The History of Transformers by Rkl a Droga

7/21/2019 The History of Transformers by Rkl a Droga

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FROM THE 2005 DOBLE “LIFE OF A TRANSFORMER” SEMINAR

The following paper is copyright Doble Engineering Company with all rights reserved

THE HISTORY OF ELECTRIC POWER TRANSFORMERSPresented on February 21, 2005

Richard K. Ladroga, P.E.Doble Engineering Company

Introduction

As we move forward into the 21st Century, the use of electricity by mankind has evolved into a necessary staple ofevery day life. But it wasn’t always this way. The advent of power transformers in today’s world is a function ofnecessity, a product of ingenuity, and a marvel of technology. Power transformers are the key element in the presentsystem of electrical power distribution, and this system could not function without transformers. Let’s take a look atwhy and how they were developed.

Early Power Transformers

The first “power transformers” do not even closely resemble modern day transformers in shape, function, or form.Two examples of these early transformers are windmills and waterwheels. These devices were used to “transform”energy from one form into another for the purpose of doing work.

Windmills

One of the earliest documented uses of wind power was a vertical axis systemdeveloped in Persia in the period of 500 - 900 A.D.[1] This primitive winddriven device was purportedly used to pump water, although very littledocumentation exists to sustain this belief. The first known documented

application of windmills was the grinding of grain into flour or meal throughthe use of large cylindrical shaped wheels carved from stones, which wereconnected to a shaft, driven by the wind. The Dutch later harnessed wind power to pump water from areas behind dikes in order to reclaim valuableland, and to pump water for irrigation purposes. Man learned to use theenergy delivered by the winds, but found this method to be unreliable as hisneeds grew more complex. Long periods of still air render this technologyuseless, and this method was too primitive to drive any serious industrial production.

Waterwheels

As man sought a more reliable form of energy to power his needs, he

turned to water. Flowing rivers and streams provide a relativelyconstant source of energy, at least when compared to unpredictablewinds. Waterwheels were developed to harness the energy storedwithin the moving water. Man appears to have learned to harnessthe power of water much earlier than the wind. One of the firstreferences of the use of the waterwheel dates back to about 4000 BC[2], in a writing which describes the freedom from the toil of youngwomen who operated small handmills to grind corn. Waterwheelswere later used over the centuries to irrigate land for agricultural



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needs, or to provide drinking and bathing water to distant locations via aqueducts.

Iron Age

The discovery of iron dates back to approximately 1400 BC in Egypt. The processing of iron ore as we know it

today began in Central Europe around 1300 AD[3]. Man began to use iron for tools and ornamental purposes around1200 BC, thus beginning the era known as the Iron Age. As man learned to work metals, water wheels were used to

power forge bellows, trip hammers, and lathes.

These early waterwheels were used to drive a shaft, but this design had

limited applications. The energy of the water could not be easily

“transmitted” for multiple uses due to the large cumbersome nature of the

early designs. Man learned to harness the energy in a more productivemanner through a design modification employing the use of a system of

gears, connecting the drive shaft indirectly to the loads. Thus loads could be

located or “distributed” throughout a building instead of just at the

immediate location of the shaft itself. This breakthrough helped to initiatemodern manufacturing. In Europe, small factories began to spring up near

waterways as mankind began to emerge from the Dark Ages.

American Revolution

The Americas were rediscovered in 1492 by Christopher Columbus, opening the gateway to a new land. The

English sent a group of settlers to the area now known as Jamestown, Virginia in 1606 [4], and the Pilgrims arrived in

the new land in 1620, settling in Plymouth, Massachusetts. The early settlements faced difficult times, much

hardship, and many premature deaths, but the appeal of a new land with unlimited opportunity proved to be a very powerful lure among the more adventurous citizens of Europe. Many of these new immigrants were entrepreneurs

who sought to exploit the resources of the American Colonies as they became known, and the population of the

Colonies began to increase in numbers as new towns were established all along the Eastern Seaboard. By the early1700’s, the population of the Colonies had grown to approximately 250,000 inhabitants. This number increased

tenfold to approximately 2.5 million inhabitants [5] by the year 1775.

Most goods at this time were provided to the American Colonies by Great Britain. The relationship between theColonists and the British was relatively good throughout the 1600’s and early 1700’s, but an undercurrent of

animosity towards British rule and dominance began to permeate the citizens of the Colonies in the mid 1700’s.

This animosity rose to epic proportions as the Colonists grew more independent and distant from the Crown, leading

to what became known as the American Revolution.[6] America declared its independence on July 4 th, 1776, and began a period of unprecedented growth and expansion.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 1700's, then spread to Europe and

reached North America in the 1800's. America had found its freedom and thrived in the

new unbridled environment during this period. The strong spirit of independence fostered

an atmosphere of opportunism, growth, and invention. Immigrants flocked to Americafrom all corners of the world in record numbers, and the Western Expansion began. The

ever-increasing population created a huge demand for goods, and a correspondingly strong

need for manufacturing capabilities.

Factories were built to supply the demand for goods created by the rapid influx of

immigrants and the dramatic growth in industry. Water power continued to be the primemover of choice to drive the Industrial Revolution throughout the early 1800’s. One type

of manufacturing that used water power quite heavily to support its rapid growth was the

textile industry. By 1850, the textile industry in the city of Lowell, Massachusetts had



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built 40 mill buildings along the banks of the Merrimack River, powering 320,000 spindles, almost 10,000 textilelooms, and employed 10,000 people.[7] However, water systems have inherent problems that affect availability and productivity. The use of waterwheels necessitated further improvements in the delivery system design. Power todrive the textile manufacturing equipment was provided by a series of wheels, leather belts, reduction shafts, anddrive belts.

The cold winter climates of the Northeast caused ice to form on waterways in the winter, and spring floodssometimes washed entire factories away. Droughts created a reduction in river flows and a caused a correspondinglack of power for industrial usage. The search was on for a more reliable and controllable source of power to drivethe unstoppable growth of industry in Great Britain and the United States. Mankind sought better ways to drive a prime mover, and one direction chosen was steam power.

Steam Engine

The steam engine was developed through a series of developments and progressive refinements during a periodranging from the late 1600's to the mid-1800's. Steam power held much promise over water power as a source ofenergy for industrial needs, primarily due to several key reasons. Steam could be generated anywhere, and thereforesteam plants did need to be located along the banks of a river, removing the obstacles of the environment that werelisted previously. Steam engines could be placed at various locations throughout a factory, reducing the number andlength of dangerous belts that coursed through a building. Steam driven machines could be controlled and regulated

much easier than a river or stream.

Compressed air was also used during the 1800’s to power industrial needs, and was used in similar fashions to steamdriven equipment. There were many people who felt quite strongly that compressed air would become the predominant source of industrial power in the future. Others expressed equally strong sentiment about steam power.

But in the background of the mechanical nature of the Industrial Revolution, an odd collection of visionaries beganexperimenting with a complete unknown natural phenomena, called “electricity”.



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Electricity

Very little information was known or understood about electricity at the onset of the Industrial Revolution. To most,electricity was merely a curious phenomena that was only visible during a lightning storm or a static discharge fromones’ fingertip. The first major breakthrough occurred around 1752, when Benjamin Franklin began experimentingwith kites in an effort to determine if static electricity and lightning were the same. Franklin performed some highly publicized experiments in which he flew a kite into the sky when a storm was approaching. Franklin’s kite wasoutfitted with a metal tip to attract charge. The kite string was actually a thin, finely woven hemp string which waswetted for conductivity. In one type of experiment, Franklin attached a key to the end of the string, and then tied asection of non-conductive silk string to the key. Franklin would hold the silk in one hand in order to fly the kite, andthen would draw his other hand towards the key. Sparks would fly from the key to his knuckles, a clear indicationthat the clouds carried a similar static charge. In another form of the experiment, Franklin used a similar setup withrespect to the kite, and terminated the string in a Leyden Jar (early capacitor). All charge in the Leyden Jar wasdrained away using a discharge wire before the experiment to ensure the accuracy of the results. Franklindiscovered that when he flew the kite into the clouds, the Leyden Jar would become highly charged! He had done it – Franklin had successfully demonstrated that static electricity and lightning exhibited the same scientific principles.While these experiments may not have achieved any overwhelmingly significant technological breakthrough, theydid receive a lot of attention and were quite instrumental in generating interest in this area.

