Everything You Need to Know, and Nothing That You Don’tMartin Kozloff

Here’s a brief look at the main elements and routines for designing and evaluating instruction. I added urls to documents that tell more. Be smart. Download, save, and print this and the linked documents. Use them as needed. Read and reread them until you OWN the ideas. You will be the most knowledgeable person in your school. Guaranteed. And you will know how to teach.

1. Knowledge is a representation of reality. Knowledge is statements that are true—statements that tell how IT IS. Or, knowledge is statements that have been substantiated (tested and found to work) by experience. What else would knowledge be? Statements that are false? So, single statements (“We found that…”) and sequences of statements (such as explanations) that are mere speculation (“Well, in our view, blah blah blah..”), unsubstantiated hypotheses (“It is our considered opinion that Y is caused by X.”), and propaganda (“Carbon dioxide will kill us all. The oceans will rise and wipe out New York. Therefore, we have to raise taxes.”) are not knowledge. They are bunk. It doesn’t matter if EVERYone else believes they are true. It doesn’t matter if so-called experts believe they are true. Everyone used to believe that women were less intelligent than men. Now we know that they are usually just a little shorter. And the experts used to believe that the sun revolved around the earth. Ha! Dopes.

Go here to learn more.http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/whatisknowledge.doc

PRACTICE.

2. There are only six kinds of knowledge---representations of reality. These six may be stored and communicated by sculpture, painting, music, dance, and other media. Human beings mostly use language to store and communicate knowledge. In fact, human beings usually translate what is represented by OTHER media into language. “The painting speaks of the mother-infant bond.”

The most efficient and effective language form for storing and communicating knowledge is simple declarative statements. A subject (what the statement is about) and a predicate (that tells more about the subject).

Some kinds of knowledge (such as facts) can be communicated with one statement. Other kinds of knowledge---routines, such as descriptions, explanations, and logical arguments—require a whole series of connected statements.

Go here to learn more. http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/clearcomprehensionandcommunication.doc

http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Exercises%20on%20Simple%20Declarative%20Statements.doc

PRACTICE.

3. What are the six kinds of knowledge? The six kinds of knowledge are:

a. Facts. A subject (a thing that is particular) goes with a feature (predicate).

“The global warming movement (subject that is a particular thing) is a scam designed to increase wealth and power of a ruling elite of politicians, the super rich, and university scientists (predicate tells a feature of the global warming movement).”

b. Lists. A subject (a thing that is either a thing that is particular or is a whole class) goes with a set of features (predicate).

“Boston (subject: a thing that is particular) has many colleges and universities, is the capital of Massachusetts, is an expensive place to live, has a rich history, and is big on baked beans (predicate: a set of features about the subject).”

“Energy (subject: a thing that is a whole class) can be neither created nor destroyed; can be in the form of heat, light, movement of objects, and electromagnetic waves/particles; and can be transformed from one form to another (predicate: a set of features that goes with the subject).

c. Sensory concepts. Classes of things that share a sameness or common feature that is tangible (see, hear, feel, smell); and any example (thing in the class) shows the common (defining) feature. Note the simple declarative statements.

“This (subject) is yellow (predicate).” “This (subject) is on (predicate).”

d. Higher-order concepts. Classes of things that share samenesses or common features, some of which are NOT tangible; and examples (things in the class) do not show, in one place or time, all of the common or defining features.”

Higher-order concepts are abstract = not here and now in the same way that things that are triangles, loud, smooth, and green are here and now.

“Hyperinflation (subject) is an economic process (genus, or larger class in which hyperinflation is located = part of the predicate that tells more about the subject) in which a government increases the supply of money rapidly (usually to pay its debts), resulting in an extreme rise in prices such that fiat currency (money printed by the government) becomes nearly worthless (difference = the part of the predicate that tells the features of the subject that make it different from other things in the genus, such as inventing, buying, producing, distributing, investing).”

e. Rules, or rule-relationships. Connections not between individual things

(examples within concepts), but between whole classes of things (concepts). Rule- relationships may be (1) categorical or (2) causal/hypothetical.

(1) Categorical rule relationships. One class is inside (All), partly inside (Some), or not inside (No) another class. For example,

“All (things in the class of) actions [subject] are (in the class of things that are) rational [predicate].”

“Some (things in the class of) planets [subject] have (are in the class of things that have) atmospheres containing oxygen [predicate].”

“No (things in the class of) complex systems (subject) will (are in the class of things that) endure in perpetuity [predicate].”

