THE NEWCAMBRIDGE MODERN

HISTORY

VOLUME V

THE ASCENDANCY OF FRANCE1648-88

EDITED BY

F. L. CARSTEN

CAMBRIDGEAT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1961

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION: THE AGE OF LOUIS XIVBy F. L. CARSTEN

Reader in Modern History, Westfield College, University of London

CHAPTER II

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIESBy D. C. COLEMAN, Reader in Economic History at the London School

of Economics

Population trends in Europe in second half of seventeenth century . . . 19Plague as an agent of death 20War as an agent of death, direct and indirect 20Losses incurred during and after Thirty Years War 20-1Crop failure and famine 21-2Fluctuation of population 22Areas of population loss and economic decline 22Areas of population growth and economic development 22-3Advance in agricultural techniques; agricultural literature in England . . 23-4Trade in foodstuffs 24Trends in corn prices 24-5Landlords and tenants 25Decline in industry and trade of Italy, Spain, and Spanish Netherlands . . 26Effects of war on the economy of the Empire 26-7Industry and trade of Sweden 27Expansion of English and French trade 27-8Import into Europe of Indian and American goods 28Trading companies and the struggle for colonial trade 28-9Domestic industries; occasional giant enterprises 29Financial dealings, great and small 29-30Problems of public finance; diversity of solutions . . . . . . 30Colbert and the taille; the monthly assessment and hearth-tax in England . . 30-1Indirect taxes 31Dutch taxation system . . 31-2New indirect taxation in various countries; the excise 32Sale of offices and farming of taxes 32-3Systems of public borrowing 33-4Money shortages; increased use of credit transactions and non-precious coinage

metals 34-5Control of flow of precious metals across frontiers 35Struggle for international trade; the English Navigation Acts . . . . 35-6Creation of French trading companies 36-7Commercial treaties 37-8Tariffs and trade embargoes as instruments of Colbert's economic policy; Anglo-

French rivalry 38-9Luxury manufactures in France 39-40

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Colbert's development of textile and other industries page 40-1Promotion of industry and trade elsewhere in Europe 41Social policy; poor relief and repression of vagrants 41-2Control of trade in foodstuffs 42-3Mercantilism 43~4Writings on economic matters 45Colbert as the embodiment of mercantilist policy 45-6

CHAPTER III

THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENTBy A. R. HALL, Professor of the History of Science, University of California

Pre-emininence of French science; the age of Cartesianism 4 7 8

Beginnings ofthe Royal Society; influence of Descartes 4»Italian science after Galileo; the Accademia del Cimento 49Character of early scientific societies · 49Early activities of the Royal Society; different character of Académie Royale des

SciencesIntercommunication between European scientistsReplacement of the old conception of the natural order; Newton's Philosophiae

Naturalis Principia Mathematica 5Neglect of exact astronomical geometry by Galileo and Descartes; development of

telescopes 53-4Difficulties of formulating a theory of planetary motions in mathematical terms . 54Huygen's work in dynamics 55Kepler's laws: slow realisation of their significance 55Newton's work; his status as a mechanical philosopher 55~7Acceptance by English scientists of basic tenets of Cartesian science . . . 57-8Boyle's scepticism concerning some Cartesian conceptions ; his theory of chemistry 58-6°Theories of combustion 60Theories of light and the formation of colour 60-2Cartesian and Newtonian mechanism 63-5Extension of mechanistic theory to physiology 65-6Study of respiration and other biological questions 66Zoological experiment; concept of immutability of species 67-8Microscopy 68-70Problems of taxonomy; the work of John Ray 70-1Biological and physical aspects of seventeenth-century science . . . . 71-2

CHAPTER

PHILOSOPHYBy W. VON LEYDEN, Senior Lecturer in Philosophy in the Durham Colleges,

University of Durham

Close links between philosophical and scientific thought in seventeenth century . 73Extension of the mathematical method from science to other fields of study, parti-

cularly philosophy 73-4Dominance of Cartesian philosophy; the Meditations and the Objections thereto 74-5Basis of Descartes's philosophy; his arguments for the existence of God; his

physical theoryE c c l e s i a s t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n t o D e s c a r t e s ; a t t i t u d e o f P a s c a l . . . . . 77-8Malebranche: his version of Cartesian theory, his doctrine and influence . . 78-9

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C O N T E N T S

Varieties of Cartesianism, and rival systems page 79Spinoza, the 'God-intoxicated man' 79-80His notion of substance; his ethics 80-1Leibniz: his conception of 'monadism' 82-3His principles of sufficient reason and of the identity of indiscernibles . . 83-4His system of logic; influence of Essais de Theodicee; his legacy to later philo-

sophers 85-6Controversy between metaphysical rationalism and empiricism . . . . 86Gassendi : a forerunner of the British Empiricists ; his Syntagma Philosophicum . 86-7His doctrines and influence 87-8Bacon : importance of his general conception of advancement of learning 88Hobbes: empiricist, materiahst, and rationalist 88-90The Cambridge Platonists 90-1Locke: his study of the nature, origin, and extent of knowledge . . . . 91-4Chief characteristics of philosophy in the period from Descartes to Locke . . 94-5

CHAPTER V

POLITICAL THOUGHTBy STEPHAN SKALWEIT, Professor of Modern History in the University of

Saarbrücken

Essential features o f seventeenth-century thought 96Basic political att itudes: doctrine o f D i v i n e Right and theory o f social contract

based o n reason 96The monarchy o f Louis X I V 97Mémoires of Louis X I V ; the concept o f absolute monarchy . . . . 9 7 - 9Bossuet: the biblical basis of his Politique tirée des propres paroles de Γ Écriture

sainte 99-100Possible influence of Hobbes on Bossuet 100Bossuet's distinction between gouvernement absolu and gouvernement arbitraire .Intellectual contradictions in the Politique; confusion between legality and tradition . . . . 101-2

