The process of vocabulary learning: Vocabulary learning

The process of vocabulary learning:

Vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs about language

and language learning

Robert Michael Easterbrook

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Education,

The University of Canberra, November 2013

i

Abstract

The process of learning a foreign language is an important and challenging component in foreign

language students’ lives due to the students’ limited language exposure and opportunities to

practice the language. While research in China has focused on vocabulary learning strategies and

the Chinese culture of learning beliefs about language and language learning, these have been

explored as individual factors. Research has not explored these factors as part of a process of

learning that is driven by both strategies and beliefs in the one research project. In attempting to

fill this gap, the present research thus explored the possible influence of vocabulary learning

strategy use and beliefs about language and language learning on the process of vocabulary

learning in the Chinese university context. The research was novel in that it compared

vocabulary strategy use, students’ language learning beliefs and examined potential impact on

vocabulary development across 4 grades at a university level.

Using mixed methods, quantitative and qualitative, the research explored vocabulary learning

strategy use (VLS), beliefs about language and language learning (BALLL), general and

specific, and English vocabulary size, in this order, to gain insights into the process of English

vocabulary learning. Data was collected using three questionnaires (one vocabulary learning

strategies questionnaire, and two beliefs questionnaires), a range of vocabulary size tests (e.g.

vocabulary size tests 1000, 2000, 3000 and Academic) and interviews with Chinese English

Majors in a university context. Non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis and Spearman’s rho correlation

tests were run, the first to observe statistically significant differences in mean-scores, at the

individual level within a grade, and then between grades, and second, to observe the relationship

among strategies, beliefs and vocabulary size test scores. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to

observe relationships among the main factors (e.g. strategies, beliefs and vocabulary size test

scores), as well as between the main factors and age and years of English education. The

interviews underwent thematic analysis to highlight common themes which allowed students to

elaborate on some questionnaire responses.

The results show that there is consistency in strategy use and beliefs about language and

language learning in Chinese English Majors process of vocabulary learning. The process:

students often discover new vocabulary in written materials, sometimes TV/movies and songs,

and then use a small range of strategies to learn it using other strategies to complement the small

ii

range of strategies. The most frequently used strategies included guessing meaning, looking up

dictionary, learning its spelling, writing it down, learning its pronunciation, saying it aloud, and

connecting it with the Chinese meaning. This process was observed in and/or interpreted from

their VLS use and their BALLL, general and specific. The results of exploring these factors

highlighted 1) particular VLSs repeatedly used across four grades which included discovering

new vocabulary in textbooks, when reading English materials; memorizing the new word’s

pronunciation and spelling; connecting new words to the Chinese meaning; looking at the new

word several times; remember the new word by its meaning (when read again)), and 2) general

and specific beliefs about language and language learning, for example, it’s important to repeat

English words and practice often and I learn English to find a good job in the future.

Other strategies were used on occasion to complement the fixed set of strategies, depending on

the learning task such as remembering a new word by its meaning (when heard again); the way

the new word is used; trying to guess the word’s meaning from context (e.g. the sentence the

word is used in). There were strong correlations found among vocabulary learning strategies and

beliefs, both general and specific. There was no significant correlation found between strategy

use/ beliefs and vocabulary size tests. Vocabulary size grew incrementally but not dramatically

throughout the four-year degree. There was little difference in scores for all students in the 4

grades on the vocabulary size tests 1000 to 3000 and Academic, with scores decreasing from

vocabulary size tests 1000 to 3000. However, scores increased in each grade on the Academic

size test e.g. English vocabulary size ranged from 2400 to 5200 for grade 1; from 3900 to 6300

for grade 2; from 1900 to 5900 for grade 3; from 3500 to 6100 for grade 4. The result can be

attributed to students following a fairly fixed regime of vocabulary learning strategy use, driven

by a range of beliefs that reflect how students conceptualise language and how to learn it, as well

as a lack of opportunity to use it and limited exposure. The fixed regime of vocabulary learning

strategy use might also be explained by classroom pedagogy which tends not to focus on oral

communication therefore limiting or constraining English vocabulary size and language

development. The discussion provides recommendations for teaching vocabulary and strategy

training in the Chinese university context.

v

Acknowledgements

This thesis would never have been completed if it hadn’t been for the help and support of so

many people. I want to express my thanks to them here.

Dr. Stracke, Dr. Houston, Dr. Jones, Dr. Hill, Dr. Petraki and Dr. Zhang who willingly accepted

to supervise me at some stage during the research project but soon found it tough supervising,

their warm encouragement and dedication to perfection, and their excellent assistance and

abundant ideas and suggestions contributed to the completion of the thesis. Dr. Petraki,

especially, for her commitment and hard work in the final stage when much revision and work

was achieved.

