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This article was downloaded by: [University of Hong Kong Libraries]On: 12 November 2014, At: 06:48Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,London W1T 3JH, UK
Paedagogica Historica:International Journal of theHistory of EducationPublication details, including instructions forauthors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cpdh20
The Necessity for aContextual Approach in theMethodology of ReligiousSchool Textbook Analysis. ACase Study on the Basis ofthe Theme IslamJan Van Wiele aa Katholieke Universiteit Leuven , BelgiumPublished online: 28 Jul 2006.
To cite this article: Jan Van Wiele (2001) The Necessity for a Contextual Approachin the Methodology of Religious School Textbook Analysis. A Case Study on the Basisof the Theme Islam , Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History ofEducation, 37:2, 368-390, DOI: 10.1080/0030923010370205
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Paedagogica Historica, Volume 37, No. 2, 2001
The Necessity for a Contextual Approach in theMethodology of Religious School Textbook Analysis.
A Case Study on the Basis of the Theme Islam*
Jan Van WieleKatholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
In this article I will focus, from an non-naive empirical viewpoint, on the problem of themethodology of religious school textbook analysis in the history of pedagogical mentality. As astarting point, one may state that in the field of empirical-historical analysis of religious schooltextbooks, there has not yet been anything that adequately addresses all the methodologicalproblems arising from such an analysis. Here, I will provide an overview of the methods that areused in the domain of religious school textbook analysis, in order to investigate the pros and consof the methods under consideration. What emerges is a contextual approach as the only adequatesolution for the hermeneutical problems.
Introduction
That school textbooks are a very important source of the history of ideasin education,1 there can be little doubt.2 School textbooks "reflect in a concentrated
*I wish to thank Marc Depaepe and the referees for their inspiring comment ona first draft of this article.
1One of H.-J. Schoeps undeniable merits is that he was the first to point at theimportance of the school textbook as a source of the history of educational mentality. Hewrites, "...the comparison of various textbooks which allow us to draw conclusions abouttheir development over time is a promising source". See H.-J. Schoeps, Was ist und was will
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way not only the 'memory' of the specific culture in which they arose, but at thesame time they serve as a witness of previous educational processes, with a moreor less direct access to the study of the didactic reality of the past".3 Within thisframework, analysis of school textbooks and other educational materialsconcerning Islam have shown a remarkable increase over the last fifteen years.4 In
die Geistesgeschichte? Über Theorie und Praxis der Zeitgeistforschung (Göttingen, 1959), p. 24.2This was an important motive for attaining the repertorisation of school
textbooks. In France interlinked with "EMMANUELLE" (Electronic Bibliography of"manuels scolaires"), see A. Choppin (Ed.), Les Manuels scolaires en France de 1789 à nos jours(Paris, 1987-1995), 7 vol.; in Spain in the context of the research project "MANES"("Projecto de Investigaciôn sobre los Manuales Escolares en la Espafia contemporânea[1808-1990], See A. Escolano Benito (Ed.), Historia iüustrada del libra escolar en Espana(Madrid, 1997-1998), 2 vol.); in Belgium within the framework of the research programme"Educatief geheugen Vlaanderen" (See K. Catteeuw, M. Depaepe & F. Simon,"Forschungsprojekt 'Pädagogisches Gedächtnis Flanderns", Internationale Schulbuchforschung.International Textbook Research, XX (1998), pp. 313-325; Id., "The Educational Memory ofFlanders", Mitteilungen undMaterialien. Zeitschriftfür Museum und Bildung, IL (1998), pp. 73-79).
3M. Depaepe e.a., "Textbook Production for Primary and Secundary Educationin Belgium, 1830-1880: Prolegomena of a Scientific Analysis", paper for the XXIIthSession of the International Standing Conference for the History of Education (ISCHE):"Books and Education/'El libro y la education", Alcalà de Henares, Spain, September 6th-9th,p. 1. In fact, school textbook analysis in order to "reenact" the history of educationalmentality is a rather recent phenomenon. Such analysis went largely unnoticed before 1980.
4This can be illustrated by the monumental analyses of the image of Islam inschool textbooks, used in the former Bundesrepublik Deutschland during this period: G.Fischer, Analyse der Geographiebücher %um Thema Islam (Braunschweig, 1987) [=Der Islam inden Schulbüchern der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 4/Studien zur internationalen Schul-buchforschung. Schriftenreihe des Georg-Eckert-Instituts (SISSGEI), 58]; H. Schultze,Analyse der Richtlinien und Lehrpläne der Bundesländer %um Thema Islam (Braunschweig, 1988)[=Der Islam in den Schulbüchern der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 5/SISSGEI, 59]; G.Stöber, M. Tworuschka & U. Tworuschka, Nachträge 1986-1988 %ur Analyse der Schulbücherin den Bundesrepublik Deutschland %um Thema Islam in den Fächern: Ethik, Geographie, Geschichte,evangelische und kathoüsche Religion (Frankfurt, 1990) [=Der Islam in den Schulbüchern derBundesrepublik Deutschland, 7/SISSGEI, 62]; M. Tworuschka, Analyse der Geschichtsbücher^um Thema Islam (Braunschweig, 1986) [=Der Islam in den Schulbüchern der Bundes-republik Deutschland, 1 /SISSGEI, 46]; U. Tworuschka, Analyse der evangelischen Religions-bücher %um Thema Islam (Braunschweig, 1986) [=Der Islam in den Schulbüchern derBundesrepublik Deutschland, 2/SISSGEI, 47]; H. Vöcking e.a., Analyse der kathoäschenReligionsbücher %um Themalslam (Braunschweig, 1988) [=Der Islam in den Schulbüchern derBundesrepublik Deutschland, 3/SISSGEI, 53]. The following studies are also worth notice:M. Angvik, "Islamische Geschichte im norwegischen Pflichtunterricht", in: W. Fürnrohr
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fact, this is new in the field, whereas research for geography and other textbookshas already become a tradition, similar research in the domain of religious topics,especially in religious school textbooks, is a rather recent phenomenon.Consequently, we are dealing with a fairly young research topic, in which oldmethodological problems come to the fore again very actively together with newspecific problems. Meanwhile, a vast amount of literature on the problem ofschool textbook analysis has been published,5 although unanimous conclusions
(Ed.), Die Welt des Islams im Geschichtsunterricht der Europäer (1984) [=Dortmunder Arbeitenzur Schulgeschichte und zur historischen Didaktik, 5], pp. 192-203; J. Centowski, "Dieislamischen Länder im Geschichtsunterricht im Polen", in: Fürnrohr, Die Welt des Islams,pp. 184-187; R. De Keyser & U. Vermeulen, "Der Islam im belgischen Geschichts-unterricht", in: Fürnrohr, Die Welt des Islams, pp. 114-124; A. Gallia, "Die Darstellung derGeschichte der islamischen Welt in der gymnasialen Oberstufe in Italien", in: Fürnrohr,Die Welt des Islams, pp. 132-136; S. Heine (Ed.), Islam ̂ wischen Selbstbild und Klischee. EineReligion im österreichischen Schulbuch (Köln, 1995); S.S.Jensen, "Die dritte Weltim Geschichts-unterricht der dänischen Volksschule (folkeskole) - unter besondere Berücksichtigung desIslams", in: Fürnrohr, Die Welt des Islams, pp. 188-191; A. Laroude, "Der Islam imfranzösischen Geschichtsunterricht", in: Fürnrohr, Die Welt des Islams, pp. 125-131; B.Schneider, "Die islamischen Länder im Unterricht der Schulen in der Schweiz", in:Fürnrohr, Die Welt des Islams, pp. 138-140; B. Smulders, "Die Behandlung des islamischenKulturkreises im niederländischen Geschichtsunterricht", in: Fürnrohr, Die Welt des Islams,pp. 101-113; J. Trevor, "Unterricht über islamische Geschichte in Englischen Schulen",in: Fürnrohr, Die Welt des Islams, pp. 91-100; M. Zaiane, "Islamische Geschichte indeutschen Geschichtslehrbüchern", in: Fürnrohr, Die Welt des Islams, pp. 141-160.