Principle of the sovereignty of the people foreshadowed 102England's constitutional conflict 102-3Hobbes's Leviathan; his theory on the creation and function ofthe State; his negation of divine consecration 103-4

Revival in Restoration England of doctrine of Divine Right; Filmer's Patriarcha 104-6Spinoza: similarities and differences between his thought and that of Hobbes . 106-7Spinoza's Tractatus theologico-politicus; theory on the origin ofthe State and the

nature of sovereignty 107-8Modification of theory in Tractatus politicus 108-9Progress towards alliance between political theory and political experience . . 109-10Concept of secularised natural law in the German principalities . . . . noPufendorf: his approach to the connection between natural law and power of the

State 110-12Problem of relationship between the Empire and the autonomous principalities;

Pufendorf's De Statu Imperii Germanici 112-13Pufendorf as the embodiment of the contemporary trends of political thought . 113-14Leibniz; the incomplete expression of his political thought 114-15National and universal trends in Leibniz's philosophy 115-16The 'irenic' campaign for the reunion of Christendom 116-17Leibniz's recognition of the breach between Christianity and modern science . Ï 17

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Emergence of concept of the natural right of the individual and of the sovereigntyof the people page 117-19

Coincidence of Locke's Treatises on Civil Government and the Glorious Revolution 119Harmony between Locke's political theory and the temper of his time . . 119-20Locke's conception of the English constitution; his influence in the eighteenth

century CHAPTER VI

CHURCH AND STATEBy A N N E W H I T E M A N , Fellow and Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall and

Lecturer in Modern History in the University of OxfordContinuation of religious division after Peace of Westphalia . . . . 122Growth of absolutism; the Church regarded as a department of State . . 122-3Plans for reuniting the divided Church I 2 3Conflict between ambitions of secular rulers and intense religious life . . . 124Varying strength of religious forces 4Effect of the Treaty of Osnabrück in Germany 124-6Variety of problems of Church and State within Germany 126-7Political leadership of Protestants and Catholics in Germany . . . . 127Limitation of wealth and power of the Spanish Church despite religious fervour 127-9Relations of Spanish governments with the papacy 129Political crises and the Portuguese Church 129-30Difficulties between Venice and the papacy 130Variety of conflicts between Church and State in FranceDifferent interpretations of GallicanismNon-Gallican persuasions : the Jesuits and Mendicants ; centres for spiritual reform

and their dévots 131-2Publication of Augustinus; Jansenism 132-3Censure of the Five Propositions and drawing up of formulary against Jansenist

tenets 133-4Louis XIV enlists papal aid to enforce subscription of the formulary . . . 134The conflict over the regale temporelle and régale spirituelle . . . . 135Revival of Louis's hostility to Jansenism ; growing enmity with Innocent XI . 135-6General Assembly summoned by Louis; the Four Articles; Innocent brief

on the régale . . . . 136-7Reactions in France and in Rome to the Four Articles 137Affair of the Franchises; excommunication of Lavardin; Louis's invasion of

Avignon 138Death of Innocent XI; conciliatory moves under Alexander VIII; compromise

under Innocent XII 138-9The Huguenots before Louis's personal government 139Restriction of Protestant privileges; destruction of churches . . . . 139-40Establishment of Caisse des Conversions 140Louis's policy of persecution 140Acts against the Huguenots; Edict of Fontainebleau 141Revulsion in Europe against Louis's policy 142Church and State in the Protestant countries of Western Europe . . . 142Religious tolerance in the United Provinces 142-3Re-establishraent of Anglicanism in England after the Restoration . . . 143Measures against Nonconformists 144Anti-Catholic policy despite Charles Catholic sympathies . . . . 144Resistance to episcopacy in Scotland 144-5

X

C O N T E N T S

Movement for reunion of Churches; efforts of Leibniz, Bossuet, and Spinola page 145-6Theoretical and practical arguments for religious toleration . . . . 146-7Reaction against formalism and exclusiveness of established Churches ; decline of

State responsibility for Church 147-8

CHAPTER VII

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

By R. W I T T κ ο W E R , Professor ofthe History of Art, Columbia University

Rome as the centre of Baroque art; artists of first, second, and third generations ofBaroque 149

Decline of Rome as Europe's artistic metropolis; increase of artistic activity inVenice, Genoa, Piedmont, and Naples 150

Challenge of Paris; Bernini's abortive visit in connection with his design for theLouvre 150-1

Seventeenth-century trends: Baroque, classicism, and realism . . . . 1 5 1 - 2Bernini, Poussin, and Rembrandt as representatives of Baroque, classicism, and

realism 152-3Emergence of 'Baroque classicism' 153-4Baroque frescoes after 1650; work of Gaulli and Pozzo 154Maratti's reconciliation of Baroque and classical trends 154-5Italian individualists 155The Bernini school of sculpture 155-6French influence on Roman sculpture 156Rome as the international centre for sculpture 156Bernini's blending of sculpture and architecture 156-7His revolutionary type of palace design; the piazza of St Peter's . . 157Works of Borromini and Cortona 157-8Influence of Bernini, Borromini, and Cortona on architectural history . . 158-9Rainaldi and Guarini 159-60French artists of the pre-Louis XIV eraColbert's control of French artistic activity; the Academies . . . . 161Bellorfs theory and Poussin's method as basis of later seventeenth-century art . 162Le style Louis XIV 162-3Garden- and town-planning 163-4Resurgence of French sculpture: Girardon, Coysevox, and Puget . . . 164-5Contrast between art of Spanish Netherlands and that of Holland . . . 165Great specialisation in various branches of painting 166Limitations imposed by style; development of Pieter de Hooch and others . . 167-8Sculpture and architecture in the Netherlands 168-9The arts in post-Restoration England 169Dominance of Sir Christopher Wren 169-70Sir Roger Pratt, Hugh May, and later English architects 170-1Lack of distinction among English sculptors 171Concentration on portraiture 171Foreign painters in England 171Slow recuperation of the arts in Germany and Austria after Thirty Years War . 172Italian influence, and native contribution, in revival of sculpture and architecture

in Germany and Austria 172-3Decline of Spanish painting in second half of seventeenth century . . . 173-4Late Baroque architecture in Spain 174Reaction against the international classicism imposed by French Academy, led by

