The Origins of Drama.docx

8/15/2019 The Origins of Drama.docx

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The Origins of Drama

Twenty-five hundred years ago, two thousand years before Shakespeare, Western theatrewas born in Athens, Greece. Between 6 and ! B", the ancient Athenians created a

theatre cu#ture whose for$, techni%ue and ter$ino#ogy have #asted two $i##ennia, andthey created p#ays that are sti## considered a$ong the greatest works of wor#d dra$a.Their achieve$ent is tru#y re$arkab#e when one considers that there have been on#y twoother periods in the history of theatre that cou#d be said to approach the greatness ofancient Athens - i'abethan &ng#and and, perhaps the Twentieth "entury. The greatestp#aywright of i'abethan &ng#and was Shakespeare, but Athens produced at #east fivee%ua##y great p#aywrights. The Twentieth "entury produced thousands of fine p#ays andfi#$s, but their for$ and often their content are based on the innovations of the ancientAthenians.

The Cult of DionysusThe theatre of Ancient Greece evo#ved fro$ re#igious rites which date back to at #east(! B". At that ti$e, Greece was peop#ed by tribes that we in our arrogance $ight #abe#)pri$itive). *n northern Greece, in an area ca##ed Thrace, a cu#t arose that worshipped

+ionysus, the god of ferti#ity and procreation. This "u#t of +ionysus, which probab#yoriginated in Asia inor, practised ritua# ce#ebrations which $ay have inc#uded a#coho#icinto ication, orgies, hu$an and ani$a# sacrifices, and perhaps even hysterica# ra$pagesby wo$en ca##ed $aenads.

The cu#t)s $ost controversia# practice invo#ved, it is be#ieved, uninhibited dancing ande$otiona# disp#ays that created an a#tered $enta# state. This a#tered state was known as)ecstasis), fro$ which the word ecstasy is derived. +ionysiac, hysteria and )catharsis) a#soderive fro$ Greek words for e$otiona# re#ease or purification. &cstasy was an i$portantre#igious concept to the Greeks, who wou#d co$e to see theatre as a way of re#easingpowerfu# e$otions through its ritua# power. Though it $et with resistance, the cu#t spreadsouth through the tribes of Greece over the ensuing si centuries. +uring this ti$e, therites of +ionysus beca$e $ainstrea$ and $ore for$a#ised and sy$bo#ic. The death of atragic hero was offered up to god and $an rather than the sacrifice of say, a goat. By 6B" these cere$onies were practised in spring throughout $uch of Greece.

The +ithyra$bAn essentia# part of the rites of +ionysus was the dithyra$b. The word $eans )chorichy$n). This chant or hy$n was probab#y introduced into Greece ear#y acco$panied by$i$ic gestures and, probab#y, $usic. *t began as a part of a pure#y re#igious cere$ony,#ike a hy$n in the $idd#e of a $ass describing the adventures of +ionysus. *n its ear#iestfor$ it was #ead off by the #eader of a band of reve#ers, a group of dancers, probab#ydressed as satyrs dancing around an a#tar. *t was probab#y perfor$ed by a chorus of aboutfifty $en dressed as satyrs -- $ytho#ogica# ha#f-hu$an, ha#f- goat servants of +ionysus.They $ay have p#ayed dru$s, #yres and f#utes, and chanted as they danced around aneffigy of +ionysus. So$e accounts say they a#so wore pha##us-#ike headgear. *t was given aregu#ar for$ and raised to the rank of artistic poetry in about 6 B". *ntroduced into

Athens short#y before B", dithyra$b was soon recognised as one of the co$petitivesub/ects at the various Athenian festiva#s. 0or $ore than a generation after itsintroduction the dithyra$b attracted the $ost fa$ous poets of the day. By this ti$e,however, it had ceased to concern itse#f e c#usive#y with the adventures of +ionysus andbegun to choose its sub/ects fro$ a## periods of Greek $ytho#ogy. *n this way, over ti$ethe dithyra$b wou#d evo#ve into stories in )p#ay) for$1 dra$a.

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By 6 B" Greece was divided into city-states, separate nations centred in $a/or citiesand regions. The $ost pro$inent city-state was Athens, where at #east ( , peop#e#ived. *t was here that the ites of +ionysus evo#ved into what we know today as theatre.Since Athens was #ocated in a region ca##ed Attica. Greek and Athenian theatre areso$eti$es referred to as Attic Theatre.

Thespis


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*n about 6 B", Arion of ehty$na 8"orinth9 wrote down for$a# #yrics for the dithyra$b.So$e ti$e during the ne t : years, Thespis of Attica added an actor who interacted withthe chorus. This actor was ca##ed the protagonist, fro$ which the $odern wordprotagonist is derived, $eaning the $ain character of a dra$a. *ntroduce a secondspeaker and one $oves fro$ one art, that of choric chant, to another, theatre. Traditionascribes this innovation to one Thespis, and even gives hi$ a date; he is said to have

perfor$ed Athens about #ays Were >erfor$ed>#ays were perfor$ed in the dayti$e. The annua# dra$a co$petitions in Athens werespread over severa#, entire days. Actors probab#y wore #itt#e or no $akeup. *nstead, theycarried $asks with e aggerated facia# e pressions. They a#so wore cothornos, or buskins,which were #eather boots #aced up to the knees. There was #itt#e or no scenery. *nitia##y,

$ost of the action took p#ace in the orchestra. 4ater, as the i$portance shifted fro$ thechorus to the characters, the action $oved to the stage.

