ThePocketOutdoorSurvivalGuide

TheUltimateGuideforShort-TermSurvival

J.WayneFears

Copyright©2011byJ.WayneFears

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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Fears,J.Wayne,1938-Thepocketoutdoorsurvivalguide:theultimateguideforshort-termsurvival/J.WayneFears.p.cm.

97816160805011.Wildernesssurvival.2.Outdoorlife--Safetymeasures.I.Title.GV200.5.F462011613.6’9--dc22

2010036070

PrintedinChina

PHOTOGRAPHYCREDITSC.W.Brown/PhotoResearchers,Inc.p.84L.West/PhotoResearchers,Inc.p.86ScottCamazine/PhotoResearchers,Inc.p.92AlexBowersp.113

Tothosededicatedsearch&rescueprofessionalsandvolunteerswhofindcountlesslostandstrandedpeopleeachyear.Manyliveswouldbelost

withoutthem.Thankyou.

TableofContents

TitlePageCopyrightPageDedicationINTRODUCTION-SurvivalIsUsuallyanUnplannedNightintheWoods1.SEARCH&RESCUE-ModernSearch&RescueWorksforYou2.BEFOREYOUGO3.SURVIVALKIT-AssembleYourOwnSurvivalKit4.WEATHER-EquipYourselfforLocalWeatherConditions5.TROUBLE-YouAreinTrouble—Stop!6.SIGNALS-PrepareYourSignals7.SHELTER-ConstructaShelter8.BUILDAFIRE-BuildaSurvivalFire9.SLEEPING-SleepingWarm10.INSECTS-DealingwithInsects11.SAFEWATER-MakingWaterSafeforDrinking12.FOOD-Food—NotaNecessity13.HYPOTHERMIA-AvoidHypothermia14.FEAR-DealingwithFear15.WILLTOLIVE16.MISSINGPERSON-WhenaMemberofYourGroupIsMissing

INTRODUCTION

SurvivalIsUsuallyanUnplannedNightintheWoods

NorthAmericastillhaslotsofbackcountryinwhichitiseasytogetlostorstranded.Eveninthemostremotecountry,however,mostmissingpeoplearefoundwithinafewhours.

EachyeardozensofAmericanoutdoorenthusiastsfindthemselvesinanunexpectedoutdooremergency.They get lost, injured, or stranded and suddenly find themselves depending upon survival skills tosurvive.Formostpeople,thankstomoderncommunicationssuchascellphonesandtwo-wayradios,itismerelyasoberingtwo-orthree-houradventure.Infact,withtoday’smethodsofsearchandrescue, themajorityofmissingpeoplearefoundwithin72hoursafter theyhavebeenreportedmissing,mostevenless.However,forsomewhodonottaketheproperprecautionsordonothavesurvivalskills,suchan

experiencecanendintragedy.

Thepurposeofthisbookistohelpyouprepareforthat“unplannednightornightsinthewoods.”Keepitwithyoutohelpyoumakeit throughtheadventure.Withproperpreparationforanyoutdooractivity,there should be little reason for an unplanned night in the woods. But, should you find yourself in asituationwhereyouwillneed to survive severaldays, thisbookwill haveyouprepared todo itwithstyle. Survival knowledge and training pays off when the chips are down. Remember the acronym,“LOST”—LeanOnSurvivalTraining.

Asuddenspillinacanoecanleaveyoustranded.

SurvivalTrainingPays

Severalyearsago,whenIwasworkingasawildlifemanagerinGeorgia,IhelpedleadthesearchforamissinghunterintheruggedmountainsalongtheGeorgia-NorthCarolinaboundary.Weweretoldthatthishunterhadlittlehuntingexperiencebuthadreceivedextensivesurvivaltraining.Inablindingrainstorm,ittookustwodaystofindthelosthunter.Muchtooursurprise,bythetimewefoundhimhehadvirtuallyestablishedacomfortablehomestead.

Whenhefirstrealizedhewaslost,hestoppedwalkingandpickedanopeninginthedensewoodstoestablishasurvivalcamp.Heimmediatelyputoutground-to-airsignals.Realizingbadweatherwasonthe way, he built a shelter under some overhanging rocks that kept him dry and out of the wind. Hegatheredplentyoffirewoodandstoreditinhisshelter.Next,hebuiltafirecompletewithareflectortokeephisshelterwarm.

Itwashisfirethatledtohisbeingfound.Thehunter’ssurvivalcampwassocomfortablethatthoseofusinthesearchpartyuseditforanovernightrestbeforepackingout.

Whenyoufirstrealizeyouarelost,stop.Donotwanderaroundaimlessly.Foreveryhouryouwanderthesearchareagrowsfourtimes.

Due to his survival training, he lived comfortably through a two-day storm.He stayed positive andworkedtowardbeingfound.Heusedtheresourcesathandtomakeasurvivalcamp.Willyoubelikethishunterifyourtimecomestospendanunplannednightortwointhewoods?

HowtoUseThisLittleBook

1.Whenyoufirstgetthisbook,sitdownandREADit.Thinkaboutwhatyouarereadingandhowitcanapplytoyouandyouroutings.2.Rereadthechapterentitled“SurvivalKit”andmakealistoftheitemsyouneedtopurchasetoputonetogether.3.Onaweekendyouwanttodosomethingthatisfunandeducational,takeyoursurvivalkitintothewoodsandspendthenightusingtheitemsinthekit.Uponcompletionoftheovernighttest,besuretoreplaceanyitemsthatmaybedifficulttorepackintoacompactpackage.Thisexercisemayalsohelpyoudiscoveritemsyouwillwantinyoursurvivalkitthatmylistdidnotinclude.RememberitisYOURsurvivalkit,somodifyittomeetyourneeds.4.Thisbookdoesnotgointonavigationalskills.Ifeelthisrequirestrainingthat,likefirstaid,youshouldhavebeforeyoustartexploringthebackcountry.Ifyouhaven’thadtrainingintheproperuseofyourGPSormapandcompass,getitASAP.Thatalonecankeepyoufromeverneedingthisbook.5.Thisbookcoversonlythemostbasicfirst-aidskills.Itismybeliefthateveryonewhoventuresintothebackcountryshouldhavesuccessfully takenaRedCrossfirst-aidcourse.Also, thosewhohavespecialmedicalconditionsshouldbeskilledinmanagingthem.6.Placethisbook inyoursurvivalkit so itwillbe there if,andwhen,youneed it toguideyouthrough a survival situation. It was designed to be small enough to fit into your kit, and conciseenoughtobeaquickandeasyresourcewhenyouareintrouble.7.Besureyoualwaysread,thenpracticetheinformationfoundinthechapterentitled“BeforeYouGo.”Thiswillhelpkeepyourtimeinasurvivalsituationshort.8.Ifyoufindyourselfinalostorstrandedsituation,stop,sitdown,think,remaincalm,don’tpanicandplantostayput.Bygainingcontrolofyourselfinthesefirstfewminutes,youhaveincreasedyourchancesofsurvivalby50percent.9.Whenyoufirstrealizeyouarelostandintroubleisthetimetodigthisbookoutanduseittoguideyoutowardasafewaituntilyouarefound.10.AsaMainegamewardenoncesaid,“Evenintoday’smodernworldtherearemanytrappersandguidesthatspendthenightinthewoodswithlittlemorethanwhatisfoundinabasicsurvivalkit,theyspendtheirlivesdoingit.Relax—youmayevenenjoyyourunplannedstayinthewoods.”

Takeafirst-aidcourseandkeepyourtraininguptodate.Youmayhavetotreatyourowninjuriesinasurvivalemergency.

1.SEARCH&RESCUE

ModernSearch&RescueWorksforYou

Ifyouhavetakenthetimeandprecautiontofileatripplanwitharesponsiblepersonbeforeyourouting,thenshouldyounotreturnontime,youwillnotgounnoticedforverylong.Thiswillbeginaseriesofeventsthatwillresultinyourbeingrescuedquickly.

Manymissing people give up hope quickly because they think no one is looking for them.Modernsearchandrescueisusuallyonthesitewithinafewhours.

Oneof themostcommon,anddangerous,fearsmost lostorstrandedpeoplehaveis thatnoonewillknowtocomelookingforthem.Ifyouhavefollowedthestepsinthenextchapterofthisbook,thenyoucanputthisfeartorest;trainedpeoplewillbelookingforyousoon.Ifyoustayputonceyourealizeyouarelost,thenitwilltakeevenlesstimetofindyou.Tryingtowalkout,panickingandrunningwillworkagainstyou;anditwilltakemuchlongerforrescuerstofindyou.Foreveryhouralostpersonwalks,thesearchareagrowsfourtimeslarger.Youshouldstayputandwaittobefound!

HereIsHowItWorks

Asearchstartsquicklywhenyouarereportedmissingtolocalauthorities.Inmostcases,thisisthecountysheriff,districtforestrangerorconservationofficer.InCanadaitisusuallytheRoyalCanadianMountedPolice.Today,manyoftheseofficershavereceivedformaltraininginsearchandrescueorganizationandknowhowtorespondquicklytoamissingoutdoorsmanemergency.Whenamissingoutdoorsmanreportisturnedin,thefirstthingthatusuallyhappensisa“searchboss”

is designated. This is someone with a lot of experience and training in backcountry searches. Heorganizesthesearchandestablishespriorities.Hewillensurethatthesitewherethepersonwaslastseenis quickly protected, set up a search headquarters and interview those peoplewhowere lastwith themissingperson.

Protectingthe“lastseen”areakeepswellmeaningpeoplefromdestroyingtracksandother importantsignsexperttrackerswillneedfortrackingthelostperson.

Theinterviewwiththemissingperson’sfriends/familyismostimportant,asthisiswherethesearchbosslearnsmuchaboutthemissingperson.Ifatripplanhasbeenleftwithsomeone,itwillcutdownonthetimeittakestogetanorganizedsearchstarted.Theywillhaveagoodideawheretobeginlooking.

Thesearchdirectorwillquicklyestablish the“areaofprobability”and the searchwillbecenteredthere.

Early in the search, specially trained dogs may be used to trail the missing person. Two to fouraircraftareusedtoquicklylocatemissingoutdoorsmen.

The interviewerwillbe looking fordetailed informationon themissingperson.Theperson’sname,address,description,clothingworn,boottype(soleinformationisimportanttotrackers),age,equipmenthe has with him, medical conditions including medications, experience in the outdoors, physicalcondition,personalitytraits,etc.Allofthisinformationisimportanttoexperiencedsearchersbecauseittellsthemalotaboutwheretolookforthemissingperson.

Usuallythefirstsearcherstohitthetrailincludetrackerswithdogsandahastyteam.Thehastyteamismadeupofhighlyspecializedpeoplewhogointothemostlikelyareasthemissingpersonisbelievedtobe.Thisiswhyitisimportanttostayputwhenyoufirstrealizeyouarelost.

Atthesametime,lookoutsandroadcheckteamsareposted.Lookoutsarelocatedatobservationpointsinthesearchareaandroadsearchteamsrideroadsnearthesearcharealookingforthemissingperson.

As quickly as possible, aircraft will be brought into the search; often aircraft with specialized

equipment toelectronicallyhelpfind themissingperson.At thatpoint, thesearchbossmaysetupgridsearchessupervisedbyprofessionalsandcarriedoutusingvolunteers.

Manypeoplewhoarelostfearsearcherswillonlylookafewhoursthengiveup,thinkingthemissingperson isdead.This isnot true.Mostsearchbossesestimatehowlong themissingpersoncansurviveundertheconditionsandthenplantosearchthreetimesthatlong,ifneeded.Searcheffortsgofarbeyondreasonableexpectations.

Lostandstrandedpeopleshouldnevergiveuphope.Thesearchwillgoonuntilyouarerescued.Howfastthatsearchbegins,however,dependsuponhowwellyoupreparedbeforeyouwentintothewoods!

Aircraftareusedtoquicklylocatemissingoutdoorsmen.

2.BEFOREYOUGO

Fileatripplanwitharesponsibleperson.Lethimknowexactlywhereyouaregoingandwhenyouplanonreturning.

Aquickrescueactuallybeginsbeforeyougetlostorstranded.Itbeginswithyoutakingsomeprecautionsbeforeyouleavehome,camporyourvehicle.Hereisachecklistofprecautions:

1.Studymapsandget toknowtheterritoryyouwillbegoinginto.Takethemapandnavigationalequipment that you know how to use with you. USE IT FROM THE BEGINNING OF YOUROUTING.2.Learnthearea’sweatherextremes.Knowwhattoexpectinsuddenweatherchanges.Dressforit.3.ListentoanNOAAweatherreportfortheperiodyouexpecttobeinthearea.4.Carryafreshlychargedcellphoneand/oratwo-wayradiowithfreshbatteries.5.Packasurvivalkit.6.Carryaknifeonyourbelt.

