THE NEWCAMBRIDGE MODERN

HISTORY

VOLUME III

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION ANDPRICE REVOLUTION

1559-1610

EDITED BY

R. B. WERNHAM

CAMBRIDGEAT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

I97I

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION (page 1)By R. B. W E R N H A M , Professor of Modern History, Worcester College,

Oxford

CHAPTER II

THE ECONOMY OF EUROPE 1559-1609By F . C. S P O O N E R , Professor of Economic History, University of Durham

The international economy recuperates after Cateau-Cambresis . . . page 14-15Economic phases have their own character . 1 5 - 1 6The effects of historical geography 16-17Contemporary opinions on inflation . . . 18-19Prices in France between 1471 and 1598 . 19The disparity of different sectors . . . . 20Wage levels hard to assess. A fall in living standards 20-2Varying incidence of inflation 22Dearth and disease: plague 23The balance of gold and silver. Effect on the economy 24-6Spanish importation and exportation of bullion 26-8Moneys of account. The adjustment of currencies 28-30The inflationary effect of credit. Shift to the North 30-1Population as an economic factor. Expansion of cities 32-5Cereals and livestock inadequate to demand. Fisheries 36-8Industry: luxury products and local production 38-9Expansion considerable but still insufficient 40-2Assessment of the century 42-3

CHAPTER III

THE PAPACY, CATHOLIC REFORM, ANDCHRISTIAN MISSIONS

By T. M. PARKER, Fellow, Chaplain, and Praelector in Theology and ModernHistory, University College, Oxford

The Council of Trent formative, with little innovation. . . . . . 44The combating of heresy and the definition of doctrine 45Reform of abuses insufficient to reconcile the Protestants . . . . 45-7Obstacles to progress and achievement 47-8The regulation of clerical life 49Centralisation: the growth of papal authority 49-51Lay control of the Church in Germany 51-2Church and State in France and elsewhere in Europe 52-4Missionary work in the New World . . . 54-5The influence of the State therein 55-7Estimate of conversion to Christianity 57

V

C O N T E N T S

The Catholic position in Germany, Poland and Hungary . . . . page 58-9Revival towards the end of the century 59-6oCauses of this: nationalism and the Inquisition 6o~2

The Spanish Inquisition and the pope 62-3The share of preachers and teachers in revival 63~5The educational work of the Jesuits 65~6The part of University teaching 66-7Controversy: grace and salvation 67-9The attainment of sanctity. Spiritual literature 69-71

CHAPTER IV

PROTESTANTISM AND CONFESSIONAL STRIFEBy T. M. PARKER

I. LUTHERANISM AFTER LUTHER

T h e characters of Luther and Melanchthon 7 2 - 3T h e growth o f differences 74Efforts at compromise with the Catholics 7 5 - 7Conflict within the Lutheran party: Melanchthon's pos i t ion . . . . 7 7 - 8T h e Adiaphorist ic controversy . . . 7 8 - 9Problems o f salvation and free will 7 9 - 8 0Lutheranism endangered by disputes 80 -1T h e shadow o f Calvinism 8 1 - 2Attempts t o restore unity . . 8 2 - 3Concord achieved. A definitive statement o f Lutheran theology . . . . 8 3 - 4Factors for survival in German Lutheranism 8 4 - 5Protestantism and Catholicism in Scandinavia 8 6 - 8T h e ethos o f Lutheranism 89

2. THE DEVELOPMENT AND SPREAD OF CALVINISM

The character of Calvinist Geneva. The Academy 89-90Calvin and Luther compared 91

The course of Calvinism in France. Organisation 92-4Huguenots and the Guises 94~5The rights of the laity 95-6A Huguenot state within the State 96-7Religion and political tyranny: writings 97-9Calvinism in the Netherlands 100Calvinism as a system: discipline in face of trouble 101-2Insurrection and violence 103The two Unions. Roots of religious allegiance . . . . . . . 103-4Doctrinal disputes among Calvinists 104-5Developments among the Marian exiles 106-7Their situation as bishops return to England 107-8Church reform: Puritan hopes and frustrations 108-11The political background in Scotland . . 112The early career of John Knox 113-14The crisis at Perth and in Edinburgh . 114-15Ecclesiastical revenues in Scotland 115-16The settlement of 1560-1. The General Assembly 116-17Steps towards presbyterianism 117-18

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CONTENTS

King James and the Kirk page 118-19Calvinism in Germany, Poland and Eastern Europe 120-1Some characteristics of Calvinism 122Anabaptists and Familists 123-4Socinianism 125