(2) Causal or hypothetical rule-relationships. One or more classes (called independent variables or antecedents = subject) predict, are necessary for, or are sufficient for the existence of or change in another class or classes (called dependent variables or consequents = predicate). Causal relationships may be one-way (X effects or predicts a change in Y, but the change in Y does NOT affect X) or two-way/reciprocal/feedback loop (X effects or predicts a change in Y, and the change in Y then effects change in X).

“When X increases, Y increases.” [one-way]

“If and only if X exists is Y is likely to come into existence.” [one-way] “The more X increases, the more Y decreases.” [one-way] “An increase in X strongly predicts an increase in Y, and the subsequent

increase in Y strongly predicts an increase in X.” [two-way, reciprocal, or feedback loop]

f. Routines. Sequences of action-steps (which can be stored and communicated in the form of interconnected statements) that accomplish some objective or end; for example, descriptions, explanations, solutions, searches, arguments.

(1) Descriptions. “Debbie “Little Hoss” Cartwright is 5 foot 2 inches tall. She weighs 98

pounds. She has short, brown hair, brown eyes, and a stainless steel spike through her nasal septum. She loves novels by William S. Burroughs. Debbie eats nothing but donuts. Debbie is so tough that she can crush toast with her bare hands.”

(2) Solutions. (a + b) (c + d) FOIL “First multiply the first terms in each parenthesis.” “Write the product.” ab “Next, multiply the outside terms in each parenthesis.” ad “Add the product to ab.” ab + ad “Next, multiply the inside terms of each parenthesis.” bc “Add the product to ab + ad.” ab + ad + bc “Last, multiply the last terms of each parenthesis. bd “Add the product to ab + ad + bc.” ab + ad + bc + bd

(3) Arguments. For instance, here’s one form of argument… If X exists, Y exists. [If something is alive (X), it breathes (Y).] Y does not exist. [This plant does not breathe. Not Y.] Therefore, X does not exist. [Therefore, this plant is not alive. Not X.]

Another example of the same form of argument…

“If the claim is true, that being reared by a single parent has no significantly different outcomes than being reared in a two-parent family (X),

then we should find no significant differences in emotional well- being, school achievement, and pro- social behavior in adolescent children

reared in single-parent vs. two-parent families (Y).”

“BUT we do find significant negative differences in emotional well- being, school achievement, and pro-social behavior in children reared in

single- parent and two-parent families. [Not Y] Specifically….”

“Children reared by single parents are more likely to have lower grades, more school suspensions and drop out, more drug and alcohol use,

more emotional problems, and more anti-social behavior than children reared by

two parents.”

“Therefore, the claim that being reared by a single parent has no

significantly different outcomes than being reared in a two-parent family is false.” [Not X]

(4) Teaching Procedures. The sequences of statements that communicate facts, lists, concepts, rules, and routines (such as FOIL) in math are routines. In fact, most teaching routines are a logical argument! This was pointed out by a student—Christina Larson. Watch this….When you teach a sensory concept, the routine would be something like this….

This is yellow.

This is yellow.

This is yellow.

This is NOT yellow.

This is not yellow.

This is yellow.

This is yellow.

Is this yellow?

Is this yellow?

Is this yellow?

Each statement in the sequence is a fact. By comparing (the yellow) facts and by contrasting the yellow and NOT yellow facts, the learning mechanism draws a conclusion. “Yellow is that color and not the other colors.”

Again, most teaching IS communicating in a sequence that IS a logical argument from which students draw conclusions. “So, from these examples, I conclude that FOIL is how you solve ALL of those kinds of problems.” It’s exactly the same as a jury listening to facts presenting by the defense attorney, and concluding, “That guy is NOT guilty.”

Go here to learn more.http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/sixkindsofkmnowledgeandteachUSE.doc

PRACTICE

4. Knowledge is acquired (learned) by a process of inductive inference, or inductive reasoning---a sequence (routine) of logical operations (steps) performed by the “learning mechanism” (Engelmann and Carnine. Theory of Instruction). Instruction is effective and efficient (works quickly and with few student errors) when communication makes it easy for the learning mechanism to do its business and to figure out the general idea from the examples and nonexamples. The figure below shows how.

