THE NEWCAMBRIDGE MODERN

HISTORY

VOLUME VI

THE RISE OF GREAT BRITAINAND RUSSIA

1688-1715/25

EDITED BY

J.S.BROMLEY

CAMBRIDGEAT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1970

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTIONBy J. S. BROMLEY, Professor of Modern History in the

University of Southampton

Periodization and changes in political geography page 1-2The Baltic and the Levant 2-3Russia and Europe 3The Northern kingdoms and the Western powers 3-4The Habsburgs between East and West 4-6Decline of the Ottoman empire 6-7Hungary and the Habsburg lands 7-8Rivalries in Spain; the Bourbon rule 8-9Rivalries in Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10The Mediterranean 10-11Rivalries in America n-12War and peace in North America 12-14The balance of trade; merchants and governments 14-15World trading; the South Sea and Canton 15Britain and the Peace of Utrecht 16-17William Ill's European aims 17-18Strategy in western Europe 18-19Privateering war 19-20The strain on manpower 20Mercenaries and conscripts 20-1Care of soldiers 21Upkeep of navies 21-2The strain on finance 22-3Profiteers and projectors 23-4Tensions in Church and State 24-5Significance of the English Revolution of 1688 25-6Louis XIV: the question of 'decline' 26-8Louis XIV: domestic legacy in European perspective 28-9Economic distress; climate and harvests 29-30Social distress; mobility of populations 30-1Town and country 31Aristocratic and middle-class tastes 31-3The scientific movement 33-5Europe and the world overseas 35-6

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER II

THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT AND THE DIFFUSIONOF SCIENTIFIC IDEAS, 1688-1751

By A. C. CROMBIE, Senior Lecturer in the History of Science in theUniversity of Oxford

and MICHAEL HOSKIN, Lecturer in the History of Science in theUniversity of Cambridge

Change in scientific movement page 37The Royal Society and the Académie des Sciences 3$The Royal Society at home and abroad 38-40The Académie des Sciences and the State 40-2Societies in other countries 42Teaching and research 4^-3Science in the universities 43~4The new German universities 44~5Diffusion of scientific knowledge: journals and other publications . . . 45-7Emphasis on measurement; Political Arithmetic 47-8An aggregate of autonomous movements . . . . . . . 48Advances in mechanics and related branches of mathematics . . . . 49The Newtonian-Cartesian debate 49-5°Newtonian physics attacked by Leibniz and Berkeley 50-1Spread of Newtonian ideas 5 i ~ 2

Astronomy; optics; sound 52~3Chemistry: * phlogiston* 53~4Improvement in instruments and apparatus 54~5The calculus: Newton and Leibniz 55Biological sciences in search of theoretical principles 55~6Collection and classification in botany and zoology 56-8Ray and Tournefort 58The'sovereign order'of Linnaeus 58-60Geology: fossils and the Flood 60-1Evolutionary ideas; Maupertuis, Buffon, and the microscope . . . . 62-4Rival theories of reproduction and heredity 64-5Physiological experiment and its competing models: Reaumur, Hales, Boerhaave

and von Haller 65-7Technology 67Problem of longitude at sea 67-8The New Husbandry 68-9Organization of manpower 69Inventions . 69-70Science and society: the Scientific revolution* 70-1

CHAPTER III

CULTURAL CHANGE IN WESTERN EUROPEI. TENDENCIES IN THOUGHT AND LITERATURE

By W. H. BARBER, Professor of French Literature in the University of LondonAnglo-French co-dominance 72Spain and Italy 72-3

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C O N T E N T S

Germany page 73-4The Netherlands . . . 74~5Russia 75The reading public 75-6Academies and journals 76The salon and the coffee-house . . . 7^-7International contacts 77-8Publication and distribution of books 78Orthodox literary canons 78Classical standards in England 79French literature: ancients and moderns 79'Reason' 8o-iAristocratic conceptions . 81-2Effect of rationalist attitude 82-3Effect of scientific thought 83-4The growing prestige of science . . . . . . . . . · 84-5The religious motive in popular science . . . . . . . . 85Science and metaphysics 85-6Historical scholarship . 86-7Scepticism 88Biblical criticism 88-9Restoration comedy of manners . 89-90The prose portrait 90-1Towards the novel 91-2The philosophical approach 92~3Fenelon 93The periodical essay 93~4French drama 94-5Contacts with the wider world 95Narratives of travel 95-6Oriental studies . . . . . 9^-7The invented travel narratives 97-8Contacts with non-Christian religions 98^9The Noble Savage . 99~iooRepercussions on political thought 100-1

2. M U S I C , 1661-1752

By FREDERICK W. STERNFELD, Fellow of Exeter College andLecturer in Music in the University of Oxford

Early histories of music 101-2Later histories 102-3Absolute and programmatic music 103-4Public concerts 104-5Music printing and publishing 105Opera at the court of France; Lully's tragedies lyriques 105-7Handel in London; oratorio 107-8Lully's influence 108-9The opera at Venice and Naples 109The orchestra n oThe libretto: Zeno and Metastasio 110-12Alessandro Scarlatti U2-13

ix

CONTENTS

Purcell page u l-HEnglish attitudes to opera * _ 6Purely instrumental compositions: overtures and concertos . . . · n 5 ijjJohann Sebastian Bach 116-18

CHAPTER IV

RELIGION AND THE RELATIONS OFCHURCH AND STATE

By THE REVEREND J. M C M A N N E R S , Professor of History in theUniversity of Leicester

The threat of Catholic domination · ll9~20

Growth of the spirit of toleration I 2 0 ~ I

Isolation of Geneva . · · I 2 I ~ 2

Religious freedom in Holland 122-3Limits of toleration in England I 2 3'Reasonable'religion I 2 4

The right to resist tyranny 124-6The English bishops 12β

Church and State in England 126-7Missionary enterprise: Protestant, Orthodox, Catholic I 2 8

Jesuit, Capuchin and Franciscan in the New World 128-9The Far East; the Jesuits at Peking and the Propaganda in Rome . . . 129-30Relations between the papacy and rulers; papal elections . . . . . 130- 1

Regalism in Spain and the Spanish Indies *3*Gallican liberties *3i~ 2

Jansenism at Port-Royal T 3 2

Unigenitus 1 3 2 - 3Political Jansenism 133-4• Jansenists* outside France; the Church of Utrecht I 3 4 - 6

Intellectual tensions 136-7A crisis within Christianity 137-8Reason and revelation: scepticism and fideism 138-9•Natural'morality 139Biblical criticism *4POecumenical scholarship • 140-1Bossuet 141Religion and Science: the Creation 141-2Predestination 142-3The problem of evil 143-4Religion and the arts 144-5Ethical stereotypes; the 'Christian hero' in England 145-6The 'honnête homme* in France J46-7Madame Guyon and the conference of Issy : the Quietist controversy . . . 147Bossuet and Fenelon I47~9Quietism and Quakerism 149-50Faith and Works: German Pietism 150-1Pietism and education 151The State and moral standards in England . 151-2Christian principles in the economic world: Baxter and Steele . . . . 152-3Compromises • 153

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER V

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN EUROPEBy ANDREW LOSSKY, Professor of History in the University of California, Los Angeles

Tripartite division of Europe page 154-5Britain in Europe 155The principle of 'balance of power* and its origins 155-7Applications of the principle; the northern balance 157-8South-eastern Europe 158-9Equilibrium in Italy: the place of Savoy in 1713 159The problem of the Spanish monarchy 159France and Spain * 159-60France and the Italian States . 160France and the Netherlands 160-1Louis XIV and the papacy 161-2William III and the Mediterranean 162The Austrian Habsburgs in Italy 162-3Diplomatic rivalries at Turin and Lisbon 163-4Humiliations of the papacy 164Consequences of Italian disequilibrium 165The western powers and the German princes 165-6The Emperor's influence 166Bavaria and Cologne: the Wittelsbachs 167Effects on the structure of the Empire 167'Europe* and 'Christendom' 167-8Influence of dynastic ties 168-9Legitimist sentiment and aid to rebels 169The hierarchy of States; diplomatic etiquette 169-70Methods of negotiation 170-1Difficulties of coalitions and of mediation 171-2The art of diplomacy 172-3International law and diplomatic procedure 173Contraband and neutral rights I74~5Conventions between belligerents 175William Ill's control of foreign policy; Heinsius and Marlborough . . . 176-7Vienna's delays 177Louis XIV's methods and the development of the Affaires Etrangères. . . 177-8Communications, codes and ciphers 178-9Ambassadors, envoys and residents 179-80The cost of being an ambassador 180-2Collecting information: secret agents 182-3'Gratifications'and subsidies 183-4The efficacy of gifts and pensions much exaggerated 184-5The protection of nationals: consuls 185-6Increasing importance of commerce in diplomacy 186-7Economic motives not decisive . . . 187William ΙΠ and commercial interests 187-8Religious motives in international affairs 188-9Louis XIV as defender of the Catholic faith 189Louis XIV and William III compared: basic assumptions and views of the world 190-1William and 'the liberty of all Europe' 192

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTIONBy E. S. D E BEER, C.B.E., D.LITT., F.B.A.

