The Progressive Era1890-1918

American ImperialismWhen a stronger nation takes control of a weaker one, its actions are called imperialism. Europe had been involved in imperialism for centuries. Now around the turn of the century, the United States would give it a try. With the western front closed, some in the United States became interested in new frontiers. It seems that manifest destiny did not stop at the California coast. If America was to trade with the Far East, it would need some navy bases in the Pacific. The idea that the United States should obtain new territories was called expansionism, and the people who supported it were called expansionists.

AlaskaOne of the first places that the United States expanded was Alaska, but this expansion wasn’t considered imperialistic since America bought the land. William Seward, the Secretary of State during Lincoln and Johnson’s presidencies, bought Alaska from Russia in 1868 for $7.2 million. At the time, people referred to this purchase as “Seward’s Folly” and “Seward’s Icebox” because too few people saw the value of the property. In the 1890s, gold was discovered in Alaska, and the purchase didn’t seem so foolish after all. Since that time, Alaska has become a valuable resource for oil, minerals, and fishing. The territory finally became a state in 1959, just ahead of Hawaii.

HawaiiHawaii is an archipelago, a chain of islands, located in the Central Pacific. Unlike Alaska, annexing Hawaii was due to United States imperialism. Around the middle 1800s, Americans began to migrate to the islands of Hawaii to start businesses, especially sugarcane and pineapple. At that time, the islands were ruled by a monarch, Queen Liliukalani. In 1893, wealthy foreign businessmen, mostly American planters who were growing sugarcane and pineapple in Hawaii, took over the government and overthrew the queen. For economic reasons, these American planters in Hawaii wanted the United States to annex the islands. President Grover Cleveland opposed the annexation and would not allow the process to continue.

HawaiiWhen William McKinley became President in 1896, he started the annexation process again. By this time, the United States had a renewed interest in having a permanent naval presence in the Central Pacific. They already had a naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and annexation would make that base permanent. Hawaii was officially annexed into the United States in 1898 (shortly after the Spanish-American War had started) and soon became a territory. Over 60 years later in 1959, Hawaii became the 50th state.

The Spanish-American WarThe United States went to war with Spain in 1898. It was called the Spanish-American War. The war began for a number of reasons: the Spanish military’s harsh treatment of Cuban rebels, expansionists in the United States who wanted territories in the Caribbean, publishers who wanted to sell newspapers, and Americans who wanted revenge for the sinking of the Maine.When the war was over, the United States came out as a true world power. The U.S. gained new territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific. Teddy Roosevelt was a war hero, which started his political journey to the White House. All these things resulted from a war that was over in less than four months.

American Support for the CubansCuba and Puerto Rico are islands in the Caribbean Sea near the United States mainland. In the late 1800s, they also happened to be the only colonies that Spain had left in the Western Hemisphere. In 1895, the Cubans started a rebellion against Spain to gain their independence. Many Americans felt sorry for the Cubans because of the Spanish military’s harsh treatment in trying to stop the rebellion. Americans also wanted to protect their business interests in Cuba. So it was not difficult for the Cubans to gain sympathy and support from American expansionists.

Yellow JournalismNear the turn of the century, newspapers were the primary source of the news for most Americans. Two New York papers, the New York World owned by William Randolph Hearst, and the New York Journal owned by Joseph Pulitzer, began a fierce competition to sell newspapers.To gain more readers, the publishers often used sensationalism, or stories that appealed to the emotions. These were heart-wrenching stories that were reported in gory details without being concerned about the facts. The reported cruelty of the Spanish in Cuba made great headlines and brought many new readers to the papers. This type of sensational reporting became known as yellow journalism or the yellow press. Americans were stirred up by these emotional stories and soon demanded war with Spain.

How did “yellow journalism” or the “yellow press” get its name?

The New York World published a series of cartoons with the main character called the “yellow kid.” Since the World became such a master of sensational news stories with questionable facts, all sensational journalism became known as yellow journalism or the yellow press.

What does yellow journalism look like?

Yellow journalism can best be seen with pictures. Shown to the side is the front page of the Journal after the Maine exploded in Havana Harbor. This paper hints that the Spanish did it. The owner of the Journal wanted war and did what he could to encourage it. The whole idea of shaping the news to fit an agenda rather than reporting the facts is yellow journalism.

