Journal of Sport Management. 1987. 1, 146-158

Developing an Initial Marketing Plan for Intercollegiate Athletic Programs

William A. Sutton The Ohio State University

This paper recommends an approach to the development and implementa- tion of marketing plans with regard to intercollegiate athletic programs. The thoughts expressed herein are based upon marketing theory and research, advertising, and promotional management principles commonly used in main- stream business and industry but often overlooked in sport and athletics. The author provides a series of steps to serve as guidelines for the sport mana- gerlathletic director. By incorporating the theories and ideas set forth in this paper, the sports practitioner would be better equipped to develop a market- ing plan applicable to the uniqueness and requirements of his or her particu- lar institution or service area.

According to Philip Kotler (1984, p. 281), "the marketing plan is the start- ing point for the planning of the other activities of the company." In college ath- letics, unfortunately, far too many organizational objectives are implemented with- out the benefit and structure of a marketing plan. Today's athletic director is faced with a number of complex financial problems including dwindling resources, at- tendance fluctuations, fund-raising campaigns, and competition for the consumer's entertainment dollar. Robert E. Lehr, associate director of varsity operations at Yale University, summed up the situation quite succinctly when he stated, "Despite the infancy of the college sports marketing phenomenon, its significance has rapidly taken on gigantic importance. Marketing and promotion are no longer solely Di- vision I entities, but are now important functions throughout the athletic spec- trum" (1986, p. 6).

This further underscores the need to develop research and planning pro- cesses that will provide colleges and universities with the tools to benefit from the promotion of their athletic efforts. The development of a marketing plan plays a key role in this process because it not only forces the administrator to examine the athletic program in terms of past performance, present status, and future goals but it also helps him or her identify alternative approaches that may be essential to organizational success.

Direct all correspondence to William A. Sutton, School of HPER, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210.

An Initial Marketing Plan 147

A Model for Developing an Initial Marketing Plan Step 1

Eramine the organization and the market in terms ofpast performance and struc- ture, and present status, and try to identifi factors that would afSect the future of the program or product.

An examination of past practices might help the administrator see why things are done the way they are in the present. It could also identify past prob- lem areas that are similar to current ones. And it might demonstrate some promo- tional approaches that were well received and could be resurrected or fine-tuned for similar projects in the future. This strategy is useful in that it gives the ad- ministrator a chance to examine his or her program and, in a very simple form, evaluate its performance and direction, possibly using alternative plans. For ex- ample, an athletic administrator might be considering a direct mail campaign to raise funds for building an addition to the physical plant, but a check into past practices may indicate this method was attempted several times with little suc- cess. Thus he or she would explore alternative methods to achieve the desired outcome.

As part of this process, the administrator would also identify competitors who might be seeking a similar base of support, and attempt to meet this compe- tition such as through scheduling, holding giveaways, or reevaluating the pricing policies. The administrator could also try to identify individuals most likely to have an interest in the program and who would support it through attendance or financial support. This might involve the use of any or all of Mullin's (1985) four common bases for market segmentation: demographics, psychographics, benefits, and usage ratelfrequency. The most common method of segmenting the market is demographics, which does so on the basis of consumer characteristics such as age, income, sex, and occupation. This process also includes deterrnin- ing a geographical sphere of influence: Where is the organizational base of sup- port located? Where should marketing efforts be concentrated? How much emphasis should be placed in other areas? Yet, a limiting factor of demographics is that individuals, while sharing exactly the same demographic characteristics, may vary so drastically in life-style as to render their selection as potential con- sumers meaningless.

Psychographics, on the other hand, attempts to segment the market in terms of behavior and values: Is the targeted consumer sport oriented? Would he or she purchase season tickets? The obvious limitation of psychographics is that, unlike demographics, they normally are not available and must be generated in- dividually at organizational expense. Mullin's benefit segmentation category is defined as "the specific benefit the consumer is looking for." This category is commonly used in the fitness club industry by asking potential consumers if they are interested in losing weight or getting into better shape. The attempt is to use the potential benefit to target the market.

