The process of vocabulary learning:
Vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs about language
and language learning
Robert Michael Easterbrook
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education,
The University of Canberra, November 2013
i
Abstract
The process of learning a foreign language is an important and challenging component in foreign
language students’ lives due to the students’ limited language exposure and opportunities to
practice the language. While research in China has focused on vocabulary learning strategies and
the Chinese culture of learning beliefs about language and language learning, these have been
explored as individual factors. Research has not explored these factors as part of a process of
learning that is driven by both strategies and beliefs in the one research project. In attempting to
fill this gap, the present research thus explored the possible influence of vocabulary learning
strategy use and beliefs about language and language learning on the process of vocabulary
learning in the Chinese university context. The research was novel in that it compared
vocabulary strategy use, students’ language learning beliefs and examined potential impact on
vocabulary development across 4 grades at a university level.
Using mixed methods, quantitative and qualitative, the research explored vocabulary learning
strategy use (VLS), beliefs about language and language learning (BALLL), general and
specific, and English vocabulary size, in this order, to gain insights into the process of English
vocabulary learning. Data was collected using three questionnaires (one vocabulary learning
strategies questionnaire, and two beliefs questionnaires), a range of vocabulary size tests (e.g.
vocabulary size tests 1000, 2000, 3000 and Academic) and interviews with Chinese English
Majors in a university context. Non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis and Spearman’s rho correlation
tests were run, the first to observe statistically significant differences in mean-scores, at the
individual level within a grade, and then between grades, and second, to observe the relationship
among strategies, beliefs and vocabulary size test scores. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to
observe relationships among the main factors (e.g. strategies, beliefs and vocabulary size test
scores), as well as between the main factors and age and years of English education. The
interviews underwent thematic analysis to highlight common themes which allowed students to
elaborate on some questionnaire responses.
The results show that there is consistency in strategy use and beliefs about language and
language learning in Chinese English Majors process of vocabulary learning. The process:
students often discover new vocabulary in written materials, sometimes TV/movies and songs,
and then use a small range of strategies to learn it using other strategies to complement the small
ii
range of strategies. The most frequently used strategies included guessing meaning, looking up
dictionary, learning its spelling, writing it down, learning its pronunciation, saying it aloud, and
connecting it with the Chinese meaning. This process was observed in and/or interpreted from
their VLS use and their BALLL, general and specific. The results of exploring these factors
highlighted 1) particular VLSs repeatedly used across four grades which included discovering
new vocabulary in textbooks, when reading English materials; memorizing the new word’s
pronunciation and spelling; connecting new words to the Chinese meaning; looking at the new
word several times; remember the new word by its meaning (when read again)), and 2) general
and specific beliefs about language and language learning, for example, it’s important to repeat
English words and practice often and I learn English to find a good job in the future.
Other strategies were used on occasion to complement the fixed set of strategies, depending on
the learning task such as remembering a new word by its meaning (when heard again); the way
the new word is used; trying to guess the word’s meaning from context (e.g. the sentence the
word is used in). There were strong correlations found among vocabulary learning strategies and
beliefs, both general and specific. There was no significant correlation found between strategy
use/ beliefs and vocabulary size tests. Vocabulary size grew incrementally but not dramatically
throughout the four-year degree. There was little difference in scores for all students in the 4
grades on the vocabulary size tests 1000 to 3000 and Academic, with scores decreasing from
vocabulary size tests 1000 to 3000. However, scores increased in each grade on the Academic
size test e.g. English vocabulary size ranged from 2400 to 5200 for grade 1; from 3900 to 6300
for grade 2; from 1900 to 5900 for grade 3; from 3500 to 6100 for grade 4. The result can be
attributed to students following a fairly fixed regime of vocabulary learning strategy use, driven
by a range of beliefs that reflect how students conceptualise language and how to learn it, as well
as a lack of opportunity to use it and limited exposure. The fixed regime of vocabulary learning
strategy use might also be explained by classroom pedagogy which tends not to focus on oral
communication therefore limiting or constraining English vocabulary size and language
development. The discussion provides recommendations for teaching vocabulary and strategy
training in the Chinese university context.
v
Acknowledgements
This thesis would never have been completed if it hadn’t been for the help and support of so
many people. I want to express my thanks to them here.
