THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

VOLUME TWO, BOOK ONE

THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

1Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe

and the Mediterranean

2.1Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and

South Asian Societies

2.2Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies

3Cartography in the Age of Renaissance and Discovery

4Cartography in the Age of Science, Enlightenment, and Expansion

5Cartography in the Nineteenth Century

6Cartography in the Twentieth Century

THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

VOLUME TWO, BOOK ONE

Cartography in the

Traditional Islamic and

South Asian Societies

Edited by

J. B. HARLEYand

DAVID WOODWARD

Associate EditorsJOSEPH E. SCHWARTZBERG

GERALD R. TIBBETTSAssistant Editor

AHMET T. KARAMUSTAFA

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS • CHICAGO & LONDON

J. B. Harley was professor of geographyat the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

David Woodward is professor of geographyat the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London

© 1992 by The University of ChicagoAll rights reserved. Published 1992

Printed in the United States of America

12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 5 4 3 2

@> The paper used in this publication meets the minimumrequirements of the American National Standard for

Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for PrintedLibrary Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.

This work is supported in part by grants from the Division ofResearch Programs of the National Endowment for the

Humanities and the Geography and Regional ScienceProgram of the National Science Foundation,

independent federal agencies

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendationsexpressed in the History of Cartography are those of the

authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of agenciesthat provided financial support.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data(Revised for vol. 2)

The History of cartography.

Bibliography: p.Includes index.Contents: v.I. Cartography in prehistoric,

ancient, and medieval Europe and the Mediterraneanv. 2, bk. 1. Cartography in the traditional Islamic andSouth Asian societies.

1. Cartography-History. I. Harley, J. B.Oohn Brian), 1932-1991. II. Woodward, David, 1942-GA201.H53 1987 526' .09 86-6995ISBN 0-226-31633-5 (v. 1)ISBN 0-226-31635-1 (v. 2, bk. 1)

To Brian

~

We shall notceasc

from exploration

And the end ojall ourexploringWill be ro arrive where we 51artedAnd know the place

for thefir51 time.T·s·rllOT

Rand McNallyThe Luther I. Replogle Foundation

The Hermon Dunlap Smith Center for theHistory of Cartography, The Newberry Library

Financial Support

Federal AgenciesDivision of Research Programs

of the National Endowment for the Humanities

Geography and Regional Science Programof the National Science Foundation

Foundations and InstitutionsGaylord and Dorothy Donnelley Foundation

The Johnson FoundationThe Andrew W. Mellon Foundation

The National Geographic Society

Map Society of British ColumbiaCalifornia Map Society

The Chicago Map Society

Richard B. ArkwayRoger S. and Julie Baskes

Clive A. BurdenGerald F. Fitzgerald

Map Societies

BenefactorsArthur Holzheimer

Arthur L. KellyBernard Lisker

Glen McLaughlin

The New York Map SocietyThe Rocky Mountain Map Society

Washington Map Society

Mr. and Mrs. Kenneth NebenzahlGeorge Parker

David M. RumseyMr. and Mrs. Roderick Webster

JoAnn and Richard CastenClifton F. Ferguson

Joseph H. FitzgeraldJohn S. Josey

Daniel M. AmatoStanley K. Arnett, IIStanley BalzekasGwendolyn R. BarckleyMichael BurackRand BurnetteCharles A. BurroughsFred A. Cazel, Jr.Barbara Mae ChristySherry K. CoatneyTim CossCray Research FoundationGerald DanzerMichael J. DubinOliver C. DunnC. EideEdward B. Espenshade, Jr.Lucy A. FellowesBruce FetterRichard and Dorothy FitchJohn FondersmithTheodore N. FossRobert GraebnerEugene M. GrossmanPeter J. GuthomSusanne A. HaffnerWarren HeckrotteJohn B. Henderson

PatronsMartayan Lan, Inc.

Barbara Backus McCorkleDonald L. McGuirk, Jr.

Braham NorwickHarold L. Osher

Additional support fromRobert A. HighbargerBangbo HuAlice C. HudsonMurray HudsonKit S. KappJosef W. KonvitzSteven KosakowskiG. Malcolm LewisJanice and Chingliang LiangMichael McGuireAllen H. MeyerJack M. MillerPaul J. Mode, Jr.John T. MoncktonMark MonmonierGene MoserMr. and Mrs. Jerome J. NerenbergDavid H. NiemiJudy OlsonTheodore W. PalmerRichard P. PalmieriDouglas T. PeckMary PedleyEdward F. PenicoRobert PowerCarla Rahn and W. D. Phillips, Jr.Jean M. RayDennis Reinhartz

William Sherman ReeseJack L. Ringer

Richard H. SigelEric W. Wolf

Charles D. ReynoldsSteve RitchieArthur H. RobinsonPierre L. SalesJoseph E. SchwartzbergCherie SemansRobert B. ShilkretLawrence SlaughterThomas R. SmithMargaret SowersBruce N. SpringMr. and Mrs. Martin SteinmannThomas and Ahngsana SuarezRichard J. A. TalbertG. Thomas TanselleNorman and Elizabeth ThrowerRichard UmanskyCarol UrnessLeonard VisRainer VollmarDaniel Gilbert WattersAnn H. WellsScott D. WestremJoan WinearlsJohn WolterAlberta and Clifford WoodJeanne and Stephen YoungRick Ray Zellmer and Erica Schmidt

