Tugas Artikel Kurikulum PendidikanThe implementation of curriculum, media, materials, methods, and evaluation in teaching-learning process

Name : Dini Shafa (222 3131 259)Class : 3 A

a. The implementation of curriculumhttp://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/curriculum/implementation-of-the-new-zealand-curriculum-synthesis-of-research-and-evaluation/5.-the-process-of-implementation

Implementation of the New Zealand Curriculum: Synthesis of Research & Evaluation

Publication Details

The revised New Zealand Curriculum was launched in November 2007, with schools required to give full effect to the curriculum by February 2010. Progress towards this has been monitored using evidence reported by the Education Review Office and research teams commissioned by the Ministry of Education. This report synthesises this evidence.

Author(s): Dr Sandie SchagenDate Published: March 2011

5. The process of implementation

What stages or phases are involved in curriculum implementation? One of the SSS regions reported that, at the time of writing (December 2009), most schools had:

created vision and values statements

reflected on the key competencies, establishing shared thinking among staff, and sometimes also with students

discussed the NZC principles

begun to explore the learning areas, and linking the vision, values and key competencies into each.

Other research and evaluation is consistent with this, affirming that schools chose to unpack the ‘front end’ of NZC, before moving on to the learning areas. This was typical, according to both CIES and MECI.9 One MECI focus group participant described, for example, how her school had held a whole-school teacher-only day to deal with the front end, followed by staff meetings focusing on the learning areas. According to an SSS (2009) report, ‘Professional learning opportunities have largely focused on understanding the front of the NZC with departments translating this into their context in their own professional learning time’(p.101).We summarise below reports on the work done by schools at different stages of NZC implementation, though there is often insufficient evidence to show how these are linked.

Overlaps are inevitable, and we do not mean to imply that all schools have worked through these stages in the order listed. In the NZCER national survey of secondary schools (2009) principals and teachers were asked which aspects of NZC had been explored as a whole staff. Findings will be referred to below, but it is worth noting here that in most cases principals were more likely than teachers to say that an area had been covered.

Planning. In their first (January 2009) report ERO observed that between a quarter and a third of secondary schools had prioritised such aspects as establishing an action plan or timeline for curriculum implementation. Those that had done this early in the preparation process had made good progress.Building on existing work. There are examples of schools deliberately looking for matches between NZC and the work they were already doing. It can be encouraging to realise that implementing NZC need not require wholesale change, because schools are already moving in the direction required. Schools involved in a curriculum conference mainly took the view that ‘implementation is an evolutionary process rather than a revolution’ (Hipkins et al, 2009, p.45). They were ‘capitalising on their existing strengths to take them further’. MECI points out, however, that there is a danger that schools may convince themselves that they are doing everything already, and ignore the opportunities for change, improvement and deeper understanding of the NZC intent.Vision and values. As noted above, most schools started here. According to principals in the 2009 NZCER survey, 95 percent of secondary schools had explored both the vision statement and values as a whole staff. However, only three-quarters of the secondary teachers surveyed said that they had been involved in such an exercise.In their first readiness review (January 2009), ERO emphasised the importance of preparatory work on vision, values and key competencies being completed as a school-wide project, rather than (as in some cases) being done at an individual departmental level. Effective consultation usually resulted in a better shared understanding about the key elements of a school’s curriculum.

In the same report, ERO looked at how advanced 43 secondary schools were (by the latter half of 2008) in the review and design of their school curriculum in relation to the key components of NZC. They found that 18 of the schools were either initiating or well advanced in curriculum design with reference to vision and values, compared with 14 for the key competencies, nine for the learning areas and six for the principles. The picture for the larger group of primary schools was very similar.

Later (in December 2009), SSS reports confirmed that ‘Many schools [are] using vision as starting point in NZC implementation’ (p.169). One report observed that ‘A number of catholic schools are using values as a key entry point into NZC, and this is leading to some innovative curriculum work focussed around both vision and values’ (SSS, 2009, p.114). The same report noted however that much of the initial work on values, principles and key competencies was ‘surface’ (see Section 3.4); schools were recognising this and were setting up processes to revisit these areas and develop deeper understanding.Key competencies. Development work on the key competencies was also an early priority for schools. Hipkins et al. observed back in 2007 that ‘Some [of the so-called ‘early adopter’] schools anticipated the direction of change and have already begun experimenting with their own version of the key competencies’ (pamphlet 2, p.1).

According to the NZCER 2009 survey, 91 percent of secondary school principals (and 81 percent of secondary school teachers) said that the competencies had been explored as a whole staff.

ERO found that, in the first half of 2009, the priority for most primary schools was working on the key competencies: ‘Many were aiming to complete the process of aligning the competencies to the school vision and values, and integrating them into plans for teaching and learning.’ (ERO, 2009b, p.7). The principal and deputy principal of a full primary case-study school expressed the view that key competencies would drive curriculum implementation in their school (Hipkins et al., 2009).Nevertheless, an SSS report (December 2009) identified teachers’ understanding of the key competencies in relation to learning areas and pedagogical content knowledge as an area of need, stating that in some cases their understanding remained quite shallow. This is consistent with the view noted above, that much of the initial work on the key competencies (as well as that on values and principles) was at a surface level only. SSS reports also noted that there was ongoing confusion around assessment of the key competencies, and that some teachers had difficulty with the understanding that key competencies needed to be monitored but not assessed.

By the second half of 2009, according to ERO, 46 percent of schools were well underway, and 50 percent under way, in terms of integrating the key competencies into teaching and learning programmes. ERO reported that in many secondary schools, teachers had benefited from regular NZC-related PD which was often focused on the key competencies: ‘understanding them, integrating them into teaching and learning programmes and monitoring them’ (ERO, 2010, p.13).Principles. According to the NZCER survey, 88 percent of secondary school principals, and 73 percent of teachers, said that they had explored the NZC principles as a whole staff. Just over a third of principals and teachers said that they had explored the principles in teams, and a smaller proportion (13 percent of principals, 15 percent of teachers) said they explored them individually. Very few (two percent of principals, six percent of teachers) said they were not yet a focus.Comments about the principles have been included in some of what has already been said, since they relate also to the vision and values, and/or the key competencies. However, an SSS report (2009, p.5) observed that the principles were ‘not generally being recognised as the foundation of curriculum decision making’ because they were ‘significantly overshadowed’ by the key competencies. Schools therefore needed help with understanding the intent of the principles, and how they should underpin all curriculum decision making.Pedagogy. Responding to the NZCER survey, 85 percent of secondary principals, but only 65 percent of teachers, said that effective pedagogy had been explored as a whole staff. CIES talked to school leaders about the means used to encourage pedagogical change; they found that effective leaders adopted very different strategies, ‘according to the perceived needs of their staff and the specificities of their school context’ (Cowie et al, 2009, p.29). Some schools were considering, or experimenting with, changes to the timetable and/or physical spaces to better accommodate new pedagogical approaches.CIES case-study school leaders said that, as they began to explore what constitutes effective pedagogy, they needed to go back and review their vision and goals, because their understanding of the scope of these had evolved. (This is consistent with what was said