Significance of English constitutional dispute in European politics . . page 193

Charles II and the House of Commons; the borough charters . . . . 193-4

Character of James Π 194-5

Changes of ministers *95James II and Louis XIV 195-6The Parliament of 1685; situation of the English Catholics 196Army commissions granted to Catholics 196The standing army enlarged 197James II and the Church of England 197-8James II and William of Orange 198Dijkvelt's embassy to England, 1687 198-9The Declaration of Indulgence of April 1687 199Preparations for a new parliament 199William's predicament and decision to invade 200The Seven Bishops acquitted . 201The invitation to William, July 1688 201Birth of an heir to the throne . . . . . . . . . . 201-2William perfects his invasion plans; German princes, Dutch provinces . . 202Louis XIV and the Cologne election 202-3William's declaration of 10 October 203-4James II*s attempts to reverse his policy 204The landing at Torbay on 15 November . 204James leaves England 205-6The Convention Parliament 206The constitutional problems . 206-7William and Mary as joint sovereigns 207The Declaration of Rights: William III and English institutions . . . . 208William IIFs character 208-9The Nonjurors , 209The Toleration Act 210Freedom of the press by default 210-11The state of Scotland: William and Mary accepted 211-12Church and State in Scotland; growth of Scottish separatism . . . . 212-13The state of Ireland 213The battle of Ireland; Treaty of Limerick (October 1691) 213-14William III and the English parties 214-15Discontent in England: the Whigs in power 215-16The Revolution in political thought; theories of kingship . . . . . 216-18French absolutism attacked and defended: Jurieu 218Locke1's Two Treatises of Government 219-20A conservative revolution 220Increasing influence of English thought 220-2

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CHAPTER VII

THE NINE YEARS WAR, 1688-1697By SIR GEORGE CLARK, D.LITT., F.B.A., Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford

A question of nomenclature page 223Strategic advance and military growth of France since treaties of Nymegen. . 223-4Importance of Cologne and Liège: a disputed election 224-5The French invade the Rhineland . 225French diplomatic calculations: fall of Belgrade; James II 225-6William of Orange in England 226War declared against the United Provinces : the alignment of forces in the Empire 226-7Bearings of the Turkish war on the West 227-8The Austrian army 228The Dutch and British armed forces 228-9Characteristics of the fighting and war aims 229-30Restraints on operations; war casualties 230-1Differences between the belligerents in discipline, training and equipment . . 231-2Operations in the Rhineland, autumn 1688 232The importance of the Spanish Netherlands; war declared on Spain, April 1689 232-3Devastation of the Palatinate 233The Emperor, the Turks and the Maritime Powers in 1689 233-4British and Dutch co-operation: naval agreements 234Extension of belligerent rights at sea 234-5British and Dutch attitudes to conquests in America 235The French in Catalonia, May 1689 235King James in Ireland, March 1689 235-6French naval initiative; William III and sea power 236Opening of the Irish campaign; the siege of Londonderry 236-7French reverses in the Rhineland 237William Ill's 'congress' at The Hague; Habsburg influence in Germany . . 237-8Savoy: Victor Amadeus Π between France and the Allies 238The prospects for 1690; William III goes to Ireland in June . . . . 238French victory at Fleurus in July 239Tourville fails to exploit victory off Beachy Head on 10 July . . . . 239-40The Boyne, 11 July: King James returns to France 240Savoy joins the Allies: the battle at Staffarda, 18 August 240-1The Turks recover Belgrade: effect on the German war 241Sweden and Denmark assert neutral rights at sea 2411691: end of Irish campaign 241-2William III in the Spanish Netherlands; fall of Mons in April . . . . 242Operations elsewhere; Catinat takes Nice 242-3The strain on French resources; death of Louvois 243French plans to invade England: La Hougue to Barfleur, 29 May-3 June . . 243-4French privateers 244Luxembourg captures Namur in June; battle of Steenkerk, 3 August . . . 244-51692: French superiority on the Rhine; abortive invasion of France from Savoy. 245Loosening of the Grand Alliance; Swedish offers of mediation . . . . 245-61693: The Smyrna convoy; William defeated at Landen-Neerwinden, 29 July . 246-7French successes in Catalonia and Piedmont 2471694: French on the defensive in all theatres except Catalonia . . . . 247-SFailure of Allied landing near Brest in June 248

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CONTENTS

Naval operations in the Mediterranean: William orders Russell to winter there page 248-91695: Campaign in the Netherlands: William recaptures Namur in September . 249Peace-feelers: Callières at Maastricht 249-501696: abortive plans to invade England 250The Treaty of Turin (29 August) and the neutralization of Italy in October ; effects

in the Balkans and in Spain 250-1Financial exhaustion of both sides 251War in North America and the Caribbean, 1689-97 2511697: French advances in the Netherlands and capture of Barcelona, 10 August 252The Peace of Ryswick, 20 September-30 October 252-3Recognition of William III by Louis XIV 253

CHAPTER VIII

THE EMERGENCE OF GREAT BRITAIN AS A WORLD POWERBy the late DAVID OGG, Fellow of New College, Oxford

Transformation of Britain between 1660 and 1714 254English and French war-making resources compared 254-5The Jacobite menace 255Ireland and Scotland 255-6The French use of Ireland and Scotland 256-7England's natural advantages 257-8The human element: social change in the c o u n t r y s i d e . . . . . . 258A wide range of craft skills; 'the poor' 259-60The fiscal factor and economic policy 260-1The balance of trade and the chartered companies 261-2London 262The 'new rich' and new luxuries 262The status of women 263Predominance of southern England 263The Revolution survives 263-4A régime of toleration: religion, treason and blasphemy 264-5The judges: Sir John Holt 265Limitations on the prerogative 265-6The control of foreign policy 266-7The importance of the Act of Settlement 267Towards cabinet government; the Junto 267-8Queen Anne's ministers: Godolphin and the Marlboroughs . . . . 268-9Queen Anne turns to the Tories: Dr Sacheverell 269-70Harley and Bolingbroke, their characters and political outlook . . . . 270-1Death of Queen Anne and succession of George I; the 'Fifteen'. . . . 271-2Composition of the House of Commons 272-3Whigs and Tories ' . . . . ! . 273-5Tory opposition to full-scale hostilities \ 2 7 4 - 5T h e U n i o n w i t h S c o t l a n d : S c o t t i s h p a r t i e s . . . . . ! ! ! 2 7 5 - 6T h e E s t a t e s o f S c o t l a n d t h r o w d o w n t h e g a u n t l e t . . . . ! . 2 7 6 - 7N e g o t i a t i o n s f o r u n i o n ; t h e t r e a t y o f 1 7 0 6 , r a t i f i e d i n 1 7 0 7 \ \ \ 2 7 7 - 8C o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e U n i o n ; H i g h l a n d e r s a n d L o w l a n d e r s \ \ \ 2 7 8 - 9T h e A u g u s t a n A g e i n E n g l a n d ; t h e n e w j o u r n a l i s m . . . . ! ! 2 7 9 - 8 0A t t a c k s o n M a r l b o r o u g h . . . . m # 2 8 0S w i f t a s a p a m p h l e t e e r : The Conduct ofthe Allies ! ! [ 2 8 0 - 1T h e l i b e r a l i s m o f D e f o e ! ! ! ! 2 8 1 - 2A d d i s o n ' s e u l o g y : a n e n l a r g e d a n d u n i f i e d B r i t a i n . . . . . . 2 8 2 - 3

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX

WAR FINANCE, 1689-1714By P. G. M. D I C K S O N , Fellow of St Catherine's College and Lecturer in Modern Historyin the University of Oxford, and JOHN SPERLING, Associate Professor in Humanities,San José State College, California

Neglect of the financial side of war page 284-5The English financial system before and after 1688 285Mounting war expenditure 285-6Limitations of tax revenue 286Long-term borrowing; the Tontine of 1693 286-7Excessive reliance on short-dated borrowing; depression of credit by 1697 · • 287Lottery loans and long annuities; the lenders 287Technical developments in the City of London: the insurance market . . 288-9The Bank of England and the Exchequer: tallies 289-90Waning of public credit in 1696 290The Bank saves the situation 290-1Origin and development of Exchequer Bills 291-2Over-issue of bills by Navy and Victualling Boards: the South Sea Scheme . 292Problem of remitting money to 'the forces abroad' : several false starts . . 292-3Bank of England office at Antwerp; competing syndicates 293Godolphin's exchange system survives the Spanish Succession War . . . 293-4Defects of public finance in the United Provinces 294Financial machinery of the central government; federal revenue . . . . 294-5The military budget and naval finance 295-6Cost of two wars chiefly met by increasing provincial contributions . . . 296Direct and indirect taxes in the province of Holland 296-7Growth of public debt in Holland; loan facilities at A m s t e r d a m . . . . 297-8France: the Contrôle Général; strength and weaknesses of Colbert's example . 298-9Scale of war expenditure; direct and indirect taxes 29^-300Long-term loans and sales of offices 300-1Types of short-dated bills; their over-issue after 1704 301-2Dearth of specie 302-3Foreign remittances: the experience of Huguetan 303-4Samuel Bernard's system: Protestant bankers and the Payments of Lyons . . 304-5Crisis of 1709; Desmarets and the Caisse Legendre 305Deficiencies in Habsburg financial organization 305-6Estimates of revenue and expenditure 306-7Limits to dishonouring commitments; transference of military obligations . . 307Loans on Dutch market and from England 307-8Internal borrowing: great nobles and Jewish financiers; Samuel Oppenheimer . 308-10Financial crisis of 1703; proposals for a State Bank 310-11Ineffectiveness of the Imperial Banco del Giro (1703) 311Success of Vienna City Bank (1706) ; funding operations 311-13Unprecedented scale of government expenditure 1689-1714: comparative fiscal

records 313Cost and efficiency of State borrowing: comparisons between countries . . 313-14International elements 314Social and economic consequences of war finance 314-15