Contents

List of Illustrations XI

Preface, ]. B. Harley and David Woodward XIX

pART ONE Islamic Cartography 1

1 Introduction to Islamic Maps,Ahmet T. Karamustafa 3

Greek HeritageMap and TextConditions of Map ProductionTheory and PracticeTermsHistoriography

2 Celestial Mapping, Emilie Savage-Smith 12Early Syrian OriginsPlanispheric Astrolabes as Celestial Maps

Early History of the AstrolabeVariants of Planispheric AstrolabesExtended Use of Astrolabic Mapping

AI-BlrilnI on Celestial MappingAdditional Planar MappingThree-Dimensional Celestial Mapping

Spherical AstrolabesCelestial GlobesThe Manufacture of Celestial GlobesArmillary Spheres

Mapping of Individual Constellations and AsterismsThe Pre-Islamic Astronomic SystemLunar MansionsIslamic Constellation Iconography

Islamic Asterism Mapping and Its Influence in EuropePersonifying and Allegorical Interpretations of Celestial

BodiesThe Introduction of Early Modern European Celestial

Mapping

3 Cosmographical Diagrams,Ahmet T. Karamustafa 71

Scope

Vll

Cosmology in IslamGeneral Characteristics of Cosmographical Maps and

DiagramsExoteric Realism: Philosophical and Scientific Diagrams

Celestial DiagramsGeographical Diagrams

Esoteric Speculation: Gnostic and Mystical DiagramsGnostic DiagramsMystical Diagrams

Religious Cosmography

Early Geographical Mapping

4 The Beginnings of a Cartographic Tradition,Gerald R. Tibbetts 90

IntroductionEarly Geographical LiteratureForeign Geographical InfluenceThe Map of the Caliph al-Ma)miinGeographical TablesLongitude and Latitude Tables: AI-KhwarazmI,

al-BattanI, and PtolemyAI-KhwarazmI's Methods and PurposeThe Length of the MediterraneanThe Seven Climates and Their BoundariesPrime MeridiansSuhrab's Construction of a MapThe Maps from the al-KhwarazmI ManuscriptConclusion

5 The BalkhI School of Geographers,Gerald R. Tibbetts 108

Works of the BalkhI SchoolThe Maps of the BalkhI SchoolDescription of the MapsSelection of MaterialThe Treatment of the Persian ProvincesThe Arabic-Speaking ProvincesThe World MapAI-MuqaddasI's MapsMiscellaneous Manuscripts Belonging to the BalkhI

SchoolConclusion

Vlll

6 Later Cartographic Developments,Gerald R. Tibbetts 137

Later Recensions of Ibn I:Iawqal's MapsThe Ifudad al-calamLater Tables and al-BIriinILater Geographical WritersThirteenth-Century and Later World MapsClimatic Maps and Their VariantsFirst Use of a GraticuleOther MapsConclusion

7 Cartography of ai-SharIf al-IdrIsI,S. Maqbul Ahmad 156

AI-SharIf al-IdrIsI as a MapmakerThe N uzhat al-mushtaq Ii'khtiraq al-afaq

Publications and TranslationsAI-IdrlsI's Instructions for Making a World MapWriting the Nuzhat al-mushtaqMaps in the N uzhat al-mushtaq

The RawQ, al-faraj wa-nuzhat al-muhaj

The Sources for al-IdrlsI's Nuzhat al-mushtaqThe Influence of al-IdrIsI's Work on Later Authors

8 Geodesy, Raymond P. Mercier 175IntroductionArabic MetrologyMeasurements of the Length of a DegreeAI-BlnlnI's Measurement of the Radius of the EarthDetermining the Longitude of Ghazna

9 Qibla Charts, Qibla Maps,and Related Instruments,David A. King and Richard P. Lorch189

IntroductionQibla Charts Centered on the KacbaQibla Maps Based on CoordinatesMethods of Qibla Determination with Spheres and

Astrolabes

Premodern Ottoman Geographical Mapping

10 Introduction to Ottoman Cartography,Ahmet T. Karamustafa 206

Scope and OrganizationTerminologyProblems in the Study of Ottoman Cartography

11 Military, Administrative, and Scholarly Maps andPlans, Ahmet T. Karamustafa 209

Cartography in the Service of the StateOriginsMilitary Maps

Contents

Architectural Plans and Waterway MapsCartography as Private Enterprise

World MapsRegional Maps

12 Itineraries and Town Views in Ottoman Histories,J. M. Rogers 228

The Compilation of Illustrated HistoriesEarly Examples of Topographical Illustration in

Ottoman TextsTopographical Illustration in the Mecmaca-i menazilTopographical Illustration in Later Ottoman Histories