above about the need to revisit values, principles and key competencies for more in-depth exploration.) Principals highlighted ‘the centrality of the relationship between the school vision for student learning and achievement and teacher pedagogical practices in support of this’ (Cowie et al, 2009, p.18).Teacher inquiry cycle. CIES found that, over the two years of fieldwork, the use of ‘teacher as inquirer’ models was starting to become more common in schools. In contrast with the cycle presented in NZC, models often included feedback from the school leadership team, professional development advisers or teacher colleagues (based on mutual observation). However, there was in many cases a lack of understanding about the meaning of the teaching as inquiry process; some staff were confusing this with the inquiry learning approaches they were using with their students. In some schools, where the term ‘teacher as inquirer’ came to be more commonly used, the misunderstanding was addressed, but in other schools the confusion was still evident. MECI also found a great deal of variation in focus group participants’ understanding of teaching as inquiry, and in particular ‘a significant degree of confusion’ between teaching as inquiry and inquiry learning approaches (Sinnema, 2010, p.17).An SSS report also talked about the confusion between ‘teaching as inquiry’ and ‘inquiry learning’. Another gave a more positive assessment, but noted that individual support from an adviser had been necessary for some teachers to fully engage with the process. Moreover, ‘A few teachers are still resistant and need collegial support’ (SSS, 2009, p.101). A third report listed teaching as inquiry among the greatest strengths in current (2009) school practice, although the full wording ‘teachers focusing on teaching as inquiry and learning alongside students in their inquiry processes’ (p.4) could perhaps tend to foster the confusion already described.As a result of the confusion surrounding the term, ERO no longer refers to teaching as inquiry in their third (2010) report. Instead, they talk about ‘using an evidence-based approach to teaching’. By the second half of 2009, ERO found that all or most teachers in 61 percent of the schools reviewed were using an evidence-based approach, and in only seven percent of the schools was it not being used by any teachers. There was still a difference between sectors, with an evidence-based approach being used by most or all teachers in nearly two-thirds of primary schools but less than half of secondary schools.Curriculum design and review. In the NZCER secondary school survey (2009), just under half of the principals (48 percent) and just over a third of the teachers (37 percent) said they had been involved in curriculum design and review. According to ERO’s first report:

“School curriculum design and review involves making decisions about how to give effect to the national curriculum in ways that best address the particular needs, interests, and circumstances of the school’s students and community.” (ERO, 2009a, p.4).

The second ERO report (August 2009) stressed the importance of curriculum design and review being seen as a cyclic process. Therefore ‘A critical driver in successful curriculum design, implementation and delivery is the effectiveness of the school’s self review or inquiry process.’ (ERO, 2009b, p.1). ‘Curriculum design and implementation is informed by ongoing inquiry into what is working and how well it is working for diverse students.’ (p.2).The second round of CIES data collection (end of 2008 or beginning of 2009) revealed a growing understanding from school leaders that ‘curriculum implementation involves an

iterative adaptive cycle of trialling, reflection and the generation of new possibilities’ (Cowie et al, 2009, p.19).Experimentation was encouraged, because school leaders acknowledged the importance of taking risks and trialling ideas in the classroom (experimenting and risk-taking were described as strengths in one SSS area at the end of 2009). They had come to realise that curriculum implementation ‘takes time and requires ongoing change’ (Cowie et al, 2009, p.32).CIES found that the ‘iterative process’ of engaging with NZC ideas was common in primary schools but less firmly embedded in the intermediate and secondary sectors.

b. the implementation of mediahttp://rafleckt.wordpress.com/2010/04/23/how-media-and-technology-influence-learning/

How Media and Technology Influence Learning

How Media and Technology Influence Learning

(Based on the Clark/Kozma Debate)

This position paper is based on Richard E. Clark and Robert Kozma’s famous debate that looks at whether media and technology influences learning. I will be looking at the role media and technology play in motivating and enhancing learning in schools of the 21st century. I will also be examining the possible challenges within the use of technology in school settings and conclude by suggesting some possible recommendations that will analyze the possible directions of media and technology in the future.

Summary of Debate

Clark, a professor of instructional technology at the University of Southern California, insists that media does not influence learning under any conditions. He felt that its only influence was cost and distribution. He goes as far as to say, that different forms of “media” are mere vehicles that delivers instruction but does not influence student achievement any more more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition” (Clark, 1994, p. 22). In addition, Clark mentions, “Learning seems to result from factors such as task differences, instructional methods, and learner traits(including attitudes) but not the choice of media for instruction” (1992, p.812). It seems evident that Clark’s (1983) focus is to separate the relationship between media and instructional strategies (method) and to assert that there are no learning advantages from the use of any particular medium.

On the other hand, Kozma (1994), a principal scientist at the Center for Technology in Learning,SRI International, challenges Clark’s idea in the debate about the impact of media andtechnology on learning. He argues that “learners will benefit most from the use of aparticular medium when its capabilities are employed by the instructional method to providerepresentations and cognitive operations that are salient to the task and the situation” (Nathan,& Robinson, 2001, p.72). Kozma proposes that the combination of media with methods ininstructional research might influence and benefit learning for particular students, tasks, andsituations. He also recommends that educators try to question “the ways can we use the capabilities of media and technology to influence learning for particular students with specific tasks in distinct contexts” (Reeves, 1998, p. 26) .

My position within the debate

Clark and Kozma both have important points of view. Teaching and learning environments certainly have changed a lot since Clark and Kozma wrote these two papers. Perhaps after observing all the changes, Clark and Kozma might agree that each argument has its own value and strength.

Clark has a strong argument that people tend to “encourage students and teachers ) to begin with educational and instructional solutions and search for problems that can be solved by those solutions” (Clark, 1994, p.28). It is not uncommon tosee people working intensely on developing new technologies (media) but then having difficulty marketing the product line because it has limited use or value in real life. If not careful the same thing could happen to instructional design if we omit the underlying guidelines (methods) for the teaching/learning model when exploring various possibilities of improving the use of media.