5C. Klessman (translated by J.S.W. Toebes-Ruitenberg in cooperation with J. G.Toebes), "De methodiek van vergelijkende schoolboekanalyses", in: P.F.M. Fontaine e.a.(Eds.), Schoolboekanalyse (Groningen, 1980) [=Historisch-didactische cahiers, 3], pp. 30-42;I. Koza, "Überlegungen zur vergleichenden Analyse von Schulgeschichtsbüchern", in: E.-H. Schallenberger (Ed.), Aspecte und Verfahren ̂ ur Analyse (Ratingen, 1973) [=Zur SacheSchulbuch, 2], pp. 15-26; W. Marienfeld (translated by J.S.W. Toebes-Ruitenberg incooperation with J. G. Toebes), "Schoolboekanalyse en het herzien van schoolboeken. Deproblematiek van de methoden", in: Fontaine, Schoolboekanalyse, pp. 44-58; P. Meyers,Friedrich II von Preussen im Geschichtsbild der S.B.Z./D.D.K. Ein Beitrag ̂ ur Geschichte derGeschichtswissenschaft und des Geschichtsunterrichts in der S.B.Z./D.D.K. Mit einer Methodik £#rAnalyse von Schulgeschichtsbüchern (Braunschweig, 1983) [=SISSGEI, 35]; P. Meyers,"Methoden zur Analyse historisch-politischer Schulbücher", in: E.-H. Schallenberger (Ed.),Studien %ur Methodenproblematik wissenschaftlicher Schulbucharbeit (Kastellaun, 1976) [=Zur SacheSchulbuch, 5], pp. 47-73; H.-J. Schoeps, "Das Schulbuch als Quelle der Geistesgeschichte",in: Schallenberger, Aspecte und Verfahren ^ur Analyse, pp. 7-14; O.-E. Schüddekopf, 20 JahreSchulbuchrevision in Westeuropa (Braunschweig, 1966) [=SISSGEI, 12); G. Stein (Ed.),Schulbuch-Schelte als Poätikum und Herausforderung wissenschaftlicher Schulbucharbeit. Analysen und
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have hardly been reached. Indeed, it has been the opposite. And the problem is inmost cases not a certain pragmatism, because any scientific study is and always willbe more or less pragmatic, since every method is constructed in function of thestarting point - but about which end the traditional qualitative method should andmust adopt with respect to the more quantitative directed methodology of thecommunication and social sciences. For all these reasons, a systematic study ofthese problems has become a necessity. In this article I will try to address this.First, I take a closer look at quantitative methods and make a judgement on theirintrinsic value. Then I focus on the qualitative approach. I shall seek to reconcilethe artificial opposition between the quantitative and the qualitative aspects. Its mythesis that many of the problems arising from the question whether we shouldchoose between a quantitative and a qualitative method or vice versa, are artificialand even harmful. It seems rather easy to define the material to be investigated forwhich quantitative analysis may or may not be adequate. This assessment wouldalready have saved us from a great deal of polemics. In this article, I will illustratethis claim by discussing several content-analytical methods, both quantitative andqualitative.
I compare, wherever necessary, theory and my own research praxis, usingthe latter to illustrate the findings. These examples will be taken from my researchon the dominant theological paradigm with respect to the relationship betweenChristianity and non-Christian religions, which prevailed in the Belgian Catholicreligious education until the second World War. Starting point was the hypothesisthat before and even at the time of Vaticanum II (1962-1965) Catholic religiouseducation was imbued with an exclusivistic range of thoughts, resulting in acompletely negative perception of non-Christian religions.6 In order to test the
Ansichten %ur Auseinandersetzung mit Schulbüchern in Wissenschaft, pädagogischer Praxis undpolitischem Alltag (Stuttgart, 1979); E. Uhe, "Quantitative Verfahren bei der Analyse vonSchulbüchern", in: Schallenberger, Studien zur Methodenprobkmatik wissenschaftlicher Schul-bucharbeit, pp. 74-93.