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER X

THE CONDITION OF FRANCE, 1688-1715

By JEAN MEUVRET, Director of Studies at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris

Louis XIV his own first minister after 1691 page 3i6More obedience to government by 1688 316-17Colbert's concern with short-term needs; tax abuses 317-18The reorganization of 1661-88 in other branches of administration . . . 318-19Two instruments of power: the intendants and the army 3*9Limitations of the royal power; its opportunism 319-20A stagnant economy: corn prices 320Economy distorted by demands of war; the circulation of money . . . 320-1The crisis of 1693-4 321-2Movement of corn prices after 1694 and the famine of 1709 . . . . 322-3Repercussions of food scarcity . . . 323Financial makeshifts of the Crown 323~4Riots; the contribution of salt-smuggling to violence 324-5The Camisard rebellion in Languedoc, 1702-4 325The army as an element of disorder; characteristics of recruitment . . . 325-6Criticism of royal policy; the influence of Beauvillier, Chevreuse and Madame de

Maintenon 326-7Fénelon's ideas on reform: *Letter to Louis XIV' (1693/4) and Telemaque (1699) 327-9Other critics: Boisguilbert's economic analysis; Vauban's fiscal proposals . . 329-31The Controllers-General from 1689 to 1715 331The capitation and the dixième; reasons for partial failure 332-3Social forces: the clergy and the increasing authority of the bishops . . . 333Gallicanism and the new Jansenism 333-4The Parlements 334-5The Provincial Estates 335-6The financiers: Legendre, Bernard, the Paris family 336-7International contacts of the 'new converts': the Crown and the Huguenots . 337-8Proliferation of offices for sale 338The administrative nobility; social distances in general 338-9Prospects of social advancement 339-40Importance of the larger towns; the Parisian mondain 340-1A shift in mental attitudes 341-2Growing cosmopolitanism and sense of cultural superiority 342

CHAPTER XI

THE SPANISH EMPIRE UNDERFOREIGN PRESSURES, 1688-1715

By the late ROLAND DENNIS HUSSEY, Professor of History in theUniversity of California, Los Angeles, and J. S. B R O M L E Y

The question of decline 343-4Towards recovery; foreign elements in the population 345Public finance; the Church * 346-7The seigneurial system and the grandees 347-8Shifting cabals at the court of Carlos II; his character 348-9Overseas possessions: the Philippines, the Canaries, the Indies . . . . 349

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Foreign penetration: contraband, piracy, the Asiento page 349-50Territorial threats in North, Central and South America 350Second marriage of Carlos II (1689): Maria Anna of Pfalz-Neuberg . . . 350-1The new queen's increasing influence: dismissal of Oropesa 351Austrophils and Francophils: importance ofthe Despacho Universal . . . 351-2Government economies and other reforms 352Max Emmanuel of Bavaria and the hereditary government of the Spanish

Netherlands 352-3Administrative reorganization: the Junta dos Tenientes (1693) . . . . 353Proposals to curb the Inquisition, 1696 353-4The Nine Years War overseas :flotas, galeones, corsairs 354Skirmishes in Hispaniola; Anglo-Spanish attack on Saint-Domingue, 1695. . 354~5Cartagena captured by Pointis and Ducasse, 1697 355-6Defensive counter-measures and missionary expansion in the Indies: California,

Amazonia, the Philippines 356-7Catalonia in the Nine Years War 357Franco-Austrian rivalry at Madrid: Cardinal Portocarrero and the queen . . 357-8First Partition Treaty; anti-Habsburg manifestations in Madrid . . . . 358Hostilities in north Africa; the French in the South Sea and Louisiana . . 359~6oThe 'Darien Company 'o f 1695: the Scots in Darien 1698-1700 . . . . 360Second Partition Treaty: Carlos wills his kingdoms to Philip of Anjou . . 360-1Death of Carlos II (1 November 1700): Louis XIV accepts the will . . . 361Philip V in Madrid: attitudes of the grandees and of Aragonese realms . . 361-2Reactions in Catalonia and Valencia 362Philip's character 362-3The problems he had to face; constitutional diversity 363Louis XIV at first displays tact towards Spain 363-4Growth of French trading in the Indies: the Asiento 364-5Increasing French influence: Jean Orry sent to Spain in 1701 . . . . 365Orry proposes a French-style administration; his financial reforms . . . 365-6Renovation of the Spanish army 366-7Marriage of Philip to Maria Luisa of Savoy (1701); influence of the princess

des Ursins 367Philip in Saragossa, Barcelona and Naples, 1701-3 368Maria Luisa as Lieutenant of the Realm; her popularity in Madrid . . . 368-9French disputes at Madrid: Louis XIV recalls Orry and Madame des Ursins, 1704 369Reinstatement of Madame des Ursins and Orry, 1705 369-70Portocarrero retired; appointments of Amelot and Grimaldo . . . . 370Catalonia and Valencia in revolt after the arrival of Archduke Charles on

22 August 1705 37O*iCriticism of · Charles Π Γ 3711706: Philip temporarily evacuates Madrid; second recall of Orry . . . 371-2The war overseas; French convoy protection; Campeche, the Canaries, Florida,

Colonia do Sacramento 372The Manila galleon: Dampier and Woodes Rogers 372-3After Almanza (1707) : destruction of the Aragonese fueros 373~4Breach between Spain and France: the peace-talks of 1709 374-5Resistance to French economic pressures 375-6Breach with Rome, 1709 376Philip and the peace negotiations; the return of Orry in 1713 - . · - 376-7End of the old system of government in Spain 377Death of Queen Maria Luisa in February 1714 377-8

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Church and State: Melchor de Macanaz and the Inquisition . . . page 378Fall of Barcelona in September 1714: Berwick's rule in Catalonia . . . 378-9Settlement of Catalan government, 1715-17 379~8oPhilip's marriage to Elizabeth Farnese opens a new era 380

CHAPTER XII

FROM THE NINE YEARS WAR TOTHE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION

By S I R G E O R G E C L A R K

Ryswick treaties in reality an armistice 381Max Emmanuel in the Spanish Netherlands; Dutch garrisons . . . . 3 8 1 - 2Weakness of the Spanish forces 382Run-down of Dutch and English armies 382-3Austrian and French forces not substantially affected 383The difference between 1698 and 1688 383-4Much dependent on the death of Carlos Π; the Spanish attitude . . . 384Attitudes of the Maritime Powers and of the House of Habsburg . . . 384-5French interests in Spain and her possessions 385The Spanish succession: legal issues and the claimants 385-6The Habsburg interest; the secret partition of 1668 386-8The Bavarian claim 388Dutch supporters of partition 388Preliminary moves for a revised partition; Tallard in London, 1698 . . . 388-9Policy of Louis XIV: military dispositions in southern France . . . . 389-90Position of Max Emmanuel and Bergeyck's plans for Ostend . . . . 390-1William Ill's proposals; the slurs on his motives 391-3First Partition Treaty, 11 October 1698: its merits 393-4The death of Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria (February 1699) . 394The new situation 394-5A balance between France and Austria 395Second Partition Treaty, 25 March 1700; Leopold I prepares for war. . . 395-6Philip of Anjou made heir to Carlos II: Portocarrero and the pope . . . 396-7Louis XIV accepts the will on 10 November 1700 397Philip V recognized in Milan and Brussels 3971701 : French military measures 397^8French troops admitted into the Spanish Netherlands: withdrawal of the Dutch

and of Max Emmanuel 398-9Archbishop Joseph Clement of Cologne and his chapter 399-400Philip V recognized by the United Provinces and England, February-April 1701 400The English parliament persuaded by William III; the emperor's position . * 401Competition for allies in Germany between Leopold I and Louis XIV . . 401-2Outbreak of the Great Northern War: the Peace of Travendal, 18 August 1700 402-3The emperor determined to withstand French claims 4031701 : French troops in north Italy (January); attitudes of Italian States . . 403Military and naval preparations in the west; attitudes of German States . . 404-5Austrians in Italy: Eugene defeats Catinat and Villeroi 405Marlborough and the Treaty of the Grand Alliance (7 September) . . . 406Franco-Polish negotiations broken off 406German accessions to the Grand Alliance 406-7Portuguese treaties with France and Spain (June) 407