Battery

The next major step in the history of electricity was the development of the battery by Allessandro Volta, a professorat the University of Pavia, Italy in 1800. The story behind Volta’s battery, or voltaic pile as it was known at the time,is fascinating. The battery was actually invented as a result of a disagreement between Volta and Italian scientist



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Luigi Galvani. In 1780 one of Galvani’s assistants noticed that a dissected frog leg twitched when he touched itsnerve with a metal scalpel. Another assistant stated that he saw a spark jump from a nearby electric generator at thesame time, and Galvani reasoned that the frog leg twitched because of electricity. Galvani mistakenly believed thatthe effect was due to the transfer of a special fluid, or “animal electricity”, as opposed to conventional electricity.Galvani later experimented with what he termed “atmospheric electricity”, in which he suspended a frog’s leg froma brass hook on an iron lattice, and observed a similar twitch response. Volta believed that the effect was caused bythe action of the dissimilar metals, brass and iron in this case, separated by the moist tissue of the frog leg, with thefrog leg serving as a detector. Volta went on to prove his theory in 1800, when he succeeded in amplifying theeffect by alternately stacking plates made of copper and zinc, separated by felt or pasteboard soaked in a brinesolution. The physical interaction of the components caused the transference of chemical energy into stored potential electrical energy. This “electric potential” would later be named after Volta.

Electromagnetic Induction

Volta’s battery proved to be a huge breakthrough for scientists and engineers who sought to learn more aboutelectricity. The battery could produce a steady current that was convenient for performing controlled experiments ina laboratory. One of the interesting side effects of early battery operation is that chemical interaction led to thedecomposition of numerous compounds into their constituent elements, leading researchers to ponder therelationship between chemistry and electricity. We now know that the two sciences are inextricably linked, but thisfact was not quite so obvious at the beginning of the 18th Century.

Scientists sought to learn the relationship between electricity, chemistry, magnetism, and other phenomena, believing that there was a fixed order to nature’s forces. Two huge breakthroughs occurred as a result of thisresearch. In 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current flowing in a wirecould create a magnetic effect on a compass needle. This induced motion, created by the flow of current in a wire,serves as the basis for electric motor operation. English Scientist Michael Faraday was driven by the same notionsof the unification of natural forces that had inspired Oersted and others. In 1831 Faraday discovered that a wire,when given motion in a magnetic field, will “generate” an electric current. This induced electric current forms the basic principle of electric generator operation. These two enormous discoveries were each very important bythemselves, but more importantly, for the purposes of this paper these discoveries were even more spectacular, forwhen combined together they form the basis of transformer action. [[Oersted’s discovery equates to the flow ofcurrent at a given potential into the primary winding of a transformer, creating a magnetic field that flows in the ironcore, while Faraday’s discovery equates to the flow of magnetic flux in the core, inducing a current and voltage in

the secondary winding of the transformer.]]

No one in the scientific world realized the profound effect that the discovery of electromagnetic induction wouldhave on the future of electricity at the time of the breakthrough, and it would be some fifty years before anysignificant developments based on these principles followed. But the foundation had been laid, and it was only amatter of time before the full potential of the usefulness of electricity would become known. The discoveries ofOersted and Faraday stirred a great deal of interest within the scientific community. The possibilities of being ableto create motion with electric current were very intriguing. The ability to generate current in a controlled fashionwas also very promising. Many technological innovators rushed ahead in attempts to develop electric motors,generators, and lighting systems. These were the key needs of the time, as steam power was well established by theyear 1831, and gas lighting was also a well-entrenched fixture in cities throughout Europe and America. There weremany proponents of steam power and gas lighting whom felt strongly that these technologies could not be advanced.The competition presented by the introduction of electricity as a medium to do work, and ultimately replace steam

power and gas lights, was viewed very dimly by the advocates of the latter. In fact, some very negative claims weremade about electricity, stating that it caused headaches, skin disorders, allergies, and confusion. No firm evidencewas ever presented to document such claims, and eventually the public fascination with electricity overtook anyfears that may have been promoted by the steam power and gas light industries.

Direct Current Machines

As stated previously, many pioneers set out to develop useful, industrial innovations of the phenomena ofelectromagnetic induction. The Industrial Revolution was in full swing, and almost every aspect of the human livingcondition was being modified in huge leaps and bounds. There were many modifications, design improvements, and



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advancements made to the original experimental models developed by Oersted and Faraday. These modificationsled to the development of the dynamo, a machine built to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.Significant contributions were made by individuals such as Jacobi in 1834, Elias in 1842, Froment in 1844, andPacinotti in 1859. Pacinotti’s development was interesting in the sense that it could be used either as a motor or adynamo. The machine was significantly improved over earlier designs, yet it still only boasted an efficiency ofapproximately 10%. Then in 1871, a Belgian inventor named Zenobe Theophile Gramme introduced animprovement on Pacinotti’s machine. This motor is said to be the first electric motor of commercial significance.Gramme’s motor utilized a ring armature winding and a vastly improved commutator design which increased the performance and efficiency of the device drastically. Then in 1872, German inventor and industrialist Werner vonSiemens evolved the ring armature machine even further through the introduction of the slotted armature winding,which is still in use today.

Electric Arc Lamps

During the early to mid-1800’s electric carbon arc lamps began to see some sporadic use in varying applications, buttheir use was rather limited due to the lack of a steady, constant energy source. Batteries were the only electricalsource available at that time, and they were not capable of sustaining the energy needed to maintain the arc for long periods of time. The arrival of the electric dynamo solved this problem, and soon the electric illumination ofAmerica became widespread. By the 1870’s the link between electricity and commercial applications was complete,and the ramifications of this breakthrough are revolutionary. Everyday citizens were introduced to the miracle of

man’s harnessing of electric energy. The public bought in to the use of electricity, embracing it with overwhelmingacceptance, and the race was on to develop other uses for this emerging technology.

Thomas A. Edison (1847-1931)

“Hell, there are no rules here.

We are trying to accomplish something.”

Thomas Alva Edison was born in Milan, Ohio in 1847. A natural borntinkerer, Edison was the perfect man for his time. He was notorious for hisunwavering dogged persistence in his approach to bringing an idea intofruition. Edison was relentless in his pursuit of new technologies, and he is

credited with 1093 US patents. Edison was fascinated by electricity and heattended the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in order to learnmore about the latest developments in the field. Edison was captivated bythe dynamos that were displayed at the exposition. He opened hislaboratories in Menlo Park, New Jersey that same year and began toexplore the possibilities of the dynamo and other electric devices. By 1878Edison began to visualize a system of generating electric power anddistributing it to supply electrical lighting loads and to bring lighting tohomes. [8] In 1879 Edison and Frances Upton developed a commercialdynamo. That same year he would perfect another important invention –the incandescent light. Edison now had the two most importantcomponents of his DC system of electrical distribution, the generator andthe load. He worked feverishly on the other components, such as cables,

fuses, and sockets. In 1881 Edison displayed his steam driven dynamo at the Paris Exposition. Edison continued towork in this area and developed a dynamo called the “Jumbo”, a commercial behemoth built on a scale that was fourtimes larger than anything built previously. The unit weighed 27 tons, and could deliver enough power to supply1200 lights, or 100 KiloWatts. [9]



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Edison Jumbo Dynamo

Pearl Street Station

By 1882 Edison had brought his technology to a point where he felt ready to implement his prototype distributionsystem. Edison planned the project for the Wall Street area of New York, and ultimately located the generators in a building on Pearl Street in Manhattan. The plant became the first “Central Station”, consisting of six Babcock &Wilcox steam boiler driven Jumbo dynamos, supplying DC electricity to an area of approximately 1 square milethrough 14 miles of underground copper cable. The Pearl Street generating system came on line on September 4,1882. At precisely 3:00 p.m., John Lieb, chief electrician at the central station, threw the master switch, and Edison personally connected the lamps in the Drexel, Morgan & Company suite. “In a twinkling,” said the New YorkHerald, “in true fairy tale style, the area bounded by Spruce, Wall, Nassau and Pearl Streets was in a glow.”

The Pearl Street project introduced the four key elements of a modern electric utility system. Edison’s system

consisted of a centrally located generating facility, a system of power distribution, a useful electrical load (light bulb), and competitive pricing. The system was a major breakthrough for its time, but it was not without flaws.Perhaps the most significant drawback of Edison’s DC system was the voltages at which the power was generatedand distributed. The system voltage was in the range of 100 to 110 volts, a figure generally agreed to as the highestsafe level for use in a residence, yet Edison was attempting to distribute this power over relatively long distances.This consequence of Edison’s DC system proved to be a very significant one, and would ultimately lead to itsdemise.