7.MOSTIMPORTANT:FILEATRIPPLANWITHARESPONSIBLEPERSON!!!!

AlwaysuseaGPSand/ormapandcompassonalloutings.Makethisapracticeandchancesaregoodyouwillneverneedtousesurvivalskills.

SampleTripPlan

Name:Address:Emergencyphonenumber:Coordinatesofdestination:Furtherdescriptionofdestination:Purposeoftrip:Modeoftransportation:Departuredateandtime:Returndateandtime:Nameofotherswithyou:

Ifyouaredepartingfromavehicle,besuretoparkthevehicleinanareawhereitcanbefoundeasily.

Leaveaslipofpaperinaclearplasticbagwithyourname,emergencyphonenumber,dateandtimeofdeparture, description of destination and expected return date and time. Place this bag under thewindshieldwiperofthevehicle.Thiswillprobablybethestartingpointofthesearchwhenthepersonyouleftyourtripplanwithnotifiestheauthoritiesyouaremissing.Also,thisservesasabackupincasesomethinghappenstothepersonyouleftresponsibletomonitoryourtripplan.Taking these precautions are as important as packing a survival kit. If a responsible person doesn’t

knowyouareoverduefromyourscheduledreturn,regardlessofhowshortthetrip,thennoonewillknowtostartlookingforyou.Peoplehavebeenlostfordaysbeforeanyonerealizedtherewasaproblem.Inthesecasessurvivalceasedtobeashort-termemergencyandbecamealong-termnightmare,oftenwithadisastrousending.

DON’TFAILTOTAKE

THESEPRECAUTIONS!

3.SURVIVALKIT

AssembleYourOwnSurvivalKit

The individual survival kitweighs only two pounds and contains the items necessary to survive anunplannednightinthewoods.Itwillkeepyousafeifyouknowhowtouseitandtakeitwithyou.

Goonoutdooradventurespreparedtospendthreeextra,unexpecteddaysinthebackcountry.Todothis,youneedtotakewithyouitemsthatwill:

1.Providequickprotectionfrominclementweather.2.Retainbodyheat.3.Helpstartafire.4.Providesafedrinkingwater.5.Offerprotectionfrombitinginsects.6.Providetwomethodsofsignalingforhelpbeyondacellphoneortwo-wayradio.

These itemsmakeupyour personal survival kit.When combinedwith your belt knife ormulti-tool,

map,compassandGPS,theygiveyoutheedgeyou’llneedtosurvive.

Thesurvivalkitisimportantnotonlyforitslifesavingmerits,butforcomfortonthoseoutingswhenanightmustbespentunexpectedly in thewoodsorstreamside.Ihavebeenforcedonmanyoccasions tospendanightortwointhewoodsIdidn’tplanon,becauseanoutfitterwaslatepickingmeup,climbingdown amountain in the darkwas too dangerous, amotor conked out onmy boat, etc. Each time,mytwopoundsurvivalkitprovidedmewithacomfortablecamp.Withoutitthewaitwouldhavebeencoldanddangerous.

SuggestedItemsforthePersonalSurvivalKit

TubetentStrike-anywherekitchenmatchesinwaterproofmatchsafeFlashlightFirestartersSignalmirrorPolicewhistleMPIEmergencySpacebagParachutecord-50’Aluminumfoil-36”x36”InsectrepellentWaterpurificationtabletsPocketSurvivalGuideFirstAidKit

SHELTER—Thefirstitemnecessaryforasurvivalcampisshelter.Youcanreadallyouwantaboutalean-to,brushshelters,etc.,butfewsheltersarequickertoerectandgiveasmuchprotectionasaplastictube tent.You simply tie a strong cordbetween two trees, stretch the tube to its full 8-foot length andcrawlinoutoftheweather.IusetheCoghlan’sTubeTent.Itiscompact,weighs18ouncesandisabrightorangecolor,servingasasignalthatcanbeeasilyseenfromtheair.NotonlyhaveIusedatubetentinasurvivalsituation,IhaveusedoneonseveraloccasionsforprotectionfromasuddenrainorhailstormwhenIdidn’thavearainsuitorotherprotection.

SLEEPWARM—Tostaywarminyourtubetent,youwillwantoneofthe36”×84”MPIEmergencySpacebags.Thisbag,whichfoldsupto1½”×3”andweighsonly4ounces,willreflectandretain90percentofradiatedbodyheat.Youwillneedtobecarefulusingoneofthesebagswhenyouarewearingbootswithaggressivesolesastheycancausetheblankettotear.But,withalittlecautionwhengettingintothebag,itwillkeepyouwarmallnight.WhenonguidedhuntsIcarryanextrabag;Iwantmyguidetoberestedinordertogetmeoutsafelythenextday.Also,anextrabag,whileweighinglittleandtakinguplittlespaceinmysurvivalkit,givesmeabackupifIshouldtearthefirstone.

MATCHES— To build a fire you will need fresh strike-anywhere kitchenmatches in a waterproofmatchsafe.Iusethefull-sizewoodenmatchesbecausetheyareeasytoigniteandburnlongerthansmallbookorboxmatches.Ikeeptheminaweathertightsafetyorangeplasticmatchsafe.Replacethemoften

asmatcheshaveashortshelflife.

FIRESTARTERS—Since startinga fire canbedifficult, especially inwindyordampconditions, apackageoffirestartersisamust.Campmor’shasa4-ouncepackageof20FireLighters,eachofwhichburnsevenminutes.Thesecanbeusedforboilingwateraseasilyasstartingacampfire.

SIGNALMIRROR— Twomethods of signaling, beyond a cell phone or two-way radio, should becarried.Isuggestasignalmirror,suchasStarFlash,andahigh-qualitywhistle,suchasaFox40whistle.Thesignalmirroriseasytouseandcanbeseenmorethan60milesaway.

WHISTLE—Thewhistlerequiresverylittleenergytouse,canbeheardmuchfartherthanthehumanvoiceandlastsmuchlonger.Getawhistlethathasacontrastingcolor,suchasyelloworbrightorange,andalanyardsothatitmaybewornaroundtheneckforfastusewheninasurvivalsituation.

INSECTREPELLENT—Forprotectionagainstmosquitoes,ticks,chiggersandotherbitinginsects,Icarryasmallpacketofinsectrepellent.Duringwarmweatheritisworthitsweightingold,especiallyatnightwhenmosquitoesareflying.

FLASHLIGHT—Iincludeasmallflashlightinmykit.Iliketheonesthatuselithiumbatteriesduetotheir10-yearshelflife.Theflashlightcanbeusedforsignalingandisamustfordoingcampchoresinthedark.SelectaqualitycompactflashlightsuchastheStreamlightTwin-TaskorSure-FireE2Executive.

ALUMINUMFOIL—OneofthemostversatileitemsIcarryinmysurvivalkitisa36”×36”pieceofheavy-dutyaluminumfoilfoldeduptoabout3”×3”.Itcanbeusedtomakeavesselforboilingwaterorcookingfood,tomakeareflectorforafireandasasignalmirror.

WATERPURIFICATIONTABLETS—While food need not be a concern for the 72-hour survivalordeal,waterwillbenecessary.Sincesafedrinkingwaterhasbecomescarceeven in themost remotewildernessareas,itisagoodideatotakealongasmallbottleofPotableAquatabletstotreatdrinkingwater.Besuretofollowinstructionscarefully.

GALLON-SIZERESEALABLEPLASTICBAG—Packyoursurvivalkitinaone-gallonresealablebag,suchasZiplock.Itcanbeusedtoholdwaterwhiletreatingwithwaterpurificationtablets.

PARACHUTE CORD — Carry a 50-foot length of parachute cord. You will find it serves manypurposes,especiallywhenimprovisingashelter.Ifsmall,strongstringisneeded,theparachutecordcanbecutopenand themanysmallstrings,whichmakeup thecoreof thecord,canbeusedseparately torepairclothing,closeanendofthetubetent,etc.

POCKETSURVIVALGUIDE— Don’t forget to place a copy of this book in the kit. It can be aninvaluableresourcetorefertowhencaughtinanunexpectedsituation.Thissurvivalkitwillfitintoacoatpocketordaypackandcostfrom$40to$100,dependinguponthecostoftheflashlight.Itisnotsufficienttopurchaseall these itemsandput theminyourdaypack, tackleboxorhuntingcoatpocket tobe therewhenyouneedthem.Likeanyspecializedoutdoorgear,youneedtogivethemafieldtest.Actuallyusethemovernight,soyouarefamiliarwiththemwhenyouneedthemmost.

OTHERIMPORTANTITEMS—Ifyourequirespecialmedications,suchasinjectionstocounteractstinginginsects, thenbyallmeans include this inyourgear.Somepeople includeaPowerBar in theirsurvival kit. I always carry bottled water in my daypack on outings. Don’t load yourself down withunnecessaryitems,butincludethosewhichyoudeemnecessaryforyoursafety.Whenyouuseitemsfromyoursurvivalkit,makeitahighprioritytoreplacethemASAP.

SOURCESOFSURVIVALKITITEMS—

MostsurvivalitemsmentionedcanbefoundingoodcampingsupplystoresorbygoingtothefollowingWebsites:

www.campmor.comwww.foxridgeoutfitters.comwww.epcamps.comwww.cabelas.comwww.mpioutdoors.com

POCKETFIRST-AIDKIT

•Steriledressing•Gauzerollerbandageorelasticrollerbandage(AceWrap)•Adhesivebandages(Band-Aids™)•Woundclosurestrips(heavy-dutybutterflyadhesivebandages)•Adhesiveorducttape•PolysporinorDoubleAntibioticOintment•Tweezersandsafetypins

BASICSURVIVALFIRSTAID

Thefollowingrecommendationsarebasedontheassumptionthatthesurvivorisaloneandwillhavetotreathimself.

BLEEDINGYoumustcontrolseriousbleedingimmediately!

ArterialBleeding—Arteriescarrybloodawayfromtheheart.Bloodfromacutarteryappearsbrightred and comes in distinct spurts that match the rhythm of the heartbeat. Arterial blood is under highpressure and a cut artery can result in the loss of a large volume of blood in a short period of time.Arterialbleedingmustbecontrolledimmediatelyordeathmayresult.

VenousBleeding—Veinscarrybloodbacktotheheart.Bloodfromaseveredveinwillappeardarkredorbluishincolorandwillcomeinasteadyflow.Venousbleedingismoreeasilycontrolledthanarterialbleeding.

Capillary Bleeding — Bleeding from capillaries, small vessels that connect arteries and veins,commonlyoccursasaresultofsmallcutsandabrasions.Capillarybleedingiseasilycontrolled.

DirectPressure—Themosteffectivewaytocontrolexternalbleedingisdirectpressureappliedoverthe wound. The pressure must be firm enough to stop the blood flow and should be maintained longenoughtoclosethedamagedsurface.Wheneverpossible,thebleedingpartshouldbeelevatedabovetheleveloftheheart—forexample,byraisingalimb.

PressureDressing— If bleedingcontinues afterpressurehasbeenapplied for about30minutes, youshould apply a pressure dressing. This should be a thick dressing of gauze or othermaterial applieddirectlyoverthewoundandheldinplacebyatightlywrappedbandage.Thebandageshouldnotbesotightastorestrictcirculation.Keepthedressinginplace.

Tourniquet—Usea tourniquetonly incasesofmassivewoundswithseverebleedingorwhendirectpressurecannotcontrolbleeding.Atourniquetshouldonlybeplacedontheupperlegorarms.Placea

tourniquet between thewound and the heart, never directly over the injury or fracture.Use a stick totightenthetourniquetjustenoughtostoptheflowofblood.Bindthefreeendofthesticktothelimb.Cut-offbloodflowcanresultinthelossofalimb.Alonesurvivorshouldnotreleasethetourniquet.Undernormalcircumstancesatourniquetshouldbeloosenedevery10to15minutestorestorebloodflowtothelimbbutthiscanberiskyifyouarebyyourself.

WOUNDSInmostsurvivalsituationsitisbestnottotrytocloseawound.Leavethewoundopentoallowdrainagefromany infection thatmayoccur.Cover thewoundwithacleandressingandbandageandchange thedressing daily if possible. In the case of a gapingwound, you can close the edgeswith a “butterfly”adhesivestripmadefromadhesivetapeoraBand-Aid™.