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Louis XIV recognizes the Old Pretender (September) and proposes cession ofSpanish Netherlands (30 October) page 408

1702: the emperor's uncertain strategy: preference for a Mediterranean war . 408-9Death of William III on 19 March; declarations of war, 8 April-15 May . . 409

CHAPTER XIII

THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION IN EUROPEBy A. J. V E E N E N D A A L , formerly Secretary ofthe State Commission for

Dutch History at The Hague

Aims of the Grand Alliance 410German States and the Alliance 410-11Strength of Allied forces in 1702 411-12French advantages 4 1 2

Situation in the Spanish Netherlands: reforms of Count Bergeyck . . . 412-13Support for Louis XIV in the Empire: Bavaria and Cologne . . . . 413-14William continental policy continued under Queen Anne . . . . 414Effects of William's death on the United Provinces; Dutch war aims . . . 415Problem ofthe supreme command: Marlborough 415-16Initial successes of the Allies on Rhine and Meuse, 1702-3 416Marlborough's preference for a mobile strategy frustrated by the Dutch . . 416-171703: Villars breaks through to Bavaria; Tyrol attacked on two sides . . 417The war in north Italy; Savoy joins the Allies 417-18Cadiz and Vigo, 1702; Portugal joins the Alliance: the Methuen treaties (May-

December 1703) 418-19Anglo-Dutch interdict on trade with Spain and France ( 1 7 0 3 - 4 ) . . . . 419-201704: the threat to Vienna; Marlborough's march to the Danube: Blenheim

(13 August) 420-2Stalemate in the Netherlands and north Italy 422Opening of Allied campaign in Spain (March) : Gibraltar captured on 3 August. 422-3The battle of Malaga on 24 August 4 2 31705: Emperor Joseph I t Bavaria and Transylvania 423-4Marlborough's abortive Moselle advance; differences between Marlborough

and the Dutch 424The plight of Savoy; Barcelona capitulates on 14 October to the Allies . . 425Louis XIV's first secret peace offers rejected 4 2 5-61706: Ramillies (23 May) and the Belgian revolution 426-7The Dutch Barrier; Marlborough and the government of the south Netherlands. 427Anglo-Dutch Condominium in the south Netherlands; the upper Rhine · . 428The relief of Turin (7 September) and French retreat across the Alps . . . 428-9Allies' successes in Spain followed by evacuation of Madrid . . . . 429-30Favourable position of the Allies: *No peace without Spain' . . . . 43°-iFrustration of Dutch Barrier diplomacy 4311707: Charles ΧΠ in Saxony: Marlborough goes to Altranstädt in April . . 431-2Sterile campaign in the Netherlands; Villars forces the Lines of Stollhofen. . 432The Austrians move into Naples 432~3Allied failure before Toulon (22 August) and defeat at Almanza (25 April) . 4331708: English successes—Sardinia and Minorca 433~4Austrian reinforcements for Catalonia 434Netherlands the principal war theatre: Oudenarde (11 July) . . . . 435The murderous siege of Lille: fall of the citadel on 9 December . . . . 435-6

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C O N T E N T S

1709: failure of peace negotiations Pa8e 436-7Louis XIV appeals to his people; Malplaquet (11 September) a pyrrhic victory . 437-8

Allies on the defensive in Spain 43^Anglo-Dutch Treaty of Succession and Barrier of 29 October: resentments

aroused by it 438-91710: failure of further peace negotiations (March-July) 439-4°The 'Ne Plus Ultra Lines'; Allied débâcle in Spain 44°Tory government in England: a new foreign policy 440-11711 : the invasion of France again frustrated 441~2

Negotiations between St John and Torcy 441Disavowal of the Barrier Treaty 44 2

Swift's The Conduct ofthe Allies; Anglo-Dutch recriminations . . . . 442-31712: Congress meets at Utrecht, 29 January: the British 'restraining orders' of

21 May 443The Dutch defeated by Villars at Denain on 24 July 443-41713: the new Barrier and the Peace of Utrecht (March-April) . . . . 4441714: Treaties of Rastatt and Baden 444The fate of Catalonia 444-51715: the Third Barrier Treaty (15 November) 445

CHAPTER XIV

THE PACIFICATION OF UTRECHTBy H. G. P I T T , Fellow of Worcester College and Lecturer in Modern History .

in the University of Oxford

Early movements towards peace, 1706-8 4 4 6 - 7Differences about Spain: change in French attitude 4 4 7 - 8Attitude of Whigs: Britain and Austria opposed to partition . . . . 448Pressure put on the Dutch in return for a Barrier 448Conflicting aims of the powers: the Preliminaries of 1709 4 4 8 - 9Lack of a coherent policy in Vienna; Wratislaw's Italian policy . . . . 4 4 9 - 5 0The negotiations of March-May 1709: Dutch demands stepped up . . . 4 5 0 - 1French concessions; the question of compensation for Philip V . . . . 4 5 1 - 2The 4th and 37th articles rejected by France; causes of misunderstanding . . , 4 5 3 - 4Vienna's intransigence 4 5 4 - 5Significance of the first Barrier Treaty: a diplomatic triumph for the English . 455Further negotiations at Mardyck and Geertruidenberg (1710) . . . . 456Break-up of Godolphin's ministry the turning-point 4 5 6 - 7War-weariness brings support to St John's pol icy; the English press . . . 4 5 7 - 8Secret Anglo-French pourparlers begin in August 1710: the propositions of

April 1711 4 5 8 - 9The Mesnager Convention of 8 October 1711 4 5 9 - 6 0Dutch reluctantly accept this as a basis 460Parliament approves the Convention 460-1The Congress of Utrecht: agreement between Britain and France the deciding

f a c t o r 461The 'Specific D e m a n d s ' of the Allies: British and Dutch 462Emperor's refusal t o consider partition of the Spanish inheritance . . . 4 6 2 - 3Possibility of Philip V inheriting French crown: Philip's attitude . . [ 4 6 3 - 4Deterioration in Anglo-Dutch relations: trading rights and the Barrier . . 4 6 4 - 5The claims of Prussia: Upper Guelderland and Neuchatel . . . . ! 4 6 5 - 6Portuguese gains and disappointments . 55

XX

C O N T E N T S

Settlement with Savoy: Sicily and an Alpine barrier page 466-7Habsburg isolation: the emperor negotiates over Spain 467-8French claims against Austria: the Italian princelings 468Louis XIV removes the Old Pretender to Lorraine in February 1713 . . . 469Parliament rejects Bolingbroke's commercial treaty with France . . . . 469-70Britain and France settle American questions 470Signing of peace treaties with France, 11 April 1713 470Britain's major war aims achieved 470-1Dutch forced to acquiesce 471Divergences between the emperor and the German princes 471-2Negotiations conducted between Villars and Eugene (November 1713-January

1714) 472Treaty of Rastatt, 6 March 1714 473The German settlement; religious divisions in the Empire 473-4The Treaty of Baden, 7 September 1714 474Comparative instability of the German settlement . . . . . . 474-5Political and commercial negotiations between England and Spain: the Asiento . 475-6Anglo-Spanish peace treaty signed on 13 July 1713 476Treaty between United Provinces and Spain signed on 26 June 1713 . . . 476Treaty between Spain and Portugal of February 1715: Colonia do Sacramento . 476Second Anglo-Dutch Barrier Treaty, 30 January 1713 47^-7Austro-Dutch Barrier Treaty, 15 November 1715 478Later history of the Dutch Barrier 478Value of the pacification of Utrecht 478^9

CHAPTER XV

FRANCE AND ENGLAND IN NORTH AMERICA,1689-1713

By PHILIP S. HAFFENDEN, Lecturer in American Historyin the University of Southampton

Repercussions of the Glorious Revolution in North America . . . . 480The background of revolutionary disturbances; the rôle of Boston . . . 480-1Massachusetts: a compromise with independence 481New York: Jacob Leisler . 481-2Maryland: dissatisfaction with proprietary government 482Virginia and East Jersey 482-3The Massachusetts charter of 1691 483Changes outside New England 483-4French Canada: State and Church 484-5Long-range control from Versailles 485Character of French Canadians 485-6The French and the American Indians; Frontenac 486Failure of the Phips expedition to Quebec (1690) 487Frontenac borrows the methods of Indian warfare 487-8French successes in Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay 488-9The French chastise the Iroquois and procure their neutrality (1701) . . . 489-90The Navigation Act of 1696 and the Board of Trade 49O~iThe Crown and the colonial charters 491-2The Puritan theocracy at bay: the Salem trials; Quakers and Anglicans . . 492-3Religion in other colonies; French and German sects 493-4Effects of war on moral behaviour 494

xxi

C O N T E N T S

Education: Harvard, Yale, William and Mary / ^ 494-5

Printing press and libraries 495Social structure and urban consciousness 495-6New France : social services, education and culture 496-7The missionary frontier 497-8The upper Mississippi and Louisiana: Jesuits and Seminarists . . . . 498-9Origins of Louisiana, 1684-98 · 499"5OOIts early vicissitudes: the Le Moyne brothers and Crozat 500-1The War of the Spanish Succession in New England 501-2Vaudreuil and Dudley consider regional neutrality 502Massachusetts fails to capture Port Royal, Acadia 502-3Rapid changes of fortune in Newfoundland 5°3Carolinian attacks on Florida missions 503-4Indian politics and the defence of Louisiana 504Capture of Port Royal (October 1710) and the 'Glorious Enterprise' . . . 505Fiasco of the Quebec expedition of 711 505-6Seeds of imperial disintegration; the passing of a generation . . . . 506-7American attitudes to the Peace 507-8New France retains its vigour 508Effects of war on population; increase of English preponderance . . . 508