The Chinese English Majors who willingly participated in the research. If these willing few

hadn’t have agreed to participate, the project would never have seen full fruition. They made my

life very interesting when I taught many of them, and by giving their time and effort to informing

me about themselves and their lives without hidden agenda.

The university research site teachers and administrators. If the administrators hadn’t have given

permission for the research to go ahead at the site, it would have had to have searched for and

used another site. And there was no telling how enthusiastic or how indifferent the administrators

at another site would have been to the research given the context of the research. I thank the

many teachers at the research site for the support and friendship.

‘Dean’ Wang Lei, a dedicated Chinese English language teacher, excellent research assistant and

very good friend. Firstly, I thank him for his enduring friendship despite the hassles associated

with being involved in the research project, secondly, for his willing assistance without which

the data collection process would have been more trouble than it was, and thirdly, for carry the

burden of association beyond the use by date.

Yu Hong, excellent Chinese English teacher, research assistant, and partner during the many

years spent in northern China. Firstly, I thank her for her willingness to commit her time and

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energy to assisting with the administrative duties attached to the data collection process and

management of the questionnaires, and secondly, for her love and companionship without which

my life in northern China would have been more lonely and barren than it was.

I offer the University of Canberra a special thank you for offering me candidature. I thank the

university for giving me the chance to fulfil a childhood dream that was finally realized, but not

until I was in the autumn of my youth. And without the support of the university in several

important areas, completing the thesis might have been more challenging than it was.

Some of my fellow PhD candidates during the PhD program, Josh Rosner, Andrew Blythe,

Kilala Chi (now Dr. Chi), Sri Wahyuni (now Dr. Wahyuni), Yoshi Yamamoto (now Dr.

Yamamoto), Ross Hamilton, Walter Steensby, Dr. Man Chul and many others who, while I was

completing my thesis, supported me in many interesting and kindly ways; especially with

humour and great conversation. Firstly, I thank them for their camaraderie, and secondly, for the

special encouragement some of them gave me when the journey got very challenging and tough,

and thirdly, the small kindnesses some of them showed me that made the journey far more

bearable and sustained me through the toughest times.

To Dr. Judith Ascione, a special thank you, for the wonderful assistance on the statistics. Miss

Jee Lee, for additional brainstorming on the approach to statistical analysis. And a special thank

you to Belinda Henwood for the excellent editorial work.

To the many people who, though I was unknown to them, were role models and inspirational in

the most important ways. I give a special thank you to these people because if it hadn’t have

been for their lives and the milestones they each achieved, I might not have been inspired to

undertake one of the most interesting journeys ever during my short years on this planet.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract i

Form B: Certificate of Authorship of Thesis iii

Acknowledgements v

Table of contents vii

List of abbreviations xi

List of tables, graphs, charts and illustrations xiii

Section Page

1.0 Chapter 1: Introduction & Overview 1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

Steps taken to explore the process of vocabulary learning

Background

Research questions

Definitions of Key Terms

Contribution to knowledge and significance of the research

The structure of the thesis

1

2

4

5

7

9

2.0 Chapter 2: Vocabulary, Vocabulary Learning, and Vocabulary

Learning Strategies

11

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.3.2

2.4

2.4.1

2.5

Vocabulary and vocabulary knowledge

Vocabulary learning

Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies

Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies

Vocabulary learning strategy research – a brief outline

Vocabulary learning strategy research conducted globally outside China

Vocabulary learning strategy research in a Chinese context

11

16

22

23

28

28

32

3.0 Chapter 3: Beliefs About Language and Language learning 41

3.1

3.2

3.3

Beliefs about language and language learning – research in a global

context

Beliefs in relation to language and language learning/strategies

Chinese culture of learning – English language education/learning in a

Chinese context

41

42

54

4.0 Chapter 4: Methodology & Procedures 63

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.6.1

4.7

4.8

Methods and selection of methods

Mixed methods design

Reliability and validity

Case and participants

Role of the researcher

Data collection method & Procedures

Data collection instruments, their nature and function

Procedures – administration, data management and data analysis

Intended outcomes of the research

63

65

69

71

74

75

75

86

104

5.0 Chapter 5: Results – Vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs about

language and language learning – descriptive statistics

107

5.1

Part 1: Research question No. 1: Which vocabulary learning strategies do

Chinese English Majors tend to use?

107

viii

5.2

5.3

5.3.1

5.3.2

5.3.3

5.3.4

5.3.5

5.3.6

5.3.7

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.6.1

5.6.2

5.7

5.7.1

5.8

Frequency-of-use strategy groupings

Questionnaire & Interview data compared

Question #1: Where do you meet new vocabulary?