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George Westinghouse (1846-1914)

George Westinghouse was born in 1846 in Central Bridge, New York.Westinghouse was an extremely driven entrepreneur whose bestquality was his ability to recognize opportunity and rapidly bringtogether the elements necessary to experience success. A captain ofindustry, Westinghouse began his prolific career with several earlysuccesses. He received a patent for a rotary steam engine at the age of19. He then invented a device that replaced derailed freight cars on thetrain tracks and started a business to manufacture his invention. Hisinterests in the rail industry led to a patent for one of his mostimportant inventions, the air brake. Westinghouse founded theWestinghouse Air Brake Company at the age of 22, and his businessthrived. Compressed air braking technology was soon adopted on themajority of the world’s railroads, making Westinghouse a verywealthy man. But he did not rest on his achievements. Westinghousewas always on the hunt for new challenges, and his energy was almostoverwhelming. In 1866 he inspected a train wreck and noted a needfor safety devices. He developed inventions to improve the overallsafety of the rail transport system, and by 1881he had perfected the

first automatic electric block signal.

Westinghouse became deeply interested in the science of electricity. He was somewhat frustrated by the technologyavailable to him at the time, and late in 1883 began to seriously evaluate electrical direct current technology.Westinghouse immediately noted several serious drawbacks to Edison’s system of DC power distribution. The lowvoltages at which DC power was transmitted limited the system tremendously. Lower transmission voltages meanthigher currents had to be transmitted in order to deliver electrical power to a load, creating a very inefficient systemwith large losses of energy. Conductors had to be sized very large in order to handle the large values of currentnecessary to feed the system. This increase in size of the conductors was compounded even further by the need totransmit power over longer distances. Westinghouse had a basic understanding of the laws of electricity, and herealized that in order to transmit power over long distance, the transmission voltage must be increased. Highertransmission voltages meant lower currents, less losses, and smaller conductors. But there was no system ofgenerating high voltages, and no method of reducing voltages for end user applications existed. Westinghouse set

out on a crusade to remedy this problem.

William Stanley Jr. (1858-1916)

Stanley’s Transformer



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William Stanley Jr. was born November 28, 1858, in Brooklyn, New York. Stanley was an inventor who held ten patents pertaining to the electric lamp ands its manufacture when he was approached by H.H.Westinghouse(George’s brother) and offered a position in the Westinghouse works. Stanley was hired by Westinghouse in 1884and began working in the Pittsburgh laboratories with the directive to develop a complete lighting system. Whiledeveloping this lighting system Stanley began tinkering with alternating current. Stanley had received a “secondarygenerator” device from Westinghouse, a rough device capable of increasing or decreasing single phase alternatingcurrents, and was instructed by Westinghouse to evaluate and determine the commercial viability of it. This devicewas patented in England in 1882 by the team of Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs. The Gaulard and Gibbs patent was for an AC system of distributing power, using a device known as a secondary generator. Westinghouseimmediately recognized the value of the design and secured options on the patent for use in America. In late 1885Westinghouse instructed Stanley to improve the design for commercial use. Stanley worked feverishly over a three-week period of December 1-20, 1885, and emerged successfully with a commercial prototype for an alternatingcurrent “Trans-former”. Stanley would later receive a patent for this breakthrough development. This intense effortleft Stanley fragile and ill, and he relocated to Great Barrington, Massachusetts to recover. Stanley did not rest longhowever, and on March 16th, 1886, the first prototype high voltage AC distribution system was energized in GreatBarrington. This system provided power for lighting to a number of locations in the Great Barrington community.The system was driven by a hydro powered generator that produced 500 volts AC. The voltage was then stepped upto 3000 volts for transmission, and then stepped back down to power lights.

Westinghouse continued to push the development of AC systems very hard, and many breakthroughs were realized

over the next year, including ventilated cores and oil immersion for transformers. Both of these developments weredesigned to cool the unit during operation. In early 1886 Westinghouse was convinced that his system of alternatingcurrent was the solution of the problem of economically transmitting power over long distances. The WestinghouseElectric Company was founded on March 8, 1886, to fully develop the concept of long distance, high voltagetransmission of electrical power. Transformers would provide the missing link for this effort.

At the time of Stanley’s breakthrough with the transformer, direct current was the only method of generating powerand serving a load. The loads at that time were mostly lighting, although industrial DC machines were rapidlyadvancing and replacing steam power as a prime mover. As soon as it became obvious that Westinghouse intendedto fully develop AC technology to supply electricity to these loads, strong opposition began to mount against him.This opposition was led by none other than Thomas Edison himself. Edison knew that his system had seriousfundamental limitations, and he no doubt feared the advent of this new alternating current technology, which promised to solve the problems of power transmission that Edison’s system could not. This opposition did not deter

Westinghouse in any way; in fact, it only served to stoke his fires even more. Westinghouse built the firstcommercial AC distribution system in Buffalo, NY, first energizing it on November 30, 1886. This system waslimited in its capabilities, serving lighting loads only, because until that time no one had fully developed the electricmotor.

Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)

Nikola Tesla was born precisely at midnight, between July 9th and 10th, 1856,in the village of Smiljan, Croatia. Tesla was a brilliant prodigy known for hisuncanny abilities to mentally visualize and store images in his head, includingentire logarithmic tables. Tesla spoke a number of languages fluently, andmath was a favorite subject. He decided to put his ingenious creativity towork in the field of electricity. Tesla had first conceived the idea of polyphase

induction motors as early as 1881. When Tesla came to America from Europein 1884, he immediately visited with Thomas Edison upon his arrival andconvinced Edison to employ him. Edison was impressed by Tesla, but wasalso intimidated by his intellect. Edison grew to dislike Tesla very quickly. Nevertheless, Edison reputedly offered Tesla $50,000 to redesign and correcthis DC dynamos. Tesla worked at the problem day and night for over sixmonths, but completed the task successfully. When the time came for Edisonto pay Tesla his hard earned money, Edison reneged, stating “Tesla, don’t you

understand our American humor”. Edison had stated that his promise was only of a joking nature. Tesla quitimmediately. He then began performing research on his own, in laboratory facilities not very far from Edison’s labs.



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Tesla was a mental giant, and he did not suffer less capable men very well. With regards to Thomas Edison, Teslastated “If Edison had a needle to find in a haystack, he would proceed at once with the diligence of the bee toexamine straw after straw until he found the object of his search.” “I was a sorry witness of such doings, knowingthat a little theory and calculation could have saved him ninety percent of the labor.”

Nikola Tesla formed the Tesla Electric Company and opened his laboratory for business in April, 1887. In November and December of 1887, Nikola Tesla filed for seven U.S. patents in the field of polyphase AC motors and power transmission. These patents comprised a complete system of generators, transformers, transmission lines,motors and lighting. Tesla’s ideas were so original and of such a breakthrough nature that the patents were issuedwithout a successful challenge, and would turn out to be the most valuable patents of the 19th - 20th centuries.

War of the Currents

By 1888 Tesla had completed the development of an entire system of polyphase power generation, transmission, anddistribution, obtaining all of the necessary patents. But by far the single most important development in Tesla’scareer was when he obtained the patent for a polyphase induction motor in 1888. Westinghouse had the last piece tohis puzzle solved, and he immediately called upon Tesla at his laboratories. Westinghouse visited with Tesla andoffered to purchase the patent rights for $60,000, which included $5,000 in cash and 150 shares of stock in theWestinghouse Corporation. Westinghouse also agreed to pay royalties of $2.50 per horsepower of electricalcapacity sold. Tesla would later release Westinghouse from his obligation to pay him on a per-horsepower basis, a

staggering gesture, rescinding an offer which would have made Tesla wealthy beyond his wildest dreams. Tesla wasquite happy in his role as an inventor, and tended to shy away from the business end of technological development.He was convinced that only Westinghouse could have brought his inventions and ideas successfully to the market.This personal fact may shed some light on the logic behind Tesla’s decision to acquiesce to Westinghouse’s requestto relieve him of this debt.