T AG&+?

Between 6 and B", the dithyra$b had evo#ved into new for$s, $ost notab#y thetragedy and the @satyr p#ay. Tragedy, derived fro$ the Greek words tragos 8goat9 and ode8song9, to#d a story that was intended to teach re#igious #essons. uch #ike Bib#ica#parab#es, tragedies were designed to show the right and wrong paths in #ife. Tragedieswere not si$p#y p#ays with bad endings, nor were they si$p#y spectac#es devised to @$ake)e$ #augh and $ake )e$ cry. Tragedy was viewed as a for$ of ritua# purification,Aristot#e)s catharsis, which gives rise to pathos, another Greek word, $eaning )instructivesuffering). They depicted the #ife voyages of peop#e who steered the$se#ves or who weresteered by fate on co##ision courses with society, #ife)s ru#es, orsi$p#y fate. The tragicprotagonist is one who refuses out of either weakness or strength to ac%uiesce to fate1what for us now$ight better be described as the ob/ective rea#ities of #ife. ost often,the protagonist)s $ain fau#t is hubris, a Greek, and &ng#ish word $eaning fa#se oroverweening arrogance. *t cou#d be the arrogance of not accepting ones destiny 8i .e. as in3edipus e 9, the arrogance of assu$ing the right to ki## 8Aga$e$non9, or the arroganceof assu$ing the right to seek vengeance 83restes9. Whatever the root cause, theprotagonist)s u#ti$ate co##ision with fate, rea#ity, or society is inevitab#e and irrevocab#e.

The "u#ture That "reated TragedyTragedy did not deve#op in a vacuu$. *t was an outgrowth of what was happening at theti$e in Athens. 3ne hand, Greek re#igion 8see Bu##finch)s ytho#ogy. *t is in #ibrary9 haddictated how peop#e shou#d behave and think for centuries. 3n the other, there was abirth of free thought and inte##ectua# in%uiry. Athens in the fourth and fifth centuries B"was bust#ing with radica# ideas #ike de$ocracy, phi#osophy, $athe$atics, science and art.*t boasted phi#osophers #ike >#ato, Socrates, Aristot#e, &picurus, and +e$ocritus. Therewere the first known historians Thucydides and 2erodotus. The scientists and


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$athe$aticians #ike Tha#es, 2ippocrates, Archi$edes, and #ater &uc#id 8euc#ideangeo$etry9, >ythagoras 8the >ythagorean theore$9, &ratosthenes, 2ero 8the stea$engine 9, 2ipparchus and >to#e$y. *n these respects -- a b#osso$ing of free thought afteryears of re#igious dicta -- ancient Athens rese$b#ed enaissance &ng#and, which notcoincidenta##y spawned the ne t great era in theatre. *n essence, the ancient Athenianshad begun to %uestion how nature worked, how society shou#d work, and what $an)s ro#e

was in the sche$e of things. Tragedy was the poets) answer to so$e of these %uestions --2ow shou#d one behaveC 2ow can one accept the in/ustices of #ifeC What is the price ofhubrisC ead a so#i#o%uy fro$ a Greek tragedy, or fro$ 2a$#et or acbeth, and what youwi## hear is these %uestions being asked.

The 0or$ of TragedyThe traditiona# tragedy in Aeschy#us) ti$e 8circa =: B"9 consisted of the fo##owing parts1

(. >ro#ogue, which described the situation and set the scene

!. >arados, an ode sung by the chorus as it $ade its entrance

athos 8Greek for instructive suffering9 which has co$e to $ean the%ua#ity in so$ething that arouses sy$pathy. 3ften used today to describe so$ething sadbut not necessari#y tragic. Satyrs, tri#ogies of tragedies were interrupted by satyr p#ays8which $ade fun of characters in the tragedies around the$9. 2ence the word tragedy."o$edy fro$ 7o$odos which $eans )$erry$aking,) and )singer.)