6S. Leimgruber, "Die Behandlung des Islams im Religionsunterricht", Religions-pädagogische Beiträge,XXVlU (1991), pp. 42-49. Leimgruber points out: "Über Jahrhundertewurde den Christen, in besondere der Jugend, ein negatives, abschätziges und weitgehendunzutreffendes Bild vom Islam, von Mohammed und von der islamischen Ethik vermittelt.Die früheren Katechismen strotzten von Vorurteilen und Verurteilungen, die aufgrundeines kirchlichen Absolutheitsanspruches und aus Ignoranz zustandekamen (...) Die'epochale Neuorientierung' in der Einschätzung der Weltreligionen leistete im katholischenRaum zweifellos das //. Vatikanische Konzil. In der Dogmatischen Konstitution über dieKirche wird zunächst von der Verbundenheit der Kirche mit den anderen christlichenReligionen gesprochen, selbst wenn diese nicht den vollen Glauben bekennen. In Kapitel
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validity of this hypothesis in the case of religious education in Belgium, the imageof Islam (= a non-Christian religion) was examined in the Belgian school textbooksavailable for Catholic religious education until the second World War.7
Quantitative analysis
In the 1970s authors of school textbook analysis began using themethodologies of the social and communication sciences.8 In particular, the so-called American quantitative "content analysis" was adopted.9 This adoption fitvery well into the overall framework of the broad trend within the human sciences,
16 wird der göttliche Heilswille auf alle ausgedehnt die den Schöpfer bekennen, namentlichdie Juden und Muslime. Wer sich zum Glauben Abrahams bekennt und den einen,barmherzigen und richtenden Gott anbetet, ist auf das Gottesvolk in verschiedener Weisehingeordnet (...) Wissenschaftliche Forschungsarbeiten wurden aufgenommen und in derFolge der Islam in Religionsunterricht und Lehrplänen breit und positiv rezipiert"; U.Tworuschka, "Weltreligionen im Unterricht oder interreligiöses Lernen? Versuch einervorläufigen Bilanzierung", in: J.A. Van der Ven & H.-G. Ziebertz (Eds.), ReligiösesPluralismus und interreligiöses Lernen (Kampen, 1994), pp. 174-175. Tworuschka defends asimilar position: "Bis ca. 1960 wurden Religionen vor allem unter bildungsmässigen,apologetischen, kerygmatischen oder pastoralen Gesichtspunkten thematisiert. Eine imVergleich zum Katholizismus geringer ausgeprägte ekklesiozentrische (= read exclusivistic)Sicht trugim evangelischen räum zu einer stärkeren Aufwertung der Religionen bei. In derPhase von 1960-1968 geriet die Wirklichkeit von Schüler, Welt und Gesellschaft stärker inden Blick. Theologisch profitierte die Diskussion im Katholizismus von den Impulsen desII. Vatikanums, im Protestantismus von der Arbeit des Ökumenischen Rates der Kirchen.Dadurch wurden apologetischen Einstellungen zurückgedrängt und dialogische gefördert(...) Die Religionen werden als eigenständige Grossen ernstgenommen".
7The research was focused on the period 1886 (= the oldest school textbookfound) - 1939 (= the most recent relevant school textbook).
8See Meyers, Friedrich II von Preussen, pp. 62-63.9In terms of school textbook analysis, quantitative content analysis is mostly
understood as the method generated by empirical sociology and communication sciencein function of investigation of literary texts. The method was developed at the "School ofJournalism of Columbia (U.S.A.)". Communication scientists were behind it, since theywere in search of a method to bring to light redactional trends in newspapers andmagazines. One of this method's founders was the sociologist B. Berelson. He definescontent analysis as follows: "Content analysis is a research technique for the objective,systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication". SeeB. Berelson, Content Analysis in Communication Research (New York, 1971), p. 18.
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which was no longer content with the large subjective scope of the traditionaldescriptive hermeneutical method.10 More quantitative-oriented methods werepreferred, as warranting better intersubjective comparison and therefore greaterobjectivity. In school textbook analysis concerning Islam this trend was adopted:most investigators have called on both a quantitative and a qualitative dimension.11
Leaving aside the often very complicated statistic calculations which have beenintroduced in communication sciences and sociology, quantitative methodologyconsists of three concepts to which the authors of school textbook analysis hasalready often appealed: space-analysis, frequency-analysis and evaluative assertionanalysis.12
"Space-analysis" is a method, which uses as a basic principle the fact thatthe quantity of space available to the author for a certain theme is directly inproportion to the importance he/she attaches to the subject in question. It is clearthat such a method is liable in some respects to potential systematic faults. Oneproblem is that the length of the text is not directly in proportion to theimportance the author attaches to it. The length of the text can depend on othercriteria, e.g. those of the publisher, the republisher, ministerial directives anddidactic aspects,...." A second problem is how the notion "space" is to betransposed in mathematical terms. The measuring unit should be chosen infunction to support or to forge of the starting-point-hypotheses and/or theexamining questions of the research-project. If this does not happen adequately,it will lead inevitably to forging the results because the starting-point in se isincorrect.14
10See L. Bardin, L'Analyse de contenu (Vendôme, 1977), pp. 11-21; W. Früh,Inhaltsanalyse. Theorie und Praxis (München, 1981), pp. 10-17; I. Fühlau, Die Sprachlosigkeit derInhalisanalyse. Linguistische Bemerkungen %ur einer so^ialiwssenschaftlichen Methode (Tübingen,1982), pp. 13-16.
"See Tworuschka, Analyse der evangelischen Religionsbücher; Vöckinge.a., Analyse derkatholischen Religionsbücber, Schultze, Analyse der Richtünien und Lehrpläne; Stöber, Nachträge1986-1988 ^r Analyse.
12See also J. Van Wiele, In het atelier van de theokog. Een instrumentarium voorinterreligieu^e schoolboekanalyse (Leuven-Amersfoort, 1999), pp. 133-147.
"Meyers, Friedrich II von Preussen, p. 63.14H.M. Blalock has, in a convincing manner, described this aspect of the
quantitative approach on a general scientific-theoretical level: "Statistical and measurement-error are important, but they should not be confused with the question of how one goesabout linking ratio variables (...) with the theoretical constructs they are intended tomeasure. If the theoretical concept is not clearly defined, we may expect continuingconfusing debates concerning the legitimacy of ratio variables". See H.M. Blalock,
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Methodolog o/Reägious School Textbook Analysis 375
Under "frequency analysis" comes the specific research into determininghow often a certain theme, or themes, may occur.15 On the basis of its frequencyand by means of a whole series of theoretical considerations, a certain importanceis attributed to it. In this way, not only key concepts for the correct understandingof a common text, but also the importance of relevant themes and/orcharacteristics can be registered. In this method problems arise only when keyconcepts or their synonyms are equivocal and not simply and clearly recognisablee.g. when they are being used in a double sense and/or when their meaningchanges in a different context.16 From this results a double consequence, which isimportant for carrying out successful frequency analysis. In such cases it isnecessary that a clear description of the terms is given prior to the counting andthe different contexts in which the key words appear be accurately and separatelydefined.
A third quantitative procedure is the so-called "evaluative assertionanalysis".17 This method is also being used to discern the intentional and/or theunintentional ideological backgrounds and motives from which school textbookauthors have written. This procedure is constructed as follows. After decidingupon which objects to examine, a graduated scale is used for estimating the degreeof presence of a certain quality under examination. Objects must be understoodto be the categories and/or key concepts used in space and frequency analysis.Estimation can be done in different ways. Either we start from a neutral centralpoint 0, and proceed gradually upwards in a positive sense (+1 tot +2 of+3) andrespectively downward in negative sense (-1 to -2 or -3). Or one can use a numberof key codes provided with a number and with these we are going to examine the
ConceptuaEsation and Measurement in the Social Sciences (Beverley Hills-London-New Delhi,1982), p. 45.
15See P. Mayring, Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse: Grundlagen und Techniken (Weissheim,1990), p. 13.
16See H. Bessler, Aussagenanalyse. Die Messung von Einstellungen im Text der Aussagenvon Massamedien (19722), p. 77.