The fourth method of segmentation is the user ratelfrequency, defined as the purchase or product usage frequency. In other words, a collegiate marketing director might ask a potential consumer, "How many State basketball games did you attend this year?" Based on the answer, the consumer could be categorized as "heavy user" (potential season ticket purchaser) or "light user" (potential

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single game ticket purchaser). Kotler (1984) states that on the basis of such in- formation the administrator would then identify the major opportunitieslthreats, strengths/weaknesses, and issues with the product or campaign being planned. In conducting an opportunitieslthreats analysis, the administrator examines both the positive and negative outside factors that could affect the athletic product; each is examined as a means of determining appropriate actions to consider. For example, an opportunity statement regarding college athletics might be some- thing like, "Attendance figures at collegiate basketball games in the 1985-86 sea- son showed a 17 % increase." Similarly, a threat statement might be, "ESPN announced a major revision in the blackout policy regarding the televising of basketball games when such games are not sold out 48 hours in advance."

Strengthslweaknesses analysis, on the other hand, focuses on internal factors that might influence product success in terms of marketing. Simply stated, strengths are attributes to be emphasized in the marketing plan, while weaknesses are prob- lem areas to be resolved or at least controlled. An example of a strength analysis statement in terms of collegiate athletics could be, "Central University will be playing its home basketball games, beginning with the 1987-88 season, at the new Smith Arena, which will accommodate 17,590 fans compared with Jones Hall, an antiquated facility with a 10,000 seating capacity." A weakness state- ment might be that ticket prices are 50% higher than those of city rival Martin State, the defending conference champions.

An issue analysis is the compilation of findings of the opportunitieslthreats analysis and the strengths/weaknesses analysis to define the major issues that need to be addressed in the marketing plan (Kotler, 1984). Based on the previous ex- ample, an issue analysis might call for action regarding the following statement "Should Central University lower ticket prices to be more competitive with Martin State University?" This information is then examined and synthesized to aid in the development of objectives, and ultimately strategies, for implementation.

Step 2

Develop a set of measurable, attainable objectives.

Drucker (1974, p. 99) defines objectives as "the action commitments through which the mission of a business is to be carried out and the standards against which performance is to be measured. Objectives, in other words, are the fundamental strategy of a business." As such, objectives must be operational and related to a specific area of need or action. To achieve these objectives, the organization allocates organizational resources-human, physical, fiscal.

A collegiate athletic program is a much more diverse entity than a tradi- tional business operation, and therefore the objectives will be diverse but inter- related. For example, Broyles, Hay, and Ginter (1979) offer the following ob- jectives for consideration as "important in the administration of athletic programs, as they provide a balanced approach and can assure that proper attention is paid to the critical areas of a successful program:

1. Producing a winning team to satisfy the entertainment needs of the fans; 2. Developing character in the athletes; 3. Increasing its size (growth); 4. Obtaining a share of the entertainment market;

An Initial Marketing Plan

5. Making a profit; 6. Being a leader in athletics; 7. Improving the position of athletics in general; 8. Improving the quality of life for society in general; 9. Maintaining survival of the athletic program;

10. Satisfying contributors' needs. (p. 9)

Some of the objectives they list might not apply to all situations, but in a philosophical context they represent desired outcomes in collegiate athletics. How- ever, these objectives do present one area of difficulty in that for the most part they are hard to measure, and thus difficult to evaluate in terms of successful achievement. In formulating these objectives one should attempt to construct them in a clear, concise, measurable manner. For example, a marketing objective that fits these guidelines for a collegiate athletic program might be written as follows: "To increase football season ticket sales by 15% in the 1988 season." If one wanted to be more specific, the objective could be written as follows: "To sell 5,000 new football season tickets by March 3 1, 1988."

Step 3

Develop a series of strategies to achieve organizational goals and objectives. Strategies are used to achieve goals and objectives. In sport terminology,

a marketing strategy is a game plan. According to Kotler (1984, p. 287), market- ing strategy "is the basic approach that the business unit will use to achieve its objectives." It involves identifying a target market, developing a pricing strate- gy, using advertising and market positioning, considering finances, and assess- ing the organization. These considerations can best be explained by the following illustration.

Using the objective to sell 5,000 new football season tickets by March 31, 1988, what strategies would be necessary to achieve this objective? To whom will we direct our sales efforts? Is there a target market for the product? If there is no research regarding the market, then a market analysis or at least a customer profile must be constructed. Assume for our purposes here that the target market is single or married men in the 23-44 age bracket. This would enable us to focus on men who would attend the game with friends, those who would attend with their spouse, and those who would bring the family or one or more children. Next we could consider a pricing strategy. One might already be established that would be effective for the first two categories of the target market, but what about a new pricing strategy to get families to attend? This might involve the use of less desirable seating locations that are difficult to sell (end zone, bleachers, etc.), which would be offered at reduced rates to encourage purchase by families. Another strategy might be ease of purchase, such as through credit cards, retail outlets, or installing a toll-free number.