SPRAINSSprains are the stretching or tearing of ligaments when a joint is twisted beyond its normal range ofmotion.Iceorsomeformofcoldshouldbeapplied,ifpossible,totheinjuredareatoreduceswelling.Heat should not be used since it will encourage internal capillary bleeding and increase swelling. Acompressionwrap,madebyplacingsomeformofpaddingovertheinjuredjointandwrappingwithanelastic bandage, will prevent swelling and give support. Where possible the injured joint should beelevatedabovethelevelofthehearttoreduceswelling.

FRACTURESRelocating or setting bones will be difficult for a lone survivor. A simple fracture can be treated byimmobilizingtheinjuredlimbwithanimprovisedsplinttoreducepainandpreventfurtherinjury.

TheaboveproceduresarerecommendedintheU.S.ARMYSURVIVALMANUALFM21-76.

4.WEATHER

EquipYourselfforLocalWeatherConditions

Beforegoingafield,listentoacurrentweatherreportanddressfortheworstoftheexpectedweather.Expecttheunexpected.

Badweatherisoftenthecauseofpeoplegettingstrandedintheoutdoors.Oneofthemostvaluabletoolsanyoutdoorsmancanhaveinhisbasecamp,vehicleorwhileonanoutingisasmallNOAA(NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration)weather-bandradio.TheycanbepurchasedatmanyoutdoorstoresandelectronicstoressuchasRadioShack.TheNOAAWeatherRadioSystembroadcasts timelyweather information for local areasacross theUnitedStatesona24-hour-a-daybasis.Thenetwork iscapable of reaching 90 percent of all Americans. Canada has a similar system called WeatheradioCanada.

Someweather-bandradiosareequippedwithanalarmfeaturesothattheywillautomaticallyturnonwhen severe weather threatens. Most of the weather-band radios operate on a battery, making themconvenienttocarryintothebackcountry.Makeaweather-bandradioamust-haveitemofequipmentforyourbasecamporvehicle.Useitpriortoeveryouting!Beforegoingintothewoodsforanyperiodoftime, take a fewminutes and listen to theweather-band radio for forecasts of theweather during theperiodyouwillbeoutside.Then,dressfortheweather.

DRESS FOR THE UNEXPECTED— Even in areas of mild weather the temperature can changedramaticallyasthetimeofdaychanges.Desertsthatarehotduringthedaycanbecoldatnight.Suddenrain showers can change amild day into a cold one.Climbing steepmountains can cause a person tosweat,makinghisclothingwet,whichcanthenmakehimfeelcoldinthewind.

Thepointis,alwaysexpecttheunexpectedwhenplanninganouting.Itdoesnottakemuchspaceinadaypacktoincludealightweightrainsuit.Itmayevencomeinhandyonadrydayasawindbreaker.Ifyougetlostorstranded,youcouldbeoutadayortwolongerthanexpected.Duringthattime,theweathercoulddramaticallychange.

Dress for the expectedweather temperature extremes for the period you intend to be out. Dress inlayerssothatyoucanremoveclothingandputinyourdaypackasthetemperaturewarmsuporyouexertyourself.Asthetemperaturedrops,oryouslowyourpace,youcanputthelayersbackon.Most importantly,don’tgooffwithoutahat.Duringcoolorcoldweather,asmuchas75percentof

yourbodyheatlosscanbethroughtheuncoveredhead.Thiscanbecriticalduringaperiodofsurvival,especiallyduringthenightwhenyouaretryingtorest.

Wearclothingtomatchtheclimateandlistentotheweather-bandradioforchanges.Don’tpushyourluckinbadweather.Adayspentincampduringdensefog,snowstorm,thunderstorms,etc.,ismuchbetterthananightinasurvivalcampwishingyouhadcanceledtheouting.

5.TROUBLE

YouAreinTrouble—Stop!

Whenyoufirstrealizeyouarelostorstranded,STOPthenandrelax.Yourmindisyourbestsurvivaltoolifitiscalmandthinkingrationally.

Yourmostimportantsurvivalskillisyourabilitytoadmitthatyouarelostorstranded.Thatisnotaneasydecision tomake.Most people will not admit that until they have wandered around for long periodsgettingintoaworsesituationthantheywouldhavebeeninhadtheyrecognizedtheirpredicamentatthebeginning.

Onceyouadmitthatyouarelostorstranded,sitdownandthink.Ifyouhaveacellphoneortwo-wayradio,nowisthetimetocallforhelpandawaitthehelp.Getcontrolofyourself,avoidpanicandstaycalm.Mentally,youmustacceptthechallengeyouarefacingandmakethebestoftheadventure.Ifyouleftatripplanwitharesponsiblepersonbeforeyouleft,chancesarethatpeoplewillbelookingforyousoon.Youradventurewillbe short lived.Even in remote regionsofNorthAmerica,99percentof themissingpeopleonoutingsarefoundwithin72hoursorless.Youwillbetoo.

Let’sfaceit,avoidingpanicisdifficultwhendealingwithyourselfor,ifyouarenotalone,withthosepeoplearoundyouwhenfearbeginstosetin.Mostpeoplewhogetlostorstrandedpanictosomedegreebutthosewhofarebestgetcontroloftheirthoughtsquickly.Inextremecases,thosewhopanicmayforgetwhotheyareorwheretheyare.Someevenhidefromsearchers.Thiserraticbehaviormakesitdifficultforsearcherstofindthem.Hereisagoodwaytomanagepanic:

STOP

Thefirstthingtodowhenyouadmittoyourselfthatyouarelostorstrandedistoresistthetemptationtowalkorrunyourwayoutofthesituation.STOP!Thisistheacronymfor:

SitThinkObservePlanFollowthissimpleplanofcontrollingpanic.

Sit—Theactofsittingdownwillhelpkeepyoufromgettingintodeepertrouble.Thisoneactalonecanalso jump-start the thinking process, and it helps suppress the urge to run or to make hasty, foolishdecisions.Youwillneedthistimetogetovertheshockthatithashappenedtoyou:YOUARELOST.

Think—Survivalisthechallengetostayalive.Yourmindisthebestsurvivaltoolyouhave.Insuchasituation,youareatthemercyofyourmind.Inordertosurvive,youmustkeepincontrolbythinkingofpasttraining,bymaintainingapositivementalattitudeandbydevelopingthedeterminationtosurvive.

Thinkaboutyourpriorities.TheprioritiesofsurvivalareknownastheRulesofThree:

1.Youmaybedoomedinthreesecondsifyouletpanicrule.2.Youcannotlivemorethanthreeminuteswithoutoxygen.3.Youcannotlivemorethanthreehoursintemperatureextremeswithoutbodyshelter.4.Youcannotlivemorethanthreedayswithoutwater.5.Youwillneedfoodinthreeweeks.

Theseprioritiestellyouthatyouneedtothinkoftherealandimmediatedangers,notthoseconjuredup

byyourfears.Yourmostimmediatedangerisyourownmind.Don’tletfeartakecontrolandcloudclear,resourcefulthinking.

Observe—Observeyoursurroundingstodiscoverwhatproblemsmustbesolvedandwhatresourcesyouhavetosolvethem.Youwillneedshelter,signals,fire,waterandacampsitethatiseasilyspotted.

Selectacampsite,getoutyoursurvivalkitandsetaboutgettingreadytobefound.Ifyouarewithothers,makejobassignments.Geteveryoneinvolved.Keepeveryonebusy.Keepeveryonepositive.

Plan—Nowthatyouaresettleddownandreadytolivetheadventure,makeplanstosettheminmotion.

1.Selectasurvivalcampsitenearanopenareaoryourstalledvehicle.2.Setupasetofsignals,withbackups,andkeepthemreadyforinstantuse.3.Erectyourtubetentorconstructsheltermakingitreasonablycomfortablewithoutwastingenergy.4.Gatherfirewoodandstartafire.5.Maintainapositivesurvivalspirit.6.Dispelfears.7.Boostthewilltolive.8.Getcomfortable,enjoytheuniqueexperienceandgetreadytobefound.Itwillnottakelong.

6.SIGNALS

PrepareYourSignals

Wavingbrightclothingorothergearinanopenareacangettheattentionofasearchaircraft.

Youneedtobeabletohearthesearchers,sotrytoavoidasurvivalcampsitenearnoisywaters.

Whetheryouarelostorstranded,thefirststeptobeingfoundistoleaveatripplanwitharesponsibleperson.Next,youneedtobeseenorheard.Assumingyouhaveletsomeoneknowwhereyouaregoingandwhenyouexpect to return, itwon’tbe longbeforesomeonewillbe looking foryou in thearea inwhichyouarelocated.Yourfirstconcernshouldbetopreparetobeseen,orheard,bytherescueparty.

Trytoavoidmakingyoursurvivalcampnearawaterfallorroaringcreek.Youneedtobewhereyoucan hear searchers and a survival camp in these locations drown out sounds made by searchers andsometimesyoursignalstothem.Signaling is a survival skill thatnoone should take lightly, especially sincewenowhaveexcellent

searchaircraftthatcanbeintheairoverthesearchareasoonafterapersonisreportedmissing.Also,hasty teamsof experienced searchers can be on the ground looking for amissing personwithin a fewhoursafterheorsheisreportedmissing.

Herearesomeofthebestsignalingmethods,secondonlytoaworkingtwo-wayradioorcellphone:

SIGNALMIRROR—Most survival experts consider the signalmirror to be one of the best signaldevicesavailable.Theyaresmallandeasytocarryinasurvivalkit,coatordaypack.Itamazespeoplehowfarareflectionfromtheselittlemirrorscanbeseen.

UnitedStatesAirForce rescueplanes have spotted a signalmirror fromas far away as 100miles.Distancesof30to40milesarecommon.Severaltimeslostpeoplehaveusedasignalmirrortoattracttheattentionofrangersinaforestfiretowerorsearchersmilesawayonamountainsideorinaflatdesert.

ATexas pilotwas flying home fromAlaskawhenhis helicopter crashed in a thick spruce forest inBritishColumbia.For14dayshesurvivedatthecrashsite.Hewasfoundduetousingapieceofshinymetalasasignalmirrortogettheattentionofasearchandrescueplaneasitflewover.ManydownedcombatpilotsandmilitaryspecialopsunitsinSoutheastAsiaduringthe1960sand70sowetheirlivestoasignalmirror.

Thesignalmirrorisoneofthemostvaluedsignals.Aircraftpilotscanseeitformiles.

SignalmirrorsmaybepurchasedatmanyoutdoorsupplystoresandtherearenumeroussourcesfoundwhenyousearchtheWeb.Today,mostsignalmirrorsaremadefromtoughplasticandhaveinstructionson the back.While the instructions are easy to follow, no one shouldwait until they get in a survivalsituationbeforetheylearnhowtouseitproperly.Practiceuntilyouunderstandtheproperwaytousethemirror.

Thesignalmirrorisquickandeasytouse.Practicetheaimingandcorrectuseofthesignalmirrorathomebeforegoingafield.

Most signalmirrors have a hole in the center for aiming.They are used to reflect the sun,moonoraircraftsearchlighttosignalanoverheadaircraft,boatorothertargetsuchasasearchpartythatiswithinviewbutalongdistanceaway.Hereishowtousethesignalmirror:

1.Holdthemirrorinfrontofyoureyesoyoucanseethroughthehole.2.Makesuretheshinysideistowardthesun,moonorsearchlight.3.Takeyourotherhandandholditoutatarm’slength.4.Reflectlightontotheextendedhand.5.Whilelookingthroughtheaiminghole,turnthemirrorinordertoswingthereflectedspottowardthetarget.6.Keepyoursignalmirrorwithyouandbepreparedtouseitfast.

Signalmirrorsmaybeimprovisedfromalmostanyshinyobject,suchasaluminumfoil,acarmirror,

thebottomoutofatincanwithaholeinthecenterorevenaCD.Infact,aCDmakesanexcellentsignalmirror,duetoitshighlyreflectivesurfaceandtheholeinthecenterthatcanbeusedasanaimingdevice.

POLICEWHISTLE—Aloudwhistlesuchasthoseusedbypolice,coachesanddoghandlersmakesanexcellentsignaldevice.Itiseasytocarry,requireslittleenergytouse,canbeheardmuchfartherthanthehuman voice and lasts long after a shouting person becomes hoarse.Thewhistlemakes a good signalwhenagroundpartyisconductingthesearch.Thewhistleiseasilyheardandiftrackingdogsarebeingused,theycanhearitfromgreatdistances.

Touseawhistleeffectively,staycalmanddonotblowthewhistleuntilitisthoughtthatsomeoneiswithinhearingdistance.Toblowawhistle continuously forhourswhennoone is aroundonlywastesvital energy and brings on frustration.When you think enough time has gone by and people are likelylooking for you, trygiving a fewblowsonyourwhistle every30minutes just in case someone is outthere,andthenwhistlethemin.Whenyouhearsearchers,stayputandletthemcometoyou.