Roger de Piles 174-5

b

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VIII

THE SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF STATESBy SIR GEORGE CLARK, Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford

Europe's 'military revolutionIncreased size of armies and fleets, absorbing larger proportions of population . 176Demographic situation and the causation of warsFactors of change in the military revolution; the scientific movement . 178Social effects of the scientific movement and technology 178-9Mathematical knowledge applied to administration: de Witt's reform of life-

annuities 79Work of Edmund Halley and Sir William Petty; comprehensive and systematic

collection of facts 179-80Social enquiry by survey in England and France

Louis XIV's part in the work of government Removal of the court to Versailles; apparatus of the French monarchy . · 182-3

The French nobility, a status of privilege; the noblesse d'épée . . . . 183Connection between nobility and Church 183-4The noblesse de robe 184-5Development of the bourgeoisie ; detrimental effects of privilege and status-seeking 185-6Division of French society into privileged and unprivileged . . · . 186Lack of communication between central government and the individual . 186-7Widespread adoption of methods of Louis XIV's monarchy . . . .Differences between French and English governmental systems illustrated in the

colonies 187Relations of England with Ireland and Scotland . . . . . . 187-8Deficiency of machinery of government in EnglandThe English nobility 189-9°Position of the ChurchIndependent local government in and outside towns 190-1Development of the professions; their place in the social structure . . .Social organisation in the Dutch Republic; its influenceFreedom of thought, literacy, and public spirit in the Dutch Republic . .Difference in status of peasantry in eastern and western Europe . . .German administrative practice; legal training of officials 195-6Centralised government in the German principalities 196Brandenburg-Prussia; the Great Elector's administration . . . . . 196-7

CHAPTER

FRENCH DIPLOMACY AND FOREIGN POLICYIN THEIR EUROPEAN SETTING

B y G . Z E L L E R , Emeritus Professor of Modern History at the Sorbonne

E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p e r m a n e n t e m b a s s i e s 198L o u i s X I V s r ep resen ta t ives 1 9 8 - 9H i s fore ign p o l i c y ; r o l e o f subs id ies p a i d t o f r iends a n d all ies . . . . 1 9 9 - 2 0 0T h e idea of a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a l a n c e 200Beginn ings o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w ; G r o t i u s ' s De Jure Belli ac Pads . . . 201N a v a l w a r f a r e a n d prac t i ces . 2 0 1

P r e o c c u p a t i o n o f F r a n c e , H o l l a n d , a n d E n g l a n d w i t h q u e s t i o n o f t h e n a v a l s a l u t e 2 0 1 - 2R e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e S p a n i s h fleet 202

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C O N T E N T S

Regulations regarding the salute; incidents with the Genoese . . . page 202-3Relations with Ottoman Empire and Barbary States; eventual relaxation of

protocol 203Notion of coastal and adjacent waters in early maritime law . . . . 203Solutions to other international problems arising in wartime . . . . 203-4Institution of the consulate 204-5Institution of neutrality 205-6Decline of Latin as language of diplomacy 206Opinions on the central idea of Louis XIV's foreign policy 206-7

Louis's preoccupation with la gloire; his mistaken choice of diplomats and disregard of propaganda 207-8

Mazarin's diplomacy; peace with Spain and the recovery of Dunkirk . . . 208-9Louis's assumption of control; Treaty of Montmartre with Charles of Lorraine . 209-10Humiliations inflicted by Louis on the Spanish government and the papal curia . 210Question of Devolution; speculation on the Spanish succession . . . . 210Louis XIV's diplomatic preparations for War of Devolution . . . . 210-11Louis's invasion of Spanish Netherlands; John de Witt's attempt at mediation . 212Triple alliance between England, United Provinces, and Sweden . . . 2 1 2 - 1 3Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 213Commercial war between French and Dutch 213-14Attitude of Louis towards administration of other countries . . . . 214Invasion of United Provinces 215Growth of German hostility to French expansion; activities of Archbishop of

Mainz 216-17Early French successes in Franco-Dutch war 217Growth of anti-French coalition; Anglo-Dutch peace 217-18Peace negotiations and Treaty of Nymegen . . . . . . . 218-19T h e Reunions 219 -20T u r k i s h t h r e a t t o V i e n n a ; J o h n Sobiesk i ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n ; T r u c e o f R a t i s b o n . 220R e v o c a t i o n o f t h e Edic t of N a n t e s ; t h e L e a g u e of A u g s b u r g . . . . 221P o s i t i o n o f F r a n c e in mid- re ign o f L o u i s X I V 221

CHAPTER X

FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIVBy J. L O U G H , Professor of French in the Durham Colleges,

University of Durham

The state of France during Louis XIV's minority 222Louis's retention of Lionne, Le Tellier, and Fouquet on his assumption of control 222-3Contrast between military glory and economic depression 223-4Division of French society into noblemen and roturiers 224-5Extremes of wealth and poverty among clergy 225Contrasts of wealth and status among nobility; noblesse d'épée and noblesse de

robe 225-6Social prestige and acquisition of offices 226Intermarriage between nobility and financiers 226-7Economic consequences of the sale of offices 227-8Organisation of trade and industry 228-9Population in town and country 229Ownership of land by peasants, clergy, and nobility 229-30Rent of land; prosperity and poverty among peasants 230Feudal dues and taxes burdening peasants 230-1