"The "evaluative assertion analysis" is a variant of the so-called "contingencyanalysis". The most clear definition of this method is given by K. Krippendorff:"Contingency analysis starts with a set of recording units (read: categories), each of whichis characterised by a set of attributes which are either present or absent. The choice ofrecording units is important insofar as such a unit must be informationally rich enough tocontain co-occurrences. (...) In a second step the possible co-occurrences of attributes ineach unit are counted and entered as proportions. In a third step, the statistical significanceof these co-occurrences must be tested". See K. Krippendorff, Content Analysis - AnIntroduction to Its Methodology (Beverley Hills-London, 19823), p. 115.
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objects. Evaluative assertion analysis is a rather complex method, which is basednot only on the mere counting principle, but also appeals to the subjectiveestimation of the codifier. This is the main problem: the codifier makes judgementsfrom his/her interpretative horizon, which in most cases gives rise to differentresults from different researchers.
The possibilities of expressio-n in quantitative analysis are very limited. AsI cannot canvas all the problems to illustrate my claim, I shall restrict myself to themost relevant objections against quantitative analysis. The issue is that quantitativeanalysis confines itself to only those elements that can be quantified. As a result ofthis, quite a number of aspects, e. g., the uncovering of hidden phenomena ofmanipulation by the communicators, do not show up at all in a mere quantitativeanalysis. This concerns mainly those aspects of communication, which will play arole when we take into account the problematic of the "context" in whichsomething is said, with certain forms of "omission", the "singularity", the "latentcontents" and also a number of language-linked indicators. In other words, themethods employed by the "objective school textbook analysts" lend themselves farmore readily to the manifest content than to the real content. They are thus alsodistinctly ahistorical. In the opposite sense these result in the fact that one willforce into a numeric strait-jacket those problems which are to a large extent unfitfor quantification,18 and all this leads to very complicated, time-consumingcalculations, in which the cost is higher than the profit.19
Despite this, quantitative analysis has a number of advantages.20 In myjudgement, it is possible to distinguish at least three aspects regarding theusefulness of quantitative methods in school textbook analysis. In most cases, itsresults are lucid and plain and therefore that its interpretation is far easier.Moreover, quantitative analysis allows a clearer definition of its main lines and
18The exponent of this anti-quantitative current among school textbook analysts,who pronounces a totally negative judgement on the quantitative method, is C. Klessman.He cannot free himself from the impression that with quantitative analysis impressivebanalities are produced, as when unchallengeable objectivity, intersubjective controls, andquantitative exactness are eagerly sought. If on the other hand the quantitative contentanalysis is refined still more, the author goes on, to the extent that all non-consciouselements and hidden intentions of the text are also included, the methodology becomesso complicated that it is - to say the least - hardly usable for the actual school textbook inquestion. See Klessman, De methodiek van vergeäjkende schoolboekanaljses, p. 36.
19See A. De Baets, Beeldvorming over niet-westerse culturen. De invloed van betgescbiedeniskerboek op depublieke opinie in Vlaanderen (Doctoral dissertation, Gent, 1989), part1, pp. 129-130.
20See also Marienfeld, Schoolboekanalyse en bet herben van schoolboeken, p. 50.
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trends than any other form of analysis, since it does not dwell separately on everyparticular phenomenon. Finally, the measuring process can also be refined andspecified so that a result of high intersubjective comparability can be achieved. Onthe basis of the above-mentioned experiences, one can nonetheless conclude thatthe possibilities of expression in quantitative analysis are very limited. To meet theabove mentioned problematics one has to call on the insights of qualitative schooltextbook analysis.
Qualitative analysis
Theory
Every qualitative school textbook analysis is, for reasons of clarity,characterised by constructing a logical and coherent system of categories.21 Thismethod undoubtedly satisfies the demand of the communication scientists forreliability and conclusiveness. Some introductory theoretical considerations of
"Depending on the dimension one wants to measure, two kinds of categories aredistinguished traditionally. A first group of categories are first of all used to ask about"how" the actual information is included in the textbooks. This first group of categoriesis further illustrated above. A second group of categories consists of classifications whichare not really related to the question "how" something is included in a textbook, but whichhave the content of the text itself as subject. In my opinion, the dividing line between bothkinds of categories is not always very clear. Indeed, the content of the text in itself canalready be relevant for the background from which the writing was done. For easyreference, however, we will maintain this artificial dichotomy here. In order to be able toclassify the texts of Belgian religious history schoolbooks (1830-1940) dealing with Islamcomprehensibly, with regard to quantity and multidimensionality, we draw up the followingcontent-related category system. Its construction is based upon the scientific religion-historical principle of structure, since this principle emerges from the scientific literaturethat was examined and the textbooks that were glanced through: 1. ISLAM: BASICDEFINITIONS; 2. MOHAMMED (2.1. Arabia on the eve of Islam; 2.2. Mohammed inMecca; 2.3. Mohammed in Medina); 3. THE KORAN; 4. THE ISLAMIC BELIEF (4.1.Monotheism; 4.2. Belief in angels; 4.3. Prophets; 4.4. The revealed books; 4.5. Life afterdeath and last judgement; 4.6. Predestination or the divine will); 5. THE UMA OR THEISLAMIC COMMUNITY (5.1. The "five pillars" or duties of Islam; 5.1.1.The confessionof faith or the sjahada; 5.1.2. The ritual prayer; 5.1.3. The poor tax; 5.1.4. The fast; 5.1.5.The pilgrimage; 5.2. Jihad; 5.3. Food and purity rules; 5.4. Position of the women); 6.EVALUATIONS ON ISLAM; 7. ISLAM IN HISTORY; 8. THE CRUSADES. See VanWide, In het atelier, pp. 178-182.
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analysis screens taken from empirical sociology and communication science areappropriate here. The construction of an adequate system of categories is subjectto certain conditions. The categories should, as nearly as possible, meet the rulesof:1. Homogeneity and exclusivenessr. this condition stipulates that it should not be
possible to classify the same text-element under two or more categories.2. Exbaustivity: the sum of the categories must examine the text exhaustively. To
this a supplementary condition is added: the category system must be organisedin such a way that different categories are subject to the same principle ofclassification. This means that different levels of analysis must be distinguishedin succeeding parts of analysis.
3. Objectivity, both as early in the history of the content analysis and even today,this requirement occupies a major place within the whole of formalrequirements. This premise advances the thesis that different researchers whostudy the same texts by means of the same system of categories, should reachmore or less the same results. This is why the person organising an analysismust, prior to the examination, make explicit the variables he/she will use, aswell as the reasons why a specific element of text should be classified under acertain category.
4. Adequatenessr. the system of categories must be subject to the presentation ofquestions or the underlyinghypothes(i) (e)s. The idea of adequateness also holdsa thought of optimization, meaning, on one hand, that the system of categoriesshould be adapted to the material to be examined, and, on the other hand, thatthe scheme of evaluation must fit within the entire theoretical scope in whichthe work is done.