FIRE—Oneof thebest-knownsignals,bothdayandnight, isa fire.Atnight,abrightcampfire inanopening canbe seen formiles from the air and a fair distanceon theground, especially inmountains.Duringtheday,thesamefirecanbemadetosmokewhenwetleavesorgreenvegetationispiledonit.Smokeduringthedayisanexcellentsignal.

Remembertobeextremelycarefulwhenmakingandusingasignalfire.

Thesurvivalcampfirecanbeagooddayornightsignalifproperlyused.

When in a survival situation,most people are upset and excited andmistakes come easily.You are in

enoughtroublealreadywithoutgettingcaughtinaforestfirethatyouhaveset.

Carrykitchenmatchesinawaterproofcontainerandafirestarterwithyou.Knowhowtostartafireeven inwet conditions.Buildinga fire ina survival situation ismoredifficult thanmostpeople think.Mastertheskilloffiremakingbeforeyouactuallyneedit.

FLASHLIGHT—Oneof thenewgenerationsofultrabright flashlights,suchas thosebySureFireorStreamlight,makesanexcellent signalatnight. If the flashlighthasanon-off switch thatallowsyou tosignal“SOS”inMorsecode,somuchthebetter.Threeshortflashes,threelongflashes,andthreeshortflashesarethe“SOS”signalknowntoallrescuepersonnel.Evenasmalllightoutintheopencanbeseenalongwaybyaircraftatnight.

BRIGHTCLOTHING&EQUIPMENT—Thebrightorangeclothingmanyhunterswearworkswellasasignal,especiallyifaircraftisusedinasearch.EvenawhiteT-shirtoryellowrainsuitcanbeusedas a signalpanel.Brightly coloredequipment suchas a red tube tentororangepackhasbeenused tosignalsearchers.Thebottomlineistofindsomethingthatstandsoutfromtheterrainyouarein.

GROUND-TO-AIRSIGNALS—Searchpilotsareall familiarwithground-to-airsignals.Thesearelarge symbols the lost or stranded person forms out in the OPENwhere they can be seen by searchaircraft.Theymustcontrastwiththegroundtobeseen.Darklimbsonsnoworlightcoloredrocksondarksoilareexamplesofwhathasprovenuseful.

Thesignalmustbelargetobeseenfromtheair.Forexamplethe“X,” theuniversalsignalforhelp,shouldhavelegsthatare3feetinwidthandasingleleglengthof18feet.

Ground-to-air signals should have lines that are 3 feetwide and 18 feet long to be seen by searchaircraft.

Ground-to-AirSignalsHerearethesymbolssearchpilotsrecognize.Rememberthe“X”istheoneusedmostoften:

GUNSHOTS—Gunshotscanbeagoodsignal,andtheycarryalongdistance;however, theymustbeused at the right time to be effective. If you are in trouble during hunting season your shots may be

mistakenasshotsfromhunters.Saveyourammunitionandwaituntilwellafterdark.Thenfirethreeshotsinto theair.Listenfor threeshots inreturn. Ifyoumakecontact, fireonlyoneshotwhenyouhearyoursearchersshoot.Saveyourammoas itmaytakeseveralshots toguide themin. Ifyougetnoresponse,saveyourammoanddon’tshootagainuntilyouhearsoundsfromyoursearchers.Ifthereisnoonenearenoughtohearyourgunshotsorif theyareconfusedwithhunters, itwillonlybeawasteofammoandbringnohelp.

Itisimportanttoknowhowtousesignalsproperly,andthatyouhavethesignalsreadyforuseonshortnotice.Also,itisimportanttochooseanopenareatodoyoursignaling.Manysignalswillnotbeseenfromtheairifyousitunderathickcanopyoftalltreestoawaitrescue.Selectanopenarea,ifpossible,towaitforyourrescuersandhaveyoursignalsready.Areas,suchasoldroads,fields,sitesofoldforestfires,sea-orlakeshoreoranyothertypeofopeningwillhelpyoubeseenearlyinthesearch.Remembertostaywhereyouare,anddon’tgiveintotheurgetotravel.Signalingwillbringhelptoyou.

7.SHELTER

ConstructaShelter

Shelter isoften the firstpriorityof survival. In thiscase, shelter from120-degreeheat is soughtbydiggingintothegroundunderadisabledtruck.Thetruckbecameanoveninthisheat.

Shelter is defined as a “place affording protection from the elements.”Every survivor, facedwith theproblemofprotectinghimself from the elements,must considerusingevery conceivableplace alreadyexisting inhis immediateareaorusingeveryavailablematerialathand to improviseaplace thatwillaffordmuch-neededprotection.Whendecidingwhattypeofsheltertobuild,youmustfirstconsiderwhattheshelteris toprotectyoufrom,i.e.,rain,cold, insects,heat.Asanexample,wheninhot,aridareas,protection from the sun during the daymay be the prime consideration. In frigid areas, extreme coldaggravatedbyhighwindsor, in someseasons, swarmsof insectsmaybe thedangers thatdictatewhattypeofprotectionthesurvivormustseek.

Inaddition toprotection fromnaturalelementsandconditions,anadequateshelteralsoprovides thesurvivorwithpsychologicalwell-being,sonecessaryforsoundrest.Adequaterestisextremelyimportantif thesurvivoris tomakesounddecisions.Theneedforrestbecomesmorecriticalas timepassesandrescue isprolonged.Restcontributes tomentalandphysicalhealth,andadequatesheltercontributes tosoundrest.Becauseofthesefactors,adequatesheltermustbeplacedhighontheprioritylistifsurvivalis

tobesuccessful.

Constructingshelterforyoursurvivalcampmayormaynotbearushmatter.Iftheweatherismildwithnorain,youmaypostponeconstructingashelter.However,iftheweatherisbadorsubjecttogetworse,then shelter construction may become very high on your list of priorities. One plus for shelterconstruction,assumingyouareingoodshape,isthatitkeepsyouoccupied.Constructingagoodshelterwhereyoucanrestcomfortablyoutoftheelementstakestimeandsomework,butthiswillhelpkeepyourmindoffyourtroubles.

The location of your shelter site will depend on several things. The first priority is that it be in alocationwheresearchaircraftorgroundpartiescaneasilyseeyou.Iwasonceleadingagroundsearchpartylookingfortwolosthikers.Ittookustwodayslongerthanitshouldhavetofindthehikersduetothehiddenlocationtheyhadselectedtosetuptheirsurvivalcamp.

Ifyouarestrandedwithavehicle,plane,boat,snowmobileorcanoe, try toeitheruse thecraftasacamporsetupyourshelternearbyduetotheirhighvisibility.Theexceptiontothiswouldbeifthecraftwerehiddenbythickbrushortrees.

Ifyouarewalkingorskiing,selectanopenarea, ifpossible, inwhichtosetupyoursurvivalcamp.Thismayrequirethatyoucutsomebrushorsmalltrees.Avoidconstructingyourshelterinalowswampareaor in a dry creekbed.Your predicament is bad enoughwithout getting caught in a flash floodorrisinggroundwater.Also,inwarmweather,mosquitoesmaybeaproblem.

Lookupbeforeselectingasheltersite.Don’tbuildyourshelterunderstandingdeadtreesordeadlimbsorbranchesheavywithsnow.Thesecouldfallonyou.Avoidthickoverheadvegetationthatcouldblockthe view for aircraft as well as conceal your distress signals. Avoid avalancheprone slopes. Try toconstructyoursheltersothatyoucansleepcomfortably.Selectalevelornearlevelsite.Removestonesandsticks.Yoursleepisvitaltoconserveenergyforsurvival.

Setupaground-to-airsignalassoonasyouhaveasurvivalcampsiteselected.Iftheweatherisnottoobad, setyoursignalsupbeforeyouconstructyourshelter.Waitingmaycauseyou tomissachance forearlyrescue.

Ifpossible,findanopeningandsetupyourshelternearasourceofwatersuchasaspring,creek,riverorlake.Notonlydoesthissaveenergyingettingwater,butitalsoisagoodplacetofindanimalsandplantsforfood.Otherpeoplevisitareasnearwatermorefrequently,thusincreasingyourchancesofbeingdiscovered.

Thetypeofshelteryouselecttouseinyoursurvivalcampwillbebasedonseveralfactors:

1.Whatsheltermaterialdoyouhavewithyou—tubetent,vehicle,canoe,airplane,tarp,emergencyblanket,sheetofplastic,etc?2.Whatequipmentdoyouhavetoaidinshelterconstruction—axe,saw,knife,rope,etc?3.Whatnaturalmaterialsareavailableforshelterconstruction—rocks, trees,poles,snow,cave,etc?4.Whatistheweatherlikenow?Whatkindofweatherdoyouexpect?5.Whatistheseasonoftheyear?

Howeffectiveyourshelterwillbewilldependuponwhatyouhavetoconstructitwithandwhatthe

weather is like, plus your ability to improvise and any previous training you have had in shelterconstruction.

TubeTent

Ifyouaretravelinginthebackcountrybyfoot,ATV,vehicle,plane,snowmobile,canoe,boat,horsebackor skis, youwould be smart to take a tentwith you. I learnedwhileworking in northernCanada andAlaskatohaveatubetentwithmeatalltimes.Ihavespentmanyunplannednightsinthewilderness.Thetube tent iseasyandquick tosetup.Yousimplyrunaropeorcords through theplastic tubeand tie itbetweentwotrees.Sincetheyblowlikeasailinhighwind,itisagoodideatoweighdownthefrontandrearopeningswithrocksorheavylogs.

Thetubetentyoupackinyoursurvivalkitisoneofthebestquicksheltersavailable.

Alean-tomadefromaSpaceblanketortarpisaneffectiveshelterandissimpletoerect.

Lean-to

A tarp,oranemergencyblanket, especiallyone inabrightorangecolor,makesanextremelyversatileshelter. It can be stretched over an open boat tomake a cozy shelter. It can be stretched alongside anoverturnedcanoetoformalean-to.Youcanalsostretchitfromawingofaplanetothegroundorfromthesideofavehicletotheground.Itmakesagoodlean-to,especiallywhentryingtoescapedesertheat.Arainprooflean-toisgoodincoldweatherbecausewhenusedwithareflectorfire,thesheltercanbecomfortableintheworstofweather.

SpaceBlanket

TheMPI Space blanket, which is sold in many camping supply stores, is a good item to carry in apersonalsurvivalkit.Thisblanketismadefromaverythinbutstrongspace-agematerialthatcanreflect90percentoftheheatthrownagainstit.Itiscompact,aboutthesizeofapackofcigarettes.Itcanbemadeintoalean-to,andwhenusedwithareflectorfire,isverywarm.Thisblanketmakesawarmsleepingbagwhenfoldedproperly.

Anytypeofplasticthatislargeenoughcanbemadeintoalean-to.Thisincludescuttingplasticgarbagebagssothattheymakeasquaresheet.

NaturalShelters

Arockoverhangorcavemakesoneofthebestnaturalshelterstobefound.Infact,duringthe1700s,thelonghunterswhowereexploringthewildernesswestoftheAppalachianMountainsspententirewintersinsurvival-typecampstheymadeunderrockoverhangs.Bybuildinguprockorlogwallsaswindbreaks,theseshelterscanactuallybecomfortable.Onedownside,though,duetotheirlocations:Theyareusuallydifficulttospotfromtheairorfromanygreatdistanceontheground,makingrescuemuchmoredifficult.Locatingground-to-airsignalsnearbyisamustwhenusingthesetypesofshelters.

Manytimes,freshlyblown-downtreescanbemadeintoasurvivalshelterbycuttingawaythelimbsneartheground.Iflargepiecesofbarkarearound,usethemtoimprovetheroof.

A natural shelter, such as this rock overhang, may be found in the survival area. Due to it beingsomewhathiddenfromtheair,ground-to-airsignalsshouldbesetup.

SnowShelters

In thewinter thereare several survival shelters that canbeconstructed.However, shelters suchas thefamous snow cave take a lot of energy and skill. The hole-in-the-snow shelter is one of the simplersheltersifthesnowisatleast4feetdeep.

Hole-in-the-SnowShelter—Findanevergreentreethathaslimbsextendingdowntosnowlevel,thendigoutallthesnowarounditstrunkrightdowntotheground.Next,trimalltheinsidebranchesandusethemtolinethebottomandfinishthetop.Sincethisshelterishidden,besuretokeepyourground-to-airsignalsoutandcleanofsnow.