On the other hand, I think Kozma is also right when he argues that the combinationof media with methods in instructional research might influence and benefit learning for learners who can engage in technology-embedded instruction. Overall, I agree with the conclusion that Kozma suggested in his article that we should stop debating the issue of “Do media influence learning?” and instead we should begin to think about “In what ways can we use the capabilities of media to influence learning for particular students, tasks, and situations?” (Kozma, 1994, p.18) By doing so, we will have more opportunities to discover the potential relationship between media andlearning and then use the available media to enhance teaching and learning environments to facilitate our students.

Learning “with” and “from” media and technology

Thomas C. Reeves points out that “media and technology have been introduced into schools because it is believed that they can have positive effects on teaching and learning” (1998, p.1). In addition, there is an important approach educational researchers have indicated which argues that both media and technology can effectively be used in schools as phenomena to learn both from and with (Jonassen, & Reeves, 1996). In terms of learning “from” technology, it includes the instructional television, computer-based instruction, or integrated learning systems that have been implemented into classrooms (Reeves, 1998, p.4). Learning “with” technology means to use the technologies as cognitive tools to create constructivist learning environments (Reeves, 1998). Moreover, many researchers such as Jonassen (1996) have shown that the learning process might be changed as an effect of predominant media being used, because “technology or media has been successfully evaluated as type of cognitive mind tool” (Kenny, 2001, p. 210). Therefore, the media and technology can play a powerful role to improve instructions “when students can actively use them as cognitive tools rather than simply perceive and interact with them as tutors or repositories of information” (Reeves, 1998, p.25). It seemsapparent that media does play an important role in the design of an instructional method, because technology can more readily provide a highly learner-oriented and interactive environment in a less expensive way.

Furthermore, today’s learners will need to enter the real-world with capabilities such as the ability to communicate effectively, analyze, synthesize information, utilize higher-order thinking skills and think creatively. I suppose that new technologies could bring new opportunities for teachers to connect with students who are already spending large amounts of time in these activities in creating a more collaborative learning environment. Many researchers agree that computers can be used as tools to engage learners in higher order thinking and provide a constructive learning environment to help the learner actively build up their own knowledge and reflect on their interpretations (Jonassen, & Carr, & Yueh, 1998). Jonassen et al. claim that “Mind tools function as formalisms for guiding learners in the organization and representation of what they know” (1998, p.30). Consequently, educators or instructional designers should pay more attention to the fundamental principles andmethods. In addition to the fundamental principles of education, educators should use new technologies in order to create a suited learning environment to educate the students to be lifelong learners in the future.

The teacher’s role in the process of learning

Seymour Papert defines the process of learning as the “making [of] connections between mental entities that already exist” and states that “new mental entities seem to come into existence in more subtle ways that escape conscious control” (1993, p.105). Learning is a process that students should be encouraged to experience by themselves. Focusing on the learning process will lead them to positive engagement in learning, because they will not be afraid to make mistakes and will be able to find the answers through a series of trials. From this perspective, the teacher is controlling the learning most of the time, and the child is responsible for following instructions. However,teacher-centered teaching cannot provide a better open-ended learning environment to encourage students to think independently and critically than students-centered ways of teaching. I feel that if a teacher can be a facilitator rather than the information deliverer in the classroom during the process of interaction , then students can become deeper thinkers, not just memorizers. In the meantime, a teacher should“facilitate learning by improving the connectivity in the learning environment” (Papert, 1993, p.105), which means involving various real-life or more realistic situations in the teaching and learning materials. Many constructivists believe that hypermedia can be a type of medium that allows learners to “create their own schemata from the pieces of information provided” (Cates, 1995, p.4). Moreover, the research shows that many students in the 21st century could be more actively engaged in instructions through using technology-based learning activities than traditional teacher-based learning environments (Cates, 1995).

The impact of media and technology in school settings

If we look back at prior educational environments before the invention of computers and multimedia technologies, we see there were other types of technologies introduced as instructional tools such as radio, film, and television into classrooms with a certain degree of success (Nathan, & Robinson, 2001). Today, digital technologies have greatly influenced children in the 21st century. Educational experiences have remained consistent even while there have been some significant changes in the modes and

models of teaching and learning with the advance of technology, mainly due to the invention of the Internet and the popularity of personal computers. Thus, educators should deliberately “look differently on communicating and educating today’s media-centric youth” (Kenny, 2001, p. 210) and use those technologies to be the instructional supplementary materials that enable pedagogies to be more diversified.

However, after reading the article “Now More Than Ever: Will High-Tech Kids Still Think Deeply?”, I found that Tarlow and Spangler (2001) mainly tried to argue that we, aseducators or educational instruction designers, should be sure not to overlook technology tools, but instead, use our critical capabilities to deliberate on the most essential learning objectives that we seek to achieve, and we should apply and estimate high-tech applications in order to achieve those objectives. I agree that when we, as educators, over-extend new technologies, it does bring with it drawbacks to the educational system. Kozma (1994) points out that “learning with media can be thought of as a complementary process within which representations are constructed and procedures performed, sometimes by the learner and sometimes by the medium” (p.11).

It is my goal for the future to be an instructional designer, in addition to still being a teacher and educator, to be reminded that it is important not to over-emphasize the capacity of media and technology tools, but rather to closely look at the purpose of education and its educational goals. Media and technology can be one type of channel ortoolbox to enhance the learning environment, but I believe that they are not the only solution for achieving our educational goals. McLuhan (1964) proposed the idea thatmedium is the message and the four-tiered questions to evaluate new technology when we think about applying it: “what does it extend?”; “what does it make obsolete?”; “what is retrieved?” and “what does the technology revert into if it is over-extended?”. I believe that if we seriously rethink those questions before we determine what kind of technology we will use to improveour teaching, it will lead us to a more neutral decision.