George Westinghouse had acquired the patents for a complete system of AC distribution from Tesla. Westinghousehad immediately realized the inherent value within them. Westinghouse believed that Tesla’s system solved the problems of long-distance power transmission. Edison was outraged when he learned of the deal. The lines wereclearly drawn, and to Edison this was war – “The War of the Currents”. Edison began to dramatically increase thenegative propaganda against AC technology. Westinghouse simply carried on with confident exuberance, knowingthat his method of alternating current was superior to Edison’s method of direct current. Edison continued his pathof direct current technology, but he knew that he was in for a fight, and in 1889 he founded the Edison General

Electric Company. Three years later in 1892, Edison would merge his company with the Thomas-HoustonCompany, forming the General Electric Company. The two giants (General Electric, Westinghouse Electric) werethen established, and the competition between them would serve the best interests of the growth of the electricindustry, and the advancement of the power transformer. A full-scale industrial war had erupted. The future ofindustrial development in the United States, and the world, was at stake, and the question remained whetherWestinghouse's alternating current or Edison's direct current technology would prevail.

The Death Chair

In 1886, the State of New York Legislature enacted Chapter 352 of the Laws of 1886 entitled "An act to authorizethe appointment of a commission to investigate and report to the legislature the most humane and approved methodof carrying into effect the sentence of death in capital cases." Edison was looking for a vehicle to promote his cause,or to tear down Westinghouse. Edison began to view capital punishment as a potential avenue for his propaganda

campaign against Westinghouse, and his system of alternating current. Further complicating Edison’s vision ofcomplete market domination using his DC system was a rise in copper prices. A French syndicate cornered thecopper market in 1886-87, driving copper prices sky-high. Edison was feeling the pressure, and became desperate.

In 1887, Edison began conducting demonstrations in West Orange, New Jersey, in which he would kill largenumbers of cats and dogs by luring the animals onto a metal plate wired to a 1,000 volt AC generator. Edison madesure that the press was notified in advance of these doings, and the press described the proceedings in detail.Edison also published a pamphlet entitled “A Warning”, discussing victims of Alternating Current, and comparedthe virtues of DC versus AC. Meanwhile, on June 4, 1888, the New York Legislature passed Chapter 489 of theLaws of New York of 1888, establishing electrocution as the state's method of execution. The next day, an inventor



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named Harold P. Brown wrote a very compelling editorial letter to the New York Post, describing the death of a boywho touched a sagging telegraph wire running on AC current. Brown recommended limiting AC transmission to 300volts, which would essentially take away the economic advantage of the AC system.

Brown was hired on retainer by Edison, and in July Brown visited with Edison at the West Orange, New Jersey labto do research. On July 30, 1888, Brown and his assistant Dr. Fred Peterson of Columbia demonstratedexperimental results at the School of Mines at Columbia University by administering a series of DC shocks to alarge Newfoundland mix dog. The dog was subjected to up to 1,000 volts DC, which caused the animal to suffergreatly and writhe in agony, but it was not killed. Eventually Brown finished the dog off with a charge of 330 voltsAC. At a later demonstration, the Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals intervened and a second dog becamethe first creature ever reprieved from execution by electrocution (although it would later be killed at anotherdemonstration). During the Fall of 1888, Brown’s assistant Dr. Peterson continued to carry out further research,and over the next few months Peterson electrocuted another two dozen dogs. Then on December 5, 1888, Brownand Peterson electrocuted two calves and a 1,230-pound horse. The New York Times account ends with theobservation that "alternating current will undoubtedly drive the hangmen out of business in this state." It has beenspeculated that this statement was fed to the media by either Brown or Edison.

George Westinghouse was growing tired of the affront to his technology. On December 13, 1888, Westinghouse published a letter in the New York Times accusing Brown of acting "in the interest in and pay of the Edison ElectricLight Company." This letter apparently did not deter Brown, because in March, 1889, Brown met with Austin

Lathrop, superintendent of New York prisons, to arrange for purchase of several Westinghouse AC generators to power the electric chairs in New York State. Westinghouse had no intention of selling his AC generators to Edisonor his cohorts, as he knew forthright what Edison intended to use them for. Brown and Edison reportedly used athird-party to acquire three generators and had them shipped to New York via South America, for the purpose of providing the energy source for criminal electrocutions.

On January 1, 1889, the world's first Electrical Execution Law went into effect. The stage was set, and anunknowing criminal was about to make history. That criminal was one William Kemmler, who on March 29, 1889killed his lover Matilda ("Tille") Ziegler with an axe in Buffalo, New York. In an ironic twist of fate, Buffalo wasthen known as the "Electric City of the Future." Kemmler was tried, found guilty, and sentenced to death in May,1889. Westinghouse immediately began funding appeals for Kemmler on the grounds that electrocution is crueland unusual punishment. Interestingly enough, Thomas Edison and Professor Brown become witnesses for the state.The appeal was denied, as was two subsequent appeals to the U.S. Supreme Court.

In 1890, Edwin R. Davis, Auburn Prison electrician, designed a working electric chair for the purpose of conductinghuman electrocutions. Davis also developed elaborate testing procedures involving large slabs of meat. Then onAugust 6, 1890, Kemmler was led to the electric chair at Auburn Prison, the first person ever to be executed byelectrocution. Kemmler had been told that the electrocution would be quick and painless, so he agreed to allow state prison officials to carry out his sentence via the electric chair. However, the test procedures and other methodsdevised by Edison, Brown, and Davis did not accurately recreate the actual requirements necessary to electrocute ahuman, and Kemmler experienced a horrible fate. Kemmler was jolted for seventeen seconds. The applied currentwas not a lethal dose and it failed to kill him. Kemmler was burned and unconscious but still breathing. Theembarrassed prison officials electrocuted him again, this time for seventy seconds. Kemmler thrashed andconvulsed as the electrodes seared his head and arms, filling the room with the smell of burning flesh. A group ofdoctors and reporters had assembled to witness the historic occasion. Some viewers fainted, including the NewYork State Attorney General, while others fled the room. The killing took eight minutes. Edison and his supporters

immediately coined the term “Westinghoused”, a contrite slang term used to define the electrocution process.George Westinghouse bristled with anger at the use of his respectable name being used to describe a horrible,ghastly death process.

The electrocution prompted many critics to call for the return of the gallows, but the State of New York remainedcommitted to the electric chair. Two more criminals were executed without incident. The fourth executionhowever, was even more horrible than the first. William Taylor had been sentenced to the death penalty and wasscheduled for execution on July 27, 1893. Taylor was strapped into the electric chair, and the switch was thrown tosend him to his death. The first jolt of electricity caused his legs to stiffen with a force so great that they tore loosefrom the chair's ankle straps. Like Kemmler, Taylor was not immediately killed, but was still alive and in great



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discomfort. When the executioners attempted to send a second charge through Taylor's body it was discovered thatthe generator leads in the powerhouse had blown. Taylor was removed from the chair and placed on a cot. Officialskept him alive with chloroform and morphine so that he could be officially killed by an active current. Repairs tothe generator were completed, and an hour and nine minutes later Taylor was returned to the chair and given a morethan adequate charge.

In one other execution of interest, a 1903 execution at Sing Sing prison proved to be another botched electrocution.Inmate Fred Van Wormer was electrocuted and pronounced dead. However, Wormer began breathing again uponhis arrival to the autopsy room. The executioner, who had gone home, was called back to re-electrocute Wormer.Upon his return, Wormer had officially died. Nonetheless, Wormer's corpse was set into the chair again andelectrocuted with seventeen hundred volts for thirty seconds. Wormer officially made history as the first dead manto be electrocuted.

The Chicago World’s Fair

Over the next five years both Edison and Westinghouse continued to develop and refine their systems. The electricchair continued to gain acceptance as a new method of executing criminals, but Westinghouse and his AC systems began to pull away from Edison. On May 23, 1892, the Westinghouse Company secured the lighting contract forthe upcoming Columbian Exposition at the World’s Fair in Chicago, the first all-electric fair in history. Up againstthe newly formed General Electric Company, Westinghouse undercut GE's million-dollar bid by more than half.

Much of GE's proposed expenses were tied to the amount of copper wire necessary to transmit DC power.Westinghouse's winning bid proposed a more efficient, cost-effective AC system.

The Columbian Exposition opened on May 1, 1893. That evening, President Grover Cleveland pushed a button anda hundred thousand incandescent lamps illuminated the fairground's neoclassical buildings. This "City of Light" wasthe work of Tesla, Westinghouse and twelve huge AC generation units located in the Hall of Machinery. In theGreat Hall of Electricity, the Tesla polyphase system of alternating current power generation and transmission was proudly displayed. The Chicago World’s Fair was attended by twenty-seven million people (over 1/3 of the entireUS population), and it became dramatically clear to all that the power technology of the future was theWestinghouse method of alternating current, as devised by Stanley and Tesla.