SnowCave—Asnowcaveisanexcellentcoldweathershelter,butitrequiresalotofenergy,ashovelorsimilardevice,andsomeskill.Beginbyfindingapackedsnowdriftthatisabout7feethighand12feetormorewide.Thenstartdiggingalowtunnelintothesnowbank.Afteryoudigthetunnel2feetintothesnowbank,hollowoutanopeninglargeenoughforyoutoliedown.

Next,pushastickthroughtheroofata45-degreeangletomakeaventhole.Inthebackofthecave,buildthebedplatformatleast18incheshigh.Toconserveheat,thecaveshouldbebuiltjustlargeenoughtosleep,dressandundresswhilelyinginthesleepingbag.Ifdesired,thesleepingshelfmaybewalledintoconserveheat.Inadditiontotheventilationholethroughtheroof,thereshouldbeanotheratthedoorifyoupushsnowintotheopeningtoblocktheoutsideelements.

Ahole-in-the-snowsheltercanbeduginsnow-coveredareasbydiggingapitatthebaseofevergreentreeswithlow-hangingbranches.

Since they cannot be heatedmany degrees above freezing, life in snow shelters is rugged. It takesseveralweekstoacclimateyourselftotheeffectsoflivinginsuchacoldatmosphere.Youwillrequiremorefoodandhotdrinks.

Regardlessofhowcolditmaygetoutside, thetemperatureinsideasmall,well-constructedsnowcaveprobablywill not be lower than -10ºF, andwith a candle, it can be heated to 32°F. Snow caves aredifficultforsearcherstofind.Goodsignalsareamust.

Therearemanyothercrudesheltersthatcanbemade.Thesecrettoshelterconstructionissimple—usewhatisavailabletoprotectyourselffromtheelements.Constructwhatevershelterusestheleastamountofenergytobuildand,ifpossible,setitupwhereitcanbeseen.Inmostcases,thetubetentyoucarryinyoursurvivalkitwillbethebestemergencyshelter.

Constructedinasnowdriftorbank,asnowcavesheltermakeseffectiveuseoftheinsulatingqualitiesofsnow.Thewallshouldbeatleast17inchesthick.

8.BUILDAFIRE

BuildaSurvivalFire

Fireservesmanyvaluablepurposesinthesurvivalcamp.Canyoubuildfireonacold,wet,windydaywithjustonematch?

You realize you are lost or, perhaps, stranded.You have stopped and calmed down.You havewiselydecidedtowaitforrescue.Findinganearbyopeninginthewoodswhereyoursignalscanbeseenfromtheair,youtakeoutyoursurvivalkitandlocateyourwaterproofmatchcontainerandfirestarterandbuilda fire.Soundseasy,doesn’t it?But,what ifyoudidn’thavematches?What ifyoudidn’tknowhowtobuildafire?Theunknowingmightsayyoucanalwaysstartafirewithflintandsteelorwithafiredrillorwithalensfromyourglasses.Theunknowingmightalsosayanybodycanbuildafire.Howwrongthiskindofthinkingcanbe.

First, let’sestablishhowvaluableafirecanbetoalostorstrandedperson.Mostpeoplelost inthebackcountryarescared,embarrassed,lonely,hungry,oftencoldorbeingattackedbyflyingpests,boredandusuallyinpoorspirits.Afirecansolvemanyoftheseproblems.Asurvivalfireservesasasignal,keeps the lost person busy, drives away pests, provides warmth, purifies water, dries clothing, liftsspirits, cooks food, gives light andmay be used in craftingmany useful items. Fire gives a sense ofsecurityand,inaway,providescompany.Flamecanhardenawoodenspearpoint.Thewhiteashescanbeconsumedtoovercomeconstipation,theblackashestostopdiarrhea.Inshort,fireisoneofthemostvaluableaidstoyoursurvival.

Useyourknifetogetintothedrywoodfoundinthecenterofadamplog.

Except for a handful of experts, there are few among uswho can start a firewithoutmatches or alighter.Flintandsteel, firedrill, fireplow,etc.,make interestingdemonstrationsbutseldomwork inarealsurvivalcamp.Also,theyusealotofenergy.Despitewhatmanysurvivalbookssay,therearefewsubstitutesforfresh,drywoodenstrike-anywherekitchenmatchesandprepackagedfirestarters(suchasCoghlan’sEmergencyTinderorCampmor’sFireLighters)inarealsurvivalsituation.Makeitapracticetocarryawaterproofmatchcontainersuppliedwithafreshsupplyofstrike-anywherematchesandfirestarterswithyouatalltimesinyoursurvivalkit.Thiscombinationhelpsmakefirestartingincold,wet,darkconditionsmuchquickerandeasier.Makesureyoureplacethematcheseverysixmonthsorsoastheydeteriorateoverseveralmonthsandbecomeuseless.Itmightsoundsilly,butmakesureyoupracticeusingthem,too,andnotjustonnicedaystobeoutside.

Fartoomanypeoplethinkthatwithmatchesoracigarettelightertheycanbuildafire.Iknowaseasonedsearchandrescueofficialwhotellsmethateachyearhehelpsfindmanylostorstrandedoutdoorsmenwhoarecoldandwithoutafire.Theyhadmatchesoralighterbutexhaustedthemjusttryingtogetafirestarted.Seldomdowegetlostorstrandedinidealweather.Thesurvivalsituationisoften,inpart,causedbybadweather.Thatrequiresbuildingafireinwet,windy,coldconditionsthatmakeitdifficultatbest.Onlypeoplewelltrainedinfirebuildingcanpullitoff.

Leave primitive fire starting techniques to the experts.Usematches and a fire starter for survivalpurposes.

Take the time to learnanoldBoyScoutskill—builda firewithonematch ina rainstorm. It’smuchtougherthanmanythink.

Inatepeefire,thetinderandkindlingisarrangedinaconicalshapeforquickignition.

Apyramidorlog-cabinfirewillburndownwardrequiringlessattentionatnight.

StepstoBuildingaFire

Understand that you don’t just start a fire, you build it. There are five things you need to build a firesuccessfully:

1.Youmusthaveoxygen,sinceburningisnothingmorethanrapidoxidation.2.Youmusthaveasourceofheat,yourmatches.3.Youmust have tinder to catch the flame of thematch and start the fire.Your prepackaged firestarterisagoodstart.Addtothatnaturaltindersuchasabird’snest,barkfromabirchtree,cedarbark,downfromthistle,pinesapsplintersordrygrass.Evenfinesteelwoolhasbeenusedastinderwhenthestrandsarepulledapartloosely.4.Youwillneedsmallsticksandtwigstocatchthefirefromthetinder,thusmakingithotter.5.Youwillneeddry,deadfuelwoodandalotmoreofitthanyouwillthink.Dry,deadwoodcanbehardtofindinwetweather,butsomecanusuallybefoundonthelower limbsofevergreentrees,standingdeadtimberorsplittingwetlogsorlargelimbsandgettingtotheirdrywoodinteriors.

Buildingafireinthefirstattemptrequirespracticeandthought.Manytrytoaddlargepiecesofwood

tooquickly.Otherstrytopileonsomuchwoodthattheflamegetstoolittleoxygentoburn.Stillothersdonotgatherupthedifferentsizesofwoodnecessarytobuildafireinadvance,andthefiregoesoutwhiletheyarerunningaroundtryingtofindthetinder,smallsticksandfuelwoodnecessary.

Birchbarkmakesgoodtinderforgettingafiregoing.

Ifyouexpectsearchplanes,orareinapositionsothatgroundsearchersmightseeyourfireorsmoke,keepplentyofkindlingandfuelwoodonhandtogetafiregoingagainquicklyforsignaling.Betteryet,workatkeepingyour firegoingat all times soyoudon’thave to start anotherone fromscratch.Also,duringtheday,keepsomegreenorwetleavesorconiferboughsonhandtocreatesignalsmokequickly.

Canyoureallybuildafirewithonematchwhenyouarecold,shaking,wet,tiredandscared?Again,practiceathome!Thisisthetimetomastertheart,notwhenitreallycounts.

Firecanbeusedforlight,tohardenawoodenspear,warmth,tokeepawayinsects,asasignal,toboildrinkingwaterandmanyotherpurposes.

9.SLEEPING

SleepingWarm

TheMPISpacebagyoucarryinyoursurvivalkitwillhelpkeepyouwarmonacoldnight.

Sleepingwarmandcomfortablycannotbeemphasizedenoughinasurvivalemergency.Youneedalotofenergyforthetasksathand,andthemindneedstobesharperthanduringyournormalday-to-daylifeasthedecisionsyoumakedetermineyourwell-beingandtheoutcomeofyoursituation.

Thecombinationofalean-towithareflectorfiretodirectheatintothesheltermakesacomfortablesleepingshelter.

IfyouhaveatubetentandMPISpacebaginyoursurvivalkit,andgetthetubetentupsothatyoucangetintothebagbeforeyougetwet,thenchancesaregoodyouwillsleepwarm.Howwellyoucleanthetubetentsitewilldeterminehowcomfortablyyousleep.Takingafewminutestoremovestones,sticks,etc.,andlayingdownabedofdryleavescanmakethedifferencebetweenalong,miserablenightandacomfortable,warmnightofsleep.

ButwhataboutanightspentwithouttheaidofatubetentorSpacebag?Inthiscasethereareseveraloptions,dependingupontheterrainwhereyoudeterminetocamp.Thefirstruleistogetintoashelterofsometypethatcangiveyouprotectionfromtherain,snoworwind.Ifthissheltermakesiteasierforyoutogetafiregoing,somuchthebetter.Yourchancesofactuallygettingsomesleepimprovewhenyoucanstaywarm.Besuretogatherthreetimesasmuchwoodasyouthinkyouwillneed,asitwillprobablytakethatmuchtokeepthefiregoingallnight.Itisdifficulttokeepthebodywarmortogetenoughsleepwhenyoumustmaketwoorthreetripsoutintothecolddarknesstogatherwood.

Theidealsleepingshelter,asidefromthetubetent/Spacebagcombination,isthelean-towithitsbacktothewindandareflectorfiredirectingheatintotheshelter.Usingasheetofaluminumfoil,awallof

greenlimbs,rocks,etc.,asareflector, theall-nightfirecankeepalean-toreasonablywarmaslongasthereisenoughwood.Asthefirebeginstodie,simplytossonenoughwoodtokeepitgoinganotherfewhours.

Whenrainorsnowisnotathreat,areflectorfiredirectingheattowardalargerockordirtbankthatisalsoblockingthewindcanmakeforaniceplacetosleep.Theheatisreflectedtowardtherockorbankandbackontoyouwhileyousleep.Youhaveheatfromtwosides.

Thereflectorfireisoneofthebestfiresforkeepingwarminverycoldweather.

Youcanbuildafireonthespotyouplantosleeponandletitwarmtheearthforafewhours,thenrackthefireawaytoanewspotandsleeponthewarmearth.Ifyouhaveameansofdigging,youcanalsodigashallowholewhereyouplantolie,shovelinabedofhotashesandcoverthemupwithalayerofsoil.Makesure tocoverallof theashesandchecktoensureyouhaveenoughsoilover thembeforesimplylying down. You don’t want to have a too-hot or too-cold bed. Using coals and ashes is an energy-consumingmeansofhavingawarmbed.Someexperiencedbackwoodsmenheatanumberofflatrocksandplacethemontheground.Nextthey

placeathicklayerofprecutevergreenboughsovertherocksandsleeponthem.Again,thistypeofwarmsleepingrequiresalotofenergyandexperience.

Ifyoudon’thaveaSpacebag,sleepingbagorblanket,youcanusedrydeadgrass,leavesorevergreenboughstoprovidesomeprotectionfromthecold.Rememberthatinsulationisdeadairspaceandanythingthatwillcreatedeadairspacewillhelpkeepyouwarm.Therainsuitcanoffera lotofwarmthwhensleepingduetoitsabilitytostopthewindfromhittingyourskin.Also,stuffingdead,drygrassorleavesinsidetherainsuitcanmakeitintoamakeshiftsleepingbag.Beresourceful.

Herearesomeothertipstogettingagoodnight’ssleep:

1.Takethetimetomakethebedsiteaslevelandsoftaspossible.2.Besuretouseeverywindbreakavailable.3.Gatherthreetimesasmuchwoodasyouthinkyouneed.4.Eatsweets,ifyouhavethem,justbeforebedtimetoboostyourmetabolism.5.Donotlieawakethefirstnightexpectingsearcherseveryminute;youwillhearthemiftheygetcloseandyouwillneedtoberestedthenextday.6.Atnight,duetoyoursituation,yoursenseswillbeacutelyawareandyouwillheareverynoise.Remember,thereisnothingouttherethatwillhurtyou.Ifsomethingawakensyou,makesureitisnotsearchers;ifso,haveyourwhistleavailable,andthengobacktosleep.7.Whensleepingwithyourclotheson,keepeverythingloose,includingboots.Thebettercirculationyouhave,thewarmeryouwillsleep.Also,thispermitsmoisturetoevaporate.