The Learning Process

From Examples and Students Learn General Ideas: Six Nonexamples Forms of Cognitive

Knowledge

Clear and Focused What the Learning Get it. Communication Mechanism Does to… S = subject P = predicate

Teacher Presents ----> The Learning Mechanism ---> Makes generalizationsExamples and Treats Performs a set of Logical a. FactThem the Same Way Operations. It: A particular thing (S)(e.g., names, solves, a. Examines examples; goes with a feature (P) analyzes them). observes their features “This plant (S) has

b. Compares and contrasts has leaves (P).” Teacher presents examples; identifies b. List. Nonexamples and features that are the same A particular thing or a Treats Them a c. Contrasts examples (that class of things (S) has several Different Way share some of the same features (P).(e.g., names, solves, features and are treated “Civilizations decline (S) for analyzes them). the same way) with the following 5 reasons (P). + nonexamples (that don’t c. Sensory concept. Defining Teacher provides have those features and are features are tangible and Assistance such as treated differently). are shown in any example. Gaining attention, d. Identifies the differences Review, Framing the (in the features) between “This (S) is on (P).”Task, Modeling the examples and nonexamples, Information, Leading and how they are treated. d. Higher-order concept.Students Through the e. Makes a generalization: Some defining features Information, Testing/ ** “This one goes with that/those.” are NOT tangible, andChecking to Ensure [fact, list] examples may NOT showLearning, Correcting ** “All things that have features all the defining features.Errors, Outcome A, B, and C are called Assessment. republic.” “Fiat money is currency [concept] that is not backed by a

** “When things that are X physical commodity such

happen, then things that as gold or silver, but is are Y happen.” declared to be money by

[rule-relationship] a government.” ** “To accomplish Z, do steps e. Rule-relationships. 2 kinds: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.” (1) Categorical. [routine] “(All, no, some) things in the category A (S) are in the category B (P).”

(2) Causal/hypothetical. “(If, whenever, the

more, the less) things in category X

happen (S), the (more, the less) things in category Y

happen (P) f. Routines.

Sequences of interconnected

steps that accomplish something. Sounding out

words, solving math problems, describing or explaining, stating an argument.

Practice.

5. Knowledge is organized into knowledge systems, sometimes called subjects. Knowledge systems consist of elements—namely, the six kinds of knowledge.

In some knowledge systems, the elements are interdependent and/or nested within (part of) one another. To know one element requires knowing many others. These are called tightly-coupled systems. Examples are reading, math, reasoning, and much of the physical sciences. These knowledge systems are called tool skills. You can’t learn much in other knowledge systems without these tool skills. Tightly-coupled tool skill knowledge is best taught systematically (attention to details of wording, examples, and sequence), explicitly (the teacher TELLS what she is doing), and in a focused way (communication zeros in on the objective).

Go here to learn more.

http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/tightlycoupledandinstruction.doc

Practice

6. There is a general procedure for systematic, explicit, focused instruction during the acquisition of knowledge phase. The procedure is a routine; it is a sequence of interconnected steps.

a. The teacher gains student readiness and focus: attention, sitting properly, materials handy.“Boys and girls. Eyes on me.”

b. The teacher frames the instruction and states the objectives.

“Boys and girls, you’re going to learn to sound out words! When we’re done, I will show you some words and you will READ them!!”

c. The teacher models or presents a small amount of new information.“Boys and girls, I’ll show you how to sound out this word. Here I go.”

m a o------->“I put my finger on the first ball, move my finger under the sound, and SAY the sound.” [explicit instruction][Touches under each letter and says the sound. mmmmaaa]

d. The teacher leads students through the application of the new information. m a o------->“Sound it out with me. When I touch under a sound, WE’LL say the sound….[wait time] Get ready.” mmmmaaa

e. The teacher gives an immediate acquisition test/check to see whether students learned the new information. [Kame’enui and Simmons, 1990] This the terminal performance for the task. m a o------->

“Your turn to sound it out….When I touch under a sound, YOU say the sound…[wait time] Get ready.” mmmmaaa

f. If students are correct, the teacher gives a verification---specific praise.

“Yes, mmmmaaa. You sounded it out all by yourselves!”

If students make an error, the teacher immediately corrects it. m a o------->

“Listen. mmmmaaaa.” [model]“Your turn.” mmmmaaa. [test]“Yes, mmmmaaaa. Now you’ve got it!” [verification]

g. The teacher gives more examples (in the acquisition set) of the sounding out routine so students can compare and contrast them, and identify the common essential features---in this case, the steps in the routine. maman atmat

h. The teacher gives a delayed acquisition test (calling on both the group as a whole and then individual students) to determine if students learned the routine from ALL the examples [Kame’enui and Simmons, 1990].

This is the terminal performance after several tasks---such as at the end of a short lesson.