CHAPTER XVI

PORTUGAL AND HER EMPIRE, 1680-1720

By V. M A G A L H À E S G O D I N H O , Docteur ès Lettres, Sorbonne

Slump a n d b o o m in Por tuguese Atlant ic e c o n o m y ; the course of prices, 1668-1728 509-10Crisis of p roduc t ion in Brazi l : sugar, spirits, a n d tobacco 510-11Restricted money supply 511Anti-mercanti le feeling: t he Inquisi t ion , 5 1 1 - 1 2Fall in re-exports 512Industr ia l investment projects a n d new manufac tures , 1670-92 . . . . 5 1 2 - 1 3Sumptuary laws t o cu t d o w n impor t s . . . . . . . . . 513Moneta ry pol icy: success of the revaluat ion decree of 1688 513-14T h e slave t r a d e : t he Cacheo C o m p a n y a n d the As ien to of 1696 . . . . 514-15M o z a m b i q u e : fresh colonizing efforts 516G o a a n d M a c a o : n e w Eas t Ind i a companies merged in 1700 . . . . 516 -17Revival of Eastern t r a d e ; profits and cargoes 517

T h e Omanis capture M o m b a s a (1698); the Zambes i del ta . . . . . 5 1 7 - 1 8Decay of Por tuguese cities in Ind i a ; migra t ions of Indo-Por tuguese . . . 518-19Trade b o o m during and after the N i n e Year s W a r 519-20Extension of olive groves and vineyards 520-1Collapse of policy of industrialization 521-2Interests of t he nobili ty in growth of wine expor ts 522A watershed in economic pol icy: the cycle of p o r t , madei ra , a n d gold. . . 523Expans ion of t rade wi th England after 1688; significance of the M e t h u e n t reaty

of 27 December 1703 . 5 2 3 - 4A strictly defensive foreign policy or ientated t owards F rance . . . ! 524Front ie r p rob lems in the Peninsula a n d Sou th Amer ica . . . . 1 525Treaties wi th Spa in a n d France , 18 J u n e 1701 . . . . . . . 525Anglo -Dutch sea power a n d the M e t h u e n t reat ies of 16 M a y 1703 ." ! ! 5 2 5 - 6The a r m y in re la t ion t o a slow popula t ion rise ', 5 2 6 - 7T h e ravages of war , 1704-12: food supplies . . . . . . ! 527-8

xxii

C O N T E N T S

Shrinkage of silver supply; contradictory results of Succession War . . page 528Brazil: the Buenos Aires trade before and after 1670; convoys to Lisbon . . 528-9Expansion in Brazil: Colonia do Sacramento, 1680-1715 529-30Developments in Amazonia: the Maranhao and Gran Para . . . 530The Jesuits in Upper Amazonia; the French of Cayenne 531Cattle-raising and the penetration of the interior 531-2The great cattle domains: growth of the leather trade 532Expeditions from Sao Paulo: the bandeirantes in quest of gold . . . . 532-3Systematic exploration of the interior from 1674; the gold rush after 1700 . . 533-4The export of Brazilian gold, 1699-1755 534-5European destinations of Brazilian gold 535Renewed fall in Portuguese price levels, 1712-30, and new attempts to foster

industry 535-6Crown revenues before and after 1716; a mercantile monarchy . . . . 536-7Landed wealth and the religious Orders 536The wealth of the nobility 537-8Forms of property and of rights over the land and its produce . . . . 538-9State and society in Portugal 539-4°

CHAPTER XVII

T H E M E D I T E R R A N E A N

By JEAN MATHIEX, Agrégé de Université, Paris

U n i t y a n d d i v e r s i t y ; e a s t e r n a n d w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n 5 4 0C o a s t a l traff ic a n d i n n u m e r a b l e p o r t s ; s h i p p i n g h a z a r d s 5 4 0 - 1P o p u l a t i o n s o f c i t i e s 5 4 1 - 2C a d i z , L e g h o r n , G e n o a , M a r s e i l l e s 5 4 2 - 3P l a g u e : a s t e r n q u a r a n t i n e s y s t e m 5 4 3C o r s a i r s , M u s l i m a n d C h r i s t i a n 5 4 3 - 4T h e p o w e r o f A l g i e r s : p r i z e s a n d p r i s o n e r s ; t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f s l a v e s . . . 5 4 4 - 5F r a n c e a n d t h e B a r b a r y R e g e n c i e s ; C h r i s t i a n c o r s a i r s ; M a l t a . . . . 5 4 5 - 6P r i v a t e e r s a n d m e r c h a n t m e n ; n e u t r a l f l a g s 5 4 6 - 7N a v a l f o r c e s a l i m i t e d d e t e r r e n t 5 4 7 - 8E c o n o m y o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ; c o m t r a d e ; i m p o r t s a n d e x p o r t s . . . 5 4 8M u s l i m o v e r l a n d t r a d e - r o u t e s 5 4 8 - 9T h e L e v a n t t r a d e ; t h e C a p i t u l a t i o n s a n d c o n s u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n . . . . 5 4 9 - 5 0E n g l i s h , D u t c h a n d F r e n c h i n t h e L e v a n t ; F r e n c h B a r b a r y c o m p a n i e s . . 5 5 0 - 1T h e b a l a n c e o f E a s t - W e s t t r a d e ; L e v a n t i n e i n d u s t r i e s . . . . . 5 5 1T h e m e a n s o f p a y m e n t ; t h e s p e c i e t r a d e ; c l o t h e x p o r t s 5 5 1 - 2T h e F r e n c h l e a d b y 1 7 1 5 - 2 0 5 5 2 - 3T h e e m p i r e s o f S p a i n a n d T u r k e y : m e t h o d s o f r u l e c o m p a r e d . . . . 5 5 3 - 4M o r o c c o u n d e r t h e S u l t a n M u l e y I s m a e l 5 5 4T h e d e c l i n e o f f o r m e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n p o w e r s : V e n i c e 5 5 4 - 6C h a n g i n g n a t u r e o f V e n e t i a n e c o n o m y ; t h e terraferma . . . . . 5 5 6S p a n i s h d o m i n i o n s i n I t a l y : N a p l e s a n d S i c i l y , t h e M i l a n e s e . . . . 5 5 6 - 8T h e c u l t u r e o f N a p l e s ; m u s i c a n d t h e a r t s 5 5 8 - 9T h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f V i c t o r A m a d e u s I I o f S a v o y 5 5 9 ~ 6 oL i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s o f P i e d m o n t - S a v o y 5 6 0A d m i n i s t r a t i v e , fiscal a n d l e g a l r e f o r m s ; t h e r o y a l s u p r e m a c y . . . . 5 6 0 - 1N e g a t i v e a s p e c t s o f r e f o r m i n P i e d m o n t - S a v o y 5 6 1 - 2S h i p b u i l d i n g i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n : t h e O t t o m a n s a n d V e n i c e . . . . 5 6 2N a v a l m a n p o w e r a n d g a l l e y s l a v e s ; t h e F r e n c h g a l l e y c o r p s . . . . 5 6 2 - 3

xxiii

C O N T E N T S

The uses of the galley: its passing PaEe 564-5Collapse of Spanish sea power 565The revival of Ottoman sea power : Mezzomorto 565^6The irruption of English sea power: Gibraltar 566-7The French navy in the Nine Years War: Toulon and Brest . . . . 567-8The Anglo-Dutch in the Mediterranean, 1694-6: the balance-sheet . . . 568-9The Mediterranean and the Partition Treaties 569The War of the Spanish Succession in the Mediterranean 569-70Spain's losses mainly attributable to defeats on land 57°The Allies fail to exploit naval superiority; the Camisards 570-1Naval war subsidiary to war on land; French commercial supremacy . . . 571From Mediterranean to Atlantic power rivalries 571

CHAPTER XVIII

THE AUSTRIAN HABSBURGSBy J. W. S t o y e , Fellow of Magdalen College and Senior Lecturer in

Modern History in the University of Oxford

Court and government in the Hofburg 572Vienna: burghers and noblemen 572-3The growth of autocracy: the central treasury and the court chancery . . 573Resistance to autocracy: the Estates and office-holders 573-4The defects of government at the centre: overlapping committees . . . 574-5Habsburg devotion to the Catholic Church and to 'Our H o u s e ' . . . . 575-6Conflicts of priority between widely scattered hereditary claims . . . . 576The reconquest of Hungary, 1685-8 576-7Strength of the Habsburg position in the Balkans by 1689 . . . . . 577-8Pressure from western Europe 578-9Conflict between two fronts; breakdown of peace talks with the Turks . . 579Habsburg thrusts into Macedonia and Rumania 579-8oRevival of Turkish power in 1690; military deadlock after 1691 . . . . 580The battle of Zenta (11 September 1697) and the Peace of Carlowitz (1699) . 580-1Habsburg government in the newly conquered lands; population movements . 581-2Transylvania: Michael Apafi surrenders his title, 1697 582Hungary: the policy of Cardinal Kollonich 582-3Taxation leads to peasant unrest 583The Hungarian rebellion of 1703: Râkoczi and Berczenyi 583-4Rékóczi's military successes and recognition by the Transylvanians . . . 584-5Suppression of the rebellion: battles of Zsibó (November 1705) and TrenCin