The challenges of learning by media and technology

In school settings, how can we design instruction and implement applications in the classroom? There are some concerns applying technology in the real-world classroom. First, the virtual classroom is not necessarily suitable for every learner, because it requires more self-discipline from students themselves, and it might not be able to provide a full-scale learning environment for students because of the lack of social experiences and interactions among students. Secondly, the technological implementation process will take time to integrate with current school systems. In addition, it will involve a lot of money, strength, and time. Will most of the schools have enough resources to adapt new technology? Finally, many teachers realized that they are not well-prepared for new technologies. Susan

Nelson mentions that educators can not sophisticatedly adopt technological instructions, because “the school setting and the student-teacher learning paradigm have been largely ignored by most major software designers” (Nelson, 2000, p.46). It is important that schools provide teachers with continuous professional development

training to enhance their teaching methods and gain confidence in using new technology tools. For instructional designers, it is important to incorporate teaching methods to create a more effective and interactive learning environment. These are the challenges and real problems that I foresee.

Recommendations for applications of technology

Modern technology offers an easier and even faster environment to access and retrieve information. Children can retrieve information much more rapidly using Internet service, but it doesn’t necessarily mean that children have the ability to evaluate the validity of information, nor does it mean that the information they acquire from the Internet will trigger them to think deeply. Nelson states that, “true learning is not so much about the gathering of information as it is about using and analyzing information. The Internet does not promote this level of thinking” (2000, p. 47). Essentially, education should prepare students to be creative thinkers and develop the needed models and purpose for learning. Therefore, the goal of teaching and learning should be focused on training students to think critically and giving them opportunities to build up their own thinking experiences they implement the future teaching model. I believe that educators should pay more attention to how instructions are delivered to students and how the learning objectives should be achieved. At the same time, they should prepare children to have the life-longcapabilities and decision-making skills to face a society that is changing rapidly.

Final remarks

“In good designs, a medium’s capabilities enable methods and the methods that are used take advantage of these capabilities” (Kozma, 1994, p.16). It is important to evaluate the following four questions that Cates (1995, p.10) quoted in White’s article, “Educators must ask themselves some important questions,” when they integrate technology into instructions. First educators should ask, “What is the educational value of the technological advance?”Secondly, instructors must pose the question, “What type of information is best presented through which medium?” Furthermore, they also need to think about “How can we get more tools for education that combine quality technology with quality education?” Lastly, itis important to ask “What are the critical tools for education?” I believe for myself, going into instructional design in the future, these questions are good reminders that encourage me to analyze instructional methods before creating new technology-embedded tools. Hyperlearning tools can definitely change learning and provide a more dynamic learning environment only if they are implemented effectively and efficiently for learners. Will this in turn phase out the need for schools? Perelman (1993) argues that public education and schools or colleges will be replaced by the hyperlearning revolution in the future. It is very hard to think that everything that needs to be learned can be learned only through technology. Everyone is unique; thus, some of the learners might easily absorb new knowledge through technology-incorporated materials, but others might need more face-to-face.

c. The implementation of materialshttp://www.materials.ac.uk/guides/casestudies.asp

Teaching Materials Using Case Studies

By Claire Davis and Elizabeth Wilcock

Why This Guide?

Teaching and learning styles are, by their very nature, changing and in recent years there has been a noticeable move from lecture-based activities towards more student-centred activities. Case studies are an increasingly popular form of teaching and have an important role in developing skills and knowledge in students. This guide explores the use of the case-based approach to support engineering education and, more specifically, their role in Materials Science related Higher Education courses. This will include looking at the 'traditional' Materials Science and Engineering courses as well as the more multidisciplinary courses (e.g. Biomedical Materials Science, Sports and Materials Science etc.).

This guide highlights the good practice we have identified, and also discusses our experiences (both good and bad) of the adoption and implementation of this type of learning activity. We hope that by explaining our rationale for the adoption of case studies, and by discussing their development and structure, you will be encouraged to consider your own teaching methods and whether this approach, or aspects of it, is appropriate to you. At the end of the guide are 5 examples of case studies that illustrate some of the different topics discussed below.

Perspective adoptedIn this guide, we consider the topic of case studies in its entirety. We begin by outlining our reasons for incorporating case studies into the teaching syllabus and then look at different aspects of case studies, including subject choice and content development, running and structuring of case studies, and assessment methods. Good practice, and examples of ideas that have been tried and found wanting, are discussed. Gaining feedback on our case studies from both students and staff has been an important aspect of our research and this is also reviewed.

What Is a Case Study?

It is now documented that students can learn more effectively when actively involved in the learning process (Bonwell and Eison, 1991; Sivan et al, 2001). The case study approach is one way in which such active learning strategies can be implemented in our institutions. There are a number of definitions for the term case study. For example, Fry et al (1999) describe case studies as complex examples which give an insight into the context of a problem as well as illustrating the main point. We define our case studies as student centred activities based on topics that demonstrate theoretical concepts in an applied setting. This definition of a case study covers the variety of different teaching structures we use, ranging

from short individual case studies to longer group-based activities. Examples of different styles of case studies are given at the end of this guide.

It is at this point that it is important to make a distinction between this type of learning and problem-based learning. The structure and format of our case studies can be likened to project-based learning as described by Savin-Baden (2003). Savin-Baden highlights the differences between problem-based learning and project-based learning and these can be summarised as follows:

Project-based Learning Problem-Based LearningPredominantly task orientated with activity often set by tutor

Problems usually provided by staff but what and how they learn defined by students

Tutor supervises Tutor facilitates

Students are required to produce a solution or strategy to solve the problem

Solving the problem may be part of the process but the focus is on problem-management, not on a clear and bounded solution

May include supporting lectures which equip students to undertake activity, otherwise students expected to draw upon knowledge from previous lectures

Lectures not usually used on the basis that students are expected to define the required knowledge needed to solve the problem

Table 1: Differences and similarities between project-based learning (similar in structure to case study learning) and problem based learning.

In practice there is overlap between the two teaching modes and we should not worry too much about clear distinctions. Many of the discussion points in this guide will be relevant to both case studies and problem-based learning topics.

Why Use Case Studies in Teaching?

The discipline of Materials Science and Engineering is ideal for using case study teaching because of the wealth of practical, real life examples that can be used to contextualise the theoretical concepts. Educational research has shown case studies to be useful pedagogical tools. Grant (1997) outlines the benefits of using case studies as an interactive learning strategy, shifting the emphasis from teacher-centred to more student-centred activities. Raju and Sanker (1999) demonstrate the importance of using case studies in engineering education to expose students to real-world issues with which they may be faced. Case studies have also been linked with increased student motivation and interest in a subject (Mustoe and Croft, 1999). In our experience of using case studies, we have found that they can be used to:

Allow the application of theoretical concepts to be demonstrated, thus bridging the gap between theory and practice.

Encourage active learning.

Provide an opportunity for the development of key skills such as communication, group working and problem solving.