Go here to learn more.

http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/generalprocedureforteachingUSE.doc

7. The general procedure (#8) for teaching new knowledge (acquisition) with focused instruction varies a little depending on which of the six kinds of knowledge you are teaching.

Note well. You almost NEVER teach a fact, list, concept, rule, or routine by itself. You would teach one of these in a TASK that is part of a LESSON. [Please see # 11 below.] For example, you might teach a list of facts about nuclear power before you present a list of advantages and risks in the next task. You might teach a set of concepts (such as metaphor, symbolism, onomatopoeia) before you teach students a routine for analyzing poems that use metaphor, symbolism, onomatopoeia in the

next task. You might teach several rules about solving equations before you teach the routine for solving equations in the next task.

So, the procedures, below, for teaching the six kinds of knowledge would be used as a SMALL part of----a TASK in---a lesson. You have to BEGIN planning with the terminal objective for the lesson. What do you want students to DO? Then work backwards. You want to end up with a sequence of tasks that (1) USE what was taught earlier and that (2) teach what is needed later. Each task would teach one or two of the six KINDS of knowledge.

Let’s look at each kind of knowledge = each kind of declarative statement for storing and communicating knowledge. Ready?

a. Facts. Say (model) the fact. Have students repeat it (test/check) to see if they got it.

Practice.

b. Lists. Model one or two items on the list.

Have students repeat. (test/check). Model more items on the list. Have students repeat.

Model the list so far. Have students repeat. Repeat until the whole list is said. [Teach a short list in one task. Teach a long list over several lessons.]

Practice.

c. Sensory concepts. Show a range of examples in the acquisition set (e.g., of red things) and name

each one. “This is red.” Show contrasting nonexamples (things with the same shape and size, but not red) and name each one. “This is NOT red.” Then give the examples and nonexamples again; for each one ask “Is this red?” (Acquisition test to see if they got it.) Then give new examples and test generalization. “Is this red.” Correct any errors using examples (“Yes, this IS red.”) and nonexamples “This is NOT red.”

Practice.

d. Higher-order concepts. Teach two ways: (1) with synonyms; (2) with verbal

definition, in the form subject…[genus….difference = predicate].

(1) Teach concept with synonyms. State the new concept/vocabulary word and KNOWN synonym that

means the same thing. “Huge means very big.” Test. Ask students for another way to say the new word (the synonym)

and for another way to say the synonym (the new word). “What’s another way to say very big?” …. “What’s another way to say

huge.” Use the known synonym in sentences and replace the synonym with

the new word. The room was very big. Say that with our new word.” Test by giving students more sentences with the synonym and then have

them replace the synonym with the new word.

(2) Teach concept with verbal definition, First, teach the verbal definition:

“Oligarchy (subject) is a political system (genus) that involves rule by a small group of persons, for their self-interest and often using

corrupt means (difference).” “What’s our definition of oligarchy?” (Check to ensure that students

got it.)

Then give examples of oligarchies, name each one, and point out the defining features and the IRRELEVANT features. “This IS oligarchy. Notice it has…” Then give contrasting nonexamples that are the same in many IRRELEVANT ways as the examples, but are missing the essential

features---rule by one person. Point this out. “This is NOT oligarchy. Notice it does NOT have…”

Then give all the examples and nonexamples in the acquisition set and ask, “Is this oligarchy?...How do you know?” (Test to see if

students got it.)

Correct any errors, pointing out the presence or absence of the defining features.

“This IS oligarchy. Notice the… And this is NOT oligarchy. Notice that it does not have…”

When students are firm, give new examples and test generalization.

“Is this oligarchy?...How do you know?” Correct any errors, pointing out the presence or absence of the defining features.

Practice.

e. Rules. Two ways to teach. (1) deductive; (2) inductive. (1) Deductive: from general (rule) particular (examples). Tell the rule. “All democracies become corrupt and destroy themselves.” Have students say the rule. Give examples and nonexamples to reveal the features consistent with the rule. Athens, Rome. Give new examples and nonexamples and ask students if each one fits the rule. “How do you know.” (generalization test) Have students FIND more examples (generalization).

Use this method when you want fast acquisition of firm knowledge, as in teaching tool skills.

(2) Inductive: From particular (examples) general (rule) Give examples and help students compare them to INDUCE (figure out) the connection = the rule, and to state it properly. “These examples show that the more X increases, the more Y increases.” “Whenever X, then Y.” “If and only if X, then Y.” Have students find more examples. In the inductive method, you have to teach students HOW to induce a general idea

(concept, rule) from examples. That is, how to describe, compare, and contrast examples and nonexamples; identify what is common to examples and not IN nonexamples; and then state the general. “The rule is, When X increases, Y decreases.”