Marine Charting

13 The Role of Charts in Islamic Navigation in theIndian Ocean, Gerald R. Tibbetts 256

14 Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean,Svat Soucek 263

IntroductionArab Portolan ChartsPIrI Re)Is

Charts of the New WorldKitab-i bal}rfye

Ottoman Portolan Charts and AtlasesThe al-SharafI al-SifaqsI Family

PART Two South Asian Cartography 293

15 Introduction to South Asian Cartography,Joseph E. Schwartzberg 295

The State of Our KnowledgePublished WritingsRepositories for Indian Cartography

The Nature of the Indian Corpus as Revealed byTextual Sources and the Archaeological Record

Types of Materials ProducedPrehistoric and Tribal MapsAchievements of the Harappan CultureVedic AltarsAncient Knowledge of GeographyEvidence of Ancient CosmographiesIndian AstronomySurveying in the Mauryan EmpireArchitectural Plans from Ancient and Medieval IndiaMaps Noted in Secular TextsPata-chitrasFruits of Hindu-Muslim InteractionEuropean Accounts of Indian MappingReasons for the Relative Paucity of South Asian

Maps

Contents

16 Cosmographical Mapping,joseph E. Schwartzberg 332

Underlying Cosmological ConceptionsCosmographies in the Hindu Tradition

Paintings and Ink Drawings Not PrimarilyAstronomical in Content

Cosmographic GlobesCelestial Mapping

Cosmographies: The Jain TraditionIndo-Islamic CosmographyMicrocosmic Analogues of the CosmosCosmography and Mental Maps

17 Geographical Mapping,joseph E. Schwartzberg 388

World MapsTopographic Maps

Mughal MapsLate Premodern Maps from Various Regions

KashmirRajasthan and GujaratBrajCentral IndiaMaharashtra and Other Areas of Maratha ActivitySri LankaNortheastern India

Hybrid Maps and the Gentil Atlas

IX

Late Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century NepaliMaps

Route MapsLarge-Scale Maps, Plans, and Maplike Oblique Views of

Small LocalitiesMaps of Small, Primarily Rural LocalitiesSecular Plans of Cities and TownsOblique Secular Representations of Cities and TownsMaps of Sacred PlacesMaps of Forts

Architectural Drawings

18 Nautical Maps, joseph E. Schwartzberg 494

19 Conclusion, joseph E. Schwartzberg 504

20 Concluding Remarks,j. B. Harley and David Woodward 510

Comparative CartographiesCartography and SocietyFuture Agendas

Editors, Authors, and Project Staff 519

Bibliographical Index 521

General Index, Ellen D. Goldlust, Scholars EditorialServices 547

Illustrationswith Tables and Appendixes

1

2

345

6

7891011

12

13

141516

1718

1920

21

22

23

24

2526

COLOR PLATES 27(Following page 136) 28

The heavens as they were on 3 Rabt I 786/25April 1384, the birthdate of Iskandar Sultan 29Planispheric map showing northern 30constellationsThe religious cosmos from the Macrifetname 31AI-KhwarazmI's map of the river Nile 32The Sea of Azov (Bata)ib Mayfit1s) byal-KhwarazmI 33North Africa and Spain according to an 34l~takhrI I manuscript 35The world according to al-l~takhrI 36The world map of Ibn al-WardI 37AI-QazwlnI's world map 38World map dated 977/1570AI-IdrIsI's world map from the Oxford 39Pococke manuscriptNorthwest Africa from the Oxford Greaves 40manuscript of al-IdrlsIQibla diagram from a sea atlas by al-SharafIal-SifaqsISiege plan of Belgrade, early sixteenth centuryPlan of the battle of the Prut, 1711Detail of the Klrk~e§me and Halkah water- 2.1supply system 2.2The proclamation of the conquest of EgerView of Sultaniye from Matra~~i Na~fi1)'s 2.3Mecmaca-i menazi!The siege of the fortress of EsztergomView of Nice from Matra~~i Na~fib's Tarf/J-i 2.4fetlJ-i ~a~liivan

Northwest fragment of the 935/1528-29 2.5world map by PIrI Re'IsVersion 2 of the Kitiib-i bai?rfye: Island ofEuboea 2.6Walters Deniz Atlast: Italy and the centralMediterranean 2.7AI-SharafI al-Sifaqsi chart, 1579

2.8(Following page 424)

Vishvarupa, the universal form of KrishnaContainer in the form of a cosmographic 2.9globe 2.10

Xl

Table of asterisms (nak~atras)

Anthropomorphic representation of the JainuniverseDetail of an eclectic world mapGeographic portion of Hindu cosmographicglobeBraj yatra pichhvafSections from a Mughal scroll route map fromDelhi to KandaharMap of Srinagar embroidered on woolMap of Jodhpur painted on paperShrinathji temple complexJagannath temple and city of Puri, OrissaTirthas in KashmirA siege at Bhiwai Fort, Sikar District,RajasthanDiwali celebrations at the royal palace atKotah, RajasthanDetail of the Red Sea and Aden from anautical chart

