidelines.

Example

In a study supposedlyexamining “interpersonaldynamics,” the participantsare told that there is thepossibility of someindividuals receiving harshfeedback after the groupdiscussion but they canwithdraw from the sessionany time they desire.

At the end of the researchsession, the individuals aretold that the real purposeof the study was toexamine the effect offeedback on self-esteemand that all of the feedbackratings were made up andrandomly assigned.

Before being able toconduct the research onfeedback and self-esteem,the project is reviewed by apanel of judges on theuniversity’s research reviewcommittee.

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Ethical Guidelines

In addition to informed consent and debriefing, manyother ethical considerations are involved when design-ing and implementing a research project (Blanck,Bellack, Rosnow, Rotheram-Borus, & Schooler, 1992;Koocher & Keith-Spiegel, 1998). To help researchersidentify and resolve potential ethical issues, theAmerican Psychological Association (APA) has formu-lated a set of ethical principles to be used as guidelineswhen planning and conducting research (APA, 1981a,1982, 1992a, 1992b, 2002). Psychologists who conductresearch involving humans are obligated to conform to this set of ethical guidelines. The APA has alsodeveloped a set of guidelines for research conducted with animal subjects (APA, 1981a; APA’s Committeeon Animal Research and Ethics, 2002) and for many of the other activities engaged in by professional psy-chologists, such as testing, teaching, and counseling (APA, 1977, 1981b, 1990, 2002; Turner, DeMers, Fox,& Reed, 2001) and providing services over the phoneand Internet (APA’s Ethics Committee, 1997/2002).Finally, any student of psychology who assumes the role of a researcher is also expected to adhere to the ethical standards of professional psychologists (APA,1977, 1981a, 1982, 2002). For example, any studentassisting with the research of a professor must behavein a manner consistent with these ethical principles.

Ethics Review Boards

Preventing researchers from exaggerating the importance

of their research as a means of justifying deception orthe presence of stress is the major function of an ethicsreview board. The review board evaluates researchproposals with respect to their adherence to certain ethical standards (Bullock, 2002). Board membersinclude psychologists and nonpsychologists. Because theboard members are not connected directly with the pro-posals being considered, they can take a much moreobjective stand on evaluating the ethical nature of theprocedures.

Thus, being aware of the ethical issues associated withthe study of personality psychology makes it possibleto increase our knowledge of personality psychologythrough systematic research while protecting the rightsand safety of those individuals who provide a valuableservice by serving as participants in this research. Formore information about the ethical issues discussed in this section, read Ethics in Research with HumanParticipants (Sales & Folkman, 2000) or visit the APA’sEthics Office home page (http://www.apa.org/ethics/homepage.html). A summary of the major ideasexamined in this section is presented in “Summing It Up: Some Ethical Concerns and Possible Solutionsin Conducting Personality Research” opposite.

This concludes our discussion of the scope of and the methods used in the study of personality psychology. In the next chapter we will examine personality assessment by considering the nature of and the techniques used in the measurement of personality.

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Chapter Summary: Reexamining the Highlights

● Defining Personality. Although personalitypsychologists define personality in many differentways, the definitions have three common features:uniqueness of the individual, consistency ofbehavior, and explanations of the content andprocess of personality.

● The Scope of Personality Psychology. The study of personality psychology covers such areas as theory development, personality research, personality development, personality assessment, and applications in personality psychology.

● Research Methods in Personality Psychology

– The clinical approach involves in-depth study of the individual or a small group of individualsthrough such techniques as case study, individualinterview, and analysis of personal documents.Strengths of this approach are its usefulness ingaining a deeper understanding of the individual,studying development and adjustment processesover time, and investigating extreme and rare cases. Limitations include decreasedgeneralizability of results and the potential for personal biases.

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– The correlational approach identifies therelationship between two variables. Therelationships can be positive or negative and varyin the strength of association between the twovariables. Strengths of this approach include theability to explore and identify relationshipsbetween variables and overcome certain ethicalconsiderations. Limitations include the potentialpresence of the third-variable problem andundetermined causal relationships.