CHAPTER V

SOCIAL STRUCTURE, OFFICE-HOLDINGAND POLITICS, CHIEFLY IN WESTERN EUROPE

By J. HuRSTFiELD, Astor Professor of English History, University College; London

The pressure of population and prices 126-7Irregular effect upon the economy 127Social services inadequate to needs. The immobility of labour . . . . 127-8The financial devices of impecunious governments 129Political effects of the Reformation in Germany 129-30The contradictory function of aristocracy: relation to crown . . . . 130-2The crisis of government in France 132The economic situation of the English aristocracy 133Their declining role in the constitution 134Taxation in England and France: relation of crown and estates . . . . 134-5English customs dues 136-7The weakness of crown revenues in Western Europe 137-8The conflict for political control in France and Spain 138-9Fiscal manoeuvres of European governments 139-40The sale of office and economic controls 140-1Increased need for a bureaucracy 141The tenure and disposal of appointments 142Revenue from specially created posts 143Indirect taxation in England. Wardship 143-4The varying facets of 'corruption' 144-5Patronage and government 145-6The growth of professional civil service: a new aristocracy 146-7Features of the period 147-8The salvation of parliament in England 148

CHAPTER VI

INTERNATIONAL DIPLOMACY ANDINTERNATIONAL LAW

By the late G. MATTINGLY, formerly Professor of History, University of Columbia

The issue of the Italian Wars: Spain and France . . . . . . 150Diplomacy matches warfare in development 150-1Four methods of diplomatic action . . . 1 5 1 - 2The risks of royal interviews. Other channels 152-3The machinery for permanent contacts 153-4A decline in contacts. The Conference of Bourbourg 154-5Divisiveness of the religious struggle 155-7Protestant ambassadors leave Italy and Spain 157-8The deterioration of Anglo-Spanish relations 158-9

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CONTENTS

The limits of Iberian monopoly in the New World page 1 5 9 - 6 0Religion a stronger force than nationalism 160-1The dominant factor affecting ambassadors 161-2Retrograde means of diplomacy adopted 162-3Contacts with Russia and Turkey 163-4N o successes outside Europe 164-5A revival of embassies towards the close of the period 165The regulation of international behaviour . . . . . . . . 165-6The common law of Christendom 166-7Changing modes of thought . . . . . . . . . . 167-8Rationalisation of conduct: rejection of the recent past . . 168-70

CHAPTER VII

ARMIES, NAVIES AND THE ART OF WARBy J. R. HALE, Professor of History, University of Warwick

The insistence on war and its justification 171-2Just causes of war defined 172-3The enlistment of science and the arts . . 174Difficulties of recruitment. Conditions of service. . . . . . . 174-6The dilemma of security: propaganda . . . 176-7Military books and their effect 177-8The mathematical foundations of warfare . 178-9Methods and abuses of recruitment . . 179-80Obstacles to efficiency of service . . . 180Migrations of man-power . . . . . . . . . . . 181Arguments against and in favour of mercenaries . 181-2The question of permanent forces 182-3The command and organisation of armies: Spanish pre-eminence . . . 183-4Administrative and tactical units . . . . 184-5The regulation of armies: military laws 185-6The maintenance of morale . . 186-7The use, development and decoration of armour. . . . . . 187-8Arms: caliver and musket, pistols . 188-9Artillery: cannon, culverins and mortars . 189-90International trade in munitions 191Organisation: artillery, cavalry, infantry 191-2The example of ancient Rome . 193Tactics and drill 193-4Tactical formations of infantry and cavalry. Artillery . . . . . . 194-5The theory and practice of fortification . 195-7Methods of paying for fortifications 197-8Siegecraft. Parma's siege of Antwerp 198-200Strategy not much considered . . 200-1Private enterprise in peace and war 201-2The subsidiary part of navies , . . 202Galleys, galleasses and galleons . . . . 202-3Naval ordnance and tactics. Design ' , 204-5Naval strategy and organisation . . 206The atmosphere of war ' . • . . 206-8