FIGURES

The remains of the vault of the heavens 13Planispheric map of the heavens from afifteenth-century Byzantine manuscript 14The Byzantine planispheric map analyzed as astereographic projection from the south poleof a celestial globe 15A planispheric map of the heavens in a Latincopy of the Aratea dated A.D. 818 17Planispheric astrolabe made in the late ninthcentury A.D. by KhafIf, the apprentice of CAliibn clsa 19An astrolabe made in 1060/1650 by J)iya'aI-DIn Mubammad 20Polar stereographic projection of the basicfeatures of an astrolabe rete 21The stars on the astrolabe rete made in Lahoreby J)iya) aI-DIn Mubammad in the year1060/1650 22Basic design of an astrolabe plate 24Astronomers at work 27

Xll

2.11

2.12

2.13

2.14

2.15

2.16

2.17

2.18

2.19

2.20

2.21

2.22

2.23

2.24

2.25

2.26

2.27

2.28

2.29

2.302.31

2.322.33

2.34

2.35

Schematic interpretation of al-Zarqello's designfor a universal astrolabe to be used at anygeographic latitude 30A universal astrolabe of the type designed byal-Zarqello 31A type of universal astrolabe calledshakkaziyah 31The universal astrolabe designed by Ibnal-Sarraj in the early fourteenth century 32A wooden astrolabic quadrant for latitude 41 0

32A unique astrolabe/mechanical, gearedcalendar 33Reverse side of the astrolabe shown in figure2.16 33Reconstruction of al-Biriini's "cylindrical"projection 35Reconstruction of al-Biriini's projection for a"flattened" astrolabe 36Reconstruction of al-Biriini's preferred methodfor producing a star map 37Waxing and waning of the moon as illustratedin the Kitab al-tafhim li-awa)il ~inaCat

al-tanjim by al-Biriini 38Diagram from an autograph copy of Kitabal-durar wa-al-yawaqit fi <ilm al-ra~d

wa-al-mawaqit by Abii al-cAbbas Abmad 39The sphere or orbit of the sun and thepersonification of the planet Venus as alutenist 40Design for a clockface from Kitab fi macrifatai-Ifiyal al-handasiyah 40Spherical astrolabe made by Miisa in885/1480-81 41Basic design of extant Islamic celestial globes,with attached rotatable meridian ring 44The earliest preserved Islamic celestial globe45Islamic celestial globe made in 834/1430-31by Mu1)ammad ibn jaCfar 46Islamic celestial globe, unsigned and undated47Unsigned, undated celestial globe 48Islamic celestial globe, unsigned and undated,engraved in Sanskrit, Devanagari script 49Demonstrational armillary sphere 50Unique variant of a demonstrational armillarysphere/ celestial globe 51The constellation Cassiopeia as seen on aglobe, with an Arab Bedouin asterism of acamel drawn over her 52The constellation Auriga as seen in the sky55

2.36

2.37

2.38

2.39

2.402.41

2.422.43

2.44

2.45

2.46

2.47

2.48

2.49

2.50

2.51

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

Illustrations

The constellation Auriga as seen on a globe55Globe made in 684/1285-86 by Mu1)ammadibn Ma1)miid ibn CAli al-Tabari 56The constellation Pegasus as seen in the sky57The constellation Hercules as seen in the sky58The constellations Perseus and Auriga 58The zodiacal constellations of Sagittarius andCapricorn 59The zodiacal figure of Taurus 59The constellations of the NorthernHemisphere 61Planispheric map giving a selection of northernand zodiacal constellations 62Constellations of the Northern Hemisphere onan astrolabe plate made in 1065/1654-55 byMubammad Mahdi of Yazd 66Constellations of the Southern Hemisphere onan astrolabe plate made in 1065/1654-55 byMubammad MahdI of Yazd 66Constellations of the Northern Hemisphere ona planispheric star map printed in Paris about1650 by Melchior Tavernier 67Constellations of the Southern Hemisphere ona planispheric star map printed in Paris about1650 by Melchior Tavernier 67Hemispheric map of Ptolemaic constellationswith the autumnal equinox at the center 69Hemispheric map of Ptolemaic constellationswith the vernal equinox at the center 69Planispheric map showing southernconstellations 70The celestial spheres from Rasa)i! ikhwanal-~afa) 75The celestial spheres from the Macrifetname76The lunar sphere and the spheres of the fourelements 77Correspondence between the signs of thezodiac, the four directions, and the fourelements 77Correspondence between the signs of thezodiac, the planets, and the four elements 78The seven climata with interspersed place­names 78The seven climata from Rasa)il ikhwan al­~afa) 79The seven climata from al-Qazwini's KitabCaja)ib al-makhluqat 79The seven climata from Kitab al-bad)wa-al-ta)rikh 79

Illustrations

3.10 The seven kishvars 803.11 Jabirian cosmology: The first four

"Hypostases" 813.12 Jabirian cosmology: One possible combination

of the four categories of quality, quantity,time, and space 82

3.13 The four cosmic orders according toal-KirmanI 84

3.14 An alternative conception of the four cosmicorders according to al-KirmanI 85

3.15 The universal intellect, the creator, and theconstruction of the universe according toNa~ir Khusraw 86

3.16 A partial illustration of the relations betweenthe "divine presence" and "permanentarchetypes" according to Ibn al-cArabI 86