Aeschy#us, the 0irst >#aywrightDnti# =E= B" the Athenian dra$a co$petitions consisted of a tri#ogy of dithyra$bs and asatyr p#ay. Their sty#e of presentation was chora# rather than dra$atic. 2owever, around=E= B" there appeared on the Athenian theatre scene a p#aywright na$ed Aeschy#us.Aeschy#us turned the dithyra$b into dra$a. 2e added a second actor 8the antagonist9 to

interact with the first. 2eintroduced props and scenery and reduced the chorus fro$ to(!. Aeschy#us) >ersians, written in =:! B", is the ear#iest p#ay in e istence. Aeschy#us)crowning work was The 3resteia, a tri#ogy of tragedies first perfor$ed in = E B". Theyte## the #egend of Aga$e$non, the Greek war hero who was $urdered by his wife"#yte$nestra, and the pursuit of /ustice by his chi#dren, 3restes and ectra.The$atica##y, the tri#ogy is about the tragedy of e cessive hu$an pride, arrogance orhubris. This hubris is re%uired to $urder a person for persona# gain, as "#yte$nestra andher #over Aegisthus do, as we## as the hubris to in turn hunt down and ki## the$, as 3restesand ectra do. *n the end, the 0uries, vengefu# e$issaries of the gods, the$se#ves bring3restes and ectra to tria#. Aeschy#us $akes a point that has been echoed by historiansand dra$atists, psycho#ogists and cri$e writers for centuries since1 that the root of evi#and suffering is usua##y hu$an arrogance. 3n a dra$atic #eve#, the p#ays convey thesuffering of a fa$i#y torn apart by patricide and $atricide.

The >eric#ean AgeAeschy#us) death in = 6 B" coincided with the beginning of the >eric#ean Age, a periodduring which Athens) popu#ation grew to ( , , its govern$ent e$braced de$ocracy8a#though two-thirds of its popu#ation were s#aves9, and the arts f#ourished. *n a span of 6years, Thucydides and 2erodotus wrote their histories, the sophists, Socrates and >#atoe pounded their phi#osophies, and Sophoc#es, &uripides and Aristophanes wrote so$e ofthe wor#d)s best p#ays.

Sophoc#es*n =6E B", Aeschy#us was defeated in the tragedy co$petition by Sophoc#es. Sophoc#es)contribution to dra$a was the addition of a third actor and an e$phasis on dra$abetween hu$ans rather than between hu$ans and gods. Sophoc#es was a fine crafts$an.Aristot#e used Sophoc#es) p#ay, 3edipus e for his c#assic ana#ysis of dra$a, The >oetics.Sophoc#es) p#ays are suffused with irony. *n The 3edipus Tri#ogy, 3edipus seeks the truthabout his father)s $urder. The truth that awaits hi$, however, is that he is the$urderer. "#ick here for a su$$ary of the )3edipus Tri#ogy). *n ectra, the hunted

http://www.thespark.com/sparknotes/guides/oedipus/http://www.thespark.com/sparknotes/guides/oedipus/


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$urderer Aegisthus finds the identity of a body under a b#anket is 3restes, the $an whohas re#ent#ess#y hunted hi$ and his #over, "#yte$nestra. 2e is re#ieved that he hasescaped /ustice. 2owever, when he #ifts the b#anket he discovers the body is that of his#over "#yte$nestra. 3restes has indeed caught up with hi$. Sophoc#es) p#ays are aboutthe fo##y of arrogance and the wisdo$ of accepting fate. Sophoc#es be#ieved in the Greekgods, but his p#ays are suffused with e istentia# insights that have been voiced $any ti$es

since. 0or instance, co$pare this observation by Antigone1 What /oy is there in dayrepeating day, so$e short, so$e #ong, with death the on#y endC * think the$ foo#s whowar$ their hearts with the g#ow of e$pty hopes.

With that of acbeth)s fa$ous speech1 To$orrow, and to$orrow, and to$orrow,"reeps in this petty pace fro$ day to day,To the #ast sy##ab#e of recorded ti$e;And a## our yesterdays have #ighted foo#sThe way to dusty death. 3ut, out, brief cand#e4ife)s but a wa#king shadow; a poor p#ayer,That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,And then is heard no $ore1 *t is a ta#eTo#d by an idiot, fu## of sound and fury,Signifying nothing.

8"#ick here for a su$$ary of ) acbeth)9

&uripides*n a##, Sophoc#es won ! co$petitions, $aking hi$ the "ar# 4ewis 8C9 of Greek dra$aticco$petition. A#though far behind Sophoc#es in the $eda# count with a $ere five,&uripides has since ec#ipsed both Sophoc#es and Aeschy#us in popu#arity. The $odernattraction to hi$ ste$s #arge#y fro$ his point of view, which finds a strong echo in$odern attitudes. 2is p#ays were not about Gods or roya#ty but rea# peop#e. 2e p#acedpeasants a#ongside princes and gave their fee#ings e%ua# weight. 2e showed the rea#ity ofwar, criticised re#igion, and portrayed the forgotten of society1 wo$en, s#aves, and theo#d. &uripides is credited with adding to the dra$atic for$ the pro#ogue, which Fset thestageF at the beginning of the p#ay, and the deus e $achina, which wrapped up #oose

ends at the c#ose. Aside fro$ those devices, there is #ess contrivance, fate or phi#osophyin &uripides than in either Aeschy#us or Sophoc#es. There is instead a poignant rea#is$,such as in this scene fro$ the anti-war Tro/an Wo$en, in which a grand$other grievesover the daughter and grandson she has out#ived. +uring his #ife, &uripides was viewed asa heretic and was often #a$pooned in Aristophanes) co$edies. & tre$e#y cynica# of hu$annature, he beca$e a bookish rec#use and died in = 6 B", two years before Sophoc#es.