(August 1708) 5 g 5

The peace settlement at Szatmar and the Diet of 1712-15 . 5 8 5 _6Relations between the emperors and the German princes 586-7The influence of Habsburg patronage in western and central Germany . . 587-8Shadowy character of the Imperial authority itself 588Bavaria before and after Blenheim 588-9Habsburg and Wittelsbach 589-90Friction with Brandenburg-Prussia and friendship with Hanover · . . 590Forward policy in Italy: the Spanish succession 590-1Habsburg reluctance to embark on hostilities in Spain . . . \ \ 5 9 iAgreements within the family on Spanish partition, 1703 5 9 2

The agreement with Victor Amadeus of Savoy, November 1703 . . . . 592-3

xxiv

CONTENTS

Archduke Charles between the Maritime Powers and Vienna; devotion to hisSpanish title page 593

Austrian campaigning in Italy, 1701-7; contributions levied on the principalities 593-4Habsburg disputes with the papacy 594-5Defeat of Clement XI in the War of Comacchio, 1708-9 595The claims of Victor Amadeus in Lombardy: Habsburg distrust . . . 595-6The attitude of Emperor Charles VI to Victor Amadeus II and Philip V . . 596-7Austrian rule in Italy compared with the Spanish 597Italian cultural influences at Vienna 597-8The Austrian Netherlands: old liberties confirmed 598The return to ambitions in the Balkans, 1716-18 598Economic and social conditions in the old possessions; lord and peasant in

Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia 598-600Impact of war taxation on the agricultural classes 600A wealthy nobility expressed in architectural magnificence 600-1The nobility a unifying force in the Habsburg lands 601The entrenched position of the Church and its influence 601-2A static landlocked economy; production in the towns and on the larger estates. 602-3A tight gild-structure; court purveyors and privileged manufactures . . . 603Government and mineral resources: the Innerberger Hauptgewerkschaft . · 603-4Development of trade with south-east Europe: the policy of Charles VI . . 604-5Importance of Silesia; shifts in trade-routes of the Austrian lands . · . 605-6Projects of economic reform frustrated before 1714 606-7Charles VI loses interest in them after 1720 607

CHAPTER XIX

T H E R E T R E A T O F T H E T U R K S , 1683-1730

By A. N. K U R A T , Professor of History in the University of Ankara,and J. S. B R O M L E Y

Extent of the Ottoman empire and its administrative divisions . . . . 608Contraction in Asia; Mesopotamia, Syria and Lebanon 608-9Importance of Egypt: political clans and military insurrections . . . . 609-10The Red Sea and the Black Sea; Tatars and Cossacks 610Frontier defence and the system of fortresses 610Communications; internal and external commerce 610-12Industrial crafts: gildsmen and janissaries 612Town and country; the growth of tax-farms 612-13A stagnant agriculture and peasant migration 613Military manpower, territorial and professional; the janissaries and other corps . 613-14The navy: galleys and sailing-ships 615Sultan and grand vizier; importance of the efendis 615-16Influence of the ulema; the intrigues ofthe Seraglio 616-17Self-criticism and the distrust of western influences 617The Patriarchate of Constantinople . 617-18Religion, race and poverty 6181683: the retreat from Vienna; the Holy League of 1684 618-19The struggle for Hungary; fall of Nove Zamky (1685) and of Buda (1686) . . 619Turks driven out of the Morea (1685-7); the defeat at Nagyharsany (12 August

1687) 620Army revolt of 8 November 1687 and the dethronement of Mehmed IV . . 620-11688: the Austrians capture Peterwardein and Belgrade; failure of peace parleys 621

XXV

C O N T E N T S

The crisis of 1689 and Fazil Mustafa Pasha: a turn in the tide . . . page 621-2The slaughter at Zâlankemén (19 August 1691) and attempts at mediation . . 622-3The Venetians in Chios, 1694-5 623Resilience of Ottoman war effort; financial dislocation and social evils . . 623-5Russian attacks on Azov, 1695-6; their implications 625-6The battle of Zenta (1697) and the agreements at Carlowitz (26 January 1699) . 626Many-sided significance of the Peace 626-7Threats of Venice and Russia to the Dardanelles and Black Sea . . . . 627-8Reforms of Hüseyn Pasha; the armed forces 628-9Conflict between grand vizier and Mufti of Constantinople 629'The Adrianople affair' of August 1703 : abdication of Sultan Mustafa II . . 629Character of Sultan Ahmed III: Chorlulu AH Pasha grand vizier . . . 630Poltava, 1709: Charles XII in Turkey 630-1Increase in anti-Russian feeling: Devlet-Girei Khan and the Bender circle . . 631-2Baltaji Mehmed Pasha: Turkey at war with Russia, 20 November 1710 . . 632Tsar Peter appeals to the Balkan Christians; their relations with Moscow . . 632-3Antagonism between Orthodox and Catholic; Moldavia and Wallachia . . 633Russian advance to Moldavia 633-4Russian surrender on the Pruth, 21 July 1711; criticism of Baltaji Mehmed . 634-5Peter abandons Azov and Taganrog . 635A Greco-Turkish régime: growing influence of the Phanariots . . . . 635-6Russia and Poland: further declarations of war by the Porte . . . . 636Peace of Adrianople, 5 June 1713; Charles XII leaves Turkey, September 1714 . 636-7Plans to recover the Morea from Venice: Silahdar Ali Pasha . . . . 637-8Campaign in the Morea, 1715; Corfu threatened, 1716 638Vienna decides to intervene: confusion in the Divan 638-9Eugene routs Silahdar Ali Pasha at Peterwardein, 5 August 1716, and takes

Temesvâr on 12 October 639Fall of Belgrade, 16 August 1717; Venetian defeats at sea 640Treaty of Passarowitz, 21 July 1718 640-2Reasons for military inferiority of the Ottoman 642Ottoman desire for peace: Ibrahim Pasha and *the Age of Tulips' . . . 642-3Cultural developments 643-4Epidemics, dear food, and unemployment 644The Afghans invade Persia: Tsar Peter moves to the Caspian, 1723 . . . 644-5The Turks and Russians dismember Persia, 1724-30 645Janissary rising in Constantinople, September-November, 1730 . , . . 645-6Sultan Mahmud I murders Patrona Halil and his associates . . . . 647

CHAPTER XX ( i )

CHARLES XII AND THE GREAT NORTHERN WARBy R A G N H I L D H A T T O N , Professor of International History

in the University of London

The war of 1700-21 seen as the climax of historic rivalries 648Swedish theory of empire " 648-0Shifting balance of power in the Baltic . . . . . . ! 649Reassessments and reforms under Charles XI . . . . . ! ! 649-50Sweden's neutrality in the Nine Years War: a prosperous interlude . \ \ 650-11697: accession of Charles ΧΠ: omens and dangers . . . * . ! 651-2Holstein-Gottorp and Livonia: the coalition between Denmark, Saxony and

R u s s i a • · . . · . . 652-3

xxvi

C O N T E N T S

Augustus of Saxony-Poland attacks Livonia in February 1700 . . . page 653-4The Swedes attack Denmark: Peace of Travendal, August 1700 . . . . 654-5Swedish success over the Russians at Narva, 30 November 1700 . . . 655-6Decision to attack Augustus; the crossing of the Dvina, 19 July 1701. . . 656The situation in Poland and Lithuania 656-8Charles XIFs Polish policy and its critics 658Stanislas Leszczynski crowned king of Poland: the Treaty of Warsaw, 1705 . 658-9Poland as a base for a campaign against Russia or as a buffer-state . . . 659-60Swedish victories at Kliszów (1702) and Fraustadt (1706) 660-1Character of Charles XII . 661-2Charles moves into Saxony, 1706; Treaty of Altranstädt, 24 September 1707 . 662-3Marlborough's visit to Altranstädt 663-41708: preparations for the invasion of Russia 664The Russians forced out of Poland 664-5The routes to Moscow 665Russian defence plan: costly Swedish victory at Holowczyn, 14 July 1708 . . 665-6Failure of Lewenhaupt to join the main Swedish army : battle of Lesna, 9 October 666-7Winter quarters and scorched-earth tactics 6671709: Swedish diplomacy in search of a military success 667-8The defeats at Poltava and Perevolochna, 8-11 July 668-9Charles in Turkey for four years; schemes for a coalition at Bender . . . 669-70Sweden invaded from Denmark and Norway: attitude of the Maritime Powers,