Please see the figure, “The Learning Process,” above.

Use the inductive method when an objective IS figuring out (inducing) rule relationships = discovery learning. This would be part of a course where students are collecting data and then summarizing it (e.g., with a rule that summarizes how things go together), or when students read about different historical events and try to figure out what is common to them. “So, it looks like, whenever X happens, it is followed by Y and Z.” Errors are okay, because you want students to examine their conclusion in light of the data. “Are you sure that X leads to Y? Are there NO cases where X happens but Y does NOT happen?”

Practice.

f. Routines. Teach routines similar to the way you teach lists. Model the whole routine. Tell what you are doing (explicit teaching) so students

can internalize it. Then model one or two steps. Then have students do those steps with you (lead). Then have students do those steps by themselves (test/check) Then repeat with more steps until students do the whole routine by themselves. Then repeat with more examples. Fade out the lead (“Do it with me.”) part. Show NONexamples and model/explain how these are different from the routine just taught, and so you can’t USE the same routine. “These parentheses are different from (a + b)(c + d). Look. You have . (a + b) (c + d + e). You can’t use FOIL with this kind of problems. You have to FIRST….” Then give NEW examples (generalization).

Go here to learn more. http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/proceduresforteachingthesixkindsofknowledge.doc

Practice.

Task: Teaching Facts

Task: Teaching List. Panoply.

Task: Teaching List. Phases of Mitosis

Task: Teaching Sensory Concept. On

Task: Teaching Higher-order Concepts with Synonyms

Task: Teaching Higher-order Concept. Simile

Task: Teaching Rule-relationship: War

Lesson: Teaching Higher-order Concept. Granite

Lesson: Teaching Rule-relationship. Temperature/pressure

Lesson: Teaching Routine. Sounding Out Words

Lesson: Teaching Routine. Analyzing Declaration of Independence

Lesson: Teaching Routine. Slope

Lessons (several) on U.S. History

Examples of lessons on how to teach the six kinds of knowledge.

Example of unit organization: plant life cycle

How to introduce a unit on the Declaration of Independence. PPT

Unit on U.S. Constitution

8. When you are teaching loosely-coupled knowledge systems, such as history or literature, use a combination of focused instruction and more open, Socratic instruction. Use focused instruction to teach foundation knowledge elements; e.g., figures of speech, theories of history, kinds of political systems, lists of causes of corruption. Use Socratic instruction (discussion, question-answer regarding students’ interpretations) to test and to build on this foundation.

Go here to learn more. “Procedure for Teaching Routines: Analyzing Historical Documents,” page 35 http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/lessonsonforms.doc

And http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/How%20to%20Organize%20Tasks%20in%20Lessons%20and%20Lessons%20in%20Units.doc

9. There are four phases of learning and instruction.a. Acquisition of new knowledge from an acquisition set of examples. The objective is accuracy---doing it right.

b. Generalization. Knowledge learned with the acquisition set is applied to new examples (taught and assessed with a generalization set). The objective is

accuracy---doing it right.

c. Fluency. Knowledge is used accurately, quickly, smoothly, and what seems automatically. The objective is rate and accuracy (doing it right and quickly)--- increased and assessed with a fluency set.

d. Retention. Knowledge is retained over time and across new learning--- increased and sustained with cumulative review, firming, and reteaching with retention sets.

Go here to learn more. http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/phasesofmastery.doc

MAKE SURE THAT YOU WORK ON ALL FOUR PHASES. Does your textbook or program do that? If not, fix it (WORK!) or get materials that do it (SMARTER).

This table shows the four phases of learning for the six kinds of knowledge. NO BIG DEAL. It simply means,

Kinds of Phases of Learning Knowledge

Acquisition:Accuracy/correct with acquisition set.

Generalization:Accuracy/correct with new examples = generalization set

Fluency:Accuracy and speed with fluency set = examples from acquisition and generalization sets

Retention:Accuracy (first) and speed (once accurate) with a sample of all examples taught

Facts Say it right. No such thing. A fact IS the one example. But you can ADD facts = list

Say them fast. Keep on doing it.

ListsSay it right.

No such thing. The list is the one example. But you can ADD to the list.

Say it fast. Keep on doing it.

Sensory Concepts

Correctly identify or sort.

Correctly identify new examples

Correctly identify old and new examples fast.