The generating plant designed and supplied by Westinghouse for the World’s Fair was the largest alternating currentcentral station in existence. The generating plant for the World’s Fair lighting consisted of 12 generators, each with

a rating of 1000 horsepower. The exhibit successfully displayed the entire concept of an alternating current systemof electrical power distribution: Alternating current generators that produced sinusoidal voltage at a controlledfrequency, power transformers for stepping up the voltage for transmission, a short transmission line, transformersfor lowering the voltage to usable levels, the operation of loads consisting of synchronous and induction motors, andhundreds of thousands of electric lights. The most important component of this alternating current system was theelectric power transformer. The transformer made all the difference in the world between Edison’s direct currentand Westinghouse’s alternating current.

The ultimate outcome of the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair was that it ended once and for all the debate between ACand DC power delivery. This exposition was one of the most spectacular of all the World’s Fairs, in terms of thelighting used, the exhibits and displays shown, and the sheer number of attendees that visited. This expositionwould also prove to be the last great battle in the War of the Currents. Competition in the new industry had been brutal. It was Edison and his system of direct current vs. George Westinghouse's use of alternating current. In the

end, even Edison's own board of directors came to the understanding that the alternating current system was the better technology, and the management of General Electric forced the inventor out of the business and the industryhe had created. The General Electric Company began to acquiesce and soon they too were developing their ownalternating current system. Edison would not set foot inside a GE plant for over thirty years. In the meantime,General Electric secured William Stanley’s company in 1903 to help G.E. enter the 20 th Century and remain a strongcompetitor with the Westinghouse Company. Both companies would last for approximately another 100 years, eachcontributing heavily to the advancement of power transformers.



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THE GROWTH OF AN INDUSTRY

Niagara Falls

The Niagara Falls Power Project was a dizzying technological conquest for its time. The harnessing of the falls byman to do work was an American dream since the first pioneer sawmill had been built there in 1725. Since hischildhood, Tesla himself had dreamed of harnessing the power of the great natural wonder. And in late 1893, hisdream became a reality, when Westinghouse was awarded the contract to construct the first powerhouse at the Falls.

The contract came as a result of a failed competition spearheaded by the International Niagara Falls Commission.The commission, charged with planning the power project, had solicited proposals from experts around the world,only to reject them all. A number of schemes were proposed, ranging from a system using compressed air, anotherwhich used ropes, springs and pulleys. There were proposals to transmit DC electricity, including one endorsed byEdison. Heading up the commission was Lord Kelvin, the famous British physicist, who had been as opposed toalternating current as Edison until he attended the Chicago Exposition. Kelvin had become a devote believer in ACtechnology, and his commission asked Westinghouse to employ alternating current to harness the power of the falls.

Westinghouse ultimately received the contract to build the generators at Niagara Falls, but interestingly enoughGeneral Electric received the award to design and build the transmission system. GE had acquired a license to usethe Tesla patents, and had also submitted a proposal using AC technology. The project initially bogged down in a

quagmire of uncertainty and financial crises, but ultimately began to gain momentum and realize progress. By 1895,the Niagara Falls Power Company began generating AC power using three 5000-horsepower generators. GEcompleted the transmission system in 1896, and power generated at the Niagara Falls site was transmitted for thefirst time to Buffalo, New York. The construction period was long and difficult, and it weighed most heavily on the project investors. Financial backers included several of the wealthiest men in America and Europe, including: J. P.Morgan, John Jacob Astor, Lord Rothschild, and W. K. Vanderbilt. The investors had grown pessimistic and werenot at all sure the system would work. But their worries proved unnecessary. When the switch was thrown, the first power reached Buffalo at midnight, November 16, 1896. The power generated at the Falls was initially used by ThePittsburgh Reduction Company, an aluminum smelting concern that relocated to the Buffalo area to take advantageof cheap and abundant power resources. Other manufacturing companies would soon follow suit. This project isconsidered by many to be an enormously important event in technological history, as the Niagara Falls projectushered in the beginning of the electrical age of the industrial revolution.

The War of the Currents had been won, but at a great cost. Both the Westinghouse and General Electriccorporations were morally and financially drained by the endless negative propaganda, corporate chessmanship, andcostly law suits. Years of litigation, the acquisition of Edison's company and others by professional management atGE, the forced exit of Edison from his own company, and the financial teetering of Westinghouse all contributed toform a climate ripe for a hostile takeover. J. P. Morgan, an initial investor in the Edison Electric Company, secretlyhoped to gain control of all U.S. hydroelectric power generation. Morgan attempted to manipulate stock marketforces with the intention of causing financial damage to Westinghouse and forcing him to sell the Tesla patents.Westinghouse was in a bind, and he needed to take action in order to stave off the hostile intent of Morgan. It was atthis point that Westinghouse called on Tesla, pleading his case for consideration and relief from the initial contractthat promised Tesla enormous royalties. Tesla reportedly informed Westinghouse that he had torn up the contract,thereby releasing Westinghouse from any further obligations. Tesla saved Westinghouse Electric, but did so at a personal cost that is mind-boggling, by any standards. Tesla would be constantly aware of his decision, as he spentthe majority of the remainder of his life in difficult financial straits.

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company

George Westinghouse had a vision for the future, and he instinctively knew that the entire face of industry, alongwith humanity, would soon experience a major shift towards modernization. Organized in 1886 as theWestinghouse Electric Company with a force of 200 men, the name of the company later became the WestinghouseElectric & Manufacturing Company. The company began building an extensive plant in 1895 in East Pittsburgh on40 acres of land. The total floor space in the entire plant was over two million square feet. The shop contained along aisle in the main building that measured 70 feet in width and 1,184 feet in length. Overhead cranes withcapacities ranging from 30 to 50 tons traveled along the entire length of the shop. The largest aisle, measuring 70



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feet across and one-third of a mile in length, was located in the East Machine Shop. The main function of theElectric & Manufacturing Company was to develop and produce "apparatus for the generation, transmission andapplication of alternating current electricity.

The dynamos constructed by the Westinghouse Electric Company were manufactured in three sizes in 1887. No. 1was rated for 650 16 candle power (cp) incandescent lights, No. 2 was rated for 1300 16 cp lights, and No. 3 wasrated for 2500 lights. As the size and capacity of the generators increased, the method of stating their rating waschanged to horsepower. (This nomenclature and system of measurement would later change to Kilo-Volt Amperes,or KVA, and ultimately Mega-Volt Amperes, or MVA.) In 1894, under the direction of Franklin L. Pope, a 7 ½mile transmission line was erected in Massachusetts by the Westinghouse Company, connecting the town of GreatBarrington with the Algers Furnace Power Plant. This is generally considered to be the first time that twoalternating current generators were operated in parallel configuration, signifying the beginning of the electric grid.

By 1904, the number of Westinghouse Electric workers grew to 9,000 at the main plant in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.An additional 3,000 employees were located in branch factories. The electric division became the largest of theWestinghouse companies and was thought to be the largest and most modern workshop in the world at that time.The Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company played an integral role in several notable projects, namelythe conversion of Niagara Falls to electric power, the installations of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company in New York and the South Side Elevated Railroad in Chicago, and the powering of the Louisiana Purchase Expositionin St. Louis. In addition to the plant at East Pittsburgh, the Westinghouse Company had branch works at Newark,

NJ, and Cleveland, Ohio. The Electric and Manufacturing Company also had plants abroad in Manchester, England;Havre, France; and Hamilton, Canada.

Westinghouse Electric continued to make improvements to their original transformer designs. They adopted the usesilicon steel for core punchings, a new material first introduced in England by Sir Robert Hadfield in 1906. The useof silicon steel for core construction greatly improved the operating characteristics of transformers. TheWestinghouse shell-form transformer has a history dating back to the early years of the twentieth century. By 1921Westinghouse had developed a 220,000 volt power transformer, which included a no-load tap changer in the design.In the mid-1920’s the manufacture of shell-form transformers was moved to a factory in Sharon, Pennsylvania.

Other breakthroughs followed. In 1931, the first commercial impulse testing of transformers was announced at thenew Westinghouse 3,000,000 volt laboratory. In 1943 the company introduced “form fit” tanks, reducing theoverall size of the units. In 1946, Westinghouse designed and built the first 500 KV transformers. The first

commercial 500 KV units were not shipped until 1964.

The “Insuldur Insulation” system was introduced to the market in 1958. The Sharon facility produced this thermalupgrading by the adding a urea compound to the oil that improved the thermal capabilities of the cellulose.Following the developmental lead of Westinghouse, the paper tape suppliers began to treat the paper insulationmaterial in a similar fashion. All Westinghouse shell-form transformers since 1958 had turn insulation that permitted operation at 65oC average rise and 80oC hottest spot rise above an average ambient of 30oC.