Increase the students' enjoyment of the topic and hence their desire to learn.

Most courses already have some case study teaching in them and we have introduced a greater extent of case-based approach in all of our courses for the above reasons. We have found the use of case studies to be very beneficial, not only to the students but also to our lecturers who have found the learning/teaching experience enjoyable and challenging. Students' comments include:

'Well, it's real stuff isn't it? Otherwise you can feel like you're just doing something for the sake of it. When you do a case study you go out and find information that is being used in real life.'

'It's something different where you actually apply what you're learning.'

Did We Find It Hard to Introduce Case Studies Into Our Teaching?

In our experience, an important factor in the introduction of case studies into a course is the style or structure of the course itself. We offer a number of separate courses in our department and have recognised that they fall into two distinct types (defined here as Type I and Type II). Type I courses are the traditional Materials Science and Engineering degrees which are accredited by the Engineering Council and can lead onto Chartered Engineer status. We also offer multidisciplinary courses (Type II courses) such as Bio-Medical Materials and Sports and Materials Science. These courses are not accredited and take students with a wider range of background skills, varied academic qualifications and different career aspirations. Overall, we have found it easier to introduce case studies into our Type II courses and therefore these courses contain a greater proportion of this type of learning. A summary of the differences between these courses is given in Table 2.

Type I courses Type II courses

Content mostly specified by accreditation Non-accredited courses

Well established courses with existing lecture content

New lecture content often required (for at least part of the course)

Students more likely to have a physical science background (maths, chemistry, physics)

Students likely to have a mixed subject (arts + sciences/ vocational) background

Tends to be more theory-based Tends to be more application-focussed

Table 2. Differences between traditional, established Materials Science and Engineering degree courses (Type I courses) and the newer (often multidisciplinary) Materials related courses (Type II courses).

Other issues that relate to introducing case studies in our courses (other than due to syllabus/accreditation constraints) are as follows:

Some lecturers had been teaching their modules for a long time and were reluctant to change the tried and tested formula. Others, however, were keen to experiment with different types of learning as opposed to the traditional 'talk and chalk' method. Those who were open to new types of teaching were generally more involved in the planning and teaching of the newer courses.

Where case studies have been included in the place of lectures and practicals covering similar topic areas in our traditional courses, we initially did not replace sufficient existing time-tabled teaching to allow for students to carry out background reading and additional research. We have now rectified this.

We have found it easier to increase the number of cases running in our courses in a gradual manner as we identify the resources, time and support that is needed.

How Do You Develop a Case Study?

There are a number of ways to develop case studies, some more successful than others. The following list covers the main methods and also discusses other options and experiences external to our institution.

Developing a case study based on the research interests of staff. For example, the research area of one of our lecturers is polymeric foams; he is now responsible for a sports and materials science case study analysing running shoe performance including the behaviour of the polymeric foams in the soles. We have found this to be a good method of case study development, as it is easier to locate resources for the case study and the lecturer's in-depth knowledge and interest in the topic add to the case study.

Requesting students to develop case studies based on personal interests.This is a method we have not tried, but is an interesting way to develop case studies and one promoted by Smith (1992). However, problems may arise when trying to involve students. For example, the University of Bath are currently producing a portfolio of case studies to support recruitment and teaching of their undergraduate courses in Materials Science and Engineering and initially approached the students for ideas. They ran a competition where undergraduates and postgraduates were invited to submit proposals and a prize of £250 was offered. Unfortunately, this was not as successful as anticipated and students did not take part in the competition. This may be because the students did not have enough confidence in their abilities to develop a case study or felt they did not have the spare time to work on the topic, particularly as many students take part time jobs to help finance their studies. A more focussed approach of asking postgraduate students, and graduates from the department, to develop case studies based on their experiences/projects is now being pursued.

Develop from scratch, maybe following interests/ideas picked up from elsewhere. This approach may involve contacting or visiting other institutions to find out what methods and topics they are using.

Invite external lecturers, for example from industry, to develop, or contribute to, a case study. Involving external sources can add new dimensions to the learning activity. One of our case studies looks at materials used in tennis equipment and we invite a tennis coach to brief the students on the topic at the start of the case study. This has been well received by the students who felt it added further insights into the topic. Another approach is to use real-life examples from industry such as described by Raju and Sanker (1999), for example by inviting practising engineers to present examples in the form of a case study. Care is needed if an external lecturer is asked to develop the entire case study to ensure they understand what is being requested of them.

Developing a case study to replace more traditional teaching on the same topic. For example, we now run a case study on joining processes, which contributes to a third of a module in level 2 (see case study example 5). The topics covered in this case study were previously taught through lectures. We decided to adapt this part of the module to a team case study approach that is continuously assessed with no examination question.

Use of Case Studies to Develop Key Skills

We have found the case-based approach to be a useful method to develop transferable skills. Key skills we have embedded into our case studies include:

Group working. The benefits of group working are well documented, and we have found that a team case study approach can add to the learning experience. In our Sports and Materials Science course group work has the added benefit of allowing students to share their personal knowledge and experiences of sport (many students on this course play sport to a high level). Care is needed with group working activities e.g. selecting group membership to ensure smooth group operation/training of students in group working skills. This is particularly important for longer case studies.

Individual study skills. Case studies are a good vehicle for encouraging students to carry out independent research outside of the lecture/tutorial environment.

Information gathering and analysis. Many case studies require resource investigation and encourage students to utilise a number of different sources, i.e. Internet, library, laboratory results and contacting experts in industry.

Time management. Longer case studies require students to really consider how best to carry out the work so that it is completed to the set deadline. Interim meetings with academic staff ensure progress is made during the case study rather than all the work being left to the last week.

Presentation skills. Most of our case studies require students to present their work in a variety of formats, these include oral presentations, articles, posters and reports.

Practical skills. Some of our case studies involve practical work on the components that are being studied. Feedback has shown that many students enjoy the hands-on approach.

Assessment Types for Case Studies

Our case studies encourage learning of both course content and key skills, and careful consideration needs to be made as to how to assess these different aspects. The two main modes of assessment are formative (assessment for the purpose of improving learning and student performance) and summative (evaluation of student performance against a set of predetermined standards). We use summative assessment to assess the students' understanding of course content, yet realise that a more formative approach is necessary for evaluating key skills development and giving feedback to encourage students to reflect upon their learning experience. Booklet 7 of the LTSN Generic Centre Assessment Booklet Series provides informative and detailed discussions of these modes of assessment.