Youcanbetthateveninthebestofcircumstancesyouarenotgoingtosleepinthesurvivalcampas

wellasyoudoathome,butwithalittlecareyoucangetsomesleepandthatrest ismostimportanttoyourgettingfound.

10.INSECTS

DealingwithInsects

MosquitoesareencounteredthroughoutawiderangeofNorthAmericanhabitats.

Few things can ruin anoutdoor adventure faster thanhordesofmosquitoes and/orblack flies. In largenumbers,theyhavebeenknowntobringarmiestoahalt,stampedeanimalsandturncountlesscamping,fishing and hunting trips into horror stories. In a stranded or lost emergency they can become verydangerous.Evenincoldareas,asuddenwarmsnapcanbringthepestsoutinnumbers.

Mosquitoes

Of themore than 1,600 varieties ofmosquitoes, 120 are found in North America.Many of these areknowntotransmitsuchdiseasesasWestNilevirus,encephalitisanddenguefever.Theirbitesalone,inhighnumbers,areverydangerous.

To dealwith these flying pests,we need to knowmore about them.Mosquitoesmature in standingwater.Itisthefemalemosquitothatcausesusgrief,assheneedsahigh-proteinmealbeforesheisabletolayhereggs.Physiologicalrestrictionsmakeitimpossibleforhertoeatanythingthatisnotinliquidform,andthehandiest liquid,high-proteinmealavailable toher isblood.Themalemosquito isavegetarianandfeedsonplantandfruitnectar.

Sensors, which are attracted towarm,moist animals, help the femalemosquito locate ameal. Thegenerallyacceptedtheoryinthescientificcommunityisthatthemosquitofindsitsvictimbyidentifyingandfollowingcarbondioxideandlacticacidintheair.Lacticacidisproducedbymusclemovement,andcarbondioxideisgivenoffwhenwebreathe.

Onceshefindsavictim,afemalemosquitopenetratesthevictim’sskinwithahollow,flexiblesnout,calledaproboscis,andfeeds.Theitchandlocalswellingaroundthe“bite”isanallergicreactiontothemosquito’ssaliva,whichcontainsananticoagulanttofacilitatetheflowofblood.

BlackFlies

Forthosewhohavebeenbittenbyblackflies,thebiteisaformoftorture.Thesesmall,humpbackedfliescertainlyhavefewequalswhenitcomestoinflictingpain.Ofthemorethan300varietiesofblackfliesintheworld,NorthAmericahasbeencursedwithatleast50.

Somespeciesofadultblackfliesarefiercebiterswhileotherscauseanuisancebyswarmingaroundexposedskinareas.

Unlike the mosquito, the black fly thrives in running water. Rapidly flowing streams are preferredbreedingplaces.Onceabletofly,thefemale,whichfeedsbyday,isreadyforamealinordertocarryouthertaskofreproduction.

Likethemosquito,theblackflyisfoundovermuchofNorthAmerica,butitslargestconcentrationsare

in the woodlands of Canada and in the northern part of the United States. This insect is abundantthroughoutlatespringandsummer,withMayandJunebeingtheworstmonthsinmanyareas.

Thevicious bite of the black fly is causedbybroadblades found in themouth parts of the fly.Thesebladesmakerelativelylargewounds,whichcontinuetobleedaftertheflyhasfedandgone.Oftenthebitegoesunnoticeduntil a trickleofblood is feltor seen.Black fly salivamaybe toxic, causingpainanditchingandsometimesnervousandintestinaldisorders.

Notasmuchisknownabouttheblackflyasaboutthemosquito,sowecan’tsaywhatactuallydrawsthisinsecttoitstarget.Butitisthoughtthatthefemaleblackflydetectsthecarbondioxidegivenoffbytheskinandthenfollowstheconvectioncurrentsofwarm,moistairthatthehostproduces.

Anyonewho plans to venture into the backcountry should always carry a good supply of chemicalinsectrepellent,evenifthetripisashortone.Repellentshouldalwaysbeincludedinasurvivalkitasitisthemosteffectivemosquitoandblackflydeterrent.Repellentsworkbyconfusingtheflyingcritteranddiscouragingitfromfeedingonthevictim.

Thedevelopmentofeffective repellentswasslow,and itwasn’tuntil the late1950s thata repellentcompoundwasdevelopedthatstartedprovidingthedesiredresults.ItwasN,N-diethyl-meta-toluamideandwasgiven theshorternameDEET.Thisnewcompoundwasusedby themilitary in the junglesofVietnamata75percentconcentration.Todayitisstillthebestsingleingredientinsectrepellent.Nooneis sure why DEETworks so well, but scientists think that it acts as an olfactory irritant for insects,confusingtheirsensorsandmakingtargetidentificationdifficult.

Amosquitocansensecarbondioxideand lacticacid,chemicalsexudedbymammals,up to100 feetaway.

The percentage of DEET in an insect repellent can determine how long the product will provideprotection.Iftheinsectrepellentyoupurchasehas10to15percentDEET,youcanexpectapproximatelyfourhoursofprotection;from20to50percent,approximatelysixhours;50to75percent,approximatelyeighthours;and75to100percent,afulldayofprotection.Thisvariesfrompersontoperson,butitisagoodruleofthumbtogoby.

Outdoorsmentodayareblessedwithanumberofexcellentinsectrepellentstochoosefromatthedrug-or sportinggoodsstore. I carryBen’sTickand InsectRepellent single-usepouches inmysurvivalkit.Theytakeuplittlespaceandworkwell.Whenusinganyofthesechemicalrepellents,youshouldfollowsomesimpleguidelines:

1.Readalllabeldirectionscarefully.2.Whenusingaerosolrepellents,alwayskeepsprayopeningaimedawayfromyourface,andavoid

sprayingwhilesmokingorclosetofire.3.Forthebestprotection,repellentshouldbeappliedtoallexposedskinexceptyoureyes,lipsandbrokenareasofskin.4.AvoidrepellentcontactwithoutdoorequipmentandclothingmadeofSpandex,rayon,acrylicsorplastics.Itcandissolvemonofilamentfishingline,gunstockfinishesandplasticlensesinglasses.5.Reapplyrepellentafterswimmingorperspiringheavily,sincewaterorperspirationwillweakenarepellent’seffectiveness.

Repellentsalonewillnotgiveyoutotalprotectionfrommosquitoesandblackfliesinareasofheavy

infestations.Aheadnetmaybewellworththebotheratcertaintimes.

Inbugcountry,youshouldalwayswearalong-sleevedshirtandtrousers.ApplyarepellentcontaininganappropriatepercentageofDEET to theclothingaswell as toyourexposed skin.Tokeep thepestsfrominvadingtheopeningsofyourclothing,useshortlengthsofcordtotiedownyourshirtsleevesandtrouserlegs.

Whenusingarepellent,thetrickistoapplyenoughtogetcompletecoverage.Accordingtoexperts,ittakesapproximatelyfivesecondsofspraytimetocoverthewristtotheelbow.Mostpeopletrytodoitinlessthanonesecond.

Inasurvivalsituationduringwarmweather,pickacampsitewith insectcontrol inmind.Stayawayfrompoolsofstagnantwater.Picksiteslocatedonhighbreezypointsoratleastintheopenwhereyoucantakeadvantageofanybreezethatmayhelpkeeptheinsectsaway.

WhenThereIsNoRepellent

Thereareoftenoccasionswherethelostorstrandedpersoneitherhasrunoutofrepellentorhasnoneandtheflyingpestsareoutinvastnumbers.Whenthishappens,thefirstthingtodoistocoverupallexposedskin areas. Tuck trouser legs into boots. Button sleeves tight around the wrist. Pull up shirt and coatcollarstoprotecttheneck.Putonahatandgloves.Inshort,givethebitingcrittersassmallatargetaspossible.

Next,buildasmokyfirenearyourshelter;andatatimelikethis,thesmokierthebetter.Liedownandputyourfacenearthegroundtokeepyoureyesandnoseasfreeofthesmokeaspossible.Whilethismaybeirritating,itisbetterthanbeingfedonbyflyingpests.Insevereconditions,buildtwofiresandsitinthemiddle.Thereisnogoodsubstituteforcarryinginsectrepellentinyoursurvivalkit.

NorthAmericantickspeciesincludetheAmericandogtick,thelonestartick,andtheblackleggedordeertick.

Ticks

Whileticksareapotentiallong-termhealththreatwithdiseasessuchasLymediseaseorRockyMountainspottedfever,theydonotposetheimmediatethreatthatlargenumbersofflyingpestsdo.Ticksshouldbeavoided;andwhenfoundonthebody,removed.

Therecommendedwaytoremoveanembeddedtickis tousetweezersandgentlybutfirmlypull thetickstraightout.Avoidjerkingortwistingthetick,astheheadmayremainembedded.Afterremovingthetick,washthebiteareawithsoapandwaterandapplyanantisepticifyoucan.

11.SAFEWATER

MakingWaterSafeforDrinking

Nolongercanyoutrustthewaterfoundinbackcountry,nomatterhowremoteorhowcleanthewaterappears.Treatallwaterbeforedrinking.

Thereoncewasatimewhenitwouldhavebeenunnecessarytoincludeachapterinthisbookonhowtomakewaterfoundinthebackcountrysafefordrinking,butthosedaysaregone.Todaytherearefewareasleftwhereonecan trust thequalityof thewaterandbe safe indoingso.Therefore, itbehooveseverybackcountry traveler to learn the skill of making water safe for drinking, especially those whomightpossiblyfaceasurvivalemergency.

Survivalisastressfulperiodinaperson’slife,andtheneedforpuredrinkingwaterisimportant.Thebody is approximately75percentwater, and the intake andoutputof liquids arenecessary fornormalfunctionsofthevitalorgans.

Daily water requirements, a minimum of two quarts, help maintain proper balance and efficiencywithin thesystemof thebody.Duringcoldweather,breathingalonereleasesa lotofmoisturefromthebody. Perspiration also releases moisture. Any lower intake of water results in gradual dehydration.Losingwater to the extent of 2.5percent of bodyweight, or approximatelyone andone-half quarts ofbodywater,will reduceyourbody’soperationalefficiency25percent.This losscouldbedeadly inasurvivalemergency.

There are manymyths about water purifying itself in the outdoors. One popular theory is that water,swiftly running over, around and through rocks purifies itself. Do not believe it. This is not a validhypothesis.Anothermythclaimsthatifclearwatersitsinthesunforanhour,thegermsarekilled.Again,thisisuntrue.Natureproducescleanwater,butonceitbecomesunclean,rarelydoesnaturecleanitagain.Itisyourresponsibilitytotreatquestionablewater.

Nevertrustwaterfromanunknownsource.Ifyoudonotknowthesourceofyourwatersupply,donottrust it. Some of the diseases youmay contract by drinking impure water include dysentery, Giardia,choleraandtyphoid.Thebestwaytobeassuredofhavingsafewateristocarryenoughwithyoutousefordrinking.However,inanunexpectedsurvivalsituationofseveraldays,thisisnotalwayspossible.Itisonthesetypesofemergenciesthatwatertreatmentknowledgeisamust.Hereareseveralmethodsfortreatingquestionablewater:

BoilingWater—Oneofthebestmethodsfortreatingwateristheboilingmethod.

Boiling water for 10 minutes will produce germ-free water for drinking or cooking. Since boilingleaveswaterwitha flat taste,youshouldpour itbackand forthbetween twocontainers several timesonceithascooled.Thisaeratesit,givingbackitsnaturaltaste.Avesselforboilingwatercanbeformedfromthealuminumfoilinyoursurvivalkit.

WatertreatmenttabletssuchasPotableAquashouldbeinallsurvivalkits.

CommercialTablets—Drugstoresandoutfitterstoresusuallyhavehalazone tabletsorPotableAquatabletsforthetreatmentofwater.Abottleofthetabletsfitsnicelyintheindividualsurvivalkit.Bothdoanexcellent job.Halazone tabletshavebeenusedsuccessfullyforyears.Addtwotablets toaquartofwaterandfollowwitha30-minutewait.Thenewerproduct,PotableAqua,requiresonetablettoaquartofwater, capping loosely to allow a little leakage.Wait threeminutes and shake thoroughly.Wait 10minutesbeforedrinking.Ifthewaterisverycoldorcontainsrottenleavesorsilt,usetwotabletsandwait20minutesbeforedrinking.Youcanusethegallonresealableplasticbaginwhichyoursurvivalitemsarepackedforawatercontainer.Also,theplasticbaginwhichthetubetentispackedmakesagoodwatercontainer.