The U.S.S. MaineAs the situation in Cuba grew worse, the U.S.S. Maine, an American warship, was sent to Havana Harbor to protect American citizens and their property in Cuba. On the night of February 15, 1898, the Maine mysteriously blew up and sank. Outraged Americans blamed the Spanish. Within a month, the United States declared war.

The U.S.S. Maine Blows Up!

The Rough RidersTeddy Roosevelt was the Undersecretary of the Navy. As war approached, he urged the United States Army to form a volunteer cavalry unit. The Rough Riders, as they were called, was made up of western cowboys and other adventurers from around the country. Teddy was made second in command. Leonard Wood was first in command. The Rough Riders became famous for the charge up Kettle Hill that resulted in the capture of Santiago, a major city in Cuba.

Wait a minute….I thought it was San Juan Hill. Both Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill are part of a ridge overlooking Santiago. The charge was actually up Kettle Hill. From there, the Rough Riders were in a position to go across the ridge and help take San Juan Hill. The result was the same-Santiago surrendered.

Results of the Spanish American WarWhen the Spanish-American War ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1898, the United States gained the territories of Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. The United States did not annex Cuba, but restrictions were placed on the country to safeguard American interests there. To be sure that Cuba was protected against foreign influence, an American naval base was permanently established at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. The base is still in use today.

The Panama CanalThe war with Spain pointed out the obvious need for a canal across Central America to make it easier for American ships to get from the Pacific Ocean to the Caribbean Sea (and the Atlantic). Without a canal, American ships in the Pacific had to sail around the tip of South America to get to Cuba. Because it took so long to get warships to Cuba, the United States proposed digging a canal across the narrow strip of land between North and South America. A narrow strip of land between continents is called an isthmus.

The Panama CanalEarly in his presidency, Teddy Roosevelt began to negotiate for the right to build a canal across the isthmus of Panama, which was a part of Colombia, South America, at the time. When the Colombians refused the United States helped the people of Panama to rebel and become a free country. The United States quickly acknowledged Panama as a new country and just as quickly negotiated to build the canal there. After overcoming many hardships, the Panama Canal was completed in 1914.

What was the Alabama connection to the building of the Panama Canal?William Gorgas, an Alabama native, was an army doctor put in charge of getting rid of mosquitoes that spread yellow fever. These diseases could have easily prevented the canal from being built. His efforts, destroyed the breeding ground of the mosquitoes and separated sick patients so the diseases could not spread.

World ImperialismIn the late 1800s and early 1900s, stronger, more advanced nations of the world were taking advantage of weaker ones. You already know the practice is called imperialism. But what you may not know is how the stronger nations justified their imperialism.

World ImperialismCountries used racism, which is the belief that one race is superior to another, and Darwin’s idea of survival of the fittest. You’ve already seen that Social Darwinism was “survival of the fittest” applied to society. Big businesses used that idea to justify taking advantage of the poor. Industrialized nations took it a step further. They decided that their race (white) and their culture was the “fittest.” And for that reason, industrialized nations justified controlling the nations of other races and taking their natural resources.China and Africa were the major targets of European imperialism. These areas were divided up among the more advanced countries who wanted new markets for their products and natural resources for their factories.

ChinaChina had traded with western countries since the days of explorers. But in the late 1800s, foreign governments began to take control of certain regions of China. These areas of control were called spheres of influence, meaning another country had indirect control over them. Nations like Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia tried to claim exclusive trading rights within their spheres of influence in China.

ChinaWhen the United States took possession of the Philippines in 1898, American businesses were eager to take advantage of the resources China had to offer. But the countries that had spheres of influence in China threatened to block American trade with the Chinese. The United States government proposed the Open Door Policy, which would guarantee equal trading rights for all nations with China.None of the nations who had influence in China wanted the “Open Door” policy, but the Americans told each of them that all the other nations had agreed. Since no one nation wanted to be left out, they all agreed. Open trade with China remained “open” until World War II.

AfricaIn Africa, foreign governments went beyond simply having “spheres of influence;” they actually established colonies. Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and others all had colonies in Africa in the early 20th century. The result was the exploitation of the people and the resources of the continent.A fierce rivalry between the nations of Europe developed over their desire for colonial expansion. They carved up the continent of Africa much like a jigsaw puzzle. This competition among the leading nations of Europe for bigger pieces of the puzzle increased the tensions among the nations and became one of the long-range causes of World War I.