– The experimental approach helps to establish causal relationships among variables.This approach involves systematic intervention of the independent variable to observe anychanges it produces in the dependent variablewhile maintaining experimental control overoutside influences. Three techniques forincreasing experimental control are random

assignment of subjects, standardization ofprocedures, and use of a control group. Meta-analysis compares the results across differentexperimental studies. Strengths of this approachinclude making controlled observations andproviding causal explanations. Limitations include an emphasis on the group mean over the individual, limited generalizability of resultsfrom the controlled laboratory to the real world,and the potential for experimenter biases.

● Research Ethics. Some ethical issues and concernsassociated with doing research in personalitypsychology involve inducing stress, using deception,and justifying research procedures. Possible solutionsfor dealing with these ethical issues include usinginformed consent, debriefing, following APA ethicsguidelines, and consulting ethics review boards.

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GlossaryAmerican Psychological Association The largest national

professional organization of psychologists in theUnited States.

case study method A research method involving anextensive investigation of an individual.

content analysis The identification of recurring themesand ideas through the systematic analysis of a specificset of documents.

control group The comparison group in experimentalresearch that does not receive any level of the inde-pendent variable.

correlation coefficient A numerical value indicatingthe strength of the association between two variables.

correlational research An approach to research designedto identify the relationship between two variables.

debriefing session A period at the end of the experimentalsession when a complete explanation of the research isgiven to the participants.

deception The partial withholding of informationabout the experiment from the participants.

dependent variable That variable in experimentalresearch for which observed changes are attributed tothe independent variable.

ethics review board A panel of judges made up of individuals from different disciplines who independ-ently evaluate the ethical standards of proposedresearch procedures.

experimenter bias Any attempt by the researcher toinfluence the behavior of the subjects in order toachieve support for the hypothesis.

experimental control The elimination of outside influ-ences on the changes observed in the dependent variable.

experimental research A method of research designedto identify causal relationships.

field research Research conducted in locations otherthan the controlled conditions of the laboratory.

generalizability The extent to which the informationobtained from one situation can be extended to new anddifferent situations.

group mean The arithmetic average of a set of scores froma particular group.

hypothesis A statement expressing the predicted outcomeof the relationships between variables.

independent variable That variable in experimentalresearch believed to be the causal factor.

individual interview A one-to-one verbal exchangedesigned to yield critical information about the interviewee.

informed consent Individuals making their decision toparticipate on the basis of information about the pro-cedures of the research received before their actualparticipation.

laboratory research Research done in the controlledconditions of a laboratory.

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meta-analysis A statistical technique used to compare theresults from different studies addressing a similar issue.

negative correlational relationship A correlationalrelationship between two variables characterized by adownward trend in the points in the scatter plot.

parsimony A condition of being simple or economical.personal document Any document a person uses to

reveal personal thoughts, feelings, or ideas.personality The characteristics of the individual that

create a unique expression of thoughts, feelings, andbehavior.

personality assessment An area of study emphasizing thedevelopment of techniques designed to measure differ-ent aspects and dimensions of personality.

personality development The study of the factors andprocesses associated with the development of person-ality across the life span and in conjunction with otheraspects of individual development.

personality psychologist A psychologist whose profes-sional training and research interests are in studying thedifferent aspects and dimensions of personality.

positive correlational relationship A correlational rela-tionship between two variables characterized by anupward trend in the points in the scatter plot.

psychobiography A case study of an individual for thepurpose of formulating statements about the indi-vidual’s psychological characteristics.

psychotherapy The systematic application of principlesof psychology in modifying the thoughts, feelings, andbehavior of individuals experiencing difficulty copingwith life.

psychotherapist A psychologist specially trained toprovide psychotherapy.

random assignment A procedure guaranteeing that allindividuals have an equal chance of being assigned toany of the treatment groups.

rapport The sense of warmth and trust the interviewercreates with the interviewee.

researcher biases The systematic distortion of informa-tion by researchers in support of their position.

scatter plot A graph illustrating the relationshipbetween two variables.

standardization of procedures Treating all subjects inall treatment groups in a similar manner.

subject biases The systematic distortion of informationby individuals when they report it to the researcher.

third-variable problem The mediating influence of anoutside variable on the observed correlation between twoother variables.

theory A systematic collection of ideas and explana-tions designed to account for a set of observations andpredict future observations.

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