The use of advertising to create consumer awareness might be the next consideration. Some methods that have proven successful have been local ap- pearances by athletes. Professional sport teams utilize player appearances in shop- ping malls, "player caravans" that travel to various cities to promote the team, and instructional clinics. Based upon what NCAA regulations allow, perhaps player clinics, combining a scheduled practice (early in the season) with a local

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YMCA or park and recreation department program, would give parents and chil- dren an opportunity to meet the athletes and, hopefully, form a positive impres- sion that would translate into season tickets or group game sales.

What is the best way to reach our target market to inform them of what we have to offer? The answer depends on several other considerations listed above: market positioning, financial considerations, and organizational assessment. If we want to reach this type of consumer, how much time, money, and effort can we dedicate to this pursuit? Is this a project for a full-time staff member, a part- time staffer, or a student intern? Is additional staff required? What will it cost in terms of salaries? Will there be sufficient return in terms of sales to justify this expense? These considerations vary from organization to organization, es- pecially in terms of institutional size, level of competition, and location. Deci- sions must be made at those levels regarding what is appropriate.

A strategy that is gaining acceptance at all levels of collegiate athletics involves the structuring and management of promotions. Promotion is defined by Govoni, Eng, and Galper (1986, p. 12) as "all those means by which mar- keters communicate to their target market." In general terms, this comrnunica- tion involves attempts to inform, persuade, or remind the consumer of the benfits of the product. At the collegiate athletic setting, therefore, promotions would be used to inform the consumer of the athletic program-its teams, schedule, and mission. Promotions might also involve persuading an audience to become in- volved by buying tickets, attending an event, or making a contribution. Another phase might include disseminating information about what has transpired or what is about to occur.

A key to effective promotion is knowing what you want to accomplish and designing a promotion that will help you reach this goal ("Successful Promo- tion, '' 1985). This requires a knowledge of organizational marketing efforts with regard to successes and failures and their effect on future plans. It also requires knowledge about fan base-who attends, who doesn't, and why. For example, Northwestern State University of Louisiana had low student attendance at home football games during the 1982 and 1983 seasons. The football team had losing records in both years, and research indicated that most of the students went home on weekends, including football weekends. The promotional campaign for the 1984 season should then involve ways of persuading students to remain on cam- pus and attend football games. Promotional efforts included pep rallies, special intramural contests, miscellaneous activities in the student union on Thursday and Friday, gifts and food, and tailgating. These well-targeted promotional ef- forts were very successful, as 1984 attendance increased an average of 3,000 per game and two attendance records were set ("Successful Promotion," 1985). Promotional events targeting nonstudent groups have also proven very effective, particularly when directed toward youth groups. For example, Duke Universi- ty's "Youth Day" attracts between 7,000 and 12,000 additional paying customers annually (Wilkinson, 1985).

Similar promotional efforts have been successful in basketball and spring football exhibition games (Hart, 1985). In fact, the University of Iowa used a promotional theme of trying to set an NCAA attendance record to draw an NCAA record crowd of 22,157 to a women's basketball game in 1985 (White, 1985). Creative promotional plans have also played a key role in raising collegiate base- ball attendance in the last decade. The success of the University of Miami (Flori-

An Initial Marketing Plan 151

da), the University of Texas at Austin, and Oklahoma State University have helped trigger an attendance that doubled to over 8 million between 1978 and 1983 (Mor- ris, 1984).

Although various types of promotions have been successful, it should be pointed out that not only must the promotion be well planned with regard to a predetermined goal, but it must also be in accordance with the image and philosophy of the institution. Some institutions with a tradition of conservative practices are not readily convinced of the suitability of promotions with regard to their audience. This is sometimes true even with minor sports where promo- tional usage could have a noticeable effect on attendance and revenue. Therefore any promotional campaigns should be discussed with key university personnel from outside the athletic department; this helps guarantee closer organizational support for the campaign.