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CHAPTER VIII

THE BRITISH QUESTION 1559-69By R. B. WERNHAM

The strategic importance of the British Isles page 209-10Rivalries for succession and control 210-11The position of Elizabeth. Her bold and independent policies . . . . 2 1 1 - 1 2Revolution in Scotland. 'Lords of the Congregation* 212-13French interests. Elizabeth's counter-measures . 2 1 3 - 1 5Uncertain approaches to Scottish independence and amity with England . . 215Instability in Scotland and in France 216The return of Mary Stuart 217Protestant lords and ministers. The policy of Moray . . . . . . 217-18Mary's claim to the English succession: the attitude of Elizabeth . . . 219Elizabeth's reaction to the French War of Religion . . . . . . 220-1The illness of Elizabeth and subsequent pressures 221Developments affecting the question of Mary's marriage 222Mary marries the Earl of Darnley . . . . . . . . . 223-4The subsequent crisis: her appeals to the Continent 224-5She turns to Rizzio, who is murdered . . . . . . . . . 226Mary favours Bothwell The death of Darnley . . . . . . . 227-8Presumptions against Mary and Bothwell 228Mary loses her throne. Moray becomes regent . 229British unity delayed by English policies 229-30Elizabeth's reservations sustain the Marian party 230-1Mary a focus for the discontents of Northern England 231-2Failure of the rebellion. British security strengthened 233

CHAPTER IX

WESTERN EUROPE AND THE POWER OF SPAINBy H. G. KOENIGSBERGER, Professor of Early Modern European

History, Cornell University

The growth of religious confrontations 234-5Religious emotion and politics. 'Fifth columns' 236-7

I. SPAIN AND ITALY

Spain and the concept of empire. . . 237-8Unification: the Councils. Correspondence. . . . . . . . 238-9Personnel : viceroys and governors 239-40Philip's absenteeism: Granvelle's insight and advice 240-1Consultas: the power of ministers and secretaries 241-2Philip's indecisiveness and personal inaccessibility 242-3The rivalries of factions . . . . . . · . . . 243-4Protestantism in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . 244The situation of the Moriscoes . . 244-5Events leading to their revolt . . . 245-6Revolt and settlement. 246-7Portugal: the succession question . . . . . . . . . 247-8Philip annexes Portugal : Alva's campaign . . 248

ix

C O N T E N T S

The terms and conditions of union page 248-9Eastern Spain: Catalonia 249-50Revolt in Aragon: antecedents and results 250-1Spaniard and Turk in the Mediterranean 251-2Pius V's Holy League. The significance of Lepanto 252Truce arrived at 253The situation in Sicily, Naples and Milan . 254-6Genoa's service and prosperity . 257Spanish relations with the papacy 257-8The challenge of Borromeo 258-9Piedmont-Savoy: the absolutist rule of Emmanuel Philibert . . . . 259-60The rule of the Medicis in Florence 260-1The trade and culture of independent Venice 261-2Venetian politics: France, the papacy, Spain . . . . . . . 263

2. THE PROBLEMS OF THE NETHERLANDSAND FRANCE TO I585

Netherlands: the period of Philip's residence 264The appointment of Margaret of Parma: her task 265Religious problems 265-6Philip's plan for reorganisation of the Netherlands Church 266-7The emergence of William of Orange and his friends 267Financial crisis and opposition to Granvelle 267-8The situation after Granvelle's departure 268-9Unemployment and famine lead to riots 269-70Alba supersedes Margaret. The Council of Blood 270-1His administrative and financial problems 271-2Purpose, preparations and failure of William and Louis 273-4Progress of Calvinist Sea Beggars in Holland and Zeeland 274Requesens succeeds Alba. A further financial crisis 275Aerschot and the politiques. The Pacification of Ghent 275-6The governorship, of Don John 276Opposition to Spain: unity without harmony 277-8The coming of Parma 278The two Unions. The Duke of Anjou 279Parma embarks on re-conquest 280William's death. An assessment 280-1France: the situation after Cateau-Cambrésis 281The organisation of Calvinist communities 282The French nobility: Guise, Bourbon, Montmorency . 283-4Rising passions in the reign of Francis II 284-5Catherine de Medici: her aims 285-6Civil War: the first round. Condé's part 286Catherine's increased authority. The second war 286-7The third war 288Catherine and Coligny 288-9The Massacre of St Bartholomew's Eve. The fourth war 290The politiques. The nobility's vested interest in war , . . . . . 291Huguenots and Catholics. The Peace of Monsieur . . . . . . 292The Catholic League: its aims and terms . 292-3Renewed warfare and the Peace of Bergerac 293Temporisation and intrigue 293-4