1710 670Charles XII at Bender: his plans for reforms in Sweden 671Stenbock's victory at Gadebusch (December 1712) and surrender at T0nning

(January 1713) 671Failures of Swedish diplomacy . 671-2The*tumult'of Bender, February 1713; Charles reaches Stralsund on 21 November

1714 672-3The diplomatic situation; Prussia and Hanover join Sweden's enemies, 1715 . 673-4The fall of Stralsund (23 December 1715) and of Wismar (19 April 1716) . . 674Administrative reforms in Sweden; Görtz and the Jacobites . . . . 674-5Negotiations with Peter the Great and George I of England . . . . 675-7The succession question; struggle between the Holstein and Hesse parties . . 6771718: the invasion of Norway and death of Charles XII on 11 December . . 677What he had had in mind 677-8Treaties of Stockholm and Frederiksborg, 1719-20 678The Peace of Nystad, September 1721 679Sweden no longer a great power; the question of Charles XII's responsibility . 679-80

C H A P T E R x x (2)

THE ECLIPSE OF POLANDBy JOZEF GiEROWSKi, Professor of Modern Polish History, and

ANDRZEJ KAMINSKI, Lecturer in Modern European History,in the Jagiellonian University, Cracow

'Eclipsis Poloniae' 681Causes of paralysis; the basic malaise; a pessimistic generation . . . . 6 8 1 - 2John Sobieski and Augustus of Saxony 682-3Polish participation in the War of the Holy League : meagre results . . . 683-4Sobieski*s succession strategy and family dissensions 684-5Lithuanian opposition to Sobieski's dynasticism spreads to Poland . . . 685-6

xxvii

C O N T E N T S

The interregnum of 1696-7: the contested election at Wola, 27 June 1697 . page 686Frederick Augustus I of Saxony crowned king of Poland as Augustus II,

15 September 6 8 ?Possibilities and weaknesses of the Polish-Saxon Union 087-8Failure of duke of Conti to oust Augustus 6 8 8

Resumption of war with the Ottoman, 1698: setbacks for Augustus . . . 688-9Dispute with Prussia over Elblag, 1698-1700 689-90Civil war in Lithuania: the Sapieha family capitulate, December 1698. . . 690-1The Sejm of 1699 and the withdrawal of Saxon forces from Poland . . . 691-2The anti-Swedish coalition and the invasion of Livonia, 1700 . . . . 692Augustus tries to limit the conflict with Sweden, 1700-1 692-3Charles XII cultivates a pro-Swedish faction in Poland 693Renewed civil war in Lithuania (1700) and appeal for Russian help . . . 693-4Opposition groups within Poland; James Sobieski 694The Sejm of 1701 and the Swedish invasion of Lithuania 694-5Charles XII calls for the deposition of Augustus Π and occupies Warsaw, 1702. 695Conditional support for Augustus in Poland 695-6Cossack rising in the Dnieper Ukraine, 1702-4 696Swedish successes in 1703; the Sejm meets at Lublin 696-7Anti-Saxon confederacy of Warsaw, 1704 . 697Charles XII has Stanislas Leszczynski crowned king in Warsaw, 12 July 1704 . 697Support for Augustus: General Confederacy of Sandomierz, 1704 . . 697-8Russo-Polish alliance: the Treaty of Narva, 30 August 1704 . . . . 698-9Charles XII imposes the Treaty of Warsaw, 28 November 1705 . . . . 699Difficult position of Charles ΧΠ in 1706: the Swedes devastate Poland . . 699-700The Swedes invade Saxony while the Russians advance into Poland . · . 700-1The Treaty of Altranstädt: Augustus deprived of the Polish Crown . . . 701Tsar Peter and the confederates of Sandomierz: alternative candidates for the

Polish throne 701Charles ΧΠ returns to Poland (1707) and moves into the Ukraine (1708) . . 702Augustus pressed to return: Leszczynski withdraws beyond the Vistula . . 702-3Battle of Poltava; Augustus finally decides to return in 1709 . . . . 703-4Growth of Russian influence in Poland 704The devastation and depopulation of Poland 704-5The decay of the towns and decline of the gentry 705-6Creeping disintegration of Poland; growing independence of provincial diets . 706Republican tendencies in reform: ideas of Szczuka and Karwicki . . . 706-7The General Council of Warsaw (1710) and the Sejm of 1712 . . . . 707-8Ascendancy of Peter the Great and revival of the Leszczynski party . . . 708-9Augustus intent on ensuring succession to his son: absolutist schemes. . . 709-10Attitudes of foreign powers to these plans: the French treaty of August 1714 . 710Extremist policy of Charles ΧΠ fatal to Augustus and to Poland . . . 710-11Polish discontents exploited by Peter the Great 711

Violent agitation against Saxons in Lithuania and Poland: the General Con-federacy of Tarnogród, 1715 711-12

Augustus gives way to the confederates in November 1716 712Russian diplomacy at a loss; the Silent Sejm of 1717 712-13Military, economic and ecclesiastical reforms proposed to the Sejm of 1718 . 713-14Successful opposition ofthe hetmans supported by Russia and Prussia . . 714Poland the second major victim of the Great Northern War . . . . 714-15

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXI

RUSSIA UNDER PETER THE GREAT AND THE CHANGEDRELATIONS OF EAST AND WEST

By M. S. A N D E R S O N , Reader in International Historyin the University of London

Russia in the seventeenth century page 716The education of Peter the Great; his character and interests . . . . 716-17Conflict with the Tsarevna Sophia, Prince V. V, Golitsyn and the streVtsy, 1689 717-18The capture of Azov (1696): Peter's Black Sea policy 718-19Peter's 'great embassy' to western Europe, 1697 719Suppression of streVtsy revolt, 1698 719-20A series of great innovations, 1699-1724 720The reorganization of the army; the training of officers 720-1The construction of a fleet 721-2Development of economic life: Peter's Mercantilism'. . . . . . 722-3Industry and industrial labour: successes and failures 723~4Failure of commercial policies: a merchant marine and commercial treaties . 724-5Agriculture resistant to change despite some innovations 725Administrative changes: thcprikazy (1699-1701), the Senate (1711), the adminis-

trative colleges from 1718 725-6Bureaucratization of the provinces: strengthening of central control . . . 726Intellectual life and education 726-7Books, the theatre, science and the arts 727-8The conservatism of the Orthodox Church; end of its autonomy. . . . 728-9Structure of society: landowners and peasants; the 'Table of Ranks* . . . 729-30A forced evolution 73O-iIntolerable physical and financial burdens laid on the peasants . . . . 7 3 1 - 2The rebellion of the D o n Cossacks (1706-8) and destruction of the Zaporozhian

seek9 732Religious dissent and the tragedy of Tsarevich Alexis 732-3Poltava a turning-point in Russia's relations with Europe 733-4Bids for Russian support: the Northern War and the Spanish Succession . . 734-5The Western powers and the North after 1713 735-6Peter and the Balkans: the Russo-Turkish war of 1711 736Fears of Russian domination of the Baltic and north Germany, 1716-22 . . 736-7Russia politically part of Europe: Peter's second journey to the West, 1717 . 737Diplomatic and dynastic relations established with the European states . . 737-8Contemplated marriage alliances 738Expansion in Asia: China and Siberia; Persia and the Caspian . . . . 73^-9Growing interest of the West in Russia 739-40Peter's contemporary standing as a monarch 74°

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CHAPTER XXII

ARMIES AND NAVIESI. THE ART OF WAR ON LAND

By D A V I D G. CHANDLER, Senior Lecturer in Military Historyat the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst

Limited and total warfare PaSe 741Growth in size of armies 74i~ 2

International elements; mercenaries and adventurers 742Similarity between armies: French and Swedish influences 742~3Ottoman army relatively backward 743The Swedish 'military revolution' 743~4Military administration in France: Le Tellier and Louvois 744~5The Ordre du Tableau (1675) and other command-structures . . . . 745-6Developments in infantry weapons; flintlock musket and bayonet . . • 746-8Importance of the infantry soldier enhanced 74$The effects on tactics and tactical formations . 748-9Increase in casualty rates 749The art of fortification and siege-warfare; Vauban and Coehoorn . . . 750-1Use of permanent lines of defence; Stollhofen, Brabant and 'Ne Plus Ultra' . 751Defensive caution of generals and governments 751~2

Exceptions: Charles XII, Marlborough, Eugene and Villars . . . . 75^-3Limiting factors on operations: terrain and weather 753Four main war-theatres in western Europe 753~4The Baltic lands and the Balkans 754General features of field operations: the assembly-camp 754-5March-formations and field administration; Marlborough's night-marches . . 756-7Battle-formations; fire control 758-9Types of cavalry and their uses 759-6oArtillery; types and uses; the siege-train 760Little progress in organization of ordnance; status of gunners and engineers . 760-1Rudimentary staff systems: the commander in battle 761-2Contemporary records and comments 762