Concluding this illustration, we could say the market position is that the "family season plan" represents affordable, quality entertainment with a rich tradition. The advertising approach might be placing an ad in the sports section of the newspaper and then distributing flyers to schoolchildren to bring home to their parents. This project could be coordinated by a full-time staff member assisted by student interns. The promotional approach might take the form of an open scrimmage or exhibition, with the audience having an opportunity to meet the players and coaches. Following this, those who have purchased season tick- ets could select their seats.

Step 4

Develop a creative component. Development of a creative component is a critical aspect of the marketing

plan because this is the part that will cause the greatest interaction with potential audiences and the media. The creative component is a "theme" that is present throughout all aspects of the marketing plan, especially in dealing with the media and sales campaigns. It involves emphasizing unique attributes of your program that set it apart from similar enterprises. For example, in 1984 the Pittsburgh Maulers were an expansion franchise in the U.S. Football League. They were faced with a problem of how to market their new team in a city where the Na- tional Football League Steelers were immensely popular and had been for years. The approach the Maulers organization used was to sell something they didn't have-history. "Be a part of History" was the creative component they used. Through broadcast and print media, Pittsburgh residents were being blitzed with the idea they could become a part of history by taking part in the first USFL game in that city. And how could one take part? By buying a ticket-a season ticket if they preferred (Hertzel, 1984).

The creative component, then, is central to the marketing approach in that it not only provides visibility and creates interest but also gives the potential au- dience something they can understand and identify with, and yet it is of enough substance to motivate the audience to become consumers. According to Tim Pear- son, marketing director for the Maulers,

Pittsburghers like to go to significant things. It's human nature. We can't say we're going to win the championship this year. We can't say that we

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will have the best team in the league. But we can say we'll put on a good show and this is the first time it has ever happened. The first . . . that's what it's all about. History. (Hertzel, 1984, p. D2)

Pearson goes on to explain, "We had to figure out what to sell in a first season before a team has ever played a game. The one thing you can sell is the historical significance of the first game ever" (Hertzel, p. D2). This rhetoric about history helped create a near sellout for the game.

The creative component should emphasize the positioning of the product for both the media and the consumer. The creative component should be practi- cally interchangeable with its product. For example, a few years ago the term "Billy Ball" was synonymous with the Oakland A's in Major League Baseball. This was a creative component suggesting a style of play and what the fan could expect to see by buying a ticket and attending a game (Berling-Manuel, 1984).

However, even the best creative component can lose its effect when star athletes become injured. A case in point was the U.S. Naval Academy's Heis- man trophy campaign for then student-athlete Napoleon McCallum in 1984. Posters were printed and sent to voters across the country, picturing McCallum dressed like John Paul Jones standing in front of the U.S.S. Constitution and hold- ing a football. The caption on the poster read, "I have not yet begun to run." Unfortunately for both McCallum and the Naval Academy, this quotation proved to be true, as he was injured in the first month of the season; thus both McCal- lum and the promotional campaign were sidelined for the remainder of the year (Farrell, 1984). Although a well-conceived creative component can have an enor- mous impact on marketing success, it is only one phase of a marketing plan and is dependent upon the rationale of the other steps.

Step 5

Develop an implementation strategy and appropriate procedures. This plan refers to all the means at your disposal to achieve your goals.

Kotler (1984) refers to this area as "action programs" because they indicate that actions are to be taken to achieve the objectives. This plan involves defining areas of responsibility and delegating authority. In other words, who will be responsi- ble for what portions of the plan, and to whom will they be accountable? It also explains what specifically needs to be done. For example, let us assume that the objective is to sell 2,500 season basketball tickets by November 1. What tasks might be involved in achieving this objective?

The following steps would be essential: (a) Identify available seating to be sold. (b) Identify the target market for this seating. (c) Determine the sales ap- proach (mail, telephone, personal solicitation, etc.). (d) Prepare the ticket brochure and other printed materials necessary for the sales approach. (e) Assign appropriate personnel (includes training and explanation of duties, responsibilities, lines of authority, securing necessary resources, trouble-shooting). This would also in- volve developing specific job descriptions for all personnel and defining lines of authority and procedures to be followed, as well as explaining briefly the ratio- nale of the project and how these assignments relate to its success. (f) Determine the organizational time frame and calendar. This would include deadlines for send- ing the brochure to the printer, mailing dates, campaign start and end dates, follow-

An Initial Marketing Plan 153

up campaign, special events (kick-off luncheon, etc.), and other related activi- ties that need to be assigned a time slot. The calendar should be formalized, printed, and distributed to all personnel to help illustrate how their respective duties are incorporated into the organizational goal and how these duties are interrelated and thus dependent upon other personnel. (g) Select methods of payment to be used in the sales campaign (credit card, cash, check, deferred payment). It might also include how deposits and payments will be processed.