3.17 Diagram of the different levels of being fromthe Macrifetname 87

3.18 The "topography" of the day of judgmentfrom the MaCrifetname 88

4.1 Reference map of the Middle East 914.2 The Persian kishvar system 944.3 Folio from the Strasbourg manuscript of

al-KhwarazmI's $urat ai-cart! 974.4 Folio from a manuscript of al-BattanI's Zij

al-~abiC 984.5 A comparison of some of the coordinates of

al-KhwarazmI, al-BattanI, and the Kitabal-mallJamah (Yaqut) with those of Ptolemy99

4.6 The seven-climate system according to threeArab writers, showing a comparison with theGreek system 102

4.7 Suhrab's diagram for a world map 1044.8 The island of the jewel, JazIrat al-Jawhar, by

al-KhwarazmI 1054.9 The world ocean, al-Babr al-Mu~lim, by

al-KhwarazmI 1065.1 Reference map of the Islamic world at the

time of the BalkhI school 1095.2 Stemma of the texts of the BalkhI school

1115.3 Possible stemma for the maps of the BalkhI

school 1135.4 Kirrnan according to I~takhrI I 1165.5 Kirrnan according to I~takhrI II 1165.6 Modern Kirman and surrounding area 1175.7 The Arabian Desert pilgrimage routes 1175.8 Arabia according to the BalkhI school,

I~!akhrI I 1185.9 Arabia according to the BalkhI school,

I~!akhrI II 1185.10 Arabia according to the BalkhI school, Ibn

tIawqal I 119

5.11

5.12

5.13

5.145.155.165.175.18

5.195.20

5.21

5.22

5.23

5.24

5.25

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.76.86.9

6.106.116.126.13

6.146.15

6.166.177.1

Xln

Arabia according to the BalkhI school, IbnI:Iawqal III 119The development of the Mediterranean inmaps of the BalkhI school 120The development of North Africa and Spain inmaps of the BalkhI school 121Egypt according to the BalkhI school 121The world, I~takhrI II 121The world, Ibn I:Iawqal I 123Arabia according to al-MuqaddasI 124The Arabian Desert according to al-MuqaddasI124AI-Maghrib following I~takhrI I 125The Indian Ocean in the manuscript of Abmad(or Mubammad) al-TusI 125Map of Kirman from a manuscript attributedto Na~Ir ai-DIn al-TusI 126Map of Arabia from a manuscript attributedto Na~Ir aI-DIn al-TusI 126Map of the Indian Ocean from the BritishLibrary manuscript 127World map from the British Librarymanuscript 127BalkhI world map with climate boundaries128Stemma of later Islamic maps (A.D. 1000onward) 138The Nile from the Ibn I:Iawqal III set of maps139The world from the Ibn J:Iawqal III set ofmaps 140AI-BIrunI's sketch map of the distribution ofland and sea 142World map from al-I:IarranI's ]amz< al-funun144AI-QazwlnI's distribution of land and sea145The climate map 146A more elaborate climate diagram 147Syriac map based on the Arab climate diagram148Semicircular map of the world 149World map of J:Iamd Allah MustawfI 150World map of J:Iafi~-i Abril 151Map of the Middle East by J:Iamd AllahMustawfi 152World map of Ibn Fa~n Allah al-cUmarI 153Maps from the N ukhbat al-dahr ofal-DimashqI 154Plan of the city of Kazvin 154World map of al-KashgharI 155AI-Idrisi's world map from the Parismanuscript 161

XIV

7.2 AI-IdrlsI's world map from the Cairo 9.1manuscript 161

7.3 AI-Idrlsl's world map from the Istanbul 9.2manuscript 161 9.3

7.4 AI-Idrlsl's world map from the Sofiamanuscript 161 9.4

7.5 AI-Idrlsl's world map from the OxfordGreaves manuscript 162 9.5

7.6 Index of the sectional maps in the Nuzhatal-mustaq 162 9.6

7.7 The Aegean from the Leningrad manuscript164 9.7

7.8 Part of the Indian Ocean and Taprobane fromthe Oxford Pococke manuscript 164 9.8

7.9 Part of the Indian Ocean and Taprobane fromthe Oxford Greaves manuscript 164 9.9

7.10 Source of the Nile from the Istanbul Ayasofyamanuscript 165 9.10

7.11 Course of the Nile from the Istanbul Ayasofya 9.11manuscript 165

7.12 Nile Delta from the Istanbul Ayasofya 9.12manuscript 165

7.13 Course of the Nile from the Cairo manuscript 9.13165 9.14

7.14 India from the Sofia manuscript 1657.15 Region northeast of the Bay of Bengal from 9.15

the Paris manuscript 1667.16 Climate diagram from the Rawq, al-faraj 166 9.167.17 The Nile delta from the Rawq, al-faraj 167 9.177.18 The course of the Nile from the Rawq,

al-faraj 167 9.187.19 Climate 6, section 9, from the Raw4 al-faraj

168 9.197.20 Climate 6, section 9, from the Nuzhat 9.20

al-mushtaq 1697.21 World map from Ibn Khaldiin's Kitab al-cibar 9.21

1717.22 AI-Zayyanl's sketch map based on al-IdrisI's 11.1

sectional maps 1728.1 Reference map of the region of Palmyra and 11.2

Sinjar 1808.2 Dip of the horizon measured from the 11.3

mountain 182 11.48.3 AI-Biriini's observation at Nandana 182 11.58.4 Measurement of the height of a mountain 11.6

using two altitudes 1848.5 Use of a quadrant to measure the height of 11.7

the mountain 1848.6 Sixteenth-century quadrant with alidade 185 11.88.7 "Triangulation" between Baghdad and Ghazna