5. Productivity: an extremely pragmatically oriented requirement is mostly added tothe above-mentioned general rules. A whole of categories is productive, whenit leads to rich results: rich in varied and reliable results and rich in new andchallenging research hypotheses.
It goes without saying, however, that these requirements reflect an idealsituation, which does not quite correspond with reality. They are merely lines ofaction, which must be strived for as much as possible during the praxis ofconstructing a system of categories. This way, the requirement for homogeneitycan hardly ever be met 100%, because different levels of meaning are interwoven.From this all, it also becomes clear that, in spite of the requirement for the greatestD
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possible objectivity, again a great many subjective elements can be perceived,22 notonly when drawing up a category system, but also in the practical application of itto the examination.
Practice
For an example of such system of categories I refer to my specific schemewhich was drawn up in view of the investigation of possible exclusivistic motivesconcerning Islam in Belgian religious school textbooks.
1. Explanations1.1. Is it made clear in the explanations that the superiority of Christianity
(catholic religion) is the starting point, or is attention paid to at least partialtruth in Islam as well?
1.2. Is there a mixture of exclusivistic interpretation and fundamental historicalfacts material?
1.3. Is at least a rudimentary attempt made to clarify the sense and theimportance of certain religious contents of Islam?
1.4. Is the image of Islam, viewed chronologically, eclectic or is it a matter of acontinuum}
1.5. Is the changeability of certain phenomena emphasized?1.6. In the case of Islam, where an inner diversity is indicated right away, is this
changeability, at least rudimentarily, incorporated in the explanations?1.7. Are comparisons made, and if so, are certain phenomena in the local
religion considered to be comparable to certain phenomena in the foreignreligion?
1.8. In comparisons, are the possible negative sides of the local religion glossedover?
1.9. Is an attempt made to indicate what could possibly be learned from theother religion?
1.10. Can elliptic and/or monocausal explanations be noticed?
22Forthe defence of the idea that, in the field of religious investigation, the focusof the investigator is always a distorting mirror, see especially: J. Van Wiele, "The Place ofPhenomenology of Religion in Relation to Theology", International Journal in Phibsophy andTheology, III (2000), pp. 261-284.
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Descriptions2.1 In describing Islam, are stereotypes and/or clichés used?2.2. Are mistakes and/or exaggerated simplifications made intentionally?2.3. Are the selected facts in the description absolute?2.4. Are the real or alleged characteristics of the proper religion over-
emphasised?2.5. Upon discussion of certain persons, is their importance and their specific
place in religion mentioned?2.6. Is resolution of all conflicts aimed at as much as possible?
Selection and use of concepts3.1. What terminology is used to define Islam and its partial aspects, and the
proper religion and its partial aspects respectively?3.2. Is the choice of terms (positively or negatively) value-charged?3.3. Is there a presence of unadmissable dichotomies (civilised-primitive, old-
new...)?3.4. Is there a wrongful transfer of proper concepts or terms to Islam?3.5. Are the standard terms of Islam used in their correct meaning?
Selection of subject matter and didactical approach4.1. Is the selection of important facts and events made from the proper
religious story or is it based on the proper characteristics and a properevaluation of Islam?
4.2. Which themes of Islam are treated and which ones are omitted, and howis the image misrepresented in doing so?
4.3. Is Islam treated as an independent unity or is it treated casually?4.4. In the iconographie and heuristic source material, can traces of religious
prejudice or harm be noticed?
Language5.1. Is the language rather professional and informative or rather tendentious?5.2. Are inadmissible convincing and confirming formulas used ("indeed", "it
is clear", "it is established", "it goes without saying",...)?5.3. Is the religious content of Islam wrongly demonstrated to be doubtful by
means of indirect sense, subjunctive, exclamations and other syntactic andrhetoric ways?
This scheme itself has been composed of 5 dimensions, which in turnhave been subdivided into a number of categories (a total of 28). The dimensionsask questions about the unravelling of the most common variables in the process
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of gaining knowledge of the phenomenon of religious representation.23
Theoretically, each dimension focuses on one phase of this process. Dimension 1explores the horizon of trailing religious motives in the models of explanationwhich are used. By means of dimension 2 and 3 the same topic is fathomed in thedescriptions and the ideas and concepts used respectively. Dimension 4 helpsexamining in what way a selection is made from the inconveniently arranged offerof possible teaching materials, and in what way this is classified internally andexternally in the refernce books to be examined. Through dimension 5 a closerlook is taken at the way in which language is a reflection of the degree ofideologization in the schoolbooks.
Category 4.4. calls for further explanation. It partly probes the questionin what manner the iconographie and other image material influence the receiverwith regard to the religious representation. This aspect basically belongs tosemiotics.24 We were led to include this aspect into the scheme by the much-heardstatement that image material often leaves longer-lasting impressions than words,because the former is less abstract and therefore better sinks into the student'smemory than a continuous text.25 To this end, the following parameters are used:1. Contents of the image (total image, details, the suggested idea); 2. Design of theimage (image-type, lay-out, size, position); 3. Explanation on the image (cliché,other references).
Furthermore, a few general remarks are called for. In drawing up thescheme, a classification problem occured, because the requirement of homogeneityand exhaustivity (the categories are not supposed to overlap) could not be met for100%. The dimensions are strongly interwoven. It is impossible to clarify withoutdescribing. Description and clarification is also hard to do without the help oflanguage, the use of notions and concepts and by means of a certain selection inthe present data in order to classify reality. Consequently, the change-overs
23See also J. Van Wide, "The Problem of Prejudice in Interreligious Teachingabout Islam", Studies in Interreligious Dialogue, X/ l (2000), pp. 96-116.
24See for instance M. Roskill & D. Carrier, Truth and Falsehood in Visual Images(Amherst, 1983), pp. 1-29 & 111-121; J.-P. Meunier, Essai sur l'image et la communication(Louvain-la-Neuve, 1980) [=Questions de communication, l],pp. 84-184.
25How much influence the image material has on the spectator, is shown in thefollowing quotation: "Ubiquité totale, intemporalité ou omnitemporalité, possessionintégrale du spectacle, tous ces aspectes de la perception de l'image s'impliquentmutuellement (...): que le spectateur n'est plus - ou quasi plus - dans la possibilité deprendre distance à l'égard de lui-même. Il n'a plus qu'à adhérer au spectacle. Ainsi, lapossession de ce spectacle aboutirait finalement à une sorte de 'dé-possession' de soi". SeeMeunier, Essai suri 'image, p. 147.