Group assessment is another area we have had to consider, as many of our case studies are group-based. Learning to collaborate is a useful skill and the ability to produce a group output is an important part of this. In terms of summative assessment, these case studies require students to produce one or more outputs between them (generally a report and/or presentation/poster) and we have used group meetings with supervisors and feedback sessions to provide the formative assessment. In order to produce an individual student mark, we use confidential peer assessment forms and/or an individual executive summary to go with the group output. There is much literature on this subject and our suggestion of some good reads are booklets 9 and 12 of the LTSN Generic Centre Assessment Booklet Series and the SEDA paper 102 'Peer Assessment in Practice'.

Are Case Studies a Good Learning Approach for All Students?

It should be acknowledged that styles and modes of learning vary from student to student. Our case studies are predominantly coursework-based; however, this style of work may not be suited to everyone. Some students may work more efficiently in a formal and time-constrained setting, such as an examination, and although this may not be the better mode of learning, it is one to which they have become thoroughly accustomed to at school. One way in which we have tackled this, in some of our case studies, is to have both coursework and exam assessment on the case study content. Provided that a balance in learning styles is maintained in the overall course then the students are able to develop a range of skills and no student should be unfairly disadvantaged compared to another. Group working may also not be suited to all students. Our feedback on group work has shown that this presented a particular problem for some students. Most students recognise its importance for developing key skills, but many commented on the uneven workload within their groups. Comments included;

'It's not fair when other members of the group do not provide any input or aid the group effort yet still get marks...'

'I don't like working as part of a team because there are always lazy people who don't do any work and if you don't want that to affect your own mark you end up doing everything. I work well in a team and am quite a good organiser, but tend to do too much of the work.'

In response to this feedback, we developed a way of tackling the issue of uneven workload. We piloted formal group sessions with the lecturer in one of our case studies (see case study example 3 for details). Student feedback was positive and we feel that this has gone part way to helping the students. Positive comments made included:

'They (the group sessions) enabled the group to set specific targets and identify the roles of each individual'

'A good way of motivating people to actually do some work and not to leave it to the last minute!'

Evaluating Your Teaching

It is all very well to promote case studies as a good form of teaching, but how do you evaluate whether they are meeting the objectives set for them in terms of increasing student enjoyment/motivation, content coverage and depth of learning? Evaluating students' learning can be problematic but essential to ensure good teaching. Some suggestions for evaluation are as follows:

Questionnaire (closed questions): These ask for a specific answer - a circle round an option, items to be ranked etc; there are many standard university versions of this type of questionnaire. This approach can be cost-effective for pro-cessing the data and interpreting the results. However, they limit the responses from the students to predetermined answers.

Questionnaire (open-ended questions): These allow students to fully explain their views and justify their answers. However, it can take time to analyse and interpret the results. We tend to use this approach, particularly with the introduction of new case studies, as we feel the questions evoke more personal and informative answers from students.

Interviews and discussion: Tutorials and staff/student liaison committees offer a good opportunity to discuss the learning experience with students. If assessing a specific case study, it is often better to use a member of staff who is not directly involved in the case study so that students do not worry that negative feedback may affect their assessment.

Independent Evaluator: An extension to the above point is to use an independent assessor who meets with the students. For example, we have a research assistant who is responsible for assessing, developing and evaluating our case studies. Our assistant has gained feedback using questionnaires and one-to-one and small group interviews. We have found that having an evaluator who is not a lecturer (and not responsible for marking their work) has allowed students to be more direct and honest in their comments on the case studies.

Common Pitfalls

Feedback from both staff and lecturers has highlighted areas for improvement in our case study teaching. Some of these will equally apply to other forms of teaching, for example problem-based learning, small group tutorials, project work etc.

Group working.The subject of group working comes up time and time again in student feedback. We originally provided no formal training for group work and soon recognised that this was an area we needed to address. We have developed a case study for some level1 students that incorporates group training including discussion of group dynamics, group functioning and group meetings. As outlined earlier, we also feel that formal group sessions are helpful for the students, particularly for longer case studies.

Explanation of case study requirements. Feedback has shown that students would like more details on what is expected from them in the case studies e.g. level of independent research and, more specifically, sufficient information on how to write reports, give presentations and design and present posters. This is particularly important at the start of the course as for many students this may be a very different form of learning to what they were used to at school. For example, one student commented after a case study, 'A better brief for the poster would have limited the text content, and a clear aim for what needs to be included would have been helpful'. We have now compiled tips and suggestions for students in these areas, which will form part of our case studies support web-site.

Depth of learning. When examining student use of resources, we found that many of the research-based case studies led students to derive all their information from the Internet. Whilst this is a valuable resource we feel that it can often result in only surface learning. We have found that one way of addressing this is to specify to students that we are expecting critical analysis in their work. Including a practical component is also a useful way of achieving more in-depth study (see case study example 3). Ensuring that there is progression of learning skills development (e.g. analysis to synthesis etc.) when using a series of case studies is important, rather than repetition of the same skills.

Case study mark allocation. We have had to consider how many credits/marks should be allocated to our case studies. We have found that some students have spent quite a lot of time carrying out independent research yet felt that they have not received enough credit. Greater guidance was required as to how the marks were allocated.

Added workload i.e. not replacing sufficient other teaching. In some cases, where we have replaced existing teaching with case studies we have found that students were actually spending more time working towards the case study than they would have spent in the original mode of learning. Whilst it is encouraging to see such dedication to the topic, we realise that it is important not to overload students with case study work that could compromise being able to complete assignments in parallel modules.