Dr. Stracke, Dr. Houston, Dr. Jones, Dr. Hill, Dr. Petraki and Dr. Zhang who willingly accepted
to supervise me at some stage during the research project but soon found it tough supervising,
their warm encouragement and dedication to perfection, and their excellent assistance and
abundant ideas and suggestions contributed to the completion of the thesis. Dr. Petraki,
especially, for her commitment and hard work in the final stage when much revision and work
was achieved.
The Chinese English Majors who willingly participated in the research. If these willing few
hadn’t have agreed to participate, the project would never have seen full fruition. They made my
life very interesting when I taught many of them, and by giving their time and effort to informing
me about themselves and their lives without hidden agenda.
The university research site teachers and administrators. If the administrators hadn’t have given
permission for the research to go ahead at the site, it would have had to have searched for and
used another site. And there was no telling how enthusiastic or how indifferent the administrators
at another site would have been to the research given the context of the research. I thank the
many teachers at the research site for the support and friendship.
‘Dean’ Wang Lei, a dedicated Chinese English language teacher, excellent research assistant and
very good friend. Firstly, I thank him for his enduring friendship despite the hassles associated
with being involved in the research project, secondly, for his willing assistance without which
the data collection process would have been more trouble than it was, and thirdly, for carry the
burden of association beyond the use by date.
Yu Hong, excellent Chinese English teacher, research assistant, and partner during the many
years spent in northern China. Firstly, I thank her for her willingness to commit her time and
vi
energy to assisting with the administrative duties attached to the data collection process and
management of the questionnaires, and secondly, for her love and companionship without which
my life in northern China would have been more lonely and barren than it was.
I offer the University of Canberra a special thank you for offering me candidature. I thank the
university for giving me the chance to fulfil a childhood dream that was finally realized, but not
until I was in the autumn of my youth. And without the support of the university in several
important areas, completing the thesis might have been more challenging than it was.
Some of my fellow PhD candidates during the PhD program, Josh Rosner, Andrew Blythe,
Kilala Chi (now Dr. Chi), Sri Wahyuni (now Dr. Wahyuni), Yoshi Yamamoto (now Dr.
Yamamoto), Ross Hamilton, Walter Steensby, Dr. Man Chul and many others who, while I was
completing my thesis, supported me in many interesting and kindly ways; especially with
humour and great conversation. Firstly, I thank them for their camaraderie, and secondly, for the
special encouragement some of them gave me when the journey got very challenging and tough,
and thirdly, the small kindnesses some of them showed me that made the journey far more
bearable and sustained me through the toughest times.
To Dr. Judith Ascione, a special thank you, for the wonderful assistance on the statistics. Miss
Jee Lee, for additional brainstorming on the approach to statistical analysis. And a special thank
you to Belinda Henwood for the excellent editorial work.