Keep on doing it.

High-orderConcepts

Correctly say definition. Correctly identify example/nonexamples and tell why.

Correctly identify new examples/nonexamples; tell why.

Correctly identify old and new examples/nonexamples fast. Tell why.

Keep on doing it.

Rule-relationships

Routines

Correctly say rule. Correctly identify examples/nonexamples. And/or induce and state rule by examining examples.

Correctly perform steps.

Correctly identify new examples/nonexamples; tell why.And/or induce and state rule from new data sets or examples.

Correctly perform steps in new examples.

Correctly identify old and new examples/nonexamples fast. Tell why (rule used).And/or induce and state rule from old and new data sets or examples fast.

Correctly perform steps fast with old and new examples.

Keep on doing it.

Keep on doing it.

10. Here’s how to work on the four phases of learning.

Acquisition of Facts, Lists, Concepts, Rule relationships, and Routines

Fluency Generalization Retention

Definition The student learns a new fact, list, concept, rule-relationship, or routine from the examples (and perhaps nonexamples) presented and described---the acquisition set.

Accurate, rapid, smooth (nearly automatic) performance.

The accurate application or transfer of knowledge to new examples---called a generalization set.

Knowledge remains firm (accurate and fluent) despite the passage of time and despite acquiring new and possibly interfering knowledge.

Relevant Instructional Objectives or Aims

Accuracy. 100% correct.

Accuracy plus speed (rate), usually with respect to a benchmark.

When presented with a generalization set (new but similar examples) students respond accurately and quickly.

When presented with a retention set (a sample of earlier items worked on), students respond accurately and quickly.

Relevant InstructionalProcedures

Focused instruction: clear and concrete objective; gain attention; frame; model, lead, immediate acquisition test; examples and nonexamples; error correction; delayed acquisition test; review. Examples and nonexamples are selected from an

Work on fluency at all levels---the whole (e.g., reading sentences) and elements (e.g., sounding out and saying fast, letter sound correspondence)

Modeling fluent performance

1. Review and firm up knowledge to be generalized.

2. Use a generalization set (new examples) that are similar to earlier examples that students learned.

3. Show students how new examples are the same kind as earlier-taught

1. Every day, before each lesson on a particular subject, review (assess), firm up, or even reteach a sample of what you have already worked on in that subject.

2. In any retention set (lesson to lesson, week to week), the more recently something has been taught, the more examples

acquisition set. Special cues; e.g., for tempo.

Repetition (practice)

Speed drills (practice)

Work on fluency should at first be with familiar materials—text to read, math problems to solve. Why?

If you use NEW examples, you are really working on generalization. Therefore, if students do poorly on fluency assessments, you won’t know if they just can’t generalize or whether they were never firm to begin with.

examples, and therefore can be treated the same way.

4. Assure students they can do it.

5. Provide reminders of rules and definitions.

6. Correct errors, and reteach as needed.

should be reviewed.

3. Separate instruction on items that may be confusing; e.g., simile and metaphor.

4. Provide written routines or diagrams that students can use to guide and check themselves.

Pre-instruction assessment

Assess pre-skills or background knowledge essential to the new material.

Measure rate (correct and errors) before instruction on fluency

Review/test knowledge you want students to generalize---including elements or pre-skills.

Review/test knowledge you want students to retain. This would probably be the most current delayed acquisition test—after a lesson or unit.

During-instruction, or progress-

Immediate acquisition test/check after the

Frequent (e.g., daily) measure of rate

Add new examples to the growing generalization set.

Add examples from the most recent lessons and rotate

monitoring assessment

model (“This letter makes the sound ffff”) and the lead (“Say it with me.”).

The immediate acquisition test/check is, for example, “Your turn. (What sound?” “Is this granite?” “Now, you solve the problem.”)

(correct and errors) during instruction on fluency, in relation to a fluency aim or benchmark

Have students work them. examples from earlier lessons, to form a retention set.

Do this every time to assess retention.

Post-instruction, or outcome assessment

Delayed acquisition test using all of the new material.

“Read these words. First word. What word?...Next word. What word?”

Or, “Is this an example of tyranny? [Yes] How do you know?... Is this an example of a republic? [No] How do you know?”

Rate (correct and errors) at the end of instruction on fluency, in relation to a fluency aim or benchmark.

If students have responded accurately to past generalization sets, the latest one given is the outcome assessment.

If students have responded accurately to past retention sets, the latest one given is the outcomeassessment.

Practice.