C O N T E N T S

Additional burden of primitive agricultural methods and hazards of crop failure page 231-2Peasant revolts 232-3Personality of Louis XIV 233-4His relations with his ministers; his personal government in theory and practice 235Gradual establishment of a centralised bureaucracy 235-6Function of the intendants 236Estates General and Parlements deprived of authority, but not abolished . . 236-7Diminished authority of governors of provinces 237Local government in towns 237Curtailment of privileges of pays d'états 237-8Absolute monarchy established 238-9Independence of Church curtailed 239Transformation of noblesse d'épée 239Total dependence of nobility on the king; competition for rewards of assiduity and

obedience 239-40Colbert's direction of finance and economics 240-1His 'mercantilist theories' 241His efforts to restore the financial situation 241-2His attempts to reorganise and expand industry 242-3His use of tariffs 243His setting up of trading companies 243-4His achievements 244Louis XIV's absolutism: a break with the tradition of government . . . 244Absence of essential change in French society 245Extravagant official praise of Louis; hidden discontent 245-6Supremacy of France in Europe during Louis's reign; Louis in mid-reign . . 246-7

CHAPTER XI

THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF FRANCE IN ART, THOUGHTAND LITERATURE

By D A V I D O G G , Emeritus Fellow of New College, Oxford

Literary florescence in first half of Louis XIV's reign 248Centralised control of art; exemption of the drama from supervision . . . 249Creation of Versailles 249-50Influence of Versailles; currents in French painting 250-Influences derived from Montaigne, Descartes, and Jansenism . . . . 2 5 1 - 2Pascal's Pensées 253The spoken word; esprit 253Women's influence in society; the salons 253-4The philosophes 254Enrichment and expansion of the French language; French replacing Latin as

international language 254-6Molière 256-8Racine 258-60Bossuet 260-1Boileau 262-3Ballet de cour developing into opera 264La Rochefoucauld 264La Fontaine 265-8Madame de Sévigné 268-9Fenelon 269-70

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CONTENTS

Transition from imaginative achievement to criticism of the régime . . page 270-1Feminine influence during early years of Louis's reign 271Antagonism to Louis in Europe 271Exception of Restoration England: influence of Charles II 271-2French influence on English literary criticism 272Compromise between French and English genius: Dryden 272-3

CHAPTER XII

THE DUTCH REPUBLICBy E. H. R O S S M A N N , Reader in Dutch History and Institutions in the

University of London

Second half of seventeenth century a period of consolidation rather than change 275Fundamental differences between the provinces ; social structure of Holland . 275The Dutch bourgeoisie 276Sale of public offices; different origin of the practice in Holland and France . 276Composition and function of the States General and of the States . . . 276-7Offices of Grand Pensionary and Stadholder; position of House of Orange . 277Tension between States of Holland and Stadholder 277-8Government after death of William II 278-9Régime of John de Witt 279Wide support of republican régime by religious sects 279-80Diversity of religious faiths in Protestant Dutch Republic 280Complex religious divisions a cause of impermanence of governments . . 280Various elements in opposition to the régime 280-1Growing influence of Orangist regents 281Coincidence of de Witt's régime and slowing down of economic development . 281-2Questions of England and House of Orange as causes of de Witt's fall . . 282-3Anglo-Dutch economic hostility ; first Anglo-Dutch War 283-4Act of Seclusion; Peace of Westminster (1654) 285Consolidation of de Witt's party; influence in other provinces . . . . 285-6His foreign policy 286-7Franco-Dutch alliance 287-8Second Anglo-Dutch War; Treaty of Breda 288-9Triple Alliance 289Repeal of Act of Seclusion 290De Witt's plan for education of William III by States of Holland . . . 290-1The Eternal Edict 291Zenith of de Witt's power; beginnings of decline 291Dutch ignorance of foreign hostility 291Anti-Dutch feeling expressed in Treaty of Dover 292Attack on Dutch Republic by England and France 292William III elected captain-general for one campaign only 292-3Louis XIV's headquarters at Utrecht ; submission or occupation of other provinces 293Roman Catholic emancipation 293Orangist assault upon de Witt; States of Holland negotiating with France . . 293Revocation of Eternal Edict; William proclaimed Stadholder of Holland, captain-

general and admiral-general 294Negotiations with France broken off; resignation and assassination of de Witt . 294Wittian regents replaced by Orangists; end of popular disturbances . . 294-5

French withdrawal; Anglo-Dutch Peace of Westminster (1674) · . * · 295Marriage of William III ; Anglo-Dutch defensive alliance ( 1 6 7 8 ) . . . . 296

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C O N T E N T S

Negotiations at Nymegen; separate peace between Dutch and France opposed byWilliam page 296

William's attitude to Franco-Spanish war of 1683 ; Truce of Ratisbon . . 297Anti-French coalition after Revocation of Edict of Nantes 297William IIFs departure for England (1688) 297-8William's policy after 1674 · · · 98-9Degeneration under William of oligarchic practices used by de Witt . . . 299Decline, after 1680, of the inspiration of Dutch civilisation . . . . 3°°

CHAPTER XIII

B R I T A I N A F T E R T H E R E S T O R A T I O N

By D A V I D O G G

France and England at the beginning and end of an era of personal monarchy . 3Events leading to proclamation of Charles II as king 301-2Attitudes and expectations attending Restoration 3°2

Parliament's failure to impose conditions on Charles 302-3Provision for Charles's revenue; causes of his later financial independence . .Abolition of Court of Wards; powerful position of landed freeholders after 1660 304Legislation to bridge gap between interregnum and monarchy . . . . 3 5The Cavalier Parliament; the Corporation Act; the Act of Uniformity . . 305-6Penalisation of Dissenters; the Clarendon CodeCoronation and marriage of Charles 306-7Restoration settlement in Ireland; difficulties of land settlement . . . .Harshness of Stuart rule in Scotland 308-9Relations between Charles and Louis XIV ; diplomatic difficulties of second Anglo-