To the many people who, though I was unknown to them, were role models and inspirational in
the most important ways. I give a special thank you to these people because if it hadn’t have
been for their lives and the milestones they each achieved, I might not have been inspired to
undertake one of the most interesting journeys ever during my short years on this planet.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract i
Form B: Certificate of Authorship of Thesis iii
Acknowledgements v
Table of contents vii
List of abbreviations xi
List of tables, graphs, charts and illustrations xiii
Section Page
1.0 Chapter 1: Introduction & Overview 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Steps taken to explore the process of vocabulary learning
Background
Research questions
Definitions of Key Terms
Contribution to knowledge and significance of the research
The structure of the thesis
1
2
4
5
7
9
2.0 Chapter 2: Vocabulary, Vocabulary Learning, and Vocabulary
Learning Strategies
11
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3.2
2.4
2.4.1
2.5
Vocabulary and vocabulary knowledge
Vocabulary learning
Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies
Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies
Vocabulary learning strategy research – a brief outline
Vocabulary learning strategy research conducted globally outside China
Vocabulary learning strategy research in a Chinese context
11
16
22
23
28
28
32
3.0 Chapter 3: Beliefs About Language and Language learning 41
3.1
3.2
3.3
Beliefs about language and language learning – research in a global
context
Beliefs in relation to language and language learning/strategies
Chinese culture of learning – English language education/learning in a
Chinese context
41
42
54
4.0 Chapter 4: Methodology & Procedures 63
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.6.1
4.7
4.8
Methods and selection of methods
Mixed methods design
Reliability and validity
Case and participants
Role of the researcher
Data collection method & Procedures
Data collection instruments, their nature and function
Procedures – administration, data management and data analysis
Intended outcomes of the research
63
65
69
71
74
75
75
86
104
5.0 Chapter 5: Results – Vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs about
language and language learning – descriptive statistics
107
5.1
Part 1: Research question No. 1: Which vocabulary learning strategies do
Chinese English Majors tend to use?
107
viii
5.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.3.6
5.3.7
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.6.1
5.6.2
5.7
5.7.1
5.8
Frequency-of-use strategy groupings
Questionnaire & Interview data compared
Question #1: Where do you meet new vocabulary?
Question #2: What do you usually do when you meet a new word?
Question #3: Do you practise the new vocabulary? What strategies do you
use?
Question #4: How do you memorise new words?
Question #5: Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught?
Strategies rarely or never used
The percentage of students often using a strategy
Research question No. 2: What is the difference in VLS use among the four
grades of CEMs?
Additional questions: Where do you often learn vocabulary during the
semester? and Of four possible sources to obtain VLS, which do CEMs
source the most?
Part 2: Research question No. 3: What are Chinese English Majors
Western and Chinese culture of learning beliefs?
Beliefs about language and language learning
Three general groupings
Chinese culture of learning
Some general groupings in the data
BALLLQ & CCLQ beliefs compared with interview data
Research question
121
138
138
140
141
143
145
147
150
151
155
160
160
165
172
178
187
6.0 Chapter 6: Results – Statistical Analysis of Vocabulary Learning
Strategy use, Beliefs About Language and Language Learning, and
Vocabulary Size Test
197
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Correlational analysis of three factors – No. 4: Do Chinese English Majors
beliefs, general and specific, correlate with vocabulary learning strategy
use?
Spearman’s rho Correlational analysis of VLS use against VST/Academic
score-means in each grade
Correlational analysis of 7 factors in each grade
Kruskal-Wallis test of beliefs & strategies against 3 means of scores on
Academic size test
Boxplots analysis of beliefs against Academic size test means of scores
197
198
203
208
210
7.0 Chapter 7: Discussion 213
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
Section 1: Research question No. 1 & Research question No. 2:
Vocabulary learning strategies
CEMs’ memorization strategies compared to Schmitt (1997)
VLS use compared with Gu and Johnson (1996)
Patterning of VLS use compared to compared to Gu and Johnson (1996)
Use of discovery and consolidation strategies compared to Griffiths (2013)
The present research compared to Ma (2009)
Clustering of VLSs in four grades
Variable use of VLSs
213
217
217
218
219
222
225
227
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7.8
7.8.1
7.9
7.9.1
7.9.2
7.9.3
7.9.4
7.9.5
7.9.6
7.9.7
7.10
7.10.1
7.10.2
7.10.3
7.10.4
7.10.5
7.10.6
7.10.7
7.10.8
7.10.9
7.10.10
7.10.11
7.10.12
7.10.13
7.10.14
7.11
7.12.1
7.12.2
7.12.3
Research question No. 2: What is the difference in VLs frequency of use
among the four grades of CEMs?