186 11.98.8 Trigonometric construction to determine the

difference of longitude 187

Illustrations

Rendition of a scheme of sacred geography190Four-qibla scheme 191Illustration from a treatise on the sacreddirection by al-Dimyap 192Extract from the shorter treatise on the qiblabyal-Dimyati 193Eight divisions of the world about the Kacba193Two pages from a treatise on folk astronomy194Simplified twelve-sector scheme of sacredgeography 195Instructions on an eleven-sector diagram ofsacred geography 195Seventy-two-sector scheme of sacredgeography 196Various schemes of sacred geography 197Simple twenty-sector scheme of sacredgeography 198Qibla map contained in a treatise on folkastronomy 199Qibla map based on coordinates 200Qibla map inscribed on a seventeenth-centuryIndo-Persian astrolabe 201Map inscribed on a late Persian qibla indicator201Rect-azimuthal qibla map 202Direct mathematical method for finding theqibla 202Detail of a qibla map inscribed on the back ofan astrolabe 203Explanatory diagram for figure 9.18 203Approximate method for finding the qibladescribed by al-Battani and al-Jaghmlni 205Analemma method for finding the qibladescribed by ljabash al-ljasib 205Plan of Kiev and surroundings, ca. 1495-1506211Plan of the Ottoman attack on Malta,972/1565 212Siege plan of Szigetvar, ca. 974/1566 213Siege plan of Vienna, ca. 1094/1683 213Plan of the fortress of Van 214Detail from the siege plan of the fortress ofAdakale, 1151/1738 214Plan of the fortress of Buda, ca.1095-96/1684 215Plan of the battle of the Prut, 1123/1711216Map of Russian army maneuvers alongOttoman borders with Poland, Moldavia, andHungary, 1768-69 217

Illustrations xv

11.1011.1111.12

11.13

11.14

11.15

11.16

11.1711.18

11.19

12.112.2

12.3

12.412.5

12.612.712.812.912.1012.11

12.12

12.13

12.14

12.15

12.16

12.17

12.18

12.1912.2012.21

Plan of a double bath, fifteenth century 217Plan of a Turkish bath 217Detail from the map of the Klrk\e~me andHalkah water-supply system (1161/1748)218The map of the Klrk\e~me and Halkah water­supply system (1016/1607) 219An Ottoman version of the world map of Ibnai-Ward! 220World map from Lo~man's Zubdetu)t-teviiri!J,ca. 1003/1595 221Map of the Tigris and the Euphrates, mid­seventeenth century 222-23Map of the Nile, ca. 1685 224Map of the Ottoman Empire, 1139/1726-27225Map of the regions north of the Black Sea onsilk by Ressam MU~fafa, 1768-69 226View of Cairo from the Kitiib-i ba/triye 232View of Alanya (CAla'iye) from the Kitiib-iba/triye 233The route of Siileyman's campaign against theSafavids, 940-42/1534-35 234View of Istanbul 238Reference map of Istanbul architecturalmonuments 239The obelisk on the road to Tav~anli 240Plan view of Erci~ (Arjish) 240View of Baghdad 241The course of the Bitlis Gorge 242View of Aleppo 243View of the shrine of al-J:Iusayn at Karbala244Topographical detail from a pilgrimage scroll244Strategic sites in the Ottoman-Habsburg rivalryfor Hungary 246Stages and distances on the march to thefortress of Esztergom from the Tiiri!J-i fet/t-i§a~liivun 247Stylized depiction of the fortress of Temesvar247Siege of Szigetvar, based on a Venetianprototype 248View of Szigetvar, probably based on firsthandsketches, from Lo~man's Suleymiinniime249Stylized view of Szigetvar from Lo~man's

Hunerniime 249View of Kars from the ~iihan§iihniime 250Plan of Istanbul from the Hunerniime 251West side of the third court and adjoininggardens in the Topkapl Sarayl from theHunerniime 252