CONTENTS

3. THE FRENCH SUCCESSION AND THE WAR WITH ENGLAND

Manoeuvres for the succession in France page 295Philip's designs upon England. The war becomes European . . . . 296His financial position: loans 296-7The Earl of Leicester's Netherlands expeditions 297-8Particularism of the northern provinces 299Preparations for the English invasion 299-300Philip and the Guises 300-1The defeat of the Armada. Philip's reaction 301Henry rid of Guise. The League and the King 301-2Disturbances in Paris. The death of Henry III 302-3The character and claims of Henry of Navarre 303Philip and the papacy 303-4Mayenne. Divisions within the Catholic League 305-6Navarre enters Paris and reverts to Catholicism 306The character of sixteenth-century revolutionary movements . . . . 306-7The emergence of a European state system 307-8Changes in Spain's external situation 308Her war with England. The Irish rebellions 308-9The Spanish position in the Netherlands 309-10Division: the rule of the archdukes 310-11Economic expansion of the north. The East India Company . . . . 311The economic weakness of the Spanish government 312Philip II: the achievements of his reign 313France: the Edict of Nantes . . . 313-14Reconstruction, economic and political. Officials 314-16Spain, France and the Spanish Road 317The interventions of Henry. His assassination 317-18

CHAPTER X

THE AUSTRIAN HABSBURGS AND THE EMPIRE

By G. D. RAMSAY, Fellow and Tutor in Modern History, St Edmund Hall,Oxford

Ferdinand's inheritance and its condition . 319Assessment of Ferdinand, Maximilian and Rudolf 320Territorial divisions and family solidarity of the Habsburgs . . . . 320-2The significance of the Turkish menace 322The religious position in Habsburg lands 323-4The religious policies of the successive emperors 324-5Progress of the Counter-Reformation 325-6The imperial title: electoral process 326-7The estates of the Empire 327-8The constitution of the Reichstag and its practical authority . . . . 328-9The Empire's lawcourts 329-30The basis of administration and enforcement 330-1The German principalities and their rulers 331-2The Electorate of Saxony under Augustus and Christian 332-3The Palatinate: Frederick III and his successors 333-4Bavaria: religion and politics under the dukes 334-6

xi

C O N T E N T S

Some causes of political, tension in Germany . . . . . page 336-7The ecclesiastical principalities: 'ecclesiastical reservation' 337-8Breaches of the peace: the episode of Grumbach . . 338-9The abbot of Fulda and the bishop of Würzburg . 339-40The struggle for the electorate of Cologne 340-2The marriage and the warfare of Archbishop Gebhard 342-3Successes of the Counter-Reformation in north-west Germany . . . . 343-4The uncertainty of the free cities 344~5Conclusion 345-6

CHAPTER XI

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1566-1617

By V. J. P A R R Y , Lecturer in the History of the Near and Middle East,School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

The Sultan's household: recruitment and training . . . . . 347-8Sipahis: their organisation and rewards . . . . . . . . 348-50Decline: the criticisms of Hasan al-Kafi and Koçu Beg 351-2Expansion gives place to a static frontier . . 352The War of Cyprus. The battle of Lepanto. . , 352-4Spain and the Ottomans in North Africa 354Antagonism of Ottomans and Persians . . . . . . . . 355The Muscovite advance and the Astrakhan campaign. . . . . . 355-6Difficulties of the eastern campaigns . . . . . . . 356-7The internal crisis of Persia 357-8The Persian War: Mustafa Pasha and the first campaign 358-9The successes of Osman Pasha: Derbend and after 359The later campaigns and the end of the war. Renewed feuds in Persia. . . 359-60The Ottomans and Austria. Systems of defence . 360-1The Hungarian War. Losses and gains on the Danube 362The Ottomans suffer a rout and make a recovery 363Sieges, a final campaign and peace 363-4Significance of the place and the terms 364-5Effect of the wars on Ottoman institutions : the Janissaries . . . . . 365-6New factors in the economic field 366-7English merchants in the Mediterranean 367-8Trade in war materials: propaganda against England 368-70Financial difficulties of the Ottomans. Causes of the 'price revolution' . . 370-1Consequences of the fiscal troubles. . . . . . . . . . 3 7 1 - 2Discontents and quarrels lead to revolt 372-3The years of rebellion. Murad Pasha 373-4The renewed conflict with the Safawids 374-5A decline noted . 376

CHAPTER XII

POLAND AND LITHUANIABy P. SKWARCZYNSKI, Reader in Central European History, School

of Slavonic and East European Studies, university of LondonE x t e n t a n d p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e r e a l m a t S i g i s m u n d II's d e a t h . . . . 3 7 7D e g r e e s , d i f f e r e n c e s a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e n o b l e s . . . . . . 3 7 8 - 9T h e c l e r g y . T h e p e a s a n t s a n d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e 3 7 9 - 8 o