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between the first two dimensions and the three following dimensions are verysmooth. This also implies that a number of categories could be classified undermore than one dimension. Category 2.2, for example, probes intended mistakesand/or exaggerated simplifications in descriptions. However, it is clear thatintended mistakes and/or exaggerated simplifications can also be used inclarifications. Another example is category 4.2. This category is undoubtedlycompatible with category 1.10. Also, the distinction among the several categoriescan not always be marked clearly. The categories 1.1 and 3.1 illustrate this in astriking manner. The terminology used is extremely dependent on the locationfrom which the writing is done, and vice versa. Or else: the categories 1.10 and 4.2.Elliptic and/or monocausal explanations are always linked to the omission ofessential information. For pragmatic reasons, the categories have been coordinated,but in reality some of them are related subordinately. This way, category 1.5 isobviously a further treatment in depth of category 1.4, and category 2.6 furtherspecifies category 2.7.
Obviously, this scheme does not appear out of thin air. An appeal wasmade to four sources. First of all, inspiration was gathered from the analysisscheme used by U. Tworuschka in his research for the image of Islam in Protestanttextbooks in the former Federal Republic of Germany.26 A second support was the
2<îTworuschka, Analyse der evangelischen Reügionsbücher, pp. 21-23. My scheme,however, deviates from the scheme of Tworuschka considerably. In his analysis scheme,Tworuschka included quite a few formal-didactical aspects, in view of a purely externaldescription of the pedagogical qualities of the textbooks (dimensions 1-4 in his scheme).I do not intend to test the entire pedagogical and subject-didactical quality of thetextbooks, but from the anthropological, historical, socio-psychological and cultural angle,I would rather examine what cognitive processes are present in the textbooks which areconstitutive for the interreligious paradigm that served as a background for the image ofIslam in the school textbooks. This different approach and objectives have a fewconsequences: a) I omitted some dimensions and categories by U. Tworuschka, addedother ones, subdivided some, one more generalized, another treated more in depth; b) theremaining categories of U. Tworuschka were transposed from the private examination ofIslam to a general level of examination of representation, and added to the schemepresented here; c) my scheme has been rubricated in an entirely different manner than theone by U. Tworuschka (five dimensions was the maximum number of dimensions for myanalytical capacity. This general rubrication into five dimensions also has a clear advantageto the system by U. Tworuschka. The latter has subdivided his content-oriented questions[a total of thirty-six] into two separate dimensions only [dimensions 5 and 6 in his scheme].It appears to me that especially dimension six is hardly manageable in the praxis of theexamination, as it contains a list of thirty subsequent questions. Therefore, the approachsuggested here has the advantage that the categories lended from Tworuschka have been
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scheme in the work Ethnocentrism and History, written by R. Preiswork and D.Perrot,27 which appeared in print for the first time in 1978, and the scheme in thePhd. Thesis of A. De Baets, Beeldvortning over niet-Westerse cu/turen.2S O n the basis ofa wide examination in cultural-philosophical, anthropological, historical andpsychological literature, Preiswerk and Perrot have composed their examinationscheme. In turn, this scheme has served as a starting-point for the examinationscheme of the PhD thesis by A. De Baets. Thirdly, I have also studied a numberof general and specific evaluation schemes with regard to textbook analysis.29
Undoubtedley, this has had an inspiring effect, but in an indirect way, in the sensethat no dimensions or categories were adopted explicitly. Finally, a smallpreliminary test of three religious school textbooks, dealing with the theme offoreign religions implicitly or explicitly, was more important for the constructionof the scheme. This allowed for the scheme to be tested for its practicability andto be adapted to the concrete situation in the sources.
included in a logically coherent unit, whereas in Tworuschka's scheme they were oftenmixed up).
27See R. Preis werk & D. Perrot, Ethnocentrism and History. Africa, Asia and IndianAmerica in Western Textbooks (New York, 1978), p. 278.
28See De Baets, Beeldvoming, pp. 131-133.29See M. Byram, "Criteria for Textbook Evaluation", in: M. Byram (Ed.), Germany.
Its Representation in Textbooks (Braunschweig, 1993), pp. 31-40; De Baets, Beeldvorming, pp.131-133; W. De Vos, Wereldreligies (Delft, 1986), pp. 92-94; R. Dross, "Kriterien für dieAnalyse von Schulbüchern für den Religionsunterricht im Blick auf das Theorie-Praxis-Problem", Jahrbuch für Religionspädagogik, VII (1990), pp. 179-195; P.F.M. Fontaine e.a.,"Instrumentarium ter beoordeling van een leerboek geschiedenis", in: Fontaine, School-boekanalyse, pp. 66-84; A.J. Kaarsemaker, "Beknopt Instrumentarium ten behoeve van eenschoolboekanalyse", in: Fontaine, Schoolboekanalyse, pp. 85-89; H.H. Knütter, "Schulbuch-analyse - Intentionen und Kriterien eines fachspezifischen Fragenkatalogs", in: Stein,Schulbuch-Schelte als Politikum, pp. 166-171; A. Mennecke, "Überlegungen zur Bewertunglandeskundlicher Inhalte in fremdsprachlichen Lehrwerken", in: P. Doye (Ed.),Grossbritannien, pp. 27-40; M. Tholey, "Methodologische vraagstukken in het leerboeken-onderzoek: Een instrument voor de analyse van het Duitslandbeeld in Nederlandseleerboeken voor de mens- en maatschappijvakken en voor Duits", in: U.A Becher (Ed.),Grenzen und Ambivalenzen. Analysen %um Deutschlandbild in den Niederlanden und in nieder-ländischen Schulbüchern (Braunschweig, 1996) [=SISSGEI, 87], pp. 169-180; E. Uhe, "Schul-buchanalyse mit Hilfe eines allgemeinen Beurteilungsrasters", in: Stein, Schulbuch-Schelte abPolitikum, pp. 158-164; Vöcking, Analyse der katholischen Religionsbücher, pp. 3-5.
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Some results
In order to focus on the problem of qualitative textbook analyses withregard to the practice of the history of ideas, it is necessary to demonstrate at theleast what results the study of the sources (Belgian religious school textbooks1886-1939) in my qualitative research scheme has yielded in view of the question(exclusivistic or not?) Obviously, these results can only be reproduced in a mostgeneralising form within the scope of this methodological article.