Gu’s Tetrahedral Model
Section 2: Research question No. 3 & Research question No. 4: Beliefs
about language and language learning
Horwitz’ BALLI
The difficulty of language
Foreign language aptitude
The nature of language learning
Learning and communication strategies
Motivations and expectations
Additional research into the relationship between beliefs and VLs
generally
Shi’s CCL BALLL
Attitude to learning English
Learner’s aims for learning English
Criteria for being a good teacher of English
Teacher-student relationship
Perceptions of teachers’ attitudes towards students’ questions in the
classroom
Favoured teaching method
Attitudes to the content of textbooks
Memorising vocabulary
Practising reading skill
Practising speaking skill
Practising listening skill
Practising writing skill
Barriers to learning English
What makes a good learner?
Research question No. 6: Do BALLL and VLSs have an impact on EVS of
CEMs?
Section 3: The process of vocabulary learning uses strategy clusters
The PVL involves strategies and beliefs
The importance of the findings
229
232
236
237
237
238
238
239
239
241
244
245
245
248
251
253
254
255
256
257
258
258
259
260
260
262
263
265
271
8.0 Chapter 8: Conclusion 277
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Summary of project aims
Major findings - summary
Theoretical implications & contribution
Practical implications
Limitations and Recommendations
277
278
283
289
List of References 291
1
2
3
4
Appendices GDLB
VLSQ
BALLI
CCLQ
305
305
307
311
313
x
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
VSTs
English vocabulary size – research question No. 4
Statistical formula for the Kruskal-Wallis test and Spearman’s rho
correlations
VLSQ tables of means, percentages, groupings graphs, and interview
tables
BALLI tables of means, percentages, groupings graphs, interview tables,
and comparisons
CCLQ tables of means, percentages, groupings graphs, interview tables,
and comparisons
Interview tables
Participant information sheets – for the questionnaire
Participant information sheets – for the interview
Informed consent form – for the questionnaire
Informed consent form – for the interview
Permission to conduct research
317
323
337
341
381
405
445
457
461
463
465
467
xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BA Bachelor of Arts degree
BALLI Beliefs about language and language learning inventory
BALLL Beliefs about language and language learning
BALLLQ Beliefs about language and language learning questionnaire
CCL Chinese culture of learning
CCLQ Chinese culture of learning questionnaire
CEMs Chinese English Majors
CET College Entrance Test
DV Dependent variable
EFL English as a foreign language
EGP English for general purposes
ELT English language teaching
ESL English as a second language
EVS English vocabulary size
FLC Foreign language community
FLL Foreign language learning
FLLs Foreign language learners
GDLB General demographics and language background
ICQ Abbreviation of ‘I seek you’
IV Independent variable
LLSs Language learning strategies
LTM Long term memory
MoE Ministry of Education
NET Native English teacher [online]
PVL Process of vocabulary learning
SD Standard deviation
SILL Strategy inventory of language learning
SLA Second language acquisition
SPSS Statistical package for the social sciences
xii
TEM Test for English Majors
USA United States of America
UU University of Utah
VLS Vocabulary learning strategy
VLSQ Vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire
VLSs Vocabulary learning strategies
VST Vocabulary size test
xiii
LIST OF TABLES, GRAPHS, CHARTS & ILLUSTRATIONS
Table 2.1 Schmitt’s 26 memory strategies 22
Table 2.2 Schmitt’s 2001 VLS taxonomy 25
Table 2.3 Vocabulary learning strategy categories 25
Table 2.4 Vocabulary strategy categories & strategy function 26
Table 4.1 Researcher, method and factor researched 67
Table 4.2 ‘Multi-questionnaire’ data collection instruments and method 75