In 1960 the shell-form production of transformers in the Sharon, PA factory was phased-out and their productionwas moved to a new manufacturing facility in Muncie, Indiana. The Muncie plant was considered at the time to bethe world’s most modern plant dedicated to large power transformers. The first shell-form unit was shipped fromthe new facility in 1961. Westinghouse overcame initial problems associated with higher voltages, shipping 500 KVunits in 1964, and then achieved greater success and shipped the first 735 KV units in 1965. Westinghouse

continued research in the area of higher voltages, and in 1969 the company produced an 1100 KV unit. Powerthroughput levels were also increased significantly, and in 1970 Westinghouse shipped their first transformer ratedat 1,000 MVA. This huge unit would soon be eclipsed by an enormous 1,300 MVA unit in 1973. This unit wasdesigned as a generator step-up unit for a generating facility, operating with a high-side voltage of 345 KV.Westinghouse was so confident in their shell form design and subsequent modifications that the company actually began offering a 10 year warranty on the core and coils beginning in 1972. Westinghouse continued to improve thetransformer insulation capabilities, and in 1977 shipped the first units designed at an impressive rating of 1,200 KV.

Westinghouse introduced another design change in 1979, when all turn insulation used in the Muncie plant waschanged to creped kraft paper. This paper was thermally upgraded and permitted the same operational temperature



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characteristics as described above. This paper was a considerable improvement over its predecessors, as it wasmuch stronger mechanically and electrically than any of the previously used papers. Although the design rules forthe minimum number of wraps remained the same as before, the number of wraps could theoretically be reduced togive the desired turn-to-turn insulation required. Use of this mechanically stronger paper virtually eliminated the possibility of paper breakage on the taping machine. This paper also allowed the making of coil transpositionswithout any breakage. The use of crepe paper was a great improvement in transformer materials andmanufacturing.

At the beginning of the Muncie operation, the standard oil preservation system was Inertaire. Inertaire is atrademark name for a nitrogen gas-blanketed expansion system over the oil. This original system permitted a rangeof operation from 0.5 psi to 8.0 psi. There were a few transformers that had oil expansion tanks with dehydrating breathers. In 1976 the use of the Conservator Oil Preservation System (COPS) was developed for use on Muncietransformers. This system is an oil expansion tank with a nitrile rubber bag to accommodate the expansion andcontraction of the oil. This prohibits exposure of the transformer oil to the air. By the beginning of 1979 thestandard oil preservation system was COPS.

In about 1980 the practice of performing gas-in-oil analyses of every shell- form transformer was started. Thestandard procedure involved taking a sample prior to tests, a sample after temperature tests, and a final sample afterdielectric tests. The use of gas-in-oil analysis proved to be a beneficial test. As a result of findings from this procedure, the practice was begun in 1987 to perform a long time full current run on every transformer. A full

temperature test was required for only one transformer of a multi-unit order and was sometimes not required forduplicate units. The incorporation of this test verified good connections in every transformer.

General Electric

William Stanley left Westinghouse Electric and established the Stanley Laboratory Company in Pittsfield,Massachusetts, in 1890. Stanley formed the company to manufacture transformers, transmission systems, auxiliaryelectrical equipment, and electrical appliances. Stanley joined forces with two very talented associates. The firstwas named John J. Kelley. Kelley was known as an outstanding designer of electric motors. The second was aformer Stanley laboratory worker by the name of Cummings C. Chesney. The Stanley Electric ManufacturingCompany was established in 1891. The transformers made at the Stanley Electric Company were designated SKC,for Stanley, Kelley, Chesney. The first transformer manufactured at this facility was shipped in April, 1891. TheStanley Electric Manufacturing Company later absorbed the Stanley Laboratory Company in 1895.

The aggressiveness of the SKC team helped the company to win several early transmission contracts. When thedevelopers of the Blue Falls project in California proposed a 200-mile, 60,000 volt transmission line, they wereadvised that the idea was impractical. But the SKC team accepted the project, and completed it successfully. TheStanley Electric Company continued a strong growth trend, employing 1200 people by 1901.

In the meantime, Thomas Edison continued to invent and grow businesses at a dizzying pace. Edison electricmerged with the Thomson-Houston company of Lynn, Massachusetts in 1892, and formed the General ElectricCompany. Edison was still pursuing DC technology, and he sought to gain the contract for the Chicago World’sFair by submitting a bid based on DC power technology. GE lost the bid to Westinghouse Electric by a widemargin, as George Westinghouse sought to drive Edison out of the business. The 1893 World’s Fair essentially putWestinghouse in the limelight, and most orders for electrical equipment following the event were for AC basedtechnologies. This setback hurt Edison in a number of ways, including his credibility with the board members of

General Electric. The board forced Edison out of the company, and secured licenses to build AC transformers.

Stanley’s success did not go unnoticed, and General Electric management came to realize that it was better to joinforces rather than fight this dynamic enterprise. In 1903, Stanley's company merged with GE. In 1906, the formerStanley Company facilities were renamed the GE Pittsfield Works. Mr. Chesney became the first works manager,and went on to do major work in the areas of AC motors, lightning arrestors, and transformers. General Electricalso acquired other resources that helped it to grow rapidly and smartly. One of these individuals was namedCharles Proteus Steinmetz.



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Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865 – 1923)

Charles Proteus Steinmetz was born in 1865 in Breslau, Sielsia,Germany. He arrived in America at the age of twenty-four and withina few years earned an international reputation as an expert onalternating current. Steinmetz was a diminutive figure of a man, short,dwarflike, with a hunchback and large head. Steinmetz worked veryhard to prove himself, and he developed a strong interest in alternatingcurrent electricity. Steinmetz was hired by General Electric at theLynn, Massachusetts facility in 1893. His most importantaccomplishment was the development of a mathematical method ofanalyzing alternating current circuits using complex numbers. Hismethod became the standard by which engineers performed ACcircuits and machines calculations.

By 1900, Steinmetz had applied for more than seventy patents ontransformers, induction motors, alternators, and rotary converters.

Steinmetz rose quickly through the ranks and became GE's chief consulting engineer. Steinmetz had a passion formath and research, and in 1902 he accepted a position as the part-time head of the Electrical EngineeringDepartment at Union College in Schenectedy, NY. Steinmetz continued to work for GE, but on a part time,

consulting type basis. At one period General Electric tasked Steinmetz with resolving a very complex problem onone of their generator designs. Steinmetz worked very hard on the project and soon came up with his answer. Hemarked an “X” in white chalk on the side of the machine, and then informed the GE engineers that they would findthe problem within the machine at the precise location of the chalk mark. The engineers did just that, and Steinmetz proceeded to deliver a bill to GE for the sum of $10,000. The GE management knew that Steinmetz had onlyworked on the problem for a period of days, so they requested a detailed account of his charges on the invoice.Steinmetz responded with a brief note that simply stated the following:

$1.00 – Making chalk mark$9,999 – Knowing where to place it

And modern day consulting was born!

General Electric benefited greatly from the efforts of Mr. Steinmetz, and the company settled into a market that wasgrowing almost faster than the industry could keep pace with. GE produced transformers at a staggering rate, butthey also contributed to their own demand of units by creating new devices that would add to electric demand needsthroughout the country. Some of the early General Electric Company developments include a patent for the electricfan in 1902. In 1909 GE brought their first electric toaster to the market. It had to be monitored closely, and theuser had to pull the plug out of the wall receptacle when the toast was done. (The electric “pop-up” toaster wouldnot appear on the market until 1919.) 1910 saw GE produce its first Hotpoint electric range. Then in 1930, GEintroduced an electric clothes washer to the market, and also began producing electric air conditioning units in 1932. Numerous other small appliances were introduced by GE, including juicers, mixers, and coffee makers. GE alsodeveloped the first electric food disposal machine in 1935. Other companies introduced electric irons, vacuumcleaners, dishwashers, radios, televisions, and so much more. All of these products served at least two major purposes. They served the insatiable appetite of a rapidly developing nation, the citizens of which were hungry to beor keep up with the Jones, and have all the latest new gadgets in their home. These new products also created a

much larger demand for electricity, which created a market for power transformers to serve the load.