13.1

i3.214.114.214.314.414.5

14.6

14.7

14.8

14.914.1014.11

14.12

14.13

14.1414.1514.16

14.17

14.1814.1914.20

14.21

14.22

14.23

14.24

14.25

15.1

15.2

15.3

15.4

15.5

The Indian Ocean from the Cantina map260Folios from an Arab navigational text 261The Maghreb chart 264The al-KatibI chart 265The al-Murs! chart 266The I:Iajj Abu al-I:Iasan chart 267Atlantic fragment from the 1513 world map ofPlrI Re)Is 268Possible arrangement and extent of the 1513world map 269Detail of the Caribbean from the 1513 worldmap 271Reference map of the Mediterranean in theage of Suleyman 273Kitiib-i ba/triye: Island of Khios 274Kitiib-i ba/triye: Port of Novigrad 274Version 1 of the Kitiib-i ba/triye: Island ofEuboea 276Version 1 of the Kitiib-i ba/triye: City ofVenice 277Version 2 of the Kitiib-i ba/triye: City ofVenice 278Kitiib-i ba/triye: Attica 279Kitiib-i ba/triye: Island of Djerba 280Portolan atlas associated with CAli Macar Re)Is:Italy and the central Mediterranean 281World map from the CAlI Macar Re)Is atlas282Atlas-i hiimayun: The Iberian Peninsula 283The Mel).med Re)Is chart 284Central Mediterranean from the 1551al-Sharafl al-SifaqsI atlas 285World \map from the 1551 al-SharafI al-SifaqsIatlas 285World diagram from the 1571-72 al-SharafIal-SifaqsI atlas 286Central Mediterranean from the 1571-72al-SharafI al-SifaqsI atlas 286Asia and the Middle East on the 1601-2al-SharafI al-Sifaqsi chart 288Europe and North Africa on the 1601-2al-SharafI al-SifaqsI chart 289NandIsvaradvlpa, the eighth continent of theJain cosmos 296General reference map for the study ofindigenous South Asian cartography 297An early scholarly attempt to interpret Indiancosmography 300Rock paintings incorporating seeminglycartographic elements 305An Indian Mesolithic depiction of the cosmos?306

XVI

15.6

15.7

15.8

15.915.10

15.11

15.12

15.13

15.14

15.1515.1616.1

16.2

16.3

16.4

16.5

16.6

16.716.816.916.1016.11

16.12

16.13

16.1416.1516.1616.17

16.18

Presumed survey instruments of the Induscivilization 307Measurement units, scalar relations, andprescribed layouts of the altar complex for thevedic agnicayana 309Brahman yajamana's (ritual patron's) view ofthe fire altar 310The Ganga and Yamuna rivers 312Potsherd with plan of ancient Buddhistmonastery 318Ground plans of a never-completed temple319Leaf from a palm-leaf manuscript onarchitecture 320Examples of ancient architectural mandalasand derivative plans 321Plan of the eighteenth-century city of Jaipur321Architectural plan, Jaipur 322Detail from architectural plan, Jaipur 323Early Brahmanic Hindu and Buddhistconception of the catur-dvipa vasumati (four­continent earth) 336Hindu and Jain conception of the sapta-dvipavasumati (seven-continent earth) 337Puranic conception of the divisions ofJambudvlpa, the innermost continent of thesapta-dvipa vasumati 337The world seen as a kurmavibhaga (divisionsof the globe), a Puranic conception of themid-first millennium A.D. 338Selected elements of a portion of Jambudvlpaas conceived by the Jains 341Alternative conceptions of the form of theJain universe 342Primary divisions within the cosmic egg 344Vaishnavite Hindu cosmography 345Brahmal).Qa (egg of Brahma) 346The path of the planets 347Krishna and his consort descend to Pragjyoti~a

(Assam), situated on a tortoise-shaped earth348Square form of divination chart centered onAvanti (Ujjain) 349Circular form of divination chart centered onAvanti (Ujjain) 350Cosmological globe 353Cosmographic/geographic globe 354Projection for a cosmological globe 356Southern Hemisphere of a cosmographic globe357Abstract of the Northern Hemisphere of acosmographic globe 358

16.1916.2016.2116.2216.2316.24

16.25

16.26

16.27

16.28

16.29

16.30

16.31

16.32

16.33

16.34

17.117.217.317.417.5

17.6

17.7

17.8

17.9

17.10

17.11

17.12

17.1317.14

Illustrations

Khagolam (the celestial dome) 359Plan of Jaipur observatory 363Jai Prakasa (light of victory) 364Schematic diagram of the Jai Prakasa 365

Jaipur observatory 366Manu~yaloka (the world of man) according toJain cosmographical texts 368Uttarakuru, the region north of Mount Meru369Profile view of Mount Meru Gain conception)370Overhead view of flat summit area of MountMeru Gain conception) 370Varying methods of depicting the Manu~ottara

mountain range midway across the third Jaincontinent, Pu~karadvlpa 371The length and dimensions of the cosmic man(Lokapuru~a) 372NandIsvaradvlpa, the eighth Jain continent374Suns and moons on the day of Capricorn375Suns and moons revolving aroundManu~yaloka 375The eight black fields in the third layer of theBrahmaloka 376Vastupuru~ama1J4ala (the mandala of thecosmic man) 380Map of the "inhabited quarter" 391Facsimile of a portion of a world map 392Wood-block print world map 394An eclectic world map 395Partial transliteration of Hindu cosmographicglobe 397Marathi world map with accompanyingtraditional cosmographic world image398-99Areas of coverage of selected South Asiantopographic maps 401Analytic chart of attributes of selected SouthAsian topographic maps 402South Asia as portrayed on one folio of theShahid-i Sadiq 403The degree of distortion in the Shahid-i Sadiq404Mughal map of northwestern South Asia406-7Representation of a geographic globe in theMughal painting "Jahanglr embracing Shah(Abbas," by Abu al-J:Iasan 408Comparison of drainage patterns 410Map of the Vale of Kashmir, attributed toAbdur Rahim of Bukhara 412