Dutch War; Secret Treaty of Dover 309-10Declaration of Indulgence; third Anglo-Dutch WarMarriage of James, Duke of York, and Mary of Modena 311-12Provisions of Test Acts 3Growing public suspicion of Catholicism ; unpopularity of Duke of York . . 312-13The Popish PlotTitus Oates's allegations 3 4Origin of modern party system; Tories and WhigsRejection of Exclusion Bill; Rye House Plot 3Drive against borough corporations; enforcement of laws against Protestant Dissenters 317

Death of Charles II: Britain's brief experience of a Continental political régimeEnglish legal procedure 318-19Additions to statute book in Charles reign 319- 2 0

Common law; function ofthe Commons in Parliament 3 2 0

Local government 320-1Distinction between the cities of London and Westminster; increase in size and

importance of London 324Natural resources; increase in cultivation; industry 324-6Expansion of foreign trade; the trading companies 326-7Maritime policy; the Navigation Acts 327-8Increase in wealth and prosperity, 1675-88Taxation system; obsolescent system of accountancyEngland's advance achieved in spite of Stuart kings 329

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CHAPTER XIV

EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICABy E. E. R I C H , Master of St Catharine's College and Smuts Professor of

Imperial History in the University of Cambridge

Difference between French and English colonial policies . . . . page 330Lack of coherence in English colonies 330Colonial policy of Restoration periodCommon anti-Dutch colonial policy of France and England; rivalry after 1675 . 331-2Re-enactment of English Navigation Act; ineffective government by committees

of privy council 332Shaftesbury's colonial administration 332-3Policy of the Lords of Trade; efforts to check evasions of Navigation Acts . . 333-4Attitude of Lords of Trade to West Indies 334-5Predominant position of Massachusetts among New England colonies . . 335-6Transition period in status of New England colonies 336Connecticut, its prosperity and territorial expansion 336-7Rhode Island granted royal charter 337Navigation Acts disregarded by Massachusetts; parliamentary commission of

inquiry 337-8James, Duke of York, granted charter to New Netherland ; surrender of Dutch . 338-9Changes in English colonial frontier after second Anglo-Dutch War . . . 339Trouble in New Jersey 340Vicissitudes of New Netherland in third Anglo-Dutch War . . . . 340James's attitude as proprietor . . . . 341Quaker settlements; William Penn's intervention with James . . . . 3 4 1 - 2Nicolls, Andros, and Dongan as governors of New York 342-3Proprietary charter for Carolina 344Settlement for Barbados 344Carolina's 'Fundamental Constitutions'; trouble over Navigation Acts . . 345-6Creation of Pennsylvania; Perm's administration 346-7Unrest and revolt in Virginia 347-8Maryland under Lord Baltimore and his son 348-9Indian war in Massachusetts; charter declared null and void . . . . 350-1Moves for union of the colonies; the short-lived Dominion 351-3Extent of French power in North America 353-4French struggle with the Iroquois 354-5Struggle between French and English in West Indies during second Anglo-Dutch

War 356Lack of French support for Talon, intendant of Canada 356Compagnie des Indes Occidentales 356-7Expeditions by French fur-traders and missionaries 357-8Exploration of course of Mississippi 358-9French expansion limited by Louis's wars in Europe 359English Hudson's Bay Company; French activity in the area . . . . 359-60Revocation of charter of Compagnie des Indes Occidentales the fur trade . . 361-2Southward and westward thrusts by French; opposition in France to further

expansion 362-3Formation of Compagnie de la Baie Hudson and Compagnie du Nord . . 364-5Unsuccessful French war against Iroquois 365Successful attack on English at Hudson Bay ; their position sacrificed by treaty of 1686 366French massacred by Iroquois 367-8

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CHAPTER XV

SPAIN AND HER EMPIREBy J U A N R E G L A , Professor of Modern History in the University of Valencia

Slow recovery (1648-88) from economic depression; setback to centralisingtendencies

Spain no longer a great powerPopulation trendsPolarisation of society; increase of nobility and clergyDecline in import of precious metals ; successive inflation and deflation . . 370-1Monetary disasters of years 1656-80 3Failure of the aristocracy as a ruling group; exaggerated cult of honour . .Excessive numbers of clergy 373Depression of trade 373-4Economic recovery of Catalonia; collaboration with the monarchy . . . 374Foreign residents in Spain; slow growth of religious toleration . . . . 3 7 4 5Activities of English and Dutch merchants 375Condition of peasants and artisans . 375-6Poverty; expulsion of monscos a blow to agriculture 376Adverse effect of trading concessions to foreign nationals 376-7Financial difficulties of the Crown 377Economic recession in Spanish America 377-8Social structure of the Indies; sale of offices 378Agricultural difficulties; breakdown of trade monopolies; increase of smuggling 378-9Reasons for collapse of Spanish colonial system 379The Spanish monarchy 380Last years of Philip IV 380Regency of Queen Mother; reign of Charles II 380-1Peace of the Pyrenees: French gains and Spanish losses 381Further wars with France; further Spanish losses 382Spanish greatness in art, literature, and learning 382-3

CHAPTER XVI

PORTUGAL AND HER EMPIREBy V. M. GoDiNHO, Professor of Economic and Social History at the

Institute of Overseas Studies, Lisbon

Extent of Portuguese empire; Africa and Brazil as its bases . . . . 384-5Value of exports from Brazil to Portugal 385Trade between Brazil and Spanish America 385-6

Precarious position of Portugal's African coastal possessions . . . . 386Azores and Madeira 86Exports from Portugal 386-7Price movements and monetary policy 387-8Challenge of English and Dutch East India Companies; foundation of Brazilian