The General Electric works in Pittsfield originally manufactured only small “Type H” transformers. Large unitswere manufactured at the Lynn facility, but this department was moved to the Pittsfield facility in 1907. TheSchenectedy, NY operations were moved to Pittsfield in 1908. The Pittsfield plant had increased in size by over50% in approximately 2 years, and all GE transformers were being manufactured at the Pittsfield facility by 1908.

In 1914, a high-voltage laboratory was constructed in Pittsfield. This laboratory would serve as a research anddevelopment facility for transformer advancement. GE made breakthroughs in their transformer technology, whichwas of the core form design, and by 1919 GE claimed to have built the largest transformer in the United States, with



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a rating of 60,000 KVA. In 1924, GE announced the construction of a new “Super-Transformer” building, knownas Building 12X. This building was intended to allow manufacture of very large transformers. Also in 1924, thefirst “Load Ratio Control” was built , a new device which allowed a transformer voltage output to be adjusted whilethe unit was under load. This unit is a precursor to modern day load tap changers. In 1926, GE built the largestsingle-phase unit to date, a water-cooled, 28,886 KVA, 100 ton unit.

An interesting story which lends some insight into the overkill approach to the engineering design of early unitsappeared in a 1928 article, which reported that an oil-filled transformer had burned up after seven years in service.However, an inspection revealed that the mid-western utility customer had never filled the unit with oil, and theinstruction manual was found still hanging on the inside of the tank!

GE developed “Thyrite” in 1930, a non-linear resistance material used in the manufacture of lightning arresters andsurge suppressors. GE successfully performed the first commercial impulse test on a transformer in the same year.In 1932, GE began providing a new type of oil with their transformers. This new oil was known as “Pyranol”, andit was developed as a non-flammable alternative to previous GE oils such as Transil or 10C. Pyranol was a GEtrademark, which would later cause problems for the company because it contained inherently large quantities of achemical agent known as Poly-Chlorinated Biphenyls, or PCBs. Pyranol was used on lower voltage class units only,and could not be used for any units rated 200 KV or greater.

GE received the award for eleven new transformers for the Boulder Dam (later renamed Hoover Dam) in 1934, and

the first of these units was shipped in 1935. In 1936 GE designed and constructed an early version of the “ForcedAir” cooled transformer. GE continued to pursue high-voltage research and development, and opened a newlaboratory in 1949. Then, in 1952, GE opened a new facility to build medium power class transformers in Rome,Georgia. A record-sized autotransformer was built for what is now United States Enrichment Corporation inPaducah, Kentucky. This unit was rated 156,000 KVA, 302/138 KV, and weighed 235 tons. In 1955, a newtransformer took the glory for being heralded as the largest unit built to date, with a rating of 300,000 KVA. Then in1956 a new unit was built with a rating of 360 MVA. This figure was eclipsed in 1958 by a 375,000 KVA unit.Some new features that appeared on GE units in 1958 included GE Atmoseal oil preservation systems, doublewalled tanks for noise reduction, computer aided designs, high voltage load tap changers, and gas insulatedtransformers. In 1960 GE produced a 400 MVA unit.

General Electric was rocked with bad news in 1961. A price-fixing scandal led to the arrest, conviction, andsentencing of seven power industry executives, including some GE executives. GE survived the transgression, and

continued to press onwards, delivering two 607 MVA transformers in 1962. Two 677 MVA generator step-unitswere ordered in 1963. Then in 1964, a huge transformer was built for use at the Niagara Falls. This unit was ratedat 800 MVA, 345 KV/230 K, and was designed for use as an autotransformer. Vacuum bottles for load tapchangers was introduced in 1965. GE secured the patents for this technology in 1967, using the trademark name“Load-Vac”. The first 500 KV GE units were manufactured in 1965. GE announced it had built the world’s largestgenerator step-up transformer in 1966. The unit was rated 784 MVA, and weighed 438 tons. In 1967, AmericanElectric Power placed an order with GE for the largest autotransformer bank in the world. The rating was 1500MVA, 765 KV/345 KV. Also in that same year, the world’s largest generator step-up transformer was delivered toPennsylvania Power & Light. The unit was rated 810 MVA, 230 KV. The PP&L unit did not hold the title for long, because Commonwealth Edison purchased a new GSU for their Dresden Nuclear Station in that same year. Thisnew unit was rated 952 MVA. In 1969, GE built a single-phase 1500 KV transformer in order to study and conductresearch on Ultra-High Voltage (UHV) transmission. In that same year, an 1898 vintage Stanley transformer wasremoved from one of the GE buildings, still in working condition.

THE END OF AN ERA

General Electric

A number of changes were on the horizon, and many of these changes had an adverse impact on the transformerindustry. Several transformer manufacturers closed their doors in the 1970’s, including Allis-Chalmers and CentralMoloney. The Arab oil embargo of the 1970’s is blamed by many as the cause of a reduction in the use ofelectricity in the United States. The reduction in demand created a trickle-down effect, ultimately affecting the



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transformer manufacturing business. According to GE Vice President and General Manager Nicholas Boraski, themarket for GE large power transformer orders in 1982 was 50% less than the market in the days before the embargo.

The General Electric Facilities in Pittsfield faced a strike by employees in 1970. The strike lasted for 101 days, andit left the company weakened. Foreign competition began to erode some of the GE and Westinghouse marketdominance, most notably from Sweden-based Asea. And then in 1971, Asea stole a project from GE right in theirown backyard, landing an order for a huge 935 MVA transformer for the Millstone Nuclear Power Station inConnecticut. By 1972 General Electric formerly requested a probe by the United States Government in order todetermine if government-subsidized foreign manufacturers were practicing “dumping” of transformers into the USat very low costs in order to steal away US business. Foreign competition continued to capture US business, andAsea received a large contract from Commonwealth Edison of Chicago in 1973, beating out McGraw-Edison,General Electric, and Westinghouse to win the bid. Other orders were lost to overseas concerns, and the market wasin the midst of a downturn. The resulting lack of orders caused General Electric to announce a work force reductionin 1981.

This workforce reduction appears to be the point at which the General Electric transformer manufacturing divisioncould not return from. Additional cost savings measures were undertaken, more staff were released, buildings wereconsolidated, but it was all for naught. On November 22, 1986, The Berkshire Eagle reported that the Pittsfieldtransformer business would cease operations. Over 1000 jobs would be lost, but that number pales in comparison tothe over 10,000 workers employed at the Pittsfield works in its heyday.

Westinghouse Electric

The transformer industry tends to be cyclic in nature, and this trend may have contributed to the downfall of theMuncie facility. The Muncie transformer factory was a very large facility and had capacity to produce manytransformers. The record year was 247 transformers produced in 1967. The average reasonable capacity necessaryto keep the operation profitable has been estimated to be roughly 150 shell-form transformers per year.Unfortunately, the plant was built in the great boom times of electric growth, and perhaps was overbuilt withexpectations for continued growth, but that level of growth could not be maintained. Therefore, for the lean yearsthe factory became impractical, and apparently did not favor continued operation. .

Production of these shell-form transformers continued in the Muncie factory until 1998. The last 8 years of production were under Asea-Brown-Boveri (ABB) Power Transmission & Distribution. The Muncie, Indiana

facility was closed in 1998 and the production of shell-form transformers in the USA ceased.

Allis-Chalmers

The history of the Allis-Chalmers Company is a long and very diverse one. The company had its start way back in1847, when two young men named Charles Decker and James Seville opened a simple shop in Milwaukee,Wisconsin, for the purpose of manufacturing mill stones and flour mill supplies. Decker and Sevile later expandedtheir business to include water wheels, shafting, gearing, mil work, and hoisting equipment. By 1853, the companyhad grown in size and boasted a staff of 50. The company was renamed Reliance Works at this time. The company began to experience financial difficulties during the depression period just before the Civil War, and in 1861 ayoung businessman named Edward P. Allis took over the company in an effort to salvage it from ruin. Thecompany name was now changed to Edward P Allis & Company. By 1869 Allis had grown the company to 200men, but he was beginning to reach as high as he could and he recognized the need for other highly qualified people

to help him grow his business further. Allis began to surround himself with a number of high-quality engineers, andthe company expanded further, and began manufacturing steam engines.

Allis passed away in 1889, having created Milwaukee’s largest industrial firm. The control of the company wasturned over to Allis’ wife, three children, and his top engineer, a man by the name of Edwin Reynolds. Reynolds believed the company could grow considerably larger. Reynolds sought the counsel of W.J. Chalmers, thenPresident of the Fraser & Chalmers Company of Chicago. Chalmers shared Reynolds’ vision and Allis-Chalmerswas incorporated in 1901. This was actually a combination of four companies – Edward P.Allis Company, theFraser & Chalmers Company, the Gates Iron Works of Chicago, and the Dickson Manufacturing Company ofScranton, Pennsylvania.