"3 &+?

Tragedy was not the on#y product of Athens) f#ourishing theatre cu#ture; co$edy a#sothrived. 5ot on#y did the Greeks produce $any #asting co$edies; they a#so cast the$ou#ds for $any o$an, i'abethan and $odern co$edies. The historica# deve#op$entof co$edy was not as we## recorded as that of tragedy. Aristot#e notes in The >oetics thatbefore his own ti$e co$edy was considered trivia# and co$$on -- though when it wasfina##y recognised as an art for$, the orphan sudden#y had $any fathers1 Aristophanes and3#d "o$edy

Greek co$edy had two periods1 3#d "o$edy, represented by "ratinus and Aristophanes;and 5ew "o$edy, whose $ain e ponent was enander. Aristophanes theatrica# workswere presented at the Athenian festiva#s. Aristophanes and "ratinus used three actors, achorus that sung, danced, and so$eti$es participated in the dia#ogue. The "horus)saddress to the audience revea#s the author)s opinion. *n these speeches, he ridicu#es theGods, Athenian institutions, popu#ar and powerfu# individua#s, inc#uding Aeschy#us,Sophoc#es and &uripides. Given the cu#tivated and scho#ar#y cu#ture of its ru#ing e#ite,Athens invited satire. Aristophanes assu$ed the task with 'ea#, ai$ing his #a$poonery atthose who stuck their heads above the crowd1

Take, for e a$p#e, the Warriors, in )4ysistrata)1

http://www.thespark.com/sparknotes/guides/macbeth/http://www.thespark.com/sparknotes/guides/macbeth/


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0irst Speaker1 0or through $an)s heart there runs in f#oodA natura# and nob#e taste for b#ood---

Second Speaker1 To for$ a ring and fight--Third Speaker1 To cut off heads at sight--A## in Dnison1 *t is our right?outh... "o$e, #isten now to the good o#d days whenchi#dren,

strange to te##, were seen not heard,#ed a si$p#e #ife, in short were brought up we##.

See, too, the treat$ent of inte##ectua#s, in )The "#ouds)1

0ather1 8enro##ing his son in a Fschoo# for thinkingF9 3 Socrates 3--dear--sweet--Socrates Socrates1 8$editating in a basket overhead9 orta# Why ca## you on $eC 0ather1 Te## $e, p#ease, what are you doing up there in that basketC Socrates1 * wa#k on air whi#e * conte$p#ate the sun. 3ne cannot ponder cos$ic $attersun#ess one $ing#es with theat$osphere, one)s etherea# spirit above ground. The groundis not a p#ace for #ofty thoughts. Gravity wou#d draw their essence down, as it does withwatercress. 0ather1 We##, we##. Thought draws the essence into watercress.The Athenian audiences were we## versed in their highbrow cu#ture and $ust have en/oyedthese in-/okes i$$ense#y. Aristophanes) other targets inc#uded Aeschy#us and &uripides,who$ Aristophanes portrayed various#y as a windbag and corrupter of youth with hisheretica# ideas.

5ew "o$edy"o$edy deve#oped a#ong si$i#ar #ines as tragedy did, beco$ing $ore ai$ed at theco$$on peop#e and #ess concerned with its re#igious origins. By h#yates. enander is the$ore significant of the two. ost of his p#ays are now #ost, but parts found their way intop#ays by the o$an p#aywrights >#autus and Terence 8who$ u#ius "aesar ca##ed Fa ha#f-

enanderF9. 0ro$ these works they were incorporated into Shakespeare)s "o$edy of&rrors, Stephen Sondhei$)s A 0unny Thing 2appened on the Way to the 0oru$, even thewritings of St. >au#1 FBad $essages be#ie good $annersF. *n (H a $anuscript wasdiscovered in "airo that contained pieces of five enander p#ays, and in (H : a co$p#etep#ay, +isko#os 8The Grouch, A"&1

Stages and Sty#es of >resentation1According to tradition, the first tragedian, Thespis, performed his plays on wagons


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with which he travelled, and seats were set up for performances in the agora ormarket place of Athens. By the end of the sixth century BC, however, a permanenttheatron of ‘watching place’, was set up in the precinct of ionysuson the south slopeof the Athenian Acropolis. !ince at first any construction a"ove ground was made ofwood, and since the theatre was later re"uilt many times, the surviving remains ofthis earliest Theatre of ionysus are extremely scanty. #t has therefore to "e

reconstructed on the analogy of other $reek theatres and on the evidence of theplays performed there. The only features which necessarily existed in the early fifthcentury are wooden seats for spectators on the hillside, and a level earth%flooredorchestra, or ‘dancing area’ in the centre. The orchestra is usually "elieved to have"een circular, like a threshing floor. The orchestra at &pidaurus, for example, has adiameter of 'ust over () metres. #f the spot chosen necessitated another shape, itcould "e rectangular like that at Thoricus.