First of all, it must be stressed that the image of Islam in the textbooksexamined is characterised by a tendency going from "generally negative" to "rathernegative". This goes hand in hand with an evolution in time: after 1920 theprevalent tone in the textbooks becomes much less negative. The intendednegative tendency falls apart into several partial aspects. Thus, it goes beyonddoubt that before 1920 most textbooks assess Mohammed's religious inpirationin a most negative manner. Mohammed is portrayed as an instrument of the devil,a violent man, an epilectic, a zealot, a deceiver.30 As a logic consequence of thisevaluation, Islamic dominance is put on a par with an anti-Christian empire in quitea few cases, by means of black/white schemes.31 Moreover, the textbooks inquestion do not breathe the spirit of exaggerated admiration for Islam as a religioneither. Islam is negatively characterised as a "monstruous" mixture of good andbad.32 It is also conspicuous that the (real) dissimilarities between Islam andChristianity are emphasised without further ado, which is demonstrated in thefollowing cases: emphasis on the sensual character of the Islamic vision on lifeafter death, the underligning of polygamy, the strong accent on the formal aspectin Islamic ritual practice and moral33 and the considerable attention to djihaadzs anintrinsic part of Islam.34 Moreover, the devotees of Islam are not seldom described
30See e.g. H.-J. Crenier, Développementde l'histoire de lareligion depuislacréation du mondejusqu'au Pontificat de Léon XIII (Liège, 18962), pp. 238-239, 241.
31See e.g. W. Minnaers, Kerkelijke geschiedenis voorde hoogste klasse der lagere scholen(Lier, 1921), p. 55.
12Sce.£.g.J.Warichtz,Lesprincipauxfaits de l'histoire de l'Église (Tournai-Paris, 1939),p. 60.
33See e.g. L. Bataille, Les principauxfaits de l'histoire de l'église catholique (Tournai-Paris-Leipzig, 1908), p. 63.
34See e.g. Histoire ecclésiastique par demande et par réponse depuis J.-C. jusqu'à nos jours àl'usage des maisons d'éducation (Paris-Leipzig-Tournai, 1886), p. 52.
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Methodology of Religious School Textbook A naljsis 385
with the negatively charged terms "unbelievers",35 "the ungodly" and "enemies ofChrist's name".36
However, one should add immediately, that the vision in question in theoldest textbooks is not merely "generally negative". Their evaluation ofMohammed and Islam is no less complex, and in fact the attitude of the schooltextbook authors is thoroughly ambivalent. Firstly, Mohammed is also describedin a positive way as an exceptional individual, gifted with extraordinary talents,such as, for instance, brilliant rhetorical skills. These aspects are not criticised in theschool textbooks. A partially positive attitude can also be sensed with regard to thedoctrine Mohammed teaches, in particular the points showing a certain similaritywith Christianity. Secondly, the dichotomisation between Islam and Christianity isnot absolute, more in particular for two reasons. On the one hand, the oppositiononly regards dissimilarities, on the other hand, the dissimilarities the authors referto are restricted. These points of difference are not so much aimed at the dogmaticvariances between Islam and Christianity, the dichotomy is rather based on theauthors' acknowledgement of violent aspects in Islam, especially these which havedamaged Christianity throughout history. One more important element: thenegative profiling of the Islamic religion as "monstruous" does not prevent thatthe Biblical and - according to most authors concerned - the Christian backgroundis suggested. This logically implies the idea of certain similarities between Islam andChristianity. The authors in question certainly do not refute this idea. Which bringsus to the fourth point. The emphasis on the differences between Islam andChristianity does not imply that the aspects shared with Christianity concerningfaith and ritual practice of Islam are withheld. On the contrary, aspects which,from a Christian perspective, could be interpreted as positive in a certain sense,namely the transition from the Meccan polytheism to the Islamic belief in oneGod, the recognition by Islam of Jesus as a prophet, the acknowledgement ofprophets in itself by Islam, as well as Islamic belief in a last judgement, arementioned explicitly. Finally, the remark should be made that the labels"disbelievers", "the ungodly" and/or "enemies of Christ's name", which referencesare used for Islamites in the school textbooks, refer to the fact that they do notprofess Christianity, and the fact that the image of God in Islam is not the sameas the image of God in Christianity, respectively.
35See e.g. E. De Moreau, Histoire de l'Église (Tournai-Lille-Paris, 19313), p. 142.3SSee e.g. J. Van Doren (revisited and translated by E. Soens & J. Vlerick),
Handboek voor kerkgeschiedenis tengebruike van colleges, normaal- en kostscholen (Gent, 1912), p.110.
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Beyond the strict content of school textbooks: from text to context
Therefore, qualitative analysis concerning the representation of Islam inthe school textbooks examined does not only appear to be considerablyambivalent, it also evolves throughout time from "generally negative" to "rathernegative". It goes without saying that these results, which are based on a 'closereading' of the sources, are too much restricted to enable essential conclusions withregard to the prevailing theological reality and mentality in Catholic religiouseducation in Belgium. A correct interpretation of the image we found is onlypossible when the scope is widened and the sources are placed in the broad socialand historical context.37 Then we find immediately that the school culture of thosedays was determined by a range of factors which were certainly not of a meretheological nature, but, nevertheless, contributed to the foundation of theeducational mentality and reality. I will name three of them.
1) As a most important factor, an extremely strong collective memory ofthe centuries- old armed conflict between Islam and Christianity must bepostulated. It is acceptable that, even after the immediate danger of a direct Musliminvasion and loss of territory was over (the last siege by the Turks of Vienna datesfrom 1688), the collective memory of this threat lingered on in the textbookauthors' minds, thus creating a negative climate of opinion, where the violentaspects in Mohammed's performance and teaching were emphasized. In myopinion, this mental attitude has a perfect reflection in the textbooks. However, itshould not blind us from other factors, which need not be less strong. This bringsus to the next two points.
2) The impact of the Christian-apologetical and polemic approach ofIslam should undoubtedly be referred to as well. The focus there was on thedemonstration of the superiority of Christianity in confrontation with Islam - anapproach which certainly has been dominant in Christian environments until thefirst half of the twentieth century.38 Many parallels can be found between the
37See in this respect also M. Depaepe & F. De Boeck, " 'Indigenism' and'Colonialism' in Congolese Primary Education. A Case Study on the Educational Mentalityand Reality in the Belgian Congo (1908-1960), Starting from the Analysis of ColonialTextbooks and Focusing on the Mbandaka Area" (research proposal accepted by theK.U.Leuven Research Council and the Fund for Scientific Research-Flanders [Belgium]).Both authors have rightly pointed out that a full understanding of the content of schooltextbooks requires that the latter must be situated within the historical context in whichthey were written.
38See N. Daniel, Islam and the West. The Making of an Image (Edinburgh-Chicago,19622), pp. 271-301.
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apologetic tradition, stemming from the Middle Ages, and the image ofMohammed, and Islam in the textbooks between 1886 and 1920.1 briefly recollectthe following elements: Mohammed as an instrument of the devil; Mohammed asthe punisher of the unfaithful Christians; Mohammed as a deceiver, an epileptic,a dreamer, a person drunk with power and a warrior; the explicit characterisationof Islamic moral as violent, extremely sensual and voluptuous (which is madeconcrete by the emphasis on the "holy war", the polygamy and the sensual Koranicrepresentations of life after death); the vision on Islamic doctrine as consisting ofsuper-simple dogmas; the major emphasis on the rejection of the Christian thoughtof trinity by Islam; the suspicion of determinism; the notion of Islamic ritualpractice as composed of regulations which are easy to fulfil and basically of anoutward nature; the notion of Islam as a Christian sect.