Appendix - Case Study Examples

1 Chocolate - a Materials Approach:Length: 3 hours (one lab session)

Level: 1st year Materials Science and Engineering Course

Aim: To demonstrate the relevance of, and application of, scientific theories developed in lectures to a single material. To encourage students to use knowledge from a number of lecture courses in another setting

Key skills: Group work, presentational skills, time management

Assessment: Question sheet and group presentation

Students are assigned to groups of 4-6 for the session. Each group is presented with a pack of information about chocolate (raw materials, manufacture, properties, marketing data, heat treatments, compositions, structures etc.) and a set of questions to answer. There is too much information for everyone to read everything, hence the students need to set priorities and allocate tasks to ensure that all the research is completed in time. The groups are also required to give a 5 minutes presentation to the class (they are provided with OHP's and pens) on a given topic, different for each group (e.g. control of taste through composition, structure and processing). The students therefore have to share their findings from the reading and relate the information to their knowledge from other lectures (e.g. what is shell casting, tempering etc.). A final component to the case study is taste testing of a range of different chocolate samples to illustrate the role of composition (sugar, milk, cocoa levels), particle size etc. This element is designed to be both fun and informative, the students particularly like to try the American chocolate, which is almost universally disliked, and determine what the differences are that change the taste compared to the different English chocolate types.

d. The implementation of methodshttp://teach.com/what/teachers-teach/teaching-methods

Teaching MethodsThe term Teaching method refers to the general principles, pedagogy and management strategies used for classroom instruction. Your choice of teaching method depends on what fits you — your educational philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area(s) and school mission statement. Teaching theories primarily fall into two categories or “approaches” — teacher-centered and student-centered:

Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning

Teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as “empty vessels” whose primary role is to passively receive information (via lectures and direct instruction) with an end goal of testing and assessment. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their students. In this model, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments.

Student-Centered Approach to Learning

While teachers are an authority figure in this model, teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process. The teacher’s primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material. Student learning is measured through both formal and informal

forms of assessment, including group projects, student portfolios, and class participation. Teaching and assessment are connected; student learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction.

To better understand these approaches, it is important to discuss what is generally understood as the three main teaching styles in educational pedagogy: direct instruction, inquiry-based learning and cooperative learning. Through these three teaching methods, teachers can gain a better understanding of how to govern their classroom, implement instruction and connect with their students. Within each of these three main teaching styles are teaching roles or “models.” Theorist A.F. Grasha explains the five main teaching models in her publication Teaching with Style (1996): Expert, Formal Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator and Delegator. To gain a better understanding of the fundamentals of each teaching style, it’s best to view them through the lens of direct instruction, inquiry-based learning, and cooperative teaching.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Direct instruction is the general term that refers to the traditional teaching strategy that relies on explicit teaching through lectures and teacher-led demonstrations. Direct instruction is the primary teaching strategy under theteacher-centered approach, in that teachers and professors are the sole supplier of knowledge and information. Direct instruction is effective in teaching basic and fundamental skills across all content areas.

INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING

Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that focuses on student investigation and hands-on learning. In this method, the teacher’s primary role is that of a facilitator, providing guidance and support for students through the learning process. Inquiry-based learning falls under the student-centered approach, in that students play an active and participatory role in their own learning process.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Cooperative Learning refers to a method of teaching and classroom management that emphasizes group work and a strong sense of community. This model fosters students’ academic and social growth and includes teaching techniques such as “Think-Pair-Share” and reciprocal teaching. Cooperative learning falls under the student-centered approach because learners are placed in responsibility of their learning and development. This method focuses on the belief that students learn best when working with and learning from their peers.

In order to identify your personal teaching style, it is important to acknowledge your personal values toward education and how your students learn. Understanding your teaching style early on will prove effective for both you and your students, creating and maintaining a balance between your teaching preferences and your students’ learning preferences.

e. The implementation of evaluationhttp://www.publishyourarticles.net/knowledge-hub/education/what-is-the-importance-of-evaluation.html

What is the Importance of Evaluation?SENTHIL KUMAR EDUCATION

Importance of Evaluation

Evaluation is not just a testing programme or an administrative technique. It is not something to be resorted to at the close of the school term as a culminating activity, nor should it be viewed as an end activity to be done by the district and division supervisors of the Bureaus of Public and Private Schools.

In the modern school, increasing emphasis on the personal and social development of the child, as well as his academic achievement, has called for the corresponding development of a variety of techniques fur appraising all phases of child growth and development, of pupil achievement, of behaviour and of the teaching-learning processes.

Due to the large number of factors that enter into teaching and learning including such instructional variables as objectives, methods and techniques, and subject-matter on the one hand; and such human variables as pupils, teachers, and supervisors on the other, it has been difficult to appraise the validity of the pupil's achievement.

There is, therefore, a comparatively large subjective factor in the evaluation of teaching and learning that needs to be taken into account together with its objective features.

It cannot be denied that the evaluation of teaching and learning is an exceedingly complex activity. However, the efficiency of the teacher and the growth and achievement of the pupil can be evaluated through the use of such devices as check lists, rating scales, and tests of different aspects of teaching ability, interview, and questionnaires.

Through the use of such devices much valuable data may be gathered relative to many of the important aspects of teaching and learning.

The importance of evaluation in teaching can be summarized as follows:

1. Evaluation is Important to the Class-room Teachers, Supervisors, and Administrators in Directing as well as Guiding Teaching and Learning

Evaluation, to be of importance to teachers and supervisors, should be diagnostic, i.e., it should reveal the specific points of strength and weakness in teaching and learning.

2. Evaluation also helps to Measure the Validity and Reliability of Instruction

The effectiveness and success of any phase of teaching technique can be demonstrated through the nature of the results obtained.

From a purely methodical point of view, the measurement of effective teaching finds its great value in the possibilities it offers for the improvement of teaching and learning.

All activities of the teacher should be evaluated in the light of their adequacy to promote the democratic way of life and on how nearly do the students realize the objectives of education.

3. Evaluation Aids in Devising more Effective Instructional Materials and Procedures of Instruction

Current educational literature is filled with enthusiastic advocacy of various cooperative researches, and if worked along this line, will determine the degree of success and effectiveness of evaluation.

4. Evaluation Helps Teachers to Discover the Needs of the Pupils

The purpose of any program of evaluation is to discover the needs of the pupils being evaluated and then to design learning experiences that will satisfy these needs.

Traditionally, the results of evaluation have been used to compare one individual with another. It is an accepted fact that growth is a continuous process and that each individual grows at a rate that is unique for him.

5. Evaluation Stimulates Students to Study

A questioning teacher creates incentives for students to learn more. He sets up effective and definite goals for learning giving oral or written examination is a good incentive for the students to study harder or to do better work.

It makes the learner familiar with his own results. Likewise, he needs to understand his own high and low potential for learning, but even more, he needs help in understanding the personal problems of human relations.

6. Evaluation Helps Parents to Understand Pupil-Growth, Interests, and Potentialities

The major responsibility of the school and teacher is to help the parents understand their children. Understanding a youth means understanding his progress in the various areas of the curriculum, his desires and motives and behavior they lead to, his potentialities for learning, as well as his achievement.