*ost of the surviving plays also make use of a "uilding, the skene or scene "uilding.This was used as a changing%room for actors and as a sounding "oard, "ut also servedto represent the palace or house in front of which most plays are set. At first, it musthave "een a temporary "uilding re%erected each year +skene means merely ‘tent’ or‘hut’ . The num"er of doors in its facade is disputed- most tragedies re uire only one,"ut it most likely that there were in fact three. Actors and chorus could enter "ypaths, called parodoi or eisodoi, to the right and left of the skene. Chiefly they madethese entrances on horse%drawn chariots. The roof of the "uilding could "e used as anacting area, for watchmen, gods and others. There is some o"li ue suggestion in twotexts of the period that permanent screens with architectural images were used, not‘sets’ for specific plays, "ut permanent fixtures. #t is conceiva"le, too, that there wassome rather underground passage, allowing ghosts to appear from "elow.

There have "een many disputes as to the existence of a stage +logeion in front of theskene, raising the actors a"ove the orchestra where the Chorus performed. Theevidence is sparse, "ut is pro"a"le that this stage existed, although it will not have"een so high as to prevent easy interaction "etween actors and Chorus. /therfeatures of the orchestra were a central altar several images of gods, which could "enoticed in the plays, when re uired.


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The Theatre in &pidaurus


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***. The Theatre in Stone.

Iarious ite$s of stage $achinery are $entioned by #ate authors, but the on#y devices forwhich there is th century evidence are the ekky#e$a and the $echane. The for$er was a#ow p#atfor$ on whee#s, which cou#d be pushed into view to revea#, in the for$ of atab#eau, the conse%uences of events 8nor$a##y ki##ings9 within the pa#ace. *t is a %uiteartificia# device, but it see$s to be an accepted convention as ear#y as the 3resteia. Thisp#ay contains striking tab#eau of "#yte$nestra with the bodies of Aga$e$non and"assandra and of 3restes with the bodies of "#yte$nestra and Aegisthus. Thereafter it is

used in $any tragedies and in co$ic parodies of tragedies.

The $echane was a kind of crane that cou#d transport an actor through the air to give aneffect of f#ying. *t see$s to be #itt#e used in surviving tragedy, though there are a fewe a$p#es. 0ifth century tragedians probab#y did not use it for epiphanies of gods, thoughthe @god fro$ the $achine, the deus e $achina beca$e proverbia# at an ear#y date.Though so$e si$p#e effects #ike those $entioned here were occasiona##y used, it is veryi$portant to re$e$ber that a## the rea# power of the dra$a #ay in the author s verse#ines. The poetic effects were #eft to work upon the i$agination.

The character s words a#one estab#ished the ti$e of day, /ust as they did the settings.Therefore, it was with natura# pheno$ena. *n two of &uripides p#ays, the Bacchanntesand adness of 2erac#es, the p#ot de$ands an earth%uake which destroys the house, and

the >ro$etheus Dnbound ends with >ro$etheus and the chorus swept down to 2ades in astor$. To present such a spectac#e rea#istica##y wou#d have been a technica# $irac#e,


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though not beyond Greek ingenuity. ?et, $ore i$portant, it wou#d have been a#ien toevery tradition of Greek theatre. As it was based so fir$#y upon the power of the wordupon the i$agination and e$otion. *n the @earth%uake p#ays, the effect is conveyed bythe speeches of characters and chora# songs. The chorus of the Bacchantes describevivid#y what is happening to the pa#ace -- the noise of the earth%uake, the stoneworkcru$b#ing, and fire b#a'ing fro$ a nearby to$b.

+ionysus 8inside the pa#ace9 Spirit of &arth%uake, rock, rock the f#oor of the &arth

"horus *1 Soon the pa#ace of >entheusWi## be shaken to its fa##.+ionysus is over the house1Bow down before hi$

"horus **. We bow before hi$.See the stone #inte#s"rowning the pi##ars

ee#ing and shakingBro$ios war cry rings fro$ within.

+ionysus1 7ind#e the f#a$ing torch of the #ight;Burn, burn down the pa#ace of

>entheus.This is enough. 3nce the earth%uake has achieved its dra$atic purpose, it can be ignored."haracters entering subse%uent#y do not co$$ent on the fact that the house #ies in ruins.This #ack of observation wou#d be incongruous if the effects of the earth%uake had beenshown rea#istica##y. "o$pare a#so the #anguage in which Aeschy#us paints the great stor$at the end of >ro$etheus Bound.

FSee, word is rep#aced by deed;&arth shudders fro$ the shock; the pea#s3f thunder ro## fro$ the depths, and #ightening0#icker afire; the whir#wind tosses+ust heavenwards, with the four winds dancingA giddy ree#, cha##enging each otherTo fight; sea and sky are as one.F

We shou#d re$e$ber, too, the way which Shakespeare, without the doubtfu# benefit of

e#aborate effects, gives the i$pression of stor$ at the beginning of The Te$pest.

aster1 BoatswainBoatswain1 2ere, $aster What cheer

aster. Good, speak to the $ariners; fa## t it, yare#y, or we runourse#ves aground1 bestir, bestir.

Boatswain1 2eigh, $y hearts "heer#y, $y hearts ?are, yare Take in thetopsai#. Tend to the $aster s whist#e.