Trading Company 388

Opposition to Company; its eventual transformation into a royal council . . 388-9Restoration of independence 389Function and composition of Cortes . 389-90

Oscillation between government by Councils and High Courts, and government by

390

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Secretariat of State; the Councils of State, War, and Finance . . . page 390-1Junta dos Tres Estados 391Administration of justice 391-2Machinery of State dominated by great nobility, high clergy, and judges . . 391-2Background of the Restoration; relations between Portugal and Spain . . 392Relations with Dutch; truce on land, but war at sea; Dutch capitulation in Brazil 392-3War with Spain; relations with France and England 393-4Question of John IVs successor; regency of Queen Mother . . . . 394-5Castelho Melhor transfers power to Afonso; reorganisation of Portuguese army 395Portugal at end of Spanish war 395-6Fall of Castelho Melhor; Afonso's resignation in favour of Pedro . . . 396Post-Restoration government in Portugal 396-7

CHAPTER XVII

EUROPE AND ASIAI. THE EUROPEAN CONNECTION WITH ASIA

ByJ.B. HARRISON, Lecturer in the History of Modern India, School ofOriental and African Studies, University of London

Expansion of Asian trade with Europe effected by Portuguese, Dutch, and Englishin sixteenth century 398

Expansion after 1650 398Coffee and tea imports by England, Dutch Republic, and France; coffee-houses 398-9Popularity of Asian cotton 399-400Hostility of French and English manufacturers to import of Asian textiles . . 400-1Bullionist, mercantilist, and protectionist objections to Asian trade . . . 401Comparative lack of Protestant missionary activity in Asia 403-4Dutch missionary activity 404-5English and Danish missionaries 405Missionary activities of France, Italy, and Catholic Germany . . . . 405-6Trouble over Spanish and Portuguese papal grants; dispute with Rome over

dispatch of vicars-apostolic 406-7Rivalries between Orders; attacks on Jesuits 407-9Popularity of Eastern porcelain and lacquer; changes in style to suit European

demand 409-10Stimulus to botanical and zoological studies 411Advances in geography and cartography; travel literature 412-13Missionaries as interpreters of Asia to Europe 413-14Varying awareness of Asiatic civilisationsBeginnings of study of comparative linguistics 415Interest in Confucian and Hindu morality 415-16Comparisons between economic and political institutions of Europe and Asia . 416

2. THE ENGLISH AND DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANIES

By C. D. CoWAN, Lecturer in the History of South-East Asia, School ofOriental and African Studies, University of London

Strong position of the Dutch East India Company 417Trading factories planted within jurisdiction of independent Asian States . . 418Position of English East India Company 418-19Resources, organisation, and power of Dutch Company 419-20The powers, direction, and charter of the English Company . . . . 420-1

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Consolidation by Dutch CompanyReduction of Atjeh in Sumatra and of Macassar; extension of Dutch authority

in Java 422-4Puritan-Royalist conflicts in English settlements in India . . . . ·Increasing importance of military element in maintenance of English settlements 425-6Policy of Sir Josiah and Sir John Child; agreement with Aurangzib . . . 426-7Decline of English East India Company after 1688; establishment of 'United

Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies . . 427-8The English and Dutch Companies in the eighteenth century . . . . 428-9

CHAPTER XVIII

T H E E M P I R E A F T E R T H E T H I R T Y Y E A R S W A R

By F. L. CARSTEN

Years of peace within the Empire after 1648 43°Interference by foreign powers facilitated by terms of peace settlement . . 430-1The Rhenish Alliance 431-2Position of the Emperor 432Lack of unity in the Empire; imprecise limits of princely authority . . . 432-3Stability of religious frontiers after 1648 433Problem of absorption of mercenaries; critical condition of economy . . 433-4Depopulation of countryside during Thirty Years War 435Effects of depopulation in Bavaria 4356Serfdom in various forms 436-7Improvement in condition of peasantry in western and southern Germany in

contrast with north-east 437-8Contemporary descriptions of peasants and noblemen 438-9Decline of nobility 440Decline of Free Imperial Cities and of towns within principalities . . . 440-1Heavy tolls and excises 441-2Effects of princely power over towns 442Opportunities for foreign merchants and financiers due to native decline . . 442-3Influence of Thirty Years War on course of German history . . . . 443-4Survival of institutions of the Empire 444Composition of Imperial Diet; the three houses 444-5Recess of 1654; princes pressure for legal decisions to be taken against their

Estates 445-6Diet becoming permanent; its business 446-7Attitude of Diet during War of Devolution 447The Imperial army 448-9The Imperial courts; the Aulic Council and the Reichskammergericht. . . 449-50Growing absolutism of German princes; the fascination of Versailles . . 450-1Decline of the Palatinate 451-2Development of Bavaria under centralised government 452-3Development of Saxony after Thirty Years War ; the issue of Poland . . . 453-4Hanover: preoccupation of Electors with Britain 454-5Holstein and Baden-Durlach: Estates lose their influence 455Conflicts between dukes and Estates in Mecklenburg and Württemberg . . 455-6Great variety of constitutional developments in Germany 456-7

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIX

ITALY AFTER THE THIRTY YEARS WARBy G I O R G I O S P I N I , Professor of History in the University of Florence

Fundamental importance of Peace of Westphalia in Italian history . . page 458Spain's power in Italy opposed by that of France 458-9Internal conflicts in Italy linked with Franco-Spanish rivalry . . . . 459-60Franco-Spanish relations in Italy under Richelieu and Mazarin . . . . 460Repercussions of massacre of Waldensians (1655) 460-1Political immobility in Italy; decline of the Holy See 461War of Candia between Venice and Turks 461-4Decline in prestige of the papacy 464Unfriendly relations between France and the Holy See 464-6Political stagnation and population loss resulting from Thirty Years War . . 466Decline of towns 467Agricultural advance discouraged by unenterprising landed nobility . . . 467-8Slow economic improvement towards end of century 468Inability to maintain former intellectual standard 468-9Decadence of ruling houses 469Piedmont and the ambitions of Duke Charles Emanuel 469-70Inefficiency of Spanish administration; fate of Messina 470Louis XIV's designs on Casale and Genoa 471Successes of Innocent XFs Holy League 471Louis's domination of Savoy; Victor Amadeus's attempted coup d' état . . 472Catinat sent into Piedmont: renewed persecution of Waldensians . . . 472-3Victor Amadeus's defiance of France 473