7. Evaluation can be used to Enforce External Standards upon the Individual Class or School

This method should be such as to encourage a flexible curriculum which is ever responsive to the changing needs of modern life and to the variations in local conditions. Local schools

should be free to select and develop instruments for evaluation which are appropriate for their curricula

8. Evaluation, Likewise, Helps to Provide Objective Evidences for Effective Cooperation between Parents and Teachers

The increasing complexity of our present society has emphasized the importance of the cooperation of the school, the home, and the community in making significant educational progress

9. Evaluation is Helpful in Securing Support for the School from the Government, Local or National

The people frequently complain that public schools in this country are inadequately supported.

10. Evaluation is Helpful to the Teacher

It enables him to see how he can make his contribution to the accomplishment of the total goals or aims of the school system. It helps the teacher to coordinate his efforts with the efforts of others who contribute to the general educational goals.

Types of tests useful in teaching

Modern tests are so numerous that it is extremely difficult to classify them closely. Tests can be classified on the basis of their ' forms, their functions, and their content. The types given by the writer are classified as: function, educational intelligence, and personality tests.

1. Educational Tests

Educational tests have as their primary function the measurement of the results or effects of instruction and learning. They are intended to test primarily class-room learning. Educational test may be either standardized or non-standardized.

A non-standardized test has no fixed norm and it is free from prescribed rules. The teacher-made test is a good example of the non-standardized test. Examples of educational tests are the following:

(b) Standard Survey Test, which .aims to measure the attainment, progress or status of the pupils or the schools. It refers also to a test which measures the general achievement of the pupils in a certain subject or field.

(c) Informal or Teacher-made Test, which aims to measure the achievement, progress, weakness or defects of the individual pupils or class, or the effectiveness of the method used by the teacher. This may be either an essay or an informal objective test.

(d) Standard Achievement Test, which aims to measure the pupil's accomplishment as a result of instruction in a given subject or subjects.

(e) Standard Diagnostic Test, which aims to locate the weaknesses, and if possible, the cause of disability in performance.

(f) Aptitude Test, which aims to measure the specific intelligence as it operates in a certain field or area of performance. It may be used for prognostic purposes.

(g) Inventory Test, which aims to measure the degree of mastery existing before the teaching or the learning of the subject or subjects.

2. Intelligence Tests

The intelligence tests have as their purpose the measurement of the pupil's intelligence or mental ability in a large degree without reference to what the pupil learned in or out of school. The two types of Intelligence Tests are:

(a) Individual Intelligence Test

This type of intelligence test can be administered only to one pupil at a time, like the Binet and Simon Intelligence Test (1904).

(b) Group Intelligence Test

This type of Intelligence test can be administered to a number of pupils at the same time, like the Alpha and Beta Intelligence Tests, or the Philippine Mental Tests.

Values of the Educational Test

Some values of the educational test worth considering are as follows:

1. The Educational Test Measures the Accomplishment and Progress of the Pupils

Any attempt to measure the achievement of the children would result in the discovery of the progress being made from week to week, or from month to month or from year to year.

It would be advantageous to note the progress and deficiency at all periods if comparison is to be made with the work three weeks or a month later. Some tests are designed to serve this end these results of achievement tests are widely used for classification and promotion.

2. An Educational Test Diagnoses the Strength and Weakness of the Pupils in a Subject or Subjects

The test will serve both as a guide to teaching and as an enlightenment to the learner. When a pupil makes an error, the teacher needs to apply a diagnostic test to discover why the pupil made the error and to determine how the thinking of the pupil may be directed in order to build up a correct reaction in place of the incorrect one.

Asking questions, the use of drill material, and the review are all forms of diagnostic tests. It is, therefore, a sound educational practice to use both oral and written tests for diagnosing what goes on in the pupil's mind.

3. The Educational Test Stimulates the Pupils to Study

Testing serves as a stimulus to daily preparation. The teacher, by giving an unannounced or announced test of some sort will, no doubt, stimulate the pupils to study the lesson assigned or the work covered. Giving a written examination is a good incentive for the pupils to study harder or to do better work. It makes the learner familiar with his own results.

The final Examination given in the high school and in college at the end of the course or term furnishes a very powerful stimulus to review.

4. The Educational Test Measures the Validity and Reliability of Instruction

The effectiveness and success of any phase of teaching technique can be demonstrated through the character of the results obtained.

The teacher should know how to measure the results of his work in order to adapt his procedure to the needs of the varying situations from a purely methodical point of view the measurement of teaching effectiveness finds its greatest value in the possibilities if offers for the improvement of teaching.

5. The Educational Test Sets-up Standards of Performance for the Pupils

It increases the effectiveness of education by setting up standards of achievement in terms of varying capacities. A standard test can be used in comparing the merits of different schools, different class-room methods, different organisations of materials, and the different lengths and methods of assignment

6. The Educational Test opens the way to Remedial Work

Test results afford a basis for diagnosing the pupil's needs. Difficulties are prevented by the early discovery of the strength and weakness of the pupil. Knowing the defect of the individual or the general weakness "of the class, the teacher will be able to select the right course or procedure to follow

7. The Educational Test can be Used for Educational and Vocational Guidance

Test results afford a basis for the guidance of pupils. The test first came into use in a general way. It can be used to guide the pupil in school in the selection of courses or of the vocation for which he is best qualified. It can be used to discover the unusual aptitude of pupils.

The guidance function of education assumes a prominent place in the modern concepts of the aims of education. It is generally accepted that intelligence tests are necessary to supplement indices of achievement as a basis for guidance.

The use of intelligence tests for guidance purposes has become so thoroughly accepted that no guidance can be considered effective which does not involve the use of these means.

8. Educational Test Results are a Valuable Part of the Pupil's Records

The meaning of the test data is widely understood, and when they are entered in the pupil's permanent record they can help other teachers understand him better. The test data should be used only as background information, not as a measure of present status.

9. Educational Tests can be used in the Classification and Sectioning of Pupils

It has been proved that pupils learn most effectively when they are placed with other pupils having approximately the same abilities.

This means that pupils of approximately the same intelligence and achievement levels should be grouped together for instructional purposes. For the accomplishment of this purpose intelligence and achievement tests can be utilized.

10. The Educational Test can be used by Supervisors to Direct and Guide the Teachers

The supervisor who appreciates the value and limitations of tests can use the data to suggest changes and improvement in teaching procedures. However, tests should not be used as the sole criterion for evaluating teacher-effectiveness.

The training of the teacher, the ability of the class, the materials and resources available to the teacher, are other factors that should be taken into consideration. The test data should be used as supplementary evidence.