B#ow, ti## thou burst thy wind, if roo$enoughAnd at the end of the scene1

A confused noise within, @ ercy on us @We sp#it, we sp#it 0arewe##, $y wife andchi#dren@0arewe## brother @We sp#it, we sp#it, we sp#it The i'abethan stage-$anager cou#d produce convincing thunder and #ightening, but inthe scene the picture of a shipwreck is conveyed in words a#one. * a## these e a$p#es, the#anguage used is not that of rea#istic 8i##usionist9 dra$a. When the doo$ed >ro$etheus orthe aster and Boatswain e$bark on their respective speeches, the audience knows that$ighty te$pests have erupted; they need no other indication.

4ighting, >roperties and "ostu$e.The sun provided #ighting. Torches were used, $ore as properties in order to heighten thepower of the appearance of certain passages or characters, the furies, for e a$p#e. Theactor was dwarfed by his surroundings. Tiny $ove$ents and the nuance of facia#e pression used by $odern actors wou#d have been invisib#e to the audience. Gestures

had to be #arge and sweeping and costu$es had to be #arge and f#owing in order to a##owfree, ath#etic $ove$ent, and to $ake a strong visua# i$pression upon the audience. As


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facia# e pression wou#d have been #ost beyond the first few rows, $asks were used. Theywere broad#y and si$p#y designed to be visib#e a #ong way off. The principa# traits of thecharacters portrayed cou#d be e pressed in the $ask, and a si$p#e convention arosewhereby types of character had their own types of $ask. This convention of hu$an types,a view of hu$an psycho#ogy in a way, continued to shape theatrica# presentation we## intothe seventeenth century in &urope. *n the tragedies, these types were few and si$p#e.

There was the protagonist, the nob#e $anJwo$an; the $essenger; the sight#ess seer, andthe serious or careworn $an, the figure of respect and responsibi#ity. ore wi## be said ofthese $asks e#sewhere.

Classical and 0ellenistic $reece

Kshow L

I

T

& 0istory of theatre

A $aster 8right9 and his s#ave 8#eft9 in a ph#ya p#ay, circa < J


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were perfor$ed in during the th century B"& have survived. K(!L We have co$p#ete te ts e tant by Aeschy#us, Sophoc#es,

and &uripides. K(


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Burnand )s, W. S. Gi#bert )s and Wi#de)s drawing-roo$ co$edies; Sy$bo#is$ ; proto- & pressionis$ in the #ate works of August

Strindberg and 2enrik *bsen ; K!iscator and Berto#t Brecht , the so-ca##ed Theatre of the Absurd of Sa$ue# Beckett and &ugene *onesco , A$erican

and British $usica#s, the co##ective creations of co$panies of actors and directors such as oan 4itt#ewood )s Theatre

Workshop , e peri$enta# and post$odern theatre of obert Wi#son and obert 4epage , the postco#onia# theatre of August

Wi#son or To$son 2ighway , and Augusto Boa#)s Theatre of the 3ppressed .

Kedit L&astern theatrical traditions

Rakshasa or the de$on as depicted in ?akshagana , a for$ of $usica #dance -dra$a fro$ *ndia.

The ear#iest for$ of *ndian theatre was the Sanskrit theatre . K!=L *t began after the deve#op$ent of Greek and o$an

theatre and before the deve#op$ent of theatre in other parts of Asia. K!=L *t e$erged so$eti$e between the !nd century B"&

and the (st century "& and f#ourished between the (st century "& and the ( th, which was a period of re#ative peace in

the history of *ndia during which hundreds of p#ays were written. K! L apanese for$s of 7abuki , 5N, and 7yNgen deve#oped in

the (:th century "&. K!6L Theatre in the $edieva# *s#a$ic wor#d inc#uded puppet theatre 8which inc#uded hand puppets, shadow

p#ays and $arionette productions9 and #ive passion p#ays known as ta'ziya , where actors re-enact episodes fro$ us#i$

history . *n particu#ar, Shia *s#a$ic p#ays revo#ved around the shaheed 8$artyrdo$9 of A#i)s sons 2asan ibn A#i and 2usayn ibn

A#i. Secu#ar p#ays were known as akhraja , recorded in $edieva# adab #iterature, though they were #ess co$$on than

puppetry and ta'ziya theatre . K!:L

Kedit LTypes

Kedit L rama

Main article: rama

+ra$a is the specific $ode of fiction represented in perfor$ance . K!EL The ter$ co$es fro$ a Greek word $eaning F action F,

which is derived fro$ Fto doF. The enact$ent of dra$a in theatre, perfor$ed by actors on a stage before an audience ,

presupposes co##aborative $odes of production and a co##ective for$ of reception. The structure of dra$atic te ts , un#ike

other for$s of #iterature , is direct#y inf#uenced by this co##aborative production and co##ective reception.K!HL

The ear#y$odern tragedy !amlet 8(6 ( 9 by Shakespeare and the c#assica# Athenian tragedy "edipus the #ing 8c. =!H B"&9