Illustrations XVll

17.1517.16

17.17

17.18

17.19

17.2017.21

17.22

17.2317.24

17.25

17.2617.27

17.28

17.29

17.3017.3117.32

17.33

17.34

17.3517.36

17.37

17.3817.39

17.4017.4117.4217.4317.4417.4517.4617.4717.48

Detail from map of Vale of Kashmir 413One of thirty-three pargana maps in an atlasof Kashmir composing a part of the T arikh-iqalCah-i Kashmir 414Details from topographic map of much ofRajasthan and a portion of Gujarat 415Abstract of topographic map of much ofRajasthan and Gujarat 416Detail from map of Gujarat and a part ofRajasthan 418The region of Braj conceived as a lotus 419Semiabstract map of Braj in the form of alotus 419Map of north-central India with emphasis onBundelkhand and Baghelkhand 420Abstract of map of north-central India 421Sinhalese map of a small area in central SriLanka 426The $uba of Avad (Oudh) as portrayed inGentil's atlas of the Mughal Empire 428Map of central Nepal 431Administrative/ cadastral map of a portion ofwestern Nepal 432Excerpts from topographic map ofsoutheastern Nepal 433Routes depicted on selected South Asian routemaps 434A page from the Chahar Gulshan 435Details from a Pahari scroll painting 437Excerpt from map of the Nahr-i Bahishtirrigation canal 438Details from map of proposed canal inRajasthan 439Pilgrimage routes along the upper GangaValley 439Map of a Jain pilgrimage 440Key to map of Jain pilgrimage, figure 17.35441Places depicted on large-scale maps, plans, andmaplike oblique views of small areas andlocales of selected architectural drawings 443A village in Pune District, Maharashtra 445Details from a large map of Amber, Rajasthan447Bijapur, Karnataka 447Sanganer 448Bust, Afghanistan 450Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan 451Map of Sankhodar Bet, Dwarka, Gujarat 453Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 454Mandala map of Bhaktapur, Nepal 456-57Nathdwara temple complex 458Srirangam temple, Srirangam, Tamil Nadu459

17.4917.50

17.51

17.5217.5317.5417.55

17.56

17.57

17.58

18.1

18.2

18.3

18.4

18.518.6

18.7

18.8

18.9

2.1

4.17.18.18.2

9.19.2

14.1

1.15.1

Jain triptych 460Vijfiaptipatra scroll, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan461Contemporary religious map of KashI(Varanasi) 462Red Fort, Agra 463Map of Vijayadurg 464Gagraun Fort, Kotah District, Rajasthan 465The battle of Panipat, Karnal District, Haryana467Man Mandir (temple) and adjacent area inKashI (Varanasi), Uttar Pradesh 469Chandni Chowk, a main street ofShahjahanabad (Delhi) 470Tomb of the emperor Akbar at Sikandra, AgraDistrict, Uttar Pradesh 471Folio of an Indian roz nama (nautical manual)495Two folios depicting discontinuous coastlinefrom an Indian roz nama 496Two folios depicting continuous coastlinefrom an Indian roz nama 497Areas of India and Sri Lanka covered bysurviving nautical charts 498Compass card from an Indian roz nama 498Transliteration of a compass card from anIndian roz nama 499Drawing of a short stretch of the southerncoast of India and the whole of Sri Lanka500Drawing of a short stretch of the MalabarCoast and the Laccadive Islands of India 500Nautical chart of the Red Sea and the Gulf ofAden 502-3

TABLES

Stars on the astrolabe made by I)iya) aI-DInMUQammad 23Islamic time chart 92Measures used by al-IdrisI 160AI-BlnlnI's latitude values 187Summary of al-BinlnI's angular andlongitudinal differences between pairs of places188Labels for a schematic qibla diagram 200Estimated coordinates of localities on the rect­azimuthal qibla indicator 202Map order in the Ottoman portolan atlases281

ApPENDIXES

Works of Ptolemy in Arabic 10Select list of manuscripts of the BalkhI school130

XVlll

5.2

7.19.111.112.1

14.114.2

16.1

16.2

List of printed editions and translations ofworks by authors of the BalkhI school 136Manuscripts of the works of al-Idrlsl 173Methods to calculate the qibla 204Waterway maps 227Selected manuscripts related to Ottomanhistories 252Islamic maritime charts 288Preliminary list of extant manuscripts of theKitab-i ba~riye 290A statistical summary of attributes of forty­four Jain cosmographies centered onJambiidvlpa 384A statistical summary of attributes of twenty­four cosmographies depicting the three majorcomponents of the Jain universe 386

17.117.2

17.3

17.4

17.5

17.6

17.7

Illustrations

Indigenous maps of Braj 472Indigenous maps in the Hodgson Collection,India Office Library and Records, London474Large-scale maps of primarily rural localities474Detailed, essentially planimetric secular mapsof cities and towns 476Detailed oblique, secular representations ofcities and towns 480Maps, plans, and maplike oblique views ofsacred places or serving religious purposes482Detailed maps, plans, and maplike obliqueviews of forts 490