Question #2: What do you usually do when you meet a new word?

Question #3: Do you practise the new vocabulary? What strategies do you

use?

Question #4: How do you memorise new words?

Question #5: Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught?

Strategies rarely or never used

The percentage of students often using a strategy

Research question No. 2: What is the difference in VLS use among the four

grades of CEMs?

Additional questions: Where do you often learn vocabulary during the

semester? and Of four possible sources to obtain VLS, which do CEMs

source the most?

Part 2: Research question No. 3: What are Chinese English Majors

Western and Chinese culture of learning beliefs?

Beliefs about language and language learning

Three general groupings

Chinese culture of learning

Some general groupings in the data

BALLLQ & CCLQ beliefs compared with interview data

Research question

121

138

138

140

141

143

145

147

150

151

155

160

160

165

172

178

187

6.0 Chapter 6: Results – Statistical Analysis of Vocabulary Learning

Strategy use, Beliefs About Language and Language Learning, and

Vocabulary Size Test

197

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

Correlational analysis of three factors – No. 4: Do Chinese English Majors

beliefs, general and specific, correlate with vocabulary learning strategy

use?

Spearman’s rho Correlational analysis of VLS use against VST/Academic

score-means in each grade

Correlational analysis of 7 factors in each grade

Kruskal-Wallis test of beliefs & strategies against 3 means of scores on

Academic size test

Boxplots analysis of beliefs against Academic size test means of scores

197

198

203

208

210

7.0 Chapter 7: Discussion 213

7.0

7.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

7.5

7.6

7.7

Section 1: Research question No. 1 & Research question No. 2:

Vocabulary learning strategies

CEMs’ memorization strategies compared to Schmitt (1997)

VLS use compared with Gu and Johnson (1996)

Patterning of VLS use compared to compared to Gu and Johnson (1996)

Use of discovery and consolidation strategies compared to Griffiths (2013)

The present research compared to Ma (2009)

Clustering of VLSs in four grades

Variable use of VLSs

213

217

217

218

219

222

225

227

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7.8

7.8.1

7.9

7.9.1

7.9.2

7.9.3

7.9.4

7.9.5

7.9.6

7.9.7

7.10

7.10.1

7.10.2

7.10.3

7.10.4

7.10.5

7.10.6

7.10.7

7.10.8

7.10.9

7.10.10

7.10.11

7.10.12

7.10.13

7.10.14

7.11

7.12.1

7.12.2

7.12.3

Research question No. 2: What is the difference in VLs frequency of use

among the four grades of CEMs?

Gu’s Tetrahedral Model

Section 2: Research question No. 3 & Research question No. 4: Beliefs

about language and language learning

Horwitz’ BALLI

The difficulty of language

Foreign language aptitude

The nature of language learning

Learning and communication strategies

Motivations and expectations

Additional research into the relationship between beliefs and VLs

generally

Shi’s CCL BALLL

Attitude to learning English

Learner’s aims for learning English

Criteria for being a good teacher of English

Teacher-student relationship

Perceptions of teachers’ attitudes towards students’ questions in the

classroom

Favoured teaching method

Attitudes to the content of textbooks

Memorising vocabulary

Practising reading skill

Practising speaking skill

Practising listening skill

Practising writing skill

Barriers to learning English

What makes a good learner?

Research question No. 6: Do BALLL and VLSs have an impact on EVS of

CEMs?