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._C._Burnandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._C._Burnandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._S._Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._S._Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._S._Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wildehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wildehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Strindberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Strindberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Strindberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Ibsenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Ibsenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth-century_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth-century_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(theatre)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(theatre)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(theatre)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantin_Stanislavskihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantin_Stanislavskihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Strasberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Strasberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Strasberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Piscatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Piscatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Piscatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertolt_Brechthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertolt_Brechthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Becketthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Ionescohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Ionescohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Littlewoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Littlewoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Littlewoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_Workshophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_Workshophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Wilson_(director)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lepagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomson_Highwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomson_Highwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomson_Highwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto_Boalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto_Boalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Oppressedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakshasahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakshaganahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakshaganahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-Richmond.2C_Swann_1993-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-Richmond.2C_Swann_1993-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-Richmond.2C_Swann_1993-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabukihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabukihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabukihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky%C5%8Dgenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky%C5%8Dgenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_playhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_playhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marionettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaheedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaheedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adab_(behavior)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adab_(behavior)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(literature)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(literature)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(literature)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-elam98-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_(theatre)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramatic_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramatic_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-Pfister_1977.2C_11-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-Pfister_1977.2C_11-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1601_in_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespearehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespearehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oedipus_the_Kinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._C._Burnandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._S._Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wildehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Strindberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Strindberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Ibsenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth-century_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(theatre)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantin_Stanislavskihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Strasberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Piscatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertolt_Brechthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Becketthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Ionescohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Littlewoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_Workshophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_Workshophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Wilson_(director)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lepagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomson_Highwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto_Boalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Oppressedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakshasahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakshaganahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-Richmond.2C_Swann_1993-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-Richmond.2C_Swann_1993-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabukihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nohhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky%C5%8Dgenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_playhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_playhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marionettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaheedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Alihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adab_(behavior)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(literature)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-elam98-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_(theatre)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramatic_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre#cite_note-Pfister_1977.2C_11-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1601_in_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespearehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oedipus_the_King


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by Sophoc#es are a$ong the $asterpieces of the art of dra$a . K< L A $odern e a$p#e is $ong ay's %ourney into

&ight by &ugene 3 5ei## 8(H 69. Kdesignate a specific type of p#ay dates fro$ the (Hth century . +ra$a in this sense refers to a p#ay that is neither a co$edy

nor a tragedyMfor e a$p#e, Oo#a)s Th r(se Ra)uin 8(E:< 9 or "hekhov)s *+ano+ 8(EE: 9.

+ra$a is often co$bined with $usic and dance 1 the dra$a in opera is genera##y sung throughout; $usica#s genera##y inc#ude

both spoken dia#ogue and songs; and so$e for$s of dra$a have incidenta# $usic or $usica# acco$pani$ent underscoring the

dia#ogue 8$e#odra$a and apanese 5N, for e a$p#e9. K


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in #anguage e$be##ished with each kind of artistic orna$ent, the severa# kinds being found in separate parts of the p#ay;

in the for$ of action, not of narrative;

through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these e$otions.MAristot#e, Poetics K= L

Tragedy refers to a specific tradition of dra$a that has p#ayed a uni%ue and i$portant ro#e historica##y in the se#f-definition

of Western civi#isation . K=(L That tradition has been $u#tip#e and discontinuous, yet the ter$ has often been used to invoke a

powerfu# effect of cu#tura# identity and historica# continuityMFthe Greeks and the i'abethans , in one cu#tura#

for$; 2e##enes and "hristians , in a co$$on activity,F as ay$ond Wi##ia$s puts it. K=!L 0ro$ its obscure origins in the theatres

of Athens !, years ago, fro$ which there survives on#y a fraction of the work of Aeschy#us, Sophoc#es and &uripides,

through its singu#ar articu#ations in the works of Shakespeare , 4ope de Iega , acine , and Schi##er, to the $ore

recent natura#istic tragedy of Strindberg , Beckett)s $odernist $editations on death, #oss and suffering,

and P##er)s post$odernist reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has re$ained an i$portant site of cu#tura#

e peri$entation, negotiation, strugg#e, and change. K=


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Stanis#avski treated the theatre as an art-for$ that is autono$ous fro$ #iterature and one in which the p#aywright )s

contribution shou#d be respected as that of on#y one of an ense$b#e of creative artists. K=HL 2is innovative contribution to

$odern acting theory has re$ained at the core of $ainstrea$ western perfor$ance training for $uch of the #ast century.K L That $any of the precepts of his )syste$) of actor training see$ to be co$$on sense and se#f-evident testifies to its

hege$onic success. K (L Actors fre%uent#y e$p#oy his basic concepts without knowing they do so. K (L Thanks to its pro$otion

and e#aboration by acting teachers who were for$er students and the $any trans#ations of his theoretica# writings,

Stanis#avski)s )syste$) ac%uired an unprecedented abi#ity to cross cu#tura# boundaries and deve#oped an internationa# reach,

do$inating debates about acting in &urope and A$erica. K !L any actors routine#y e%uate his )syste$) with the