Progressive ReformsBecause there was so much corruption during the Gilded Age, people began to demand change during the Progressive Era. This era was a time of reform across the nation, and the reforms affected the nation at all levels, from local towns to the federal government.

Political CorruptionAs cities grew and the immigrant populations increased dramatically, politics began to change a bit. As part of the political corruption of the Gilded Age, political parties formed unofficial organizations that met the needs of specific ethnic groups in return for loyalty to that party. The organizations were called political machines. Political machines were headed by political bosses. A political boss was expected to deliver the votes of people in his area for the party.

Bosses often helped immigrants find jobs or provided other social services in exchange for their votes. So much power in the hands of a few eventually led to corruption. Political machines began to use election fraud to get their candidates elected and then found ways to steal money from the government. (When elected officials uses his or her office to illegally obtain money or property, the action is called graft.)

Progressive ReformsProgressive reformers decided to do something about the political corruption in all levels of government: local, state, and national. At the local level, cities tried different forms of government. At the state level, progressive governors began to fight for reform. The idea was to regulate big businesses and to protect consumers and workers. Many states passed laws to regulate railroads, mines, mills, and other big businesses.Although reforms occurred at all levels, the most visible reforms occurred at the national level.

Election ReformsTo make government more responsible to the people, a number of states put in some election reforms that helped deal with the corruption in the government. The following are some of the changes made to elections during the Progressive Era.

Secret BallotProgressive reformers wanted to vote by secret ballot. Before this time, voting was done in the open without privacy. The secret ballot also called the Australian ballot, allowed voters to cast their ballots without others knowing how they voted. By voting in secret, people were less likely to face intimidation to vote a certain way. Most states adopted the secret ballot by the mid-1800s, and all had converted by the year 1892.

Initiative and ReferendumTo increase the power of the people, reformers wanted the people to be able to force a vote on important issues without having to go through the state legislature. An initiative is a process that allows citizens to propose laws by petition. A referendum allows the people to vote on proposed law. During the Progressive Era, many local governments and states allowed initiatives and referendums. The people could now suggest a law and allow the public to vote on it directly rather than relying on politicians.

Recall ElectionProgressive reformers also wanted recall elections. In a recall election, voters can call for the removal of an elected official from office before his term is over. During the Progressive Era, many local governments allowed recall elections, but only some states allowed them. Recall elections were never approved for federal positions.

Direct PrimaryDuring the Progressive Era, many states went to a direct primary to allow the people to decide on the candidates who ran for public office. In a direct primary, the people in a political party vote to decide on a candidate instead of allowing political bosses to do the choosing.

Direct Election of SenatorsAnother way to give people more say in the government was to allow them to directly elect their senators. The 17th Amendment to the Constitution, which was passed during the Progressive Era, allowed the direct election of senators, also called the popular election of senators. Senators were now elected by the people rather than appointed by the state legislatures.

Social Reforms:Child Labor

One of the key issues for progressive reformers was to do away with child labor. Children as young as six were working in factories. Children were exposed to dangerous machines and were required to work long hours for very little pay. Immigrants and other poor people often sent their children off to work to help support the family.

Child LaborIn 1904, progressives formed the National Child Labor Committee to end child labor. Armed with photographs, facts, and figures, the reformers pressured politicians into passing the Keating-Owen Child Labor Act in 1916. The law stopped businesses from shipping goods across state lines that had been produced by child labor. Unfortunately, the Supreme Court declared the law unconstitutional because it interfered with interstate commerce. Similar laws suffered the same fate. But social reformers kept trying until child labor was finally outlawed in the United States. The final successful legislation was passed in 1937 under the Fair Labor Standards Act, which set minimum ages and maximum hours.

Women in the WorkforceMany women also went to work during the 1800s. Women were expected to work as hard and as long as men but were paid much less. Harsh working conditions, long hours, and low pay motivated reformers such as Florence Kelley to push for better working conditions for working women.

EducationJohn Dewey was a pioneer in education reform. He believed that students should be taught how to solve problems rather than how to memorize large amounts of facts. He also thought that schools should teach students how to work together and to get along and that students learned better by doing things rather than by just hearing someone talk. Progressive education is associated with Dewey and his ideas although he did not come up with the term.