Section 3: The process of vocabulary learning uses strategy clusters

The PVL involves strategies and beliefs

The importance of the findings

229

232

236

237

237

238

238

239

239

241

244

245

245

248

251

253

254

255

256

257

258

258

259

260

260

262

263

265

271

8.0 Chapter 8: Conclusion 277

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

Summary of project aims

Major findings - summary

Theoretical implications & contribution

Practical implications

Limitations and Recommendations

277

278

283

289

List of References 291

1

2

3

4

Appendices GDLB

VLSQ

BALLI

CCLQ

305

305

307

311

313

x

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

VSTs

English vocabulary size – research question No. 4

Statistical formula for the Kruskal-Wallis test and Spearman’s rho

correlations

VLSQ tables of means, percentages, groupings graphs, and interview

tables

BALLI tables of means, percentages, groupings graphs, interview tables,

and comparisons

CCLQ tables of means, percentages, groupings graphs, interview tables,

and comparisons

Interview tables

Participant information sheets – for the questionnaire

Participant information sheets – for the interview

Informed consent form – for the questionnaire

Informed consent form – for the interview

Permission to conduct research

317

323

337

341

381

405

445

457

461

463

465

467

xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BA Bachelor of Arts degree

BALLI Beliefs about language and language learning inventory

BALLL Beliefs about language and language learning

BALLLQ Beliefs about language and language learning questionnaire

CCL Chinese culture of learning

CCLQ Chinese culture of learning questionnaire

CEMs Chinese English Majors

CET College Entrance Test

DV Dependent variable

EFL English as a foreign language

EGP English for general purposes

ELT English language teaching

ESL English as a second language

EVS English vocabulary size

FLC Foreign language community

FLL Foreign language learning

FLLs Foreign language learners

GDLB General demographics and language background

ICQ Abbreviation of ‘I seek you’

IV Independent variable

LLSs Language learning strategies

LTM Long term memory

MoE Ministry of Education

NET Native English teacher [online]

PVL Process of vocabulary learning

SD Standard deviation

SILL Strategy inventory of language learning

SLA Second language acquisition

SPSS Statistical package for the social sciences

xii

TEM Test for English Majors

USA United States of America

UU University of Utah

VLS Vocabulary learning strategy

VLSQ Vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire

VLSs Vocabulary learning strategies

VST Vocabulary size test

xiii

LIST OF TABLES, GRAPHS, CHARTS & ILLUSTRATIONS

Table 2.1 Schmitt’s 26 memory strategies 22

Table 2.2 Schmitt’s 2001 VLS taxonomy 25

Table 2.3 Vocabulary learning strategy categories 25

Table 2.4 Vocabulary strategy categories & strategy function 26

Table 4.1 Researcher, method and factor researched 67

Table 4.2 ‘Multi-questionnaire’ data collection instruments and method 75

Table 4.3 General demographics and language background 77

Illustration

No. 1 VLSQ Question No. 1 78

Table 4.4 Three Means-score range analysis 80

Illustration

No. 2

BALLI Belief statement No. 5: English is structured in the same way

as Chinese 81

Illustration

No. 3

CLQ Belief statement No. 3: A good teacher of English should be

knowledgeable in his/her area 82

Table 4.5 VLT 1000 Question 1 85

Table 4.6 One student’s general characteristics and language background 89

Table 4.7 GDLB for whole of grade 1 90

Table 4.8 One student’s raw data of VLS use 91

Table 4.9 Percentage of student VLS and frequency of use at the grade 1 level 91

Table 4.10 VLS use raw data of grade 1 re: Question 1 92

Table 4.11 Raw data converted to percentages for all grades for each question 92

Table 4.12 Percentage of students using a VLS and VLS frequency of use at grade

1 level 93

Table 4.13 Percentage of CEMs who use a VLS and VLS frequency of use of all

grades 94

Table 4:14 Overall ranking of VLSs 94

Table 4.15 All students all grades responses to BALLI Belief Statement #1 96

Table 4.16 All students in all grades responses to BALLI Belief Statement #1 as

percentages 97

xiv

Table 4.17 All students in all grades responses to CCL Belief statement #1 98

Table 4.18 All students in all grades responses to CCL Beliefs statement #1 as

percentages 99

Table 4.19 Known words at the 1,000 words size 100

Table 4.20 Discovery strategies 103

Table 5.1 Categories & Strategies and means suggesting use 109

Tables 5.2 Categories & Strategies for whole group 109

Table 5.3 Question 1: Where do you meet new words? 112

Table 5.4 Question 3: What do you do when you meet new vocabulary? 113

Table 5.5 Question 4: when learning new vocabulary, what aspects do you study? 114