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CONTENTS

The towns. Privileges of Danzig . . page 380-1Differences of religion and of language 381The election of kings: contrasting occasions 381-2Henry of Valois, Stephen Bathory, Sigismund Vasa: their policies and problems 383Henry comes and goes. Stephen and the townsmen of Danzig . . . . 384The challenge to Sigismund. Treaty with the Habsburgs . . . . . 384-5The conception of kingship : powers and prerogatives 385-7Sigismund's proposed reforms lead to rebellion . . . . . . 387-8Religion: the Catholic and Orthodox Churches 388-90Calvinists, Lutherans and other Protestants 390-1Relations between the different Churches: a policy of moderation . . . 391-3Foreign policy: Russia and the Smolensk question 393-4Habsburg intrigues for the crown of Poland 394-5Prussia and the Hohenzollerns . . . 395-6Polish relations with Turkey 396Defence: the army and the use of mercenaries . 397The economy. Agriculture and industry. Mining 397-9The importance of the large estates 399-400Trade and transport. Danzig and Eastland Company 400-2Luxury and poverty. The Court 402Patronage and the Arts. Historical writing 402-3

CHAPTER XIII

SWEDEN AND THE BALTIC

By I. ANDERSSON, lately Director, the Riksarkivet, Stockholm,Member of Swedish Academy

Contrasts between Mediterranean and Baltic lands 404-5Economics and strategy: the background to Sweden's advance . . . . 405-7The foreign policies of Gustavus Vasa and of Eric XIV 407-8War with Denmark: its beginnings 408-9The Seven Years War and the Peace of Stettin 409-11War with Russia. Poland secures Livonia . . 4 1 1 - 1 2The external policies of John III . , 4 1 2 - 1 3Internal dissensions. John's death 414Sigismund and the Swedish crown. Duke Charles and the Council . . . 415Duke and commons: the breach with Poland. Russia 416The character and policy of Charles IX as king. War in Livonia. . . . 417-18Unrest in Russia. The war shifts onto Russian soil 418Sweden, Poland and Russia: moves and counter-moves 418-20Denmark and Sweden. War and the death of Charles 420-2The succession of Gustavus Adolphus and the new constitution . . . . 422Peace with Denmark: its terms harsh for Sweden 423Peace with Russia: acquisitions and failures 423-4The ransoming of Elfsborg, and the Dutch pact 424-5The economy and the administration. The view ahead 425-6

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIV

EDUCATION AND LEARNINGB y R. R. B O L G A R , Fellow of King's College, Cambridge

Popular education: reading, writing and counting page 4 2 7 - 8Apprenticeship: vernacular training and handbooks 4 2 8 - 9Universities: the revolt o f the humanists 4 2 9 - 3 °Care for moral training 430The impact of the Reformation. The work of Sturm 430-1Loyola and the Jesuit schools 431 -2The development o f schools and adjustment with the Universities . . . 432The grammar school (lower forms): methods and textbooks . . . . 4 3 3 - 5The grammar school (higher forms): curriculum and books . . . . 435 -7Greek as an ancillary study. The school course assessed 4 3 7 - 8Universities become local: the constricting forces of theology . . . . 4 3 8 - 9A growth in higher education, but with narrowed scope 439 -40The influences affecting learning 440Theological debate. Study and translations of the Bible 440-1Developments in philosophy 441 -3Political thought and historical writing. Historical method 4 4 3 - 5Legal studies. Civil law. International law 4 4 5 - 6Classical learning. Textual criticism. Ciceronianism. Aristotle's Poetics . . 4 4 6 - 7Archaelogy. Linguistics. Academic humanism 4 4 7 - 8The study o f European and As ian languages. Science 4 4 8 - 9The distribution o f educational facilities and o f learning 450-1Summary. Vernacular literature and the diffusion o f culture . . . . 4 5 1 - 2

CHAPTER XV

SCIENCEBy MARIE BOAS HALL, Reader in History of Science and Technology,

Imperial College, London

A bridge period: from tradition to innovation 453-4The popularisation of science. Scholars and craftsmen 454-5Works on mechanics and navigation. Cartography 455-6Travel literature 456-7Progress in mathematics. Algebra 457-9Astronomy: the impact of Copernicanism 459-61English interest in Copernicus 461-2Religious objection: the case of Bruno 462Tycho Brahe: his career, beliefs and system 462-5Astronomy and the calendar 465-6Navigation: new devices. The invention of the log 466-8Compass variation. The dip 468-9Charts, tables and maps. The Mercator projection 469-71Physics 471Botany and zoology 471-2Medicine: blood circulation 472-3Medical practice. Chemistry. Surgery 473-5Magic: its nature and scope 475-7Magnetism. The loadstone 477-8The achievement of the period. A changing outlook 478-9