This is not an all-inclusive list, but it represents a sampling of action steps that are critical to organizational success. The appropriate action steps for each organization will be directly related to the designated objective. Factors such as organizational size, structure, level of past support (i.e., attendance and contri- butions), and competitive situation will all have a bearing on the approaches nec- essary. One factor that cannot be underestimated, however, is the formalization process for these steps. Taking the time to put it in writing shows the organiza- tion's commitment to achieving these goals and their importance to the success of the organization.

Step 6

Construct a budget to show how and where organizational resources will be al- located.

This step differs slightly from preparing a traditional budget in that it re- quires the manager to put in writing not only the projected fiscal expenses but also expenses in terms of personnel, facilities, and other organizational resources that will be used in achieving the organizational objectives. This is critical be- cause it enables the manager to more realistically assess the true cost of achiev- ing the organizational objectives and to determine if there might be a more cost-effective way of achieving them, or whether other objectives should be con- sidered instead.

To illustrate this point, let us return to the example discussed in step 5. What in terms of cost might be considered in attempting to sell an additional 2,500 season tickets? (a) Will the current staff be used, or will additional staff or perhaps even an outside organization be needed? (b) Will the campaign be housed in ex- isting quarters or will space be borrowed from another department or otherwise secured (denoted or rented)? (c) Will the campaignloperation require any addi- tional or special equipment (e.g., Watts line, computer, phone lines)? (d) What will the campaignloperation require in terms of support personnel (clerical, cus- todial, consulting)? (e) Are there any special costs such as brochures, advertis- ing, and promotional considerations? Again, the list is but a sample of questions that might be asked to help determine true organizational costs.

The budget should, as most budgets do, project dates of income and ex- penditures so that a monthly operational procedure can be established. Such a procedure might include regular payroll for temporary or part-time staff, com- mission checks based on sales or payments received, income (projected by month) of pledges due if the objective was a fund-raising campaign, and so forth.

In conclusion, this is a practical though time-consuming step in terms of helping an athletic director make decisions related to organizational goals. Con- tinuing with our illustration of season ticket sales, for example, an athletic direc- tor could come to several conclusions: (a) using a temporary, commission-only

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sales force was a fiscally effective method of achieving the objective; a campaign approach is desirable in terms of total tickets sold, but it's too costly unless ticket prices are raised to help cover the expense; the amount of time and money spent on a mail campaign did not justify the return, and so forth.

Essentially this step forces the athletic or marketing director to examine all direct and indirect expenditures, and convert nomonetary considerations into dollars to determine if the outcome was sufficient to justify the effort and expendi- tures-and to consider possible alternatives.

Step 7

Develop a plan il2ustrating use of all appropriate media forms. "The effectiveness of any marketinglmerchandising effort planned must

rely on the media used to publicize it as much as it does on copy and graphics" (New Jersey Generals Marketing Plan, 1984). However, selecting the type of media most suitable for your objectives is the critical consideration. Again, the size of your organization and resources at your disposal are the factors that will dictate not only the type of media approach to select but also the scope, frequen- cy, and appearance.

For most institutions, television is not a realistic approach because it is too expensive. However, some of the larger Division I institutions, particularly those with football programs, utilize television as an integral part of their mar- keting plan. For the purpose of this discussion, though, developing an initial mar- keting plan for college athletics, attention will be focused on radio and print media.

The key to using radio and print media successfully is to identify the target market you wish to reach, and correlate that group with the listenership and reader- ship of various radio stations and print media. For example, the New Jersey Gener- als' marketing plan suggests utilizing WNEW-FM. Described as a "Rock & Roll format, general listenership appeal aimed at a core target audience 25-34, but achieving reach against 18-25 and 35-49 age groups. Breaks in most new mus- ic, and has live features during various parts of the day" (1984, unpublished). This station would deliver a wide range of listeners, some of whom would be interested in football and would fit the USFL-defined target market of 19-35 (USFL Self-study, 1984). Radio stations conduct audience surveys, and this in- formation proves useful when deciding what type of station would best reach our intended target market. An attractive aspect of radio advertising is that most ra- dio stations have the ability to write and produce the entire spot. They can write the copy, select the talent, and produce the tape. A 30-second spot can be produced for as little as $100 (Cason, 1984).