Table 4.3 General demographics and language background 77
Illustration
No. 1 VLSQ Question No. 1 78
Table 4.4 Three Means-score range analysis 80
Illustration
No. 2
BALLI Belief statement No. 5: English is structured in the same way
as Chinese 81
Illustration
No. 3
CLQ Belief statement No. 3: A good teacher of English should be
knowledgeable in his/her area 82
Table 4.5 VLT 1000 Question 1 85
Table 4.6 One student’s general characteristics and language background 89
Table 4.7 GDLB for whole of grade 1 90
Table 4.8 One student’s raw data of VLS use 91
Table 4.9 Percentage of student VLS and frequency of use at the grade 1 level 91
Table 4.10 VLS use raw data of grade 1 re: Question 1 92
Table 4.11 Raw data converted to percentages for all grades for each question 92
Table 4.12 Percentage of students using a VLS and VLS frequency of use at grade
1 level 93
Table 4.13 Percentage of CEMs who use a VLS and VLS frequency of use of all
grades 94
Table 4:14 Overall ranking of VLSs 94
Table 4.15 All students all grades responses to BALLI Belief Statement #1 96
Table 4.16 All students in all grades responses to BALLI Belief Statement #1 as
percentages 97
xiv
Table 4.17 All students in all grades responses to CCL Belief statement #1 98
Table 4.18 All students in all grades responses to CCL Beliefs statement #1 as
percentages 99
Table 4.19 Known words at the 1,000 words size 100
Table 4.20 Discovery strategies 103
Table 5.1 Categories & Strategies and means suggesting use 109
Tables 5.2 Categories & Strategies for whole group 109
Table 5.3 Question 1: Where do you meet new words? 112
Table 5.4 Question 3: What do you do when you meet new vocabulary? 113
Table 5.5 Question 4: when learning new vocabulary, what aspects do you study? 114
Table 5.6 Question 5: How do you put in order the info about then new
vocabulary? 115
Table 5.7 Question 6: How do you memorize new vocabulary? [First group] 116
Table 5.8 Question 6: How do you memorize new vocabulary? [Second group] 117
Table 5.9 Question 7: How do you review vocabulary? 118
Table 5.10 Question 8: How do you remember words you have memorized? 119
Tables 5.11 Question 9: How do you make use of new vocabulary? 120
Graph 1 Increase 122
Graph 2 Increase then decrease 123
Graph 3 Increase, decrease then increase 125
Graph 4 Increase, decrease then unchanged 126
Graph 5 Increase, then unchanged 127
Graph 6 Increase, unchanged then increase 128
Graph 7 Increase, unchanged then decrease 129
Graph 8 Decrease 130
Graph 9 Decrease then increase 131
Graph 10 Decrease, increase then decrease 132
Graph 11 Decrease, increase then unchanged 133
Graph 12 Decrease then unchanged 134
Graph 13 Unchanged, increase then decrease 135
Graph 14 Unchanged, decrease then increase 136
xv
Graph 15 Unchanged then decrease 137
Table 5.12 Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught? 146
Table 5.13 Vocabulary learning strategies rarely or never used 148
Table 5.14 Ranked vocabulary learning strategies over all by percentage 151
Table 5.15 VLSs regularly used per grade 153
Table 5.16 Strategies that complemented the Eight 154
Table 5.17 Percentage of students per grade who chose a place and frequency of
use per Question 2 157
Table 5.18 Percentage of students per grade who chose a source of VLSs and
frequency of choice 159
Table 5.19 BALLI beliefs by percentage, frequency and mean 162
Table 5.20 BALLI beliefs by percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 163
Table 5.21 BALLI beliefs by percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 164
Graph 1 Agree 167
Graph 2 Disagree 168
Graph 3 Neither disagree or agree/agree 169
Graph 4 Disagree/neither disagree or agree/agree 170
Graph 5 Level of difficulty 171
Graph 6 Time till fluency 172
Table 5.22 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean 173
Table 5.23 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 175