A$erican ethod , a#though the #atter)s e c#usive#y psycho#ogica# techni%ues contrast sharp#y with Stanis#avski)s $u#tivariant,

ho#istic and psychophysica# approach, which e p#ores character and action both fro$ the )inside out) and the )outside in) and

treats the actor)s $ind and body as parts of a continuu$. K


16/17

"o$$unity theatre

+inner theatre

0ringe theatre

3ff-Broadway and 3ff West &nd

3ff-3ff-Broadway

egiona# theatre

Su$$er stock theatre

FWest &nd theatreF is a popu#ar ter$ for $ainstrea$ professiona# theatre that is staged in the #arge theatres of 4ondon )s

)Theatre#and), the West &nd . K =L A#ong with 5ew ?ork )sBroadway theatre , West &nd theatre is usua##y considered to represent

the highest #eve# of co$$ercia# theatre in the &ng#ish-speaking wor#d. Seeing a West &nd show is a co$$on tourist activity in4ondon. K


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**. Theatre and +ra$a in Ancient Greece

The Greeks) history began around : B.". with festiva#s honoring their $any gods. 3ne god, +ionysus , was honored with anunusua# festiva# ca##ed the 1ity ionysia5 The reve#ry-fi##ed festiva# was #ed by drunken $en dressed up in rough goat skins8because goats were thought se ua##y potent9 who wou#d sing and p#ay in choruses to we#co$e +ionysus. Tribes co$petedagainst one another in perfor$ances, and the best show wou#d have the honor of winning the contest. 3f the four festiva#s inAthens 8each ref#ecting seasona# changes9, p#ays were on#y presented at one festiva#-- 1ity ionysia5 2istorians be#ieve thatthe Greeks patterned their ce#ebrations after the traditiona# &gyptian pageants honoring 3siris.

At the ear#y Greek festiva#s, the actors, directors, and dra$atists were a## the sa$e person. 4ater, on#y three actors cou#d beused in each p#ay. After so$e ti$e, non-speaking ro#es were a##owed to perfor$ on-stage. Because of the #i$ited nu$ber ofactors a##owed on-stage, the chorus evo#ved into a very active part of Greek theatre. Though the nu$ber of peop#e in thechorus is not c#ear, the chorus was given as $any as one-ha#f the tota# #ines of the p#ay. usic was often p#ayed during thechorus) de#ivery of its #ines.

A#though few tragedies written fro$ this ti$e actua##y re$ain, the the$es and acco$p#ish$ents of Greek tragedy sti##resonate to conte$porary audiences. The ter$ tragedy 8tragos and ode9 #itera##y $eans Fgoat song,F after the festiva#participants) goat-#ike dancing around sacrificia# goats for pri'es. ost Greek tragedies are based on $ytho#ogy or history anddea# with characters) search for the $eaning of #ife and the nature of the gods. ost tragedies that have survived fro$ thisperiod begin with a pro#ogue that gives the audience e position to the fo##owing action. The chorus then introduces a periodca##ed the parado . +uring this ti$e introductions to characters are $ade, e position is given, and a $ood is estab#ished.The fina# scene is ca##ed the e odus when a## the characters as we## as the chorus depart.

Three we##-known Greek tragedy p#aywrights of the fifth century are Sophoc#es, and &uripedes . Aeschy#us , who was aco$petitor at the 1ity ionysia around =HH B."., wrote so$e of the o#dest tragedies in the wor#d. 3n#y a few of Aeschy#us)p#ays have survived but they inc#ude The Persians and the "resteia trilogy5 Aeschy#us is attributed with the introducing the

second actor to the stage. Another Greek p#aywright was Sophoc#es, and on#y seven of his tragedies--inc#uding the sti##-popu#ar 0ntigone6 7lectra6 and "edipus Re4 --have survived. Sophoc#es won twenty-four contests for his p#ays, never p#acing#ower than second p#ace. 2is contributions to theatre history are $any1 2e introduced the third actor to the stage, fi ed thenu$ber of chorus $e$bers to fifteen, and was the first to use scene painting. &uripedes was another pro#ific p#aywright whois be#ieved to have written H p#ays, (E of which have survived, inc#uding Medea6 !ercules and The Trojan .omen5 2e wasoften critici'ed for the way he %uestioned traditiona# va#ues on stage. &uripedes a#so e p#ored the psycho#ogica# $otivationsof his characters actions which had not been e p#ored by other authors. 2is p#ays were used as pattern for other authors for$any years after his death.

"o$edy was a#so an i$portant part of ancient Greek theatre. 5o one is %uite sure of the origins of co$edy, but it is said thatthey derived fro$ i$itation. A## co$edies of note during this ti$e are by Aristophanes . Aristophanes, who co$peted in the$a/or Athenian festiva#s, wrote = p#ays, (( of which survived--inc#uding the $ost controversia# piece of #iterature to co$efro$ ancient Greece, $ysistrata6 a hu$orous ta#e about a strong wo$an who #eads a fe$a#e coa#ition to end war in Greece.A#though on#y

Documents

The Origins of Drama.docx