11. Think about the curriculum for a course or semester or grade level, as a logical sequence of units. Think of units as a logical sequence of lessons. Think of lessons as a logical sequence of tasks. Think of tasks as a logical sequence of simple declarative statements.

| Curriculum, Course, Semester, Year, or Tool Skill Program Material | Unit 1 | Unit 2 | Unit 3 | | Lesson 1 | Lesson 2 |Less. 3| Less. 4 | Less. 1 |Less. 2| Less. 3 |Less. 1 | Less. 2|Lesson 3|Less.4| Lesson 5 | Less. 6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | _|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_| |_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_| 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 Tasks

A task is a sequence of simple declarative statements with a focused instructional function: (1) teach new facts, list, concepts, rules, routines; (2) generalize knowledge to new examples; (3) build fluency; (4) review, firm, and reteach (retention); (5) integrate elements into larger wholes. For example, in different knowledge systems….

Task 1, Lesson 12. “New sound. This sound is fff. What sound?” [acquisition] Task 3, Lesson 30. “Let’s solve these problems the fast way.” [fluency] Task 4, Lesson 16. “Here are new examples. You tell me what kinds of rocks these are.” [generalization] Task 6, Lesson 15. “Let’s review all our definitions.” [retention] Task 2, Lesson 22. “Here’s a question that draws on what you learned over this

week. How can we find out which variable or set of variables affects the growth of corn?” [Integrates what was

learned about type of soil, water, light, and about experimental methods]

12. Lessons are usually organized like this.

Task 1. Frame the lesson. “Here’s what we’re working on. Here are the objectives. When you’re done, we’ll….”

You need to know the objectives for the end of the lesson (or unit). These are TERMINAL OBJECTIVES.You need to know what students will DO at the end, to show whether they’ve achieved the objectives. This is the TERMINAL PERFORMANCE.

Task 2. Review and firm pre-skills/elements.

Task 3. Teach something new that is an element of the terminal objectives. Fact, list, concept, rule, routine.

Task 4. Work on fluency or generalization of earlier-taught material---facts, lists, concepts, rules, routines. Or, add more to existing fact, list, concept, rule, routine, knowledge.

Task 5. Teach another something new.

Task 6. Review Tasks 3 and 5.

Task 7. Integrate earlier and new knowledge into something larger; e.g., kids sound out words, kids read sentences, kids read stories, kids do an experiment, kids write a paper. This is the terminal performance. Did they meet the objectives in terms of: (1) accuracy (% correct, included all elements, raised questions, provided invented examples?); (2) speed?

Go here to see tasks arranged into lessons.

http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/lessonsonforms.doc

Lesson: Teaching Higher-order Concept. Granite

Lesson: Teaching Rule-relationship. Temperature/pressure

Lesson: Teaching Routine. Sounding Out Words

Lesson: Teaching Routine. Analyzing Declaration of Independence

Lesson: Teaching Routine. Slope

Lessons (several) on U.S. History

13. Every task, lesson, unit, and curriculum should end with a terminal performance that assesses (and at the same time, reviews and firms up) what was taught. a. You need to describe the terminal performance. WHAT will students do? How

many problems of what kinds, for example?b. You need to specify objectives. HOW are students supposed to DO the

terminal performance? What exactly is a satisfactory performance? What does “correct” mean? How FAST are students supposed to do problems or write short answers?

The terminal performance for a whole curriculum will be larger and more varied than the terminal performance for a unit, a unit larger and more varied than a lesson, and a lesson larger and more varied than a task.

Practice. Example of unit organization: plant life cycle1. Develop a terminal performance and terminal objectives for this lesson.2. List the knowledge elements needed to accomplish the objectives.

14. The terminal performance and terminal objectives for a curriculum should SAMPLE and also require students to INTEGRATE what was taught in the whole curriculum; e.g., define concepts, state rules and theories, solve problems, write integrative essays.

The terminal performance and objectives for a unit should SAMPLE and also require students to INTEGRATE what was taught in all the lessons in the unit.

The terminal performance and objectives for a lesson should SAMPLE and also require students to INTEGRATE what was taught in all the tasks in the lesson.

The terminal performance and objectives for a task should SAMPLE and also require students to INTEGRATE what was taught in the statements in the task.

“Your turn to sound out ALL our new words.”“Your turn to calculate the slope of the lines generated by these data sets.”“I’ll show examples. You tell me what figure of speech each one is, and tell me the definition that you used to make the identification.”