Table 5.24 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 175
Table 5.25 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 177
Table 5.26 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 178
Graph 1 Agree 181
Graph 2 Disagree 182
Graph 3 Disagree, neither disagree or agree/agree 183
Graph 4 Agree/neither disagree or agree 185
Graph 5 Neither disagree or agree 186
Graph 6 Disagree/neither disagree or agree 187
xvi
Table 5.27 What should the student-teacher relationship be like? 190
Table 5.28 Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught? 192
Table 6.1 Three factors correlated 198
Table 6.2 Category & strategies against VST & Academic scores for grade 1 199
Table 6.3 Category & strategies against VST & Academic scores for grade 2 200
Table 6.4 Category & strategies against VST & Academic scores for grade 3 201
Table 6.5 Category & strategies against VST & Academic scores for grade 4 202
Table 6.6 Analysis of all factors for grade 1 203
Table 6.7 Analysis of all factors for grade 2 204
Table 6.8 Analysis of all factors for grade 3 205
Table 6.9 Analysis of all factors for grade 4 206
Table 6.10 Differences in means-scores to show difference or no difference 209
Boxplot 1 Mann-Whitney for BALLI beliefs against Academic scores 210
Boxplot 2 Mann-Whitney for CCL beliefs against Academic scores 211
Table 7.1 Guessing from context, Dictionary & Rehearsal strategies 218
Table 7.2 Discovery & Consolidation strategies compared to Oxford’s SILL 219
Table 7.3 Categories & Strategies for whole group CEMs & Ma 2009 222
Table 7.4 Categories & Strategies and means suggesting use CEMs & Ma 2009 224
Table 7.5 Individual difference in VLS use Question 2 231
Table 7.6 Individual difference in VLS use Question 3 231
Table 7.7 Individual difference in VLS use Question 4 231
Table 7.8 Discovery-place strategies Question 2 233
Table 7.9 Determination-initial response strategies Question 3 233
Table 7.10 Determination-study strategies Question 4 233
Table 7.11 English vocabulary size in grade 2 Xiao A & Xiao B 234
Graph 1 I enjoy English CEMs & Shi 245
Graph 2 I learn English to improve myself/self-development CEMs & Shi 246
Graph 3 I learn English to find a good job in the future CEMs & Shi 246
Graph 4 I learn English for daily communication CEMs & Shi 247
Graph 5 I learn English for the honour of my family CEMs & Shi 247
Graph 6 I learn English to pass exams CEMs & Shi 248
xvii
Graph 7 A good teacher of English should improve my English skills CEMs &
Shi 248
Graph 8 Good teachers should be knowledgeable CEMs & Shi 249
Graph 9 A good teacher should provide comprehensible notes CEMs & Shi 249
Graph 10 A good teacher should improve students’ language skills CEMs & Shi 250
Graph 11 A good teacher should help students pass exams CEMs & Shi 250
Graph 12 The teacher-student relationship should be friend-friend CEMs & Shi 251
Graph 13 The teacher-student relationship should be parent-child CEMs & Shi 252
Graph 14 I love my teacher, but I love the truth more CEMs & Shi 253
Graph 15 If not agreeing with teacher’s teaching, still follow teacher CEMs &
Shi 254
Graph 16 I prefer the teacher use different teaching activities CEMs & Shi 254
Graph 17 I prefer the teacher to encourage me to learn CEMs & Shi 255
Graph 18 I think textbook content is not totally correct CEMs & Shi 255
Graph 19 I think textbook knowledge is useful in real life CEMs & Shi 256
Graph 20 I memorize vocabulary using rehearsal strategies CEMs & Shi 256
Graph 21 I practice reading with textbooks CEMs & Shi 257
Graph 22 I practice speaking by reading aloud & reciting texts CEMs & Shi 258
Graph 23 I practice listening by listening to textbooks tapes CEMs & Shi 258
Graph 24 I practice writing with a diary CEMs & Shi 259
Graph 25 I think the main barrier is I don’t work hard enough CEMs & Shi 260
Graph 26 A good learner of English should respect teachers CEMs & Shi 260