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Reynolds began to work towards his dream of building the company to a much larger scale, and his first task was to begin construction of the West Allis Works. Reynolds developed and built a plant which could employ 10,000 menand produce 20-30 million dollars worth of machinery per year. The business was growing rapidly, and continuingto expand its offerings. In 1906 Allis-Chalmers began producing steam turbines, and in 1914 the company branchedout into a completely new area, namely farm tractors. Allis-Chalmers also began dabbling in the electricity market,and in 1927, acquired the Pittsburgh Transformer Company.

The Allis-Chalmers company continued to grow and expand at a rapid rate, and boasted some 30,000 workers by1950. But the transformer division was not immune to the forces and drivers that Westinghouse and GeneralElectric faced. In fact, Allis-Chalmers had to compete against these giants, when times were good, and then whentimes became bad. Allis-Chalmers closed their Terre Haute, Indiana plant in 1962, and later announced they were pulling out of the large power transformer business altogether in 1976. Siemens of West Germany acquired theAllis-Chalmers designs for their own use.

North American Transformer

The North American Transformer Company actually began as the Pacific Electric and Manufacturing Company in1906. The company was started in a facility located in Southern San Francisco area in 1906. Pacific Electricinitially manufactured high-voltage oil and air-insulated switches, and later expanded to incorporate oil circuit breakers in their product line. The name of the company was changed to Pacific Electric Manufacturing Company

in 1912, and changed again in 1928 to the Pacific Electric Manufacturing Corporation. The company continued togrow throughout the years, improving their electrical switch and oil circuit breaker designs.

In 1954, the Pacific Electric Manufacturing Company was acquired by the Federal Pacific Electric Company, andmoved it’s operations to Santa Clara, California. Federal Pacific manufactured transformers with ratings rangingfrom 10 KVA to 10,000 KVA at this time. In 1962 Federal Pacific consolidated its several transformer operationswith its subsidiary companies on the North American continent and formed the Federal Pacific Transformer Group.This new group was comprised of Federal Pacific Electric Company’s transformer facilities and Pioneer Electric,Ltd of Canada. A new 140,000 square foot facility was built in 1967 in Milipitas, California, and the companyrelocated its operations to the new plant. The facility was expanded by 57,000 square feet in 1972 with the additionof a warehouse.

The company was again traded in 1979, this time to Reliance Electric. Reliance Electric was founded in 1904 in

Cleveland, Ohio, and had enjoyed a steady growth rate throughout its history. Reliance expanded the Milipitas plant by 44,000 square feet in 1981, adding a tank fabrication facility. The company changed the name of theMilipitas operation to North American Transformer in 1987, and then both Reliance Electric and North AmericanTransformer were purchased by Rockwell International Corporation in 1995. Rockwell then sold the plant to SPXin 1999. SPX purchased the plant in order to compliment their medium power class transformers with larger unitsfrom the Milipitas facility. Unfortunately for SPX, the Milipitas facility faced low-cost competition from overseasmanufacturers along with a slump in US sales due largely to the ENRON debacle, and the plant was closed in 2002.

Central Moloney

Central Moloney grew from a merger of Central Transformer of Pine Bluff, Arkansas with Moloney Electric in1965. Colt Industries acquired the Central Moloney Transformer Corporation in 1968 and later the name waschanged to Coltec Industries. Central Moloney of St. Louis, Missouri departed from the large electric power

transformer business in 1973.

McGraw-Edison

In 1957, the McGraw Electric Company merged with the Thomas A. Edison Company, forming the McGraw-Edison Company. McGraw-Edison greatly expanded the Canonsburg facility in 1967, increasing the floor space to1,200,000 square feet, and increasing the total number of employees to 2,500. In 1985, McGraw-Edison was purchased by Cooper Power Systems, a division of Cooper Industries. In 1996 the Fayetteville TransformerCompany purchased the McGraw-Edison Canonsburg plant from Cooper Power Systems. The company is now



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known as Pennsylvania Transformer Technology, Inc. Pennsylvania Transformer Technology is the authorizedsource for McGraw-Edison parts and accessories.

Pennsylvania Transformer

The Allis-Chalmers Company bought the Pittsburgh Transformer Company in 1929, and established a new plant forthe manufacture of varying sizes of transformers, including large power transformers. This facility became knownin the industry as the Allis-Chalmers Pittsburgh Works. Two employees of the former Pittsburgh TransformerCompany stayed on with the new ownership for a period of roughly three months, but they believed they couldmake a go of transformer manufacturing themselves. Chief Engineer Sam Horelick and Works Manager Bill Kerrleft Allis-Chalmers and formed the Pennsylvania Transformer Company.

The original Pennsylvania Transformer Company was housed in a small 7,200 square foot facility on the North sideof Pittsburgh. Horelick and Kerr started out with $60,000 in capital and twelve employees. The first transformers produced at th facility were small autotransformers rated 2,000 KVA, and 25.4 KV. The company grew slowly, and by 1934 Pennsylvania Transformer required more manufacturing floor space. A 27,000 square foot facility was purchased on the North side of Pittsburgh, and larger units up to 15,000 KVA and 44 KV were produced.Employment increased to 50 people at this time. The company continued to grow and by 1940 the floor space wasincreased to 75,000 square feet. Units were now constructed up to 12,500 KVA and 110 KV, and the number ofemployees had risen to 240. Additional floor space was added in 1941, increasing the total working area to 250,000

square feet, and employee numbers swelled to 340. In 1946 Pennsylvania Transformer moved to Canonsburg andtook over an area of an aluminum forging plant that the government had built to support the war effort. In 1949 thecompany acquired more floor space at the Canonsburg facility, increasing their total floor space to 462,000 squarefeet. The number of employees at this time had grown to 987.

By 1951 Pennsylvania Transformer had achieved annual sales of $17 million, and enjoyed a backlog of $22 million.The stockholders decided that it would be in their best interest to merge with a larger company, and in February,1952, Pennsylvania Transformer merged with McGraw Electric, officially becoming a division of the McGrawElectric Company. The company invested over $1million in new equipment, and spent another $2 million for anultra-high voltage testing, capable of testing units up to 750,000 volts. The Canonsburg facility is still one of the best equipped test centers for testing large power transformers.

McGraw-Edison greatly expanded the Canonsburg facility in 1967, increasing the floor space to 1,200,000 square

feet, and increasing the total number of employees to 2,500. In 1985, McGraw-Edison was purchased by CooperPower Systems, a division of Cooper Industries. In 1996 the Fayetteville Transformer Company purchased theMcGraw-Edison Canonsburg plant from Cooper Power Systems. The company is now known as PennsylvaniaTransformer Technology, Inc. Pennsylvania Transformer is the authorized source for McGraw-Edison parts andaccessories.

Waukesha Electric SPX

The present company known to the electrical power industry as Waukesha Electric has undergone many changesand transformations in a relatively short period of time. According to the historical data provided by WaukeshaElectric Systems, The company was founded in Waukesha, Wisconsin as an outgrowth of the RTE Corporation(now Cooper Power Systems). RTE wanted to expand their business beyond small distribution transformers, toinclude larger power transformers. RTE needed help to achieve this goal, and the company formed a joint venture

with ASEA of Sweden. The new company was formed on February 8, 1970, and was called RTE-ASEA. Thecompany moved into a large new building in December, 1971.

The RTE-ASEA company prospered throughout the 70’s and into the early 80’s. RTE divested its interest in theventure in 1983, and the company became known as ASEA Electric. In 1987, ASEA merged their business with theSwiss firm Brown-Boveri, forming the new giant Asea Brown Boveri (ABB). This merger caused the name of theWaukesha facility to change to ABB Electric. ABB acquired the Westinghouse power transmission and distribution business in 1989. The United States Justice Department ordered ABB to divest itself from the Waukesha operation,and it did just that, selling the facilities and operations to Magnetek in early 1990.



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The company did business as Magnetek Electric until 1995, when the General Signal Corporation purchased theoperations and established the Waukesha Electric Systems Company, with plants in Waukesha, Wisconsin, andGoldsboro, North Carolina. In 1998, ownership of Waukesha Electric Systems was transferred to the SPXCorporation, in conjunction with the SPX buyout of the General Signal Corporation.

Documents

The History of Transformers by Rkl a Droga