Constitutional Amendments 16th Amendment-1913-established the income tax to

raise money for the government 17th Amendment-1913-provided for the direct

election of senators 18th Amendment-1919-established prohibition by

prohibiting the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages

19th Amendment-1920-granted women’s suffrage (the right to vote)

Women’s Suffrage

Roosevelt as PresidentAfter the Spanish-American War, Teddy Roosevelt became a national hero. So in the presidential election of 1900, the Republican Party was eager to use “Teddy’s” name without giving him too much political power. The Republicans decided to nominate Roosevelt as vice-president on the ticket with William McKinley.McKinley was easily re-elected President in 1900. But less than six months after being sworn in as President, McKinley was assassinated. Teddy Roosevelt (often referred to as TR) was now President. He was not quite 43 years old, which made Teddy the youngest President ever to take office. (John F. Kennedy was the youngest man ever elected President.)

Teddy Roosevelthttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v

=zCOWyteX5uc

Roosevelt and Trust BustingAware that the corruption in trusts was a really important issue, Roosevelt decided early in his presidency to do something about unfair business practices. He did not believe that every business trust was bad, so he focused on attacking the bad ones. Rather than asking Congress to change the laws, Roosevelt used the courts to break up bad trusts. His actions were called trust busting because the courts ordered bad trusts to break apart.His first target was a railroad trust controlled by the Northern Securities Company. TR sued the company in federal court, and in 1904, the Supreme Court agreed that the trust should be broken up. In all, Roosevelt was responsible for 24 court cases against such trusts as the Standard Oil Company, the tobacco trust, and the beef trust. These attacks on big businesses won Teddy the name of trust buster and the respect of progressive reformers.

Coal Strike, 1902In 1902 there was a coal strike in the Pennsylvania coal fields. Neither the management (the owners) nor the union (the workers) could agree on a solution. With winter coming, the public good was at stake. People needed coal to cook and to stay warm.As President, TR decided to do something about the strike. He invited owners and the union representatives to the White House for a meeting. When the owners still would not budge, Roosevelt hinted he would send federal troops to take over the mines and operate them for the public good. The owners gave in and the strike was settled.

MuckrakersDuring the Progressive Era, writers began to expose the corruption in society. They investigated the corruption in government and in businesses, exposed the filthy conditions in the meat packing industry, and attacked the evils of child labor. These writers were called muckrakers.

Muckrakers Lincoln Steffens-1904-Shame of the Cities-Showed

the corruption in state and local governments Ida M. Tarbell-1904-The History of Standard Oil

Company-exposed the corrupt practices of the Standard Oil Company owned by Rockefeller

Upton Sinclair-1906-The Jungle-exposed the filthy conditions in the meat packing industry

John Spargo-1906-The Bitter Cry of the Children-exposed the evils of child labor

The Impact of The Junglehttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouxL0K6aIIA&feature=related

Progressive LegislationBecause of the public awareness caused by the muckrakers and the reform spirit of the age, Roosevelt began to address the issues related to consumers. He worked with Congress to pass a series of bills aimed at protecting consumers. These new laws forced railroads to charge fair prices, addressed the filthy conditions in the meat packing industry, and corrected the dangers of altered foods and the false labeling of drugs.

Roosevelt’s Progressive Legislation

Elkins Act 1903-This law stopped the railroads from giving rebates to their best customers. Shipping rates had to be publicly posted for all to see.

Hepburn Act 1906-This law gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) the power to set maximum railroad rates. It gave the ICC control over other industries who shipped products on the railroads. It stopped the railroads from giving free passes to government employees.

Meat Inspection Act 1906-Under this law, the government was to inspect animals before they were slaughtered and after the meat was processed. It also set sanitary standards for meat packing facilities and ordered government inspections to ensure the plants were clean.

Pure Food and Drug Act 1906-This law outlawed the sale of altered or mislabeled food and drug products.

Roosevelt as a ConservationistRoosevelt loved the outdoors. He agreed with those who said that America’s natural resources were not unlimited and that something should be done to protect them. Preserving natural resources is called conservation, and the people who encourage it are conservationists.

Roosevelt’s Conservation Record He used money from public land sales to fund the

construction of dams and other irrigation projects in the West.

He set aside millions of acres as National Forests, nature preserves, and animal sanctuaries.

He created five new National Parks and 18 new National Monuments.

He established the United States Forestry Service and appointed a professional conservationist as its head, Gifford Pinchot.

Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Policy TR believed in having a strong military, and during his presidency, he greatly increased the strength of the United States Navy. He was fond of an old African proverb that says, “speak softly and carry a big stick,” so his foreign policy became known as the Big Stick Policy or Big Stick Diplomacy. He believed in talking first but threatened to use force if necessary. He used his “big stick” idea in domestic issues such as in the 1902 coal strike and in his trust busting, but this term is most often used to describe his dealings with other countries. For example, TR used his big stick policy to help Panama gain its independence from Colombia.

The Roosevelt CorollaryAs another example of TR’s big stick foreign policy, he added a new idea to the Monroe Doctrine of 1820. President Monroe declared that Europe could not interfere in the Western Hemisphere.Roosevelt expanded the idea of the Monroe Doctrine by saying that the United States would intervene in Latin American countries (the Caribbean, Central America, and South America) if the governments were unstable. His idea of being a policeman in Latin America to protect American interests was called the Roosevelt Corollary.

The Gentlemen’s AgreementIn the early 1900s, there was a great deal of discrimination against Japanese immigrants. California decided not to let Japanese children go to public schools there. The Japanese government was offended, and the whole issue threatened diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States.To solve the immigration issue, TR negotiated a Gentlemen’s Agreement with Japan. The Japanese government agreed to slow down immigration to America, and the United States agreed not to stop all Japanese immigration. The Gentlemen’s Agreement worked until 1924 when all immigration from Japan was stopped for a long time.

William Howard TaftEager to take advantage of Roosevelt’s popularity, the Republicans nominated Teddy’s hand-picked successor as their candidate in the 1908 election. Their choice was William Howard Taft who ran on a progressive platform of conservation of natural resources, enforcement of antitrust laws, and lowering tariffs. The Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan again. The Republican defeated Bryan again. Taft was considered a Progressive President, but he managed to make a great deal of enemies during his term.

William Howard Tafthttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pENWP8r1-7M

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6H97Fgqrs4

Taft’s Presidential Record Issue: tariffs-After promising to lower tariffs, Taft signed a

bill for even higher tariff rates. When he tried to defend the bill, many became angry with the new President.

Issue: conservation-Taft fired the head of the U.S. Forestry Service because he accused a member of Taft’s cabinet of opening too much of the public forest to logging companies. Conservationists were now mad at Taft as well.

Issue: trust busting -Taft strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission and brought 80 lawsuits against big business trusts.

The Progressive Party a.k.a.The Bull Moose Party

By the end of his term, Taft had made many people mad, including his old friend Teddy Roosevelt. At the Republican Convention for the 1912 presidential race, Roosevelt tried to get the nomination instead of Taft. When Republicans nominated Taft, Roosevelt started his own party called the Progressive Party also called the Bull Moose Party. In the 1912 election, he ran again for president.

Shot While Campaigning While campaigning for

the 1912 election, Teddy Roosevelt was shot. The bullet pierced his speech and his eyeglass case which were placed in his front shirt pocket.

X-Ray of Roosevelt’s Gunshot Wound

Woodrow WilsonThe Democratic Party chose Woodrow Wilson to face off against the two former friends, Taft and Roosevelt. Wilson had been a college professor who was elected governor of New Jersey. With the help of William Jennings Bryan, Wilson became the Democratic candidate in 1912. When the Republicans split between Roosevelt and Taft, Wilson became the twenty-eighth President of the United States.

Woodrow Wilsonhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNwJ690VdNA

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Zd3AkBZqWE

Wilson’s Progressive Legislation Federal Trade Commission Act-Wilson created the Federal Trade

Commission to protect the interests of consumers and to prevent unfair business practices.

Clayton Anti-Trust Act-Strengthened the antitrust laws against business trusts; declared that labor unions were not trusts and could not be sued under antitrust laws.

Underwood Tariff-Sponsored by Alabama representative, Oscar Underwood; levied the first income tax authorized by the 16th Amendment and lowed the tariff rate by almost half.

Federal Reserve Act-Created the Federal Reserve System, a centralized banking system for the United States with 12 regional banks under federal control to help stabilize currency, to set rules for other banks, and to provide financial services to the United States government.

The Election of 1916Narrowly re-elected in 1916, Wilson ran on the slogan, “he kept us out of war.” And although he really tried, Wilson could not keep his campaign promise to keep the United States out of war. Once the nation’s attention focused on World War I, the reform spirit of the Progressive Era slowly faded away.