CHAPTER XX

THE HABSBURG LANDSBy R. R. BETTS, Masaryk Professor of Central European History in the

University of London

Rise of Habsburg Empire in the sixteenth century 474Characteristics of the Habsburg dynasty 474-5Austrian Habsburgs' view of their duties and the rights of the Imperial crown . 475Extent of Ferdinand Ill's dominions in 1648 476Lands of the Crown of St Wenceslas ; Bohemia a testing-ground for centralised

autocracy 476-7Ferdinand's titles under the Crown of St Stephen; the administration of Hungary 477-8Devastation and depopulation during Thirty Years War 478-9Exploitation of land by nobility; demesne farming 479-1Decline of towns 481State of literature and the arts 481-2Success of Counter-Reformation 482-5Central institutions of the monarchy 485Ferdinand's concern about the succession; Leopold I crowned at Pressburg and

Prague 486War between Sweden and Poland; death of Ferdinand III 486Accession of Leopold I ; war with Sweden as Poland's ally ; coronation at Frankfurt 486-7Revival of Turkish aggression under Mehmed Köprülü 487-8Subjection of Transylvania by the Turks 488-9

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Aid for defence of Austria; battle of St Gotthard and Peace of Vasvar . page 490-1Leopold's interest in the Spanish successionFailure of nationalist conspiracy in Hungary; Austrian occupation . . . 492-3Forcible recatholicisation in Hungary 493-4Conclusion by Leopold of anti-French alliances 494Bohemia's 'age of darkness'; peasant revolt of 1680 494-5Hungarian exiles' attempt to liberate northern Hungary 495-6Reconciliation efforts of Innocent XI ; Hungary's liberties restored by Leopold . 496Conquest of Hungary by Thököly and Kara Mustafa 497Vienna besieged by Turks, liberated by John Sobieski 497Ascendancy of Austria after victory at Vienna; Innocent's Holy League . . 497-8Hungary reduced to provincial status after expulsion of Turks . . . .Constitutional position of Transylvania after expulsion of Turks . . . 499

CHAPTER XXI

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE UNDER MEHMED IVBy A. N . K U R A T , Professor of History in the University of Ankara

Extent and population of the empire of Mehmed IV 5Agriculture and trade 5Army and navy 501-2Decline of governmental institutions since Suleiman the Magnificent . . . 502Offices of Grand Vizier, Mufti, and Kadi 502-3Government of the provinces; special status of some provinces . . . . 503-4Decay of institutions and society 504Deposition of Sultan Ibrahim; accession of infant Mehmed . . . . 504-5Power exercised by Turhan, Mehmed's mother 505Attempt by Tarhondju Ahmed Pasha, the Grand Vizier, to restore economy . 505-6Popular anxiety; appointment of KÖprülü Mehmed Pasha as Grand Vizier . 506His purge of government officiais; suppression of rebellion in Asia Minor . . 507-8Recovery of command in the Aegean 508Struggle over Hungary and Transylvania 508-9Köprülü's achievement as Grand Vizier; succession of Fazil Ahmed Köprülü; his

domestic policy 509-10Foreign policy; success in Crete; threat to Vienna 510Battle of St Gotthard and Peace of Vasvâr 511Turkish influence in the Ukraine 512Kara Mustafa Pasha as Grand Vizier; his designs on Vienna . . . . 5 1 2 - 1 3Turkish refusal to renew Peace of Vasvâr; Turkish advance on Vienna . . 513-14Christian rulers' aid to Austria; Leopold's alliance with John Sobieski . . 514Rout of Turkish forces before Vienna; execution of Kara Mustafa . . . 515-16Deposition of Mehmed IV ; succession of Suleiman II ; decline of Ottoman Empire 517-18

CHAPTER XXII

SCANDINAVIA AND THE BALTICBy JERKER ROSEN, Professor of History in the University of Lund

Sweden's position at home and abroad after Thirty Years War . . . . 519T h e dominium maris Baltici 5 1 9 - 2 0B u r d e n o f t a x a t i o n ; p o p u l a r u n r e s t ; d i s s e n s i o n a m o n g E s t a t e s . . . . 5 2 0 - 1A b d i c a t i o n o f Q u e e n C h r i s t i n a , a c c e s s i o n o f C h a r l e s X 5 2 1C h a r l e s X ' s e x p a n s i o n i s t f o r e i g n p o l i c y ; w a r i n P o l a n d . . . . 5 2 1 - 2