Three aspects are of major importance here. First, the argument shouldbe that, as the apologetic approach intends to defend the Christian faith againstIslam, it should naturally suppose an accent on divergences. Such a vision couldeasily be translated into a generally negative image of Islam, especially in theeducational practice of religious education in those days.
This is directly linked to a second aspect: the negativity caused byapologetics and polemics need not be next to exclusivism. On the contrary, eventhe great names in mediaeval apologetics honour an inclusive point of view. Eventhough they mercilessly pointed at fundamental differences between Islam andChristianity, with God's revelation in Jesus Christ as a standard, they did notrefrain from underligning similarities between both religions. Despite his doubt toconsider Islam as a Christian heresy, for instance, Petrus Venerabilis, in hismanuscripts against Islam, did not refrain from pointing at the presence of quitea few positive elements in the doctrine of the Koran from a Christian perspective;although Nicolaus Cusanus (1401-1464) was convinced that Mohammed was faraway from the true understanding of the gospel, he claimed that, in certain cases,a.o. with regard to the vision of Jesus as the Word of God and with respect to theidea of the virgin birth of Jesus, it is not difficult to retrieve the truth of the gospelin the Koran.39
39See Nicolai de Cusa (Edited by L. Hagemann), Cribratio Alkorani (Hamburg,1986),pp. 16-17,e.g.: "Misit(= God)autemsecundumipsum(— Mohammed)Christum, quemdidtverbum dei etfilium Mariae. Quare cum verbum dei sit eiusdem naturae, cuius est deus, cuius est verbum -omnia enim dei dens sunt ob simpBcissimam eius naturam -, quando voluit deus summum legatum mitten,misit verbum suum, quo non polest maior legatus conàpi. Et quia adhomines misit, voluit, quodinduerethumanam naturam mundissimam. Itafedt in virgine Maria, ut saepius legitur in Alkorano. Non igturerit diffidle in Alkorano reperiri evangelii veritatem, licet ipse Mahometus remotissimusfuit a vero evangeliiintellectu".
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Third important fact: in the apologetic tradition, which remaineddominant in Western Christian environments until the first half of the twentiethcentury,40 the knowledge of Islam left much to be desired. This went hand in handwith a lack of access to the Islamic sources (one had no notion of the Arabiclanguage), and with a fundamental lack of faith in these sources themselves, whichwere usually considered important only to confirm the existing image of Islam.This was the reason why truth and legend relieved each other especially in the earlyMiddle Ages in the West. The Latin translation of the Koran by Petrus Venerabiliswas the start of the scientific approach of Islam in the West, and this approachwas, a.o., further developed by Nicolaus Cusanus (1401-1464) in the later MiddleAges. This involved a less negative and more detailed approach of Islam. Also,under the influence of the Enlightenment, the scientific approach continued todevelop in the academic world in the seventeenth, the eighteenth and thenineteenth century. It was not until the end of the nineteenth and the beginningof the twentieth century that the academic approach was accelerated. At the endof the 19th century, the number of chairs in orientalistics at the Western Europeanuniversities increased considerably. One could study the Arabic language muchbetter than in former days, and use this knowledge to go and study the Islamiccultures on site. Also, the colonisation of Islamic regions from the second half ofthe nineteenth century by Western European powers brought more news aboutIslam as a religion and culture to the homeland. All this caused a more precise andin-depth knowledge of Islam which was integrated in the current apologeticvisions, which also led to a less negative image. This evolution in general WesternEuropean historiography is amazingly parallel to the image of Islam in thetextbooks we examined. In my research, a tendency of more accuracy, on the onehand, and a more positive approach, on the other hand, in the treatment of Islamwas found repeatedly from 1920 onward.
3) It also sounds most plausible that the romatic historiography from thenineteenth century has had its influence on the image in the examined textbooks.This historiographie genre is characterized by a strongly legitimizing approach, andemphasized die history of the "great persons" considerably, with a strong accenton military and political confrontations. Persons who are quite familiar with thishistoriographie genre will immediately recognize this accent in the textbook partsabout Islam.
Altogether, therefore, it seams at least plausible to state that it is not anexclusivistic range of thoughts, but indeed a combination of these three factors,which is responsible to a great extent, if not completely, for a certain negative
*See in this respect Daniel, Islam and the West, pp. 271-301.
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purport towards Islam in the textbooks concerned. Denying this fact woulddemonstrate a complete ahistorical attitude.
Concluding remarks
After putting the pros and cons of the qualitative and quantitative analysesin their proper proportions, we find ourselves back were we started. Two questionsremain: how do both methods relate and what is their value and usefulness in thelight of the history of ideas in the field of religious education. As for the firstquestion, I contend that the apodictic division between the qualitative and thequantitative analysis is a purely formal one. I hold that the quantitative method hasan auxiliary role, but at the same time is no less important. The following aims areits main ones. First of all, defining precisely the data of analysis. Every moredescriptive or so-called qualitative analysis draws advantage from the use ofnumbers to create an accurate graduation of size in its field of research. Secondly,bringing to light of major redactional trends, conjectures, evolutions and all kindsof fluctuations which would otherwise have passed unnoticed. Thirdly, renderingthe observations more transparent.
With regard to the second aspect: qualitative school textbook analysis,possibly combined with quantitative analysis, could be a blessing or a curse in thelight of the practice of the history of ideas in religious education. They could be ablessing because, when applied correctly, they offer to the researcher aconsiderably useful set of methodological instruments with which he/she canquestion the sources in the most coherent, transparent and exhaustive manner,with respect to the starting hypothesis. Quantitative and qualitative analyses,however, rather mean a curse in the reconstruction of the educational past whenthe results of both methods are not put in the broader historical (educational,psychological, social, historiographie,...) contexts of education. Assessment of themanifest content of textbooks, i.e. the present "opinions" and "images", however,is indispensable, but it only constitutes a first phase in the process of examination.Indeed, textbooks do not come into existence in a vacuum. To be true, textbooksare not just a factor in the construction of educational opinions, but, above all,their texts are a product of an existing school culture. Therefore, if one wants togain the most comprehensive understanding of the importance of the texts in thetextbooks, these texts must be interpreted in the light of the determinants of theschool culture (it goes without saying that only the determinants which areconstitutive for the development of the educational mentalities examined shouldbe involved in this hermeneutic process). If this link is not made, the results of
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390 Jan Van Wiek
both quantitative and qualitative analyses will not only be disappointing, but alsocompletely ahistorical.
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