Table 5.6 Question 5: How do you put in order the info about then new

vocabulary? 115

Table 5.7 Question 6: How do you memorize new vocabulary? [First group] 116

Table 5.8 Question 6: How do you memorize new vocabulary? [Second group] 117

Table 5.9 Question 7: How do you review vocabulary? 118

Table 5.10 Question 8: How do you remember words you have memorized? 119

Tables 5.11 Question 9: How do you make use of new vocabulary? 120

Graph 1 Increase 122

Graph 2 Increase then decrease 123

Graph 3 Increase, decrease then increase 125

Graph 4 Increase, decrease then unchanged 126

Graph 5 Increase, then unchanged 127

Graph 6 Increase, unchanged then increase 128

Graph 7 Increase, unchanged then decrease 129

Graph 8 Decrease 130

Graph 9 Decrease then increase 131

Graph 10 Decrease, increase then decrease 132

Graph 11 Decrease, increase then unchanged 133

Graph 12 Decrease then unchanged 134

Graph 13 Unchanged, increase then decrease 135

Graph 14 Unchanged, decrease then increase 136

xv

Graph 15 Unchanged then decrease 137

Table 5.12 Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught? 146

Table 5.13 Vocabulary learning strategies rarely or never used 148

Table 5.14 Ranked vocabulary learning strategies over all by percentage 151

Table 5.15 VLSs regularly used per grade 153

Table 5.16 Strategies that complemented the Eight 154

Table 5.17 Percentage of students per grade who chose a place and frequency of

use per Question 2 157

Table 5.18 Percentage of students per grade who chose a source of VLSs and

frequency of choice 159

Table 5.19 BALLI beliefs by percentage, frequency and mean 162

Table 5.20 BALLI beliefs by percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 163

Table 5.21 BALLI beliefs by percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 164

Graph 1 Agree 167

Graph 2 Disagree 168

Graph 3 Neither disagree or agree/agree 169

Graph 4 Disagree/neither disagree or agree/agree 170

Graph 5 Level of difficulty 171

Graph 6 Time till fluency 172

Table 5.22 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean 173

Table 5.23 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 175




Graph 1 Agree 181

Graph 2 Disagree 182

Graph 3 Disagree, neither disagree or agree/agree 183

Graph 4 Agree/neither disagree or agree 185

Graph 5 Neither disagree or agree 186

Graph 6 Disagree/neither disagree or agree 187

xvi

Table 5.27 What should the student-teacher relationship be like? 190

Table 5.28 Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught? 192

Table 6.1 Three factors correlated 198

Table 6.2 Category & strategies against VST & Academic scores for grade 1 199




Table 6.6 Analysis of all factors for grade 1 203




Table 6.10 Differences in means-scores to show difference or no difference 209

Boxplot 1 Mann-Whitney for BALLI beliefs against Academic scores 210

Boxplot 2 Mann-Whitney for CCL beliefs against Academic scores 211

Table 7.1 Guessing from context, Dictionary & Rehearsal strategies 218

Table 7.2 Discovery & Consolidation strategies compared to Oxford’s SILL 219

Table 7.3 Categories & Strategies for whole group CEMs & Ma 2009 222

Table 7.4 Categories & Strategies and means suggesting use CEMs & Ma 2009 224

Table 7.5 Individual difference in VLS use Question 2 231



Table 7.8 Discovery-place strategies Question 2 233

Table 7.9 Determination-initial response strategies Question 3 233

Table 7.10 Determination-study strategies Question 4 233

Table 7.11 English vocabulary size in grade 2 Xiao A & Xiao B 234

Graph 1 I enjoy English CEMs & Shi 245

Graph 2 I learn English to improve myself/self-development CEMs & Shi 246

Graph 3 I learn English to find a good job in the future CEMs & Shi 246

Graph 4 I learn English for daily communication CEMs & Shi 247

Graph 5 I learn English for the honour of my family CEMs & Shi 247

Graph 6 I learn English to pass exams CEMs & Shi 248

xvii

Graph 7 A good teacher of English should improve my English skills CEMs &

Shi 248

Graph 8 Good teachers should be knowledgeable CEMs & Shi 249

Graph 9 A good teacher should provide comprehensible notes CEMs & Shi 249

Graph 10 A good teacher should improve students’ language skills CEMs & Shi 250

Graph 11 A good teacher should help students pass exams CEMs & Shi 250

Graph 12 The teacher-student relationship should be friend-friend CEMs & Shi 251

Graph 13 The teacher-student relationship should be parent-child CEMs & Shi 252

Graph 14 I love my teacher, but I love the truth more CEMs & Shi 253

Graph 15 If not agreeing with teacher’s teaching, still follow teacher CEMs &

Shi 254

Graph 16 I prefer the teacher use different teaching activities CEMs & Shi 254

Graph 17 I prefer the teacher to encourage me to learn CEMs & Shi 255

Graph 18 I think textbook content is not totally correct CEMs & Shi 255

Graph 19 I think textbook knowledge is useful in real life CEMs & Shi 256

Graph 20 I memorize vocabulary using rehearsal strategies CEMs & Shi 256

Graph 21 I practice reading with textbooks CEMs & Shi 257

Graph 22 I practice speaking by reading aloud & reciting texts CEMs & Shi 258

Graph 23 I practice listening by listening to textbooks tapes CEMs & Shi 258

Graph 24 I practice writing with a diary CEMs & Shi 259

Graph 25 I think the main barrier is I don’t work hard enough CEMs & Shi 260

Graph 26 A good learner of English should respect teachers CEMs & Shi 260

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The process of vocabulary learning: Vocabulary learning