The category of print media is diverse and includes the following: news- papers (daily and weekly), magazines, trade papers, newsletters, brochures, pam- phlets, flyers, posters, schedule cards, calendars, and so forth. Cost varies ac- cording to the design of the publication, circulation base, frequency, and geographic scope you wish to reach. Some national publications sell advertising space on a national basis but also offer a regional rate with a limited geographic circulation. The size and financial situation of the institution, as well as the geo- graphic scope the administrator wishes to reach, will dictate the approach to be used,

Newspapers have served as a very effective print medium for collegiate athletic programs. According to research conducted by the Newspaper Advertis- ing Bureau Inc., consumers look to the advertising messages in newspapers more than in any other medium (Shea, 1983). Newspapers provide high reach at a com- paratively low cost. According to James Dunaway, Newspaper Advertising Bureau executive vice-president, "In a five day week, 85-90% of the adult population will see about 3.6 million daily newspapers" (Shea, 1983, p. 30). One short- coming might be that newspapers generally provide little selectivity of audience. This must be done by the advertiser, who selects the appropriate section of the paper where the message is expected to generate the most interest and best results. The sports section is the most popular location for creating marketing awareness among sports fans. This section provides space for advertising related to season ticket sales, individual game sales, special events or meetings, and so forth. Ac- cording to the Newspaper Advertising Bureau, twice as many men as women noticed ads on the sports pages (Shea, 1983).

However, this is not the only part of the newspaper that a person with marketing responsibility in collegiate athletics should be aware of. The sports marketer must also be concerned with the overall marketing responsibility con- nected with the athletic department, and thus must utilize other sections of the newspaper. If the marketing of facilities is involved, for example, the approach might be to utilize a "weekender" or similar section that deals with miscellane- ous activities of general interest such as concerts, meetings, and so forth. One should also be aware of sections of the paper that cater to alumni and remind them of upcoming meetings and events, or state-of-the-campus presentations, Weekly or monthly publications could also be used to spread the message. Cre- ative and timely use of such publications is essential and can usually be achieved at a lower cost than with a daily newspaper.

Newsletters also are a relatively inexpensive way to disseminate information to a group of people already identified as having some interest in the status of the athletic program. From time to time, certain promotional pieces such as sea- son ticket applications can be enclosed in the mailing. Direct mail can be used to achieve a similar goal. Mailing lists can be purchased from such sources as magazine subscription lists, season ticket holders from other sports or from profes- sional teams, youth leagues, and so forth. This approach also allows for updat- ing in terms of additions or deletions to the list, or for creating subsections of the lists for special mailings. For example, say a home basketball game is sched- uled for the day after Thanksgiving, featuring an opponent of lesser stature. The students will be gone from campus during this time, and holidays, because of family commitments and other considerations, usually have an effect on lower- ing attendance at this game. As marketing director, you might try to entice youth leagues to buy tickets at a reduced rate for this game, and you might offer two teams an opportunity to stage an exhibition before the game or at halftime. The sublist can be generated from the master list, and a special flyer detailing the promotion can be sent to the target audience.

Appropriate use of media calls for a knowledge of the target audience and the best way to disseminate your message in terms of cost and reach. The most effective manner for each organization will again vary according to the size and budget of the operation, but will probably be multimedia oriented in its approach.

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Step 8

Develop evaluation procedures. Evaluation procedures, as the term implies, refers to the methods employed

in soliciting feedback about perception, procedures, and overall performance. The information gained through the evaluation process is then examined and used in fine-tuning the approach or developing an entirely new one. There are two evaluation procedures to be considered, formative and summative. Formative evaluation can be defined as "directed toward assessing the step-by-step process of program development as it occurs" (Edginton & Griffith, 1982, p. 48). Sum- mative evaluation "takes place at the conclusion of a program effort, or attempts to assess the concluding impact of a program on individuals or groups" (Edgin- ton & Griffith, 1982). Both approaches have merit and would be equally effec- tive in assessing the effectiveness of a marketing plan. The choice of which system to use might be made on administrative style or organizational size.