2. SOLDIERS AND CIVILIANS

By J. W. S T O Y E

The seasonal rhythm of war and politics; winter quarters 762-3Recruiting and redrafting; poverty the great provider 763-5Foreign contingents: the case ofthe Swiss cantons 765-6The theory of conscription by government 766Conscription and militia service: the example of Piedmont 766-7The French milice of 1688: substitutes and exemptions 767-8Conscription in Germany 768-9The German trade in soldiers 769The British army: mercenaries, volunteers and conscripts 769-70Recruitment of cavalry and dragoons easier than raising foot-soldiers. . . 770-1The Scandinavian systems; discontent in the Baltic States 771-3The demands of Charles XII, before and after Poltava 774The Danish militia: the order of 24 February 1701 and its social repercussions . 774-5Mobilization of manpower in Russia; breakdown of old Cossack organization . 775-6

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C O N T E N T S

Poland's military weakness page 776-7Officers: the bond between Peter's army and Russian landowners . . . 777Brandenburg-Prussia: the Cadet Corps and the winning of the Junkers . . 777-8The military career in German families; commoners and noblemen in Prussia . 778-80Household Guards in England and elsewhere 780Policy of Louis XIV: royal pressures and social conventions . . . . 780-1Aristocratic attitudes to military service in Italy and Spain 782-3Army and militia in England; the Scottish influx; purchase of commissions . 783-4The 'half-pay' officer; old soldiers 784Other soldier-civilian relationships 784-5Varied rôle of intendants in French frontier provinces: Flanders, Artois, Alsace 785-6Supply of armies in southern Netherlands and western Germany . . . 786-7Billeting and barracks 787Municipal oligarchies and war contractors 787-8Profits of war: fortunes and failures 788-9The armed forces as a reflection of social structures 789Growing distinction between military organization and civil society in the West;

social transformation in Russia and Prussia 789-90

3. NAVIES

By J. S. BROMLEY and A. N. RYAN, Senior Lecturer in Naval Historyin the University of Liverpool

Changes in relative strengths of navies; rise of British predominance . . . 790-1The line-of-battle: capital ships and others 791-2Building programmes: English, French and Dutch before and after 1688 , . 792-3Design of warships; ship science in France 79>-4Levelling influence of the line-ahead: the importance of numbers . . . 794Factors governing the size and structure of navies; conflicts of use . . 794-6Pressures of mercantile opinion: English and Dutch assumptions . . • 796American versus European strategy: navies subordinate to armies . . . 796-8Conflict between sea and land requirements in the Dutch Republic: its naval

decline 798-9Dutch naval organization: the Admiralty Colleges 799-800The Zeeland privateers; the privateering war 800-2Vauban and the guerre de course 802-4Economic warfare; rights of neutrals 804-5The Swedish and Danish navies 805Character of naval warfare in the Baltic; Tsar Peter's galleys . . . . 806-7Rapid rise of Russian sea power 807Limited endurance of warships; naval bases in the Baltic 807-8Mediterranean bases; Cadiz and Lisbon 807-8Bases overseas; the West Indies 809Defence problems and naval difficulties in the Caribbean 809-10Dockyards in England; the problem posed by Brest 811French arsenals: Dunkirk, Rochefort, Brest and Toulon; their supplies . . 811-13Forest policies in France and England; timber imports from the Baltic, Germany

and North America 813-14Dockyards and contractors: shipbuilding and naval stores 814-15The State and its contractors in France and England S15-17Problems of victualling: English and French compared 817-19Dockyard labour: the expansion in England 819Labour discipline in dockyards; irregular employment and pay . . . . 819-20

MHS

CONTENTS

Manning problems: the Inscription Maritime Paie ^20~l

The Marines in France and England 8 2 2

French impressment and the system of classes 822~3The English press gangs and the voluntary register of 1696-1710. . . . 823-4Danish and Swedish methods of manning 824-5Sickness; hospital ships and naval hospitals 825~6The formation of officers 826~7Emergence of the regular naval officer : rank and post ; flag officers . . . 827-8Naval ethics 8 2 8 " 9

'Gentlemen* and 'tarpaulin'; the warrant officers 829Administrators, naval and civilian 829-31Spending and borrowing in England and France 831-2Naval finance in the United Provinces and Scandinavia 832Administrators and statesmen 832-3Political priorities: unique situation of the English navy . . . • . . 833

CHAPTER XXIII

ECONOMIC ACTIVITYI. THE MAP OF COMMERCE, 1683-I72I

By JACOB M. P R I C E , Professor of History in the University of Michigan

International aspects of production and exchange over the short term . . 834Wars and economics; mercantilism old and new 834-5Growth of international finance; an age of speculative creativeness . . · 835-6Inter-regional exchanges of goods and commodities · 836Baltic grain exports; the Amsterdam market 836-8Other corn-exporters: the transformation of England 838Corn production and market conditions in France 838-9The timber trade; masts 839-41Pitch and tar: Russia and North America break the Swedish tar monopoly . 841-2Turpentine and rosin: the French Landes 842Flax and hemp: Riga and Archangel 843-4Ash and potash for the soapmakers; tallow and wax 844-5Salt production in Europe: Dutch dominance in Baltic imports . . . . 844-5European vineyards: French, Spanish and Portuguese wines . . . . 846-7The victory of Oporto in England; expansion of the Dutch entrepôt favours

Bordeaux 846-7Spirits: growth of brandy distillation in France and of gin in England . . 847European fisheries: decline of the Dutch herring-fleets; the Scots . . . 847-8The whale fishery : Dutch supremacy in Greenland and the Davis Strait . . 848The cod fisheries of Iceland and Newfoundland; the New England fishery . . 848-9The French fisheries; importance of the Banks; post-war recovery . . . 849-50Other overseas commodities: the North American fur trade and its European

markets 850-1The sources of tobacco; blending at Amsterdam; European competition . . 851-2Increase of smoking in Russia and France; the French tobacco-farm learns to

buy British 852-3Sugar as an empire-builder 853-4Rice; dyestuffs 854-5The African slave trade: the English outdistance their competitors . . . 855-6East India trade: its special features 856

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C O N T E N T S

The Dutch predominance decreases ; French disappointments in the East . page 856-7Sugar, pepper and spices ; Dutch selling policy 857-8Coffee and tea: the new trades to Mocha and Canton 858-9Raw silk: competition between Persia and Bengal 859-60Wrought silks and cottons from India compete with European textiles; calico-

printing in Europe 860-1Outward cargoes: the shipment of specie; decline of Dutch purchases of gold

and copper in Japan 861-2Specie in the Levant trade : Spanish silver and Brazilian gold . . . . 862-3The woollen industry in France: imports of Spanish wool; centres and types of

production 863-4The Dutch woollen industry depressed; growth of Silesian and German

manufactures 864-5The great English woollen and worsted industry: centres of production and

export markets 865-6The linen trade : manufactures in western and eastern Europe . . . . 866-7European silk manufacture: expansion in France; a new industry in England . 867-8Coal-mining: growth of English ascendancy 868-9The iron industry in Liège, England and Sweden: Swedish pre-eminence . . 869-70English and French foreign trade compared : their principal orientations . . 870-1The 'map of commerce': preponderance of the Baltic-Iberian artery; the Sound

statistics 871Dutch foreign trade and shipping: its pattern in 1740 and in 1670 . . . 871-2Dutch and English shipping activity compared; post-war growth of French

tonnage 872-3Incidence of the wars on international business cycle 873-4The most striking changes in the general map of commerce 874

2. PRICES, POPULATION AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN EUROPE, I688-I7I5:

A NOTE

By J E A N M E U V R E T

Prices as an index of economic activity: contours of Ι690-1714 . . . . 874-5

Cereals : variations in rye at Amsterdam, Lyons and C a r p e n t r a s . . . . 875-6Olive oil, wines, peppers 877-8Examples of price rigidity in textiles 878-9The building industry: bricks and wages 879Mutations in money values 879-80Relative rigidity in prices of non-foodstuffs in relation to soaring food prices . 880-1Variations in intensity of food crises: France and northern Europe . . . 881Prices of raw wool compared with corn prices at Castelnaudary . . . . 881The meaning of a fall in pewter valuations 881-2* Rigidity* of wages 882Population trends; sources of demographica! statistics and their limitations . 882-3English population in the eighteenth century 883-4Evidence for Venice, Sicily, Munich, Augsburg, Zurich, Catalonia, central Sweden 884-5A relatively stationary situation: examples from England and F r a n c e . . . 885Factors determining population: family limitation, war, morbidity . . . 885-7Morbidity and food shortages 887-8Crises in birth and death rates; French demographic geography . . . 888-9Subsistence and mortality elsewhere : Piedmont, London, Finland . . . 88^-90Agricultural returns: an example from the Paris region 890-1The effect of low prices on producers 891-2

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Industry linked with agriculture page 892Activity in urban crafts: output and changes in the quality of manufacture . 892-3Danish Sound tolls compared with port dues of Amsterdam; East India sales . 893Transformation of English foreign trade 894Underlying buoyancy of French external trade 894-5Depression of inland centres: boom and slump at Geneva 895Tight money and interest rates in France ; rentes constituées . . . . 895-6Solidity of the Amsterdam Exchange Bank 896The National Debt in England 896-7Wars the main cause of higher price level in 1690-1714 . 897T A B L E S A-J 898-902

I N D E X 903

XXXIV