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CONTENTS

Sweden's victory over Denmark; Peace of Roskilde page 522Consequences of Denmark's loss of eastern provinces 522-3Increasing financial difficulties of Danish crown after accession of Frederick III 523Financial and constitutional reforms ; introduction of hereditary kingship . . 523-4Frederick proclaimed sovereign king; new constitution 524Further administrative, financial, and legal reforms; energetic trade policy . . 524-5Changed position of nobility 525-6Change in agricultural methods ; condition of peasantry . . . . . 526Death of Charles X of Sweden; regency of Queen Mother 526-7Peace with Poland and Russia; Sweden at zenith of her power . . . . 527Constant hostility between Denmark and Sweden 527-9Sweden defeated by Brandenburg at Fehrbellin; Danish defeat at Lund . . 529Treaty of Lund; relaxation of traditional Dano-Swedish enmity . . . . 530-1Swedish government during minority of Charles XI 531Charles's assumption of authority ; military reorganisation 531-2Sentence passed on members of regency government; Charles given unlimited

legislative authority 532-3Resumption of Crown lands and improved position of peasants . . . . 533-5Differences and similarities between Danish and Swedish absolutism . . . 535-6Relations between Swedish crown and Baltic provinces 536Swedification of Livonia and Estonia 537Caroline absolutism until the Great Northern War 537-8Danish foreign policy under Ahlefeldt; lapse of alliance with Sweden . . . 538Swedish-Dutch peace treaty; Treaty of The Hague (1681) 538-9Louis XIV's attitude to northern peace treaties and negotiations with Denmark

and Brandenburg 539-40League of Augsburg joined by Sweden; alliance with Brandenburg . . . 540Denmark's aggressive policy; defensive alliance between Charles XI and dukes

of Lüneburg . 540Negotiations to settle Holstein-Gottorp conflict 540-1Consequences for Scandinavia of Anglo-Dutch dynastic alliance; Dano-Swedish

treaty of armed neutrality 541Sweden and France; mediation at Peace of Ryswick 541-2

CHAPTER XXIII

THE RISE OF BRANDENBURGBy F. L. C A R S T E N

Condition of Brandenburg in sixteenth century 543-4Acquisitions of territories by Hohenzollerns before and after Thirty Years War . 544Frederick William, the Great Elector; his aim of welding scattered territories into

one State 544-5Negotiations with Estates about money grants for his army . . . . 545-6Changes in relationship between Elector and Estates during War of the North . 546Frederick William's sovereignty in Prussia recognised by Poland . . . 547His authority established in Cleves and Mark 547-8Destruction of influence of Estates in Brandenburg 548Growth of military bureaucracy; acquiescence of Brandenburg nobility . . 549Severe measures against opposition in Prussia 549-50Introduction of urban excise, emergence of military authorities, weakening of

Estates 550-1The Generalkriegskommissariat and its activities 551-2

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C O N T E N T S

T h e s t a n d i n g army a n d its a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . . . . . . - page 55F r e d e r i c k W i l l i a m ' s e c o n o m i c , n a v a l , c o l o n i a l , a n d f o r e i g n p o l i c y . . . 5 5 3 ~ 5H i s a c h i e v e m e n t s 555

A c c e s s i o n o f F r e d e r i c k I I I ; n o f u r t h e r t e r r i t o r i a l g a i n s . . . . . 5 5 5 - 0L e o p o l d I a c c e p t s c r e a t i o n o f k i n g d o m o f P r u s s i a ; F r e d e r i c k ' s c o r o n a t i o n a t

K ö n i g s b e r gF r e d e r i c k ' s e m u l a t i o n o f L o u i s X I V ; h i s s u p p o r t o f t h e a r t s . . . . 5 5 7D i f f e r e n t p o l i c y o f F r e d e r i c k W i l l i a m I

CHAPTER XXIV

POLAND TO THE DEATH OF JOHN SOBIESKIBy H O R S T JABLONOWSKI, Professor of East European History in the

University of Bonn

Extent and population of Poland-Lithuania in mid-seventeenth century . 559Social structure; leading role of nobility 5596oRival influence of France and the Habsburgs in Poland; Michael Wisnowiecki

elected king 560-1Election of John SobieskiDisruptive effect of liberum veto in the dietExternal interference aimed at preventing reforms 562-3John Casimir's attempts at constitutional reform 563-4Opposition to John Sobieski's attempts at reform 564Dominance of Roman Catholic Church 564-5Position of Orthodox Church 5 5Economic, social, and political decline 565-6Russian invasion of Poland-Lithuania in 1654; revolt of Cossacks . . . 566Swedish intervention and occupation; revival of Polish resistance . . . 566-7Peace between Poland and Russia through mediation of Emperor . . . 5 7Conflict of pro-Polish and anti-Polish coalitions on Polish soil; Poland's alliance

with Brandenburg 568Resumption of war against Russia; armistice of Andrusovo . . . . 568-9Turkish invasion of 1672 ; Treaty of Bucac ; Sobieski's victory at Chotin . . 569Sobieski's alliance with other Christian powers; his victory at Vienna, but lack of

further success against Turks 57°

CHAPTER XXV

RUSSIA: THE BEGINNING OF WESTERNISATIONBy W E R N E R P H I L I P P , Professor of East European History in the

Free University of Berlin

Situation in Russia at accession of Alexis Michailovich 571Uprising of Ukrainian Cossacks under Chmel'nyckyj against Polish rule . . 572Nature of union of 1654 between Cossacks and Moscow 5 7 3 4War against Poland; conflict between Sweden and Russia 574Cossacks joining Poland under Ivan Vygovsky; returning to Russia under Yury

Chmernydkyj 574-5

Drosenko pledging Cossack allegiance to Khan of Crimea . . . . 575Poland, Ukraine, and Russia after armistice of Andrusovo; perpetual peace . 575-6Broadening of Moscow's political horizons 577Modernisation of the army 577-8

Growth of autocracy; state service imposed on society . . . . .

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C O N T E N T S

Trade and commerce, foreign merchants page 580-1Clergy 581Administrative machinery 581-3Popular discontent at heavy taxation and growth of bureaucracy; urban risings 583-4Crisis over debasement of coinage 584Rebellion of Stepan Razin 584-5New code of lawGrowing autocratic tendency after the 'Troubles* 585-6Nikon 's attempt to elevate ecclesiastical over secular power . . . . 586-7Nikon deprived of patriarchal dignities 587-8Graecophil reform of Russian Church 588-9Schism: the Old Believers 589-90Incompatibility of traditional Russian piety with independent Western thought ;

the end of old Russia 590-1

INDEX 593