In terms of evaluating an initial marketing plan, a strong case could be made for either process. Formative evaluation might be selected so that each step and its results can be closely examined and monitored at its conclusion. This would allow an administrator to see how the feedback relates to what was recently at- tempted, and how that process could be improved or altered. It gives the adminis- trator a chance to implement change quickly while the understanding of what has transpired is still fresh in his or her memory. Surnmative evaluation of an initial marketing plan, on the other hand, would give the administrator an opportunity to examine a completed process, possibly one he or she is relatively unfamiliar with, and develop an understanding of how feedback might affect final results. Both approaches have their merits, and the decision will ultimately be an organiza- tional one.

When evaluating the performance of an initial marketing plan, the admini- strator might wish to solicit advice and input from experts. This approach uti- lizes the experience and knowledge of individuals who do not have a vested in- terest in the program and thus can provide an impartial assessment. It provides the administrator with expertise and insight into areas he or she might not pos- sess. The individual could be an advertising professional who assesses media use, a marketing consultant who provides an overall assessment, or an athletic direc- tor from another institution who has experience in this area. The essential point is to obtain expertise in examining and evaluating the marketing plan.

Record-keeping, such as sales records, advertising revenue, attendance, and donations, will provide feedback on the success of your marketing endeavors. These records should be analyzed and correlated with specific events that were part of the marketing plan to determine the effectiveness of certain portions of it. For example, analyzing day-of-game sales related to a promotional event sched- uled in conjunction with that game might yield valuable information. From time to time, however, organizations will wish to develop their own instruments to solicit feedback about performance. This information is then used in the plan- ning process (discussed in step 1) for future organizational efforts. Usually in the form of surveys or questionnaires, such instruments may be mailed to a tar- get audience (e.g., season ticket holders), be distributed to fans as they enter the gate (to be completed and deposited into a designated receptacle), or be conduct-

An Initial Marketing Plan 157

ed by telephone or as a face-to-face interview. Each style has its advantages, and the desirability of each is determined by organizational resources such as time and money. The important factor is to solicit feedback directly from the consumer.

It might seem obvious, but a key to the evaluation process and its success is not so much the type of procedure selected but the interpretation and use of the results. The administrator must be able to detach himself or herself emotion- ally from the feedback and evaluation results. This might seem easy, but one must consider the enormous amount of time invested by the administrator in formulat- ing and implementing this plan. The administrator must not be defensive about the results but should accept them objectively. Translating the results into a new or revised marketing plan is critical to the success of the organization's market- ing objectives. The results provide some indication of desired state. It is up to the administrator to make that desired state attainable.

Summation The one conclusion that can be drawn from this discussion is that there is no single best way to develop a marketing plan. The plan, its implementation, and its evaluation will vary from one organization to another and from one individual to another. The essential point is that the formulation and implementation of a marketing plan is a critical ingredient in achieving and maintaining organization- al effectiveness.

A marketing plan forces administrators to conduct research about the or- ganization's current practices and future goals, it provides a rational basis for the allocation of resources, and it assures that there is a prioritization of efforts to achieve organizational goals. Although a marketing plan does not ensure or- ganizational success, it does provide direction and enhances organizational at- tempts to achieve success.

References Berling-Manuel, L. (1984, August). Family fun comes to the forefront. Advertising Age,

pp. 10-11. Broyles, F., Hay, R., & Ginter, P. (1979). Marketing the other half of a successful

athletic program. Athletic Administration (Winter), pp. 9-10. Cason, C. (1984, May). Radio advertising: Strategies for tuning in the sports consumer.

The Sporting Goods Dealer, p. 98. Drucker, P.F. (1974). Management tasks, responsibilities, practices. New York: Harper

& Row. Edginton, C.R., & Griffith, C.A. (1982). The recreation and leisure service delivery

system. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publ. Farrell, C.S. (1984, October 3). The Heisman hype: Colleges try to help star players win

football's top award. The Chronicle of Higher Education, p. 25. Govoni, N., Eng, R., & Galper, M. (1986). Promotional management. Englewood-Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hart, D. Jr. (1985, March). Spring football promotion has university in hog heaven.

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