15. Where do you get the terminal objectives for a curriculum? How do you know what students are supposed to learn? Easy. The state standard course of study tells you. http://www.ncpublicschools.org/curriculum/

You also have to read expert opinion and research.

And you have your own knowledge of the subject, and so you can decide what ought to be taught.

Go here to learn more.

Math. http://www.edexcellence.net/publications-issues/publications/sosmath05.html http://www.mathematicallycorrect.com/books.htm Review of math programs.

http://www.singaporemath.com/

http://saxonpublishers.hmhco.com/en/sxnm_research.htm

History. http://www.edexcellence.net/publicationsissues/publications/soss2006.html http://www.edexcellence.net/publications-issues/publications/stealth.html

http://www.edexcellence.net/publications-issues/publications/consumersguide.html

Science. http://www.edexcellence.net/publicationsissues/publications/sosscience05.html

English. http://www.edexcellence.net/publications-issues/publications/sosenglish05.html

Social Studies. http://www.edexcellence.net/publications-issues/publications/wheredidssgowrong.html

Terrorism and Tyranny. http://www.edexcellence.net/publications-issues/publications/terrorists.html

Do NOT be bamboozled by politically correct or fashionable stuff. Just because it’s in a textbook, and just because “everyone” is all for it, does not mean the textbook is right and that everyone who is a believer is right. Surgeons used to be against sterilizing the equipment! Result? About one-fourth of their patients died of infections.

16. The standards or objectives in most state standard courses of study, or curricula, are vague. It’s hard to tell exactly what students are supposed to learn, and therefore what you are supposed to teach. Using your own knowledge of the subject, you have to make relevant standards clear (wording) and concrete (actual behavior of students).

Go here to learn more.

http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/instructionalobjectives.doc

Assessment of Knowledge of Instructional Objectives

17. Start planning at the end of the curriculum. What terminal performance and terminal objectives will you use to assess learning and teaching of the whole curriculum?

This tells you what to teach in each unit of the curriculum. The terminal performance and objectives for each unit tell you what to teach in each lesson in

the unit. The terminal performance and objectives for each lesson tell you what to teach in each task in

the lesson.

The terminal performance and objectives for each task tell you what statements to say in the task. 18. How does do the terminal performance and terminal objectives for a curriculum,

course, unit, lesson, or task tell you what to teach? Easy, just ask, What do students need to know to DO the terminal performance in a way that meets the objectives (accuracy, peed, completeness)? This is called knowledge analysis.

For example, if the terminal performance for a lesson is reading a story, a knowledge analysis of reading that story tells you that students have to (1) read paragraphs, which means that they have to (2) read sentences, which means that they have to (3) read words fast, which means that they have to to (4) read words fast, which means that they have to (5) sound out words, which means that they have to (6) segment words into separate sounds and (7) know the sounds that go with the letters, which means that they have to (8) say sounds.

So the knowledge analysis tells you the elements you have to teach, and it tells you the logical order in which you have to teach them. Use this information to arrange tasks in lessons and lessons in units.

More examples…

At the end of a task, you will say, “Your turn to sounds out these words. sam run fit at sat rim.” This is the terminal performance. The objective is the everyone does each word correctly and within 5 seconds. Do a knowledge analysis of sounding out words. So, what ELEMENTS of the sounding out routine do you have to teach, and in what order should you teach these elements?

How do you figure out the logical order? Easy. You have to know some elements before you can learn others.

At the end of a lesson, students will do FOIL with examples like these. (3 + 4)(6 + 2) (3 – 2)(9 + 2) (8 + 6)(5 – 4) This is the terminal performance. The objective is the everyone does each problem

correctly and within 1 minute. Do a knowledge analysis of FOIL with these examples. What ELEMENTS of the FOIL routine do you have to teach, and in what order should you teach these elements?

Go here to learn more.Knowledge Analysis

Assessment of Knowledge of Knowledge Analysis

Form for Doing Knowledge Analysis

19. Use information from the terminal performance assessment to improve instruction by:Correcting errors. “That sound is mmm. What sound. mmm. Okay, sound out that word again.”

Firming up a weak element. “Let’s practice the third step of the routine… Okay, now let’s go back and do the whole routine.

Reteach. “Listen. Here’s the rule again…. Say it with me…. Your turn. What’s the rule?...” [If you have to reteach, it means that you did not correct errors and firm weak elements!!!]

Use more intensive instruction= small groups; homogeneous grouping; more focused and explicit; focus on smaller elements; more examples; more practice before you go on.

Go here to learn more.http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/four%20level%20procedure%20for%20remediation.doc