CloroxTreatment—Clorox,thewashingbleachthatmakesclothessparklingwhite,isanotherexcellent

watertreatment.Toeachquartofquestionablewateradd10dropsofpureClorox.Ifforsomereasonthewateriscloudy,add20drops.Nextshakethewatervigorouslyandletitsitfor30minutes.Thereshouldbeaslightchlorineodorandtasteifthewaterisproperlytreated.Ifnot,addanother10dropsofCloroxandletthewaterstandforanadditional15minutes.

IodineTreatment—Whileiodineisnolongerusedinsomeofthenewerfirst-aidkits,itisstillinolderkitsandmakesagoodwatertreatment.Simplyaddfivedropsofiodinetoonequartofclearwaterand10dropstocloudywater.Letwaterstandfor30minutesbeforedrinking.

At thispoint I shouldpointout thatanytimeyouare treatingwater inacanteen, jugorother typeofcontainer,you shouldbe sure to rinse thecap, spout, screw threads, lid, etc.,with someof the treatedwater.Youdonotwanttomisstreatinganysurfacethatmaycomeincontactwithyourmouthorthewateryouaredrinking.

WaterFilteringDevices—Thereareanumberofcompactwaterfiltrationunits,suchasPur,KatadynandMSRthatcangivethebackcountrytravelersafewater.TheyhavebeenproventofilteroutGiardiaandotherharmfulthreatsandtheunitfitsintoapackeasily.

GettingWaterUnderExtremeColdConditions—Anytimeyouaretravelingunderfrigidconditions,you should take along a reliable backpack stove.Once you have the stove going, look for sources ofwater.Wheneverpossible,melticeforwaterratherthansnow.Yougetmorewaterforthevolumewithlessheatandtime.

Waterfilteringdevicesaregoodformakingwatersafetodrink.Ifthereisroom,theyareagooditemtohaveinyourdaypack.

Remember,snowisseventeenpartsairandonepartwater.Ifyoumeltsnowbyheating,putinalittleatatimeandcompressit,orthepotwillburn.Ifwaterisavailable,putalittleinthebottomofthepotandaddsnowgradually.

Glacialicegivesroughlytwicethewaterperfuelunitinhalfthetimethatsnowdoeswhenmelted.Inaddition,snowmoreoftencontainsdirt,sootandanimalandhumancontaminants.Donottrytoeaticeorsnow.Adayor twoof takingwater in thismanner produces a swollen, rawmucousmembrane in themouth,whichmaybecomepainfulenoughtopreventeatingordrinkinguntil the inflammationsubsides.Dogseatsnowandgetawaywithit;humanscannot.Onceyouhavewater,giveittheboilingtreatment.

CollectingRainandDewforDrinkingWater—Whensurfacewaterisscarce,dewcanbecollectedoffplantleaves,vehiclesurfaces,tubetentsurface,etc.,withaclothandsqueezedintoavessel.Somedewcanbecollectedontheundersideofaplasticsheetspreadonthegroundduringthenight.

Ifitrains,collectwaterbyfunnelingrunoffintoyourgallonplasticbag.Arainsuitcanbeusedtocatchrainbydiggingaholeinthegroundandliningitwiththejacket.Thisassumes,ofcourse,thatyouwillstaydryinyourtubetentorshelter.

GettingSedimentOutofWater—Ifclearwaterisnotavailable,takethefollowingsteps:

1.Filterthewatertobetreatedthroughacleanhandkerchieforsimilarfabric.2.Letthefilteredwaterstanduntilanyremainingsedimenthassettledtothebottom.3.Pourofftheclearwaterintothevesselwhichyouplantotreatitin,andthentreatthewater.

12.FOOD

Food—NotaNecessity

Wecanlive forweekswithout food toeat.Avoid the temptationofeatingwild foodssuchas insectsunlessyouarewelltrainedinidentificationofwildfoods.

Everytimethesubjectofsurvivalisbroughtup,thefirstdiscussionsusuallyrevolvearoundediblewildfoodsandhowtoprocurethem.Weareobsessedwitheating.Ithasbeenprovenmanytimesthatmostofuscangowithouteatingseveralweeks,ifnecessary,andnotdie.Mostofuscarryaroundanabundanceoffatthatcouldkeepusaliveforalongperiodoftime.Forthisreason,andthefactthisbookwaswrittenforthemostlikelysurvivalscenarioofspendinglessthan72hoursinthewoods,wewillnotcoverthemanyediblewildplantsandanimalsthatareavailableinNorthAmerica.

EdibleWildPlants

Forthosewhothinktheycannotgoforthreedayswithouteatingthreemealsaday,Iwouldsuggesttheyread and study the many survival and other books that describe and show detailed photos of theapproximately2,000ediblewildplantsand700toxicwildplantsfoundinNorthAmerica.Distinguishingonefromtheotherrequiresalotoffieldexperienceduringallfourseasons.Alittlebooklikethiscannotscratchthesurfaceonthissubject.

WildPlantEdibilityTest

Ifforsomereasonyouareinasituationwheretherearewildplantsyouthinkyoumusteatbutdon’tknowwhichonesareedible,theU.S.AirForceEdibilityTestmaybeofsomehelp:

1.Neverusemushroomsorfungi.2. Poisonous plant lifemeans all parts, including flowers, can be toxic. Use cautionwith plantshavingthesecharacteristics:

MilkyordiscoloredsapSpinesorfinehairsBitterorsoapytasteBeansorbulbsWhiteorredberriesShinyleavesUmbrellaflowers3.Takeasmallmouthfulandchewit.Waitfiveminutesforanyeffectssuchasburning,stinging,ornumbing.4. If there is none, swallowandwait eight hours for any effects such as diarrhea, cramps, pains,numbing,vomiting,etc.5.Ifthereisnone,repeattheprocess,usingahandfuloftheplant,andwaitanothereighthoursforilleffects.6.Ifnone,theplantisconsideredsafetoeat.

Keep inmind that anynewor strange food shouldbe eatenwith restraint until the body systemhas

becomeaccustomedtoit.Also,don’texpectwildplantstotastegood;manydon’tandothersarealmosttasteless.Ittakessomeadjustmenttogetyourstomachtoacceptadietofwildplants.

Someotherthingsyouneedtoknowaboutwildplants:

1.Plantsyouseeanimalseatingmaybetoxictoman.Deerlovepoisonivy.2.Plants thatmaybeedible inonestageof itsgrowthcyclemaynotbeedible inothers, suchaspokeweed.3.Plantsthatcontainoneediblepartmaybeinedibleonotherparts,suchasthewildplum.

EdibleWildAnimals

Ifthesurvivorreallymustresorttowildfoodsinordernottostarvetodeath,thenwildanimalsmaybeabetterchoice.Thatisifhehashuntingandtrappingskills.NorthAmericahasagoodpopulationofwildanimals,bothlargeandsmall,thatareedible.Thetrickisthatyoufirstmustgetthembeforeyoucancookthem.Even theLewis andClark expeditionmembers, at one point, almost starved to death due to notkillinganygametoeatandhadtodependuponroots.

Dependinguponthetimeofyearandwhereyouaregeographically,thereissomeformofanimalthatyoucaneatifyoucancatchorkillit.Insectsandsmallaquaticanimalsmaybetheeasiesttogatherandhighestinprotein,butwhatifitiswinter?Theremaybeanabundanceoflargeranimals;butifyoulacktheskillsnecessarytokillthem,youcouldgohungry.Andremember,animalsareoftenhardtofindevenbythemostskilledhunters.Providedyoucankillthem,wildanimalsareagoodsourceoffoodandmaybecookedoverthesurvivalfirewithease.Justdon’texpectthemtotastelikehomecooking.

Survivalfoodisnotanimportantneedforshortterm.Shelterandsignalingare.Acceptthefactthatthelastthingyoushouldconcernyourselfwithistheprocurementoffood.Ifyouhavefiledatripplanwitharesponsiblepersonandjustassoonasyouknewyouwereintroubleyoustopped,youwillberescuedlongbeforeyourhungerpainsbecomeserious.Thinkofthisexperienceasthebeginningofthatdietyouhavebeenconsidering.

Ittakesalotofexperiencetobeaneffectivegathererofwildfoods.Youwillnotneedthoseskillsforshort-termsurvival.Thisisagoodtimetostartyourdiet.

13.HYPOTHERMIA

AvoidHypothermia

Hypothermiasneaksuponitsvictim.Coolweather,windandwetclothingleadtohypothermia.

Hypothermia,aloweringofthecoretemperatureofthebody,canbeakiller.Itcanstrikeinanyseasonandinalmostanyclimate.Allthatisneededisamildairtemperature—30to50°F,wetness,rain,sweat,acreekdunking,aslightwindandatiredperson.

Hypothermiaattacksapersonintwosteps.Thefirstiswhenyourbodybeginstoloseheatfasterthanitproducesit.Atthispoint,youareawareoffeelingcold,andtheshiveringbegins.

Thesecondstepiswhenthecoldreachesthebrain,deprivingyouofgoodjudgment.Itisatthispointthatconfusionwilltakeoverdecisionmaking.Thisisthereasonalmostnoonerecognizesthatheorshehashypothermia.Inthesecondstep,yourinternaltemperatureslidesdownward.Withouttreatment, thisslideleadstostupor,collapseanddeath.Eachyearmanypeoplebecomelostduetoconfusionbroughtonbyearlystagesofhypothermia.

Thereareseveralwaystoavoidhypothermia:

1.Staydry.Whenclothinggetswetitmaylose90percentofitsinsulatingvalue.Evensweatingcanbringonhypothermia.2.Bewareofthewindchill.Aslightbreezecarriesheatawayfrombareskinfasterthanstillair.Itturnswetclothingintoarefrigeratorduetoevaporation.3.Understandcold.Mosthypothermiacasesdevelopinair temperatures thatareconsideredmild,windchill temperatures in the40sand50s.Mostpeopledonotbelievesuch temperaturescanbedangerous.4.Terminateexposure.Whenyoucannotstaywarmanddryinexistingweatherconditions,eithergetafiregoingatanaturalshelteroutofthewindorsetupyourtubetentandgetintotheemergencybag.Getoutofthewindanddampness,andgetwarm,asfastaspossible.5.Neverignoreshivering.Persistentorviolentshiveringisclearwarningthatyouareintheearlystagesofhypothermia.

Whenhypothermiasymptomsarenoticed,treatmentshouldbeginimmediately.Firstgetthevictimout

oftheweatherandremovehiswetclothing.Ifthevictimisonlymildlyimpaired,givehimwarmdrinksandgethimintodryclothingandatubetentandemergencybag.

WindChillChart

If the victim is semiconscious or worse, he does not have the capability of regaining his bodytemperaturewithoutoutsidehelp.Keephimawake,givehimwarmdrinksand,ifpossible,gethimintoa

warmbath.Ifpossible,stripthevictimandputhimintoanemergencybagwithanotherperson.Skin-to-skincontactisaneffectivetreatment.

Initialsymptomsofhypothermia,thelossofcorebodytemperature,includemoodchanges,lassitude,irritabilityandpoorjudgment.

Asthebodycoretemperaturedrops,hereishowhypothermiaaffectsyou:

98.6°to96°

Uncontrolledshivering,abilitytoperformcomplextasksimpaired.95°to91°

Violentshivering,difficultyinspeaking.90°to86°

Shivering decreases,muscles begin to stiffen—lose coordination.Mind becomes dull; in some cases,amnesiaoccurs.85°to81°

Victim becomes irrational, drifts into stupor. Pulse and respiration are slowed. Muscular rigiditycontinues.80°to78°

Unconsciousness.Reflexesceasetofunctionandheartbeatbecomeserratic.Below78°

Totalfailureofcardiacandrespirationsystems.Deathoccurs.Inasurvivalsituation,everyeffortshouldbemadetoavoidhypothermia.Thatmeansgettingawarm

campsetupbeforeyougetwetandcold.Don’tputoffgettingasurvivalcampestablished.Delaycanbedeadly.

Avoidhypothermiaatallcost!

14.FEAR

DealingwithFear

Panic, a state of sudden uncontrollable fear or anxiety, results in irrational behavior and poorlyconsideredhastydecisions.

Mostpeople think,“Survival training is something Iwon’tneed.”Buteachyear, scoresofhuntersandotheroutdoorenthusiastsfindthemselvessuddenlylostorstrandedinNorthAmerica’sbackcountry,oftennottoofarfromhome.