The Progressive EraCivil Rights

After Reconstruction, the North got busy building business empires and forgot about the slaves freed by the Civil War. The South, left to do what they wanted, could not get their slaves back, but the whites did get back their power. Then they began to take away as many rights from their former slaves as they could.Laws designed to restrict the freedom of blacks were passed all across the South. Meanwhile, the laws designed to protect African Americans were being destroyed by the courts. Despite all their lofty ideals, the progressive reformers did little to help blacks. In fact, things seemed to be getting worse.

Jim Crow LawsDespite the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which declared separating people according to race was illegal, Jim Crow laws were being passed all over the South. The idea was to separate whites and blacks in public life. This idea of separation is called segregation.In 1883, the Supreme Court declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional. Now southern whites were free to pass their Jim Crow laws and to enforce them! “Whites only” became a familiar sign to African Americans in restaurants, theaters, boarding houses, and even railway cars.

Separate But EqualBlacks decided to challenge a Jim Crow law by breaking it, getting arrested, then fighting the law in court. In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was one-eighth black, was arrested in a “whites only” railroad car. His case, Plessy v. Ferguson, went to the Supreme Court in 1896. The Court upheld a Louisiana law requiring separate railroad cars. The ruling said that as long as the public accommodations were “equal,” then segregation was okay.The ruling led to the policy of “separate but equal” in all public facilities. It would take 58 years for the nation to do away with segregation. In a 1954 decision, Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court ruled that since the separate facilities (in this case, a school) were never equal that “separate but equal” was unconstitutional.

Plessy v. Ferguson

African American LeadersIn the period before World War I, two strong leaders emerged in the black community: Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois. Both were educators, and they agreed on the same goal, which was to end segregation, racism, and disenfranchisement against blacks. They just didn’t agree on how to accomplish it.

The Atlanta CompromiseAs head of a school for African Americans, Booker T. Washington, believed in education, self-reliance, and practical skills as a way for blacks to succeed in a white society. In an 1895 speech in Atlanta, Georgia, Cotton States and International Exposition, Washington gave a speech that outlined his plan for the advancement of the black race. These were some of his thoughts:

Atlanta Compromise Speech, 1895“Cast down your bucket where you are…Cast it down in agriculture, mechanics, in commerce, in domestic service, and in the professions…Our greatest danger is that in the great leap from slavery to freedom we may overlook the fact that the masses of use are to live by the productions of our hands…No race can prosper till it learns that there is as much dignity in tilling a field as writing a poem. It is at the bottom of life we must begin, and not at the top. Nor should we permit our grievances to overshadow our opportunities.”Booker T. Washington

Atlanta CompromiseWashington’s speech became known as the Atlanta Compromise. According to his philosophy, blacks should take the jobs available to them, educate themselves, and work hard. He believed that racial equality would gradually come. W.E.B. DuBois did not exactly see achieving equality this way.

The Niagara MovementW.E.B. DuBois wanted a more direct approach and more aggressive action toward racial equality. In 1905, he met with 29 others near Niagara Falls to talk about a plan of action. The group became known as the Niagara Movement. The organization did not last long, however, and DuBois and others formed a new group called the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or NAACP, in 1909.DuBois was a writer with a stinging pen that often made other people feel very uncomfortable. He did not want to wait for racial equality as Booker T. Washington encouraged. He wanted an end to racism, segregation, and other injustices now. His philosophy seemed to be education and action. Both believed education was the key to social change.

Tuskegee InstituteTuskegee Institute began as a political bargain between white politicians and an African American leader in Macon County, Alabama. When Lewis Adams was asked what it would take to get the votes of blacks in Macon County, he replied that he wanted a normal school (teachers college) for free men and freed slaves.The politician was elected and kept his promise. The new school was called Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute. To run the school, the directors hired a young teacher from Virginia, Booker T. Washington. The school opened in 1881 in space borrowed from a church. The following year, the school was able to buy a former plantation for its new home.

Tuskegee Institute

George Washington CarverTuskegee was a teachers college, but it also taught job skills and self reliance to young blacks. One of the most notable professors hired by Washington was George Washington Carver. Carver’s experiments in agriculture helped improve farming throughout the South. Booker T. Washington remained leader of the School until his death in 1915. Through the capable leadership of others, the school has now become Tuskegee University.

George Washington Carver