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CHAPTER XVI

POLITICAL THOUGHT AND THE THEORY ANDPRACTICE OF TOLERATION

By Miss M. J. TOOLEY, formerly Lecturer in History, Bedford College, London

Individual choice. The problems of 'heresy' page 480-1The Inquisition. The burning of Servetus 481-3Persecution condemned. Truth and the individual conscience . . . . 483-4Socinus: the disjunction of theology and ethics 484-5Castellion: truth and heresy 485-6Bodin on the need for belief. Heptaplomeres 486-7The futility of persecution 487-8The political repercussions of religious disputes 488-9The sovereignty of the state : Bodin and Machiavelli 490Sovereignty in France and in Germany 490-1England: the reconciling of free conscience with national order . . . . 491-2Belief and practice. Jesuit trials. The Separatists 492-3Royal supremacy: the English version of state sovereignty 493-4Bilson, Cartwright, Whitgift 494-5Hooker: government and the care of religion . 495-9The Calvinists and the doctrine of resistance 499-5O0Secular theories of state. Beza. The Vindiciae 500-2Buchanan's egalitarianism 502-3Forms of constitution. Bodin 503-4Representative institutions. Hotman 504-5The shift from obligation to rights. Individualism . . . . . 505-6

CHAPTER XVII

COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT AND INTERNATIONALRIVALRIES OUTSIDE EUROPE

I. AMERICA

By J. H. P A R R Y , Professor in Oceanic History and Affairs,Harvard University

Expeditions of the conquistadores. Limits to extension 507-8Portuguese settlements 508A slowing down of Spanish expansion 508-9The imperial policy of Philip II 509-11Civil administration. Revenue 511-12Population and labour problems 512-13Food-shortages and their effect on the economy 513-14Haciendas. Changes in policy towards the Indians 514-15Economic and demographic crises in Spain and the Indies 515-16Piracy and illicit trade. The plans of John Hawkins 516-17Pedro Menéndez: fortifications and the convoy system 518-19The plans and the achievements of Francis Drake 520-1The 'Indies Voyage' 1585-6. The capture of Santo Domingo . . . . 521-2Limited success of subsequent raids 522-3The reluctance of England and France to plant settlements . . . . 523-4New motives for colonisation: Gilbert's Newfoundland 524-5

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C O N T E N T S

G r e n v i l l e a n d R a l e i g h . R o a n o k e a n d t h e G u i a n a v e n t u r e s . . . . page 5 2 5 - 6

T h e c o n d i t i o n s u n f a v o u r a b l e t o E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h c o l o n i s a t i o n . . . 526

A c h a n g i n g c o n c e p t . C a u s e s p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c a n d social 5 2 7 - 8

P r o p a g a n d a for w e s t e r n s e t t l e m e n t s . H a k l u y t 528

E n g l i s h c o l o n i s a t i o n : t h e i d e a l a n d t h e rea l i ty 5 2 9 - 3 0

F r e n c h t r a d e a n d s e t t l e m e n t s . C h a m p l a i n . . . . . . . 5 3 0 - 1

2. ASIA AND AFRICA

By J. Β. H A R R I S O N , Reader in History of South Asia,

School of Orientaland African Studies, University of London

Portugal's eastern problems. Estado da India 532-3

The eclipse of Antwerp-based marketing 533-4

Rivalries of the spice trade 534-6

Operations and defence of the Estado 536-7

Revenues of the Estado. Private trading 538-9

Portuguese interests in Africa and Arabia 539-40

Developments in India 540-1

Problems and profits of the Portuguese in Malacca . . . . . 541-2

The crown and the spice trade. Failure of the Estado . . . . . . 542-3

Trade with China and Japan. Macau. Silver 543-5

The capacity of the Estado for defence and offence 545-6

The conquest of Ceylon: revolt and restoration . . . . . . . 546

Syriam. Ternatc. Amboina 546-7

Missionary work in India and the Middle East 547-50

The Jesuits in Japan and China 550-3

The Spanish Philippines. Traders and missionaries . . . . . . 554-6

The eastward expansion of Russia 556

The Asian trade interests of England 556-7

The Dutch enter the field. The United East India Company . . . . 557-8

I N D E X 559