Oneofthefirstreactionstobeinglostorstrandedisfear.Itisfearthatcausesmanypeopletopanicsoonaftertheyrealizethattheyareinapotentialsurvivalsituation.Itisfearthatmakespeoplerunanddiscardtheirequipment.

Hereiswhatresearchhasshownusthatmostpeoplefearinasurvivalsituation:

RidiculeorEmbarrassment—ThoseIhaveinterviewedsoonafterrescuesaid thiswasthefirst feartheyexperienced.Thisisespeciallyamajorfearofexperiencedoutdoorsmenwhowanttomaintaintheir“DanielBoone”image.Putegoasideandgetintosurvivalmode.

Punishment— It is this fear thatcausesmany lostchildrenandseniorcitizens tohidesoonafter theyrealizetheyarelost.Coupledwiththisconcernisthefearofbeinglate.Mostofusliveourdailylivesasslavestoaclock,andwhenwearen’twherewearesupposedtobe,whenwearesupposedtobethere,wefacesomeformofpunishment.Thisfearofpunishmentispresentineverysurvivalsituation.

BeingAlone—Many people, including outdoorsmen, have never been truly alone. To them this is astrange and suddenly frightening experience. I once led a small search team for an experiencedworldwidehunter.Whilehewasonlylostforafewhours,thismanwasinshock,ashehadneverbeenaloneexceptinaroomorothersuchcircumstance.Thefewhourshespentlost,alone,causedhimtoendhishuntingcareer.

Animals—Manypeoplehavehiddenfearsofwildanimalsandsoundsinthewoods.Thefearofwildanimalsismentionedbymanyformerlylostorstrandedpeople,especiallychildren.Mostpeopleforgetunderthestressofsurvivalthatwildanimalsprefertoavoidpeopleand,withafewrareexceptions,wildanimalsofNorthAmericadon’tattackpeople.

Discomfort—Wearesoaccustomedtocomfortthattheideathatwemaygetcold,hungry,thirsty,havetosleeponthehardground,etc.,cancausepeopletopanic.Inorder tosurvive,youmustacceptsomediscomfortandrememberthatthisshortperiodofdiscomfortisnecessaryforyoutolivetherestofyourlife.This shouldmotivateyou to tryhard tobuildacomfortablesurvivalcampwhileawaiting rescue.Discomfortcanbetolerateduntilhelparrives.

TheUnknown—Weallliveinafairlypredictableday-to-dayworld.Weknowdaily,hourly,whatwecanexpecttohappen.Whenwefindourselvessuddenlyinasurvivalsituation,thiscomfortofknowingisquicklyconvertedintothefearoftheunknown—whatshouldIdonow,willanyonelookforme,willIdie?Alltheseunknownsrushthroughthemindandcloudcommonsense.Thisfearisanormalreaction,butthequickeryouovercomeitandputyoursurvivaltrainingtoworkthebetter.Mentallyaccept,“Yes,there aremanyunknowns, but I can’tworry about themnowas I have a camp tomake and signals toprepare.Iamgoingtohaveagreatadventurestorytotellwhenthisisallover.”

Darkness—Oneofthemostcommonfears,eventhoughmanywillnotadmitit,isthefearofdarknessinthewoods. I have seen some otherwise bravemen admit, privately, that they fear a dark night in thewoods.Italwaysamazesmethatthesesamepeoplearenotafraidofadarkstreetinalargecitywheredangerisalwaysnearbybutbecomealmostparalyzedwithfearinthewoodsatnight.Thereislittletohurtanyoneinthewoodsatnight,iftheystayinonelocation.Topanicandstartwalkingor,worstyet,runningindarkwoodscanleadtoseriousfallsorgettingastickinyoureye.Thereislittleinthewoodsatnightthatwillharmyou.Juststayinyoursurvivalcampandgetagoodnight’ssleep.

ControllingFear

Weallhavesome,orall,ofthesefearswhenwefindourselvesinasurvivalemergency.However,thosewhogetcontroloftheirfearsquicklyandmoveonwiththetaskofbeingfoundaretheonesthatcomeoutof the situation in good shape. Here is how you can cope and live with fear during your survivalexperience:

1.Don’trunawayfromfear,admitandacceptitasbeinganormalreaction.2.Evenwhenyouareafraid,acttoaccomplishthosenecessitiesofselectingacampsite,settingupsignals, constructing a shelter, getting a fire going and preparing to sleep comfortably. Beenthusiastic.3. Accept themindset that “this has happened tome and I am going to make it through in goodshape.”Hopeforthebestandbepreparedfortheworst.4.Staybusy.Idlenessleadstonegativethinkingandhopelessness.5.Practiceyourreligion.6.Keepapositiveattitude.

15.WILLTOLIVE

Therehavebeencountlessnumbersofpeoplewhowerelostorstrandedforweekswithoutfood,fireorshelter.Whentheywerefound,theywereingoodshape.Ontheotherhandtherehavebeencaseswherepeoplewerelost justadayorso,andtheyperished.Thedifferencebetweenthesepeoplewasthat theoneswhomadeitthroughingoodconditiondidsobecausetheyhadastrongWILLTOLIVE.Theynevergaveuponthehopeofbeingfound.Theymadethebestofabadsituation.Theydidn’tpanic.Theystayedput.Theymadethebestoftheresourcesathand;andtheyhad,orquicklydeveloped,apositivementalattitude.Intoday’sterminology,theykepttheircool.Youhavetovaluelifeinordertotakechargeofyourmindandthesituationinwhichyoufindyourself.Giveupyourvalueoflifeandyouwillnotlastlong.

Onceyougetoverthefirstshockwavethatyouarelostorstranded,putahighvalueonyourlifeandcapitalizeonyourWILLTOLIVE.Youwillbeamazedatwhatitwillgetyouthrough.

16.MISSINGPERSON

WhenaMemberofYourGroupIsMissing

Resistthetemptationtostartasearchforamissingperson.Ifprofessionalhelpisnearby,letthemputtheirexperiencetowork.

Haveyoubeenonanoutingwhenyousuddenlyrealizedyouwerelostorstrandedand/orunabletoreturntocamporyourvehicle?Ifnot,getready,becauseifyougointothebackcountryenough,chancesare,itwillhappeneventually.Asawildlifeprofessional, Ihave spent considerable time looking formissingoutdoorsmen.Mostofthetime,theyaresimplyturnedaroundinthewoodsandareeasilyfound.

However,someareinjuredandunabletomove,oftenduetoafallfromatreestandoraslipperyrockorlog.Once,aguidewhoworkedformefellintoanabandonedwell.

Unfortunately, some outdoor enthusiasts are brought out dead as a result of heart attacks, falls orhypothermia.Oftenthecauseofdeathisbroughtonbythestressofbeinglost.

Whilemanyoutdoorpeoplearelearningwhattodoiftheyshouldbecomelostorstranded,fewknowwhattodoiftheirbuddydoesnotmakeitbacktothecarorcampwhenheissupposedto.Everygroup,whetheritisanoutingcluborjusttwofriends,shouldplanaheadforthatmomentwhenoneofthemismissing.This is just as importantwhetheryouare exploringyourownback fortyor are traveling in aremotewilderness.

Itshouldbeapolicythateverymemberof thegrouplet theothersknowspecificallywheretheyaregoingandwhentheyplantoreturn.Allmembersofthegroupshouldagreetosittightoncetheyrealizetheyare lost.This shouldbe stressedover andover again.Everymemberof thegroup shouldcarryacompass(that theyknowhowtouse),aGPS,amapofthearea,acellphoneortwo-wayradio,abeltknifeandasurvivalkit.

Whenyouplantoenterawildernessarea,alwaysletsomeoneknowwhereyouaregoingandwhenyouplantoreturn.

Know themedical condition of your companions. If a member of your group has a heart problem,seizuresorothermedicalproblem,makesureabuddyhuntswithhim.Anunconsciouspersonneedstobefoundquickly,butisextremelydifficulttofind.

Eachmemberofyourgroupneedstoknowhowtolocatethenearestconservationofficer,forestrangerorsheriff’soffice. Inmostcounties in theUnitedStates, the local sheriff is responsible for searchandrescue.InCanada,thelocalRoyalCanadianMountedPoliceofficerisusuallyresponsibleforsearches.Everyoneshouldcarry thephonenumbersof theseofficials.Delay ingetting trainedsearchandrescuehelpcanbedeadly.

Alwaysbeawareofhowyourfellowcompanionsaredressed,whattypeofbootstheywearandthestateofmindtheyarein.Thisinformationisextremelyvaluabletosearchofficials.

Themostcrucialtimeduringamissing-buddycrisisiswhenyoufirstrealizeheorsheislatecomingintocampandyougetnoanswerstoyoursignals.Don’tpanic.ThefirstruleistostaycalmandTHINK.Inmostcases,lostorstrandedsituationsaremerelyasoberingtwo-orthree-houradventure.

Signalingisanimportantpartoftheearlysearch,asrescuedpeopleoftensaythatwhiletheywerelostorstrandedtheythoughtnoonewouldbothertolookforthem.Selectalogicalpoint,suchaswherehewaslastseen,theloggingroadorfieldnearesthis“mostlikely”area,camporhisvehicleifhedrovein,andblowan automobile hornor policewhistle.Either of these signals is an indication to themissingpersonthatsomeoneis lookingforhim.Ifhe isnearby,hecanwalkto thesound.For thisreason, it iscrucialthatthesignalingbedonefromonespotandnotdoneasyoumovearound.

Blowthehornorwhistleinburstsofthreesothatitisobviouslyasignalandnotsomeunrelatednoise.Pausebetweenburstsofthreeandlistencarefullyforareply.Ifthemissingpersonhasawhistle,youmayhear a response immediately. If you aregettingno response toyour initial signaling and feel that yourbuddymaybeintrouble,seekoutaforestranger,conservationofficerorsheriff’sdepartmentofficialtogettrainedsearchandrescuepeopleonthesceneassoonaspossible.Ifyouleavetoobtainprofessionalhelp, leave someoneat the signalpoint.Whileonepersongoes forhelp, another shouldalways stay tocontinuesignalingandlisteningifpossible.Attemptingtosetupyourownsearchisgenerallyabadideasincemostuntrainedpeoplewiththebest

ofintentionsusuallydomoreharmthangood.Theydestroyvaluablecluesandoftenbecomelostorhurtthemselves.Searchingformissingpeopleisaskillbestlefttothosetrainedtodoit.

Whensearchingforalostgroupmember,appointagroupleadertocoordinatethesearchandoverseethebestuseofresources.

However,insomespecificcircumstances,suchaswhenhelpishoursawayorwhenthetractoflandisnot largeand it isknownalmostexactlywhere themissingperson is likely tobe, fellowoutdoorsmenmightconductalimitedsearch.Inthoseexceptionalcases,followtheseguidelines:

1. Get the entire group together to plan your search. To help identify clues, find out what eachmemberknows, suchaswhenandwhere themissingbuddywas last seen,didhe filea tripplan,what brand of cigarettes he smokes,what type of sole does he have on his boots and their size,whereheismostlikelyhuntingandsoon.2.Establishsomeoneinthegroupasleaderofthesearch,andhaveeveryonedoashesays.3.Leavesomeoneattheoriginalspottocontinuesignaling.

4. If a specific hunting spot is known, two hunters should begin the search with a thoroughexaminationof the immediate area in case therewasahealthproblemor injury.Takecarenot todestroyanysigns.Itisimportantthatonlyoneortwodothis,asalargergroupwilldestroycluesthatmightbehelpfulifaprofessionalsearchisneeded.5.Lookforsignssuchastracksor,inthecaseofhunters,bloodtrailmarkersforanindicationofthemissingperson’sdirectionoftravel.6.Duetotheexcitementofthemoment,searchersoftengetlostthemselves,somarkthetrailyoutakeinsoyoucanfollowitout.7.Considerwhatsoundsthemissingpersoncanhear,farm,railroad,highway,millwhistle,etc.,andsendsomeonetothatlocation.Ratherthansitstill,manylostpeoplewilltrytowalktosoundssuchasthese.8.Ifthereareroadsaroundthearea,avehicleshouldpatroltheseroadsregularly,butdonotblowthehornasyoutravel.9.If there isa longopeningin theareasuchasarailroad,gas lineorelectric linerightof-wayorlargefields,havesomeonewatchtheseareaswithbinoculars.10.Planasignalorspecifictimeforcallingoffthesearch.Ifthemissingpersonhasnotbeenfoundwithinashorttime,turnthesearchovertoprofessionals.

Ifyouandyouroutdoorcompanionshavepreparedforthedayoneofyouismissing,chancesareyouwillneverbefacedwithatragedy.