The Foundation of Historical Materialism

8/13/2019 The Foundation of Historical Materialism

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Herbert Marcuse 1932

The Foundation of Historical Materialism

Written: in German in 1932;

First Published: as Neue Quellen zur Grundlegung des Historischen Materialismus in Die Gesellschaft ;

Source: Studies in Critical Philosophy, Beacon Press, Boston, 192;

!ranscribed: b" Brian #eid;

Proo$ed: and corrected b" %hris %la"ton&


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!he 'ublication o$ the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts (ritten b" Mar) in 1*++1- must become

a crucial e.ent in the histor" o$ Mar)ist studies& !hese manuscri'ts could 'ut the discussion about the

ori/ins and ori/inal meanin/ o$ historical materialism, and the entire theor" o$ 0scienti$ic socialism, on a

ne( $ootin/& !he" also mae it 'ossible to 'ose the uestion o$ the actual connections bet(een Mar) and

He/el in a more $ruit$ul and 'romisin/ (a"&

4ot onl" does the $ra/mentar" nature o$ the Manuscripts 5substantial sections seem to ha.e been lost and

the anal"sis o$ten breas o$$ at the crucial 'oints; there are no $inal dra$ts read" $or 'ublication6

necessitate a detailed inter'retation constantl" relatin/ indi.idual 'assa/es to the o.erall conte)t, but the

te)t also demands an e)ce'tionall" hi/h le.el o$ technical no(led/e on the 'art o$ the reader& For, i$ 7

ma" antici'ate, (e are dealin/ (ith a 'hiloso'hical critiue o$ 'olitical econom" and its 'hiloso'hical

$oundation as a theor" o$ re.olution&

7t is necessar" to 'lace such stron/ em'hasis on the di$$iculties in.ol.ed ri/ht at the outset, in order to

a.ert the dan/er that these manuscri'ts (ill once a/ain be taken too lightly and hastil" 'ut into the usual

com'artments and schemata o$ Mar) scholarshi'& !his dan/er is all the /reater because all the $amiliar

cate/ories o$ the subseuent critiue o$ 'olitical econom" are alread" $ound to/ether in this (or& But inthe Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts the ori/inal meanin/ o$ the basic cate/ories is clearer than

e.er be$ore, and it could become necessar" to re.ise the current inter'retation o$ the later and more

elaborate critiue in the li/ht o$ its ori/ins& Perha's this 'ro.isional re.ie( o$ the Manuscripts (ill su$$ice

to sho( the inadeuac" o$ the $amiliar thesis that Mar) de.elo'ed $rom 'ro.idin/ a 'hiloso'hical to

'ro.idin/ an economic basis $or his theor"&

We are dealin/ (ith a philosophical critiue o$ 'olitical econom", $or the basic cate/ories o$ Mar)s

theor" here arise out o$ his em'hatic con$rontation (ith the 'hiloso'h" o$ He/el 5e&/& labour,

ob8ecti$ication, alienation, su'ersession, 'ro'ert"6& !his does not mean that He/els 0method is

trans$ormed and taen o.er, 'ut into a ne( conte)t and brou/ht to li$e& #ather, Mar) /oes bac to the

'roblems at the root o$ He/els 'hiloso'h" 5(hich ori/inall" determined his method6, inde'endentl"

a''ro'riates their real content and thins it throu/h to a $urther sta/e& !he /reat im'ortance o$ the ne(

manuscri'ts $urther lies in the $act that the" contain the $irst documentar" e.idence that Mar) concerned

himsel$ e)'licitl" (ith He/els Phenomenology of the Mind , 0the true 'oint o$ ori/in and the secret o$ the

He/elian 'hiloso'h" 5'& 136&

7$ Mar)s discussion o$ the basic 'roblems o$ He/els 'hiloso'h" in$ormed the $oundation o$ his theor" it

can no lon/er be said that this $oundation sim'l" under(ent a trans$ormation $rom a 'hiloso'hical to an

economic basis and that in its subseuent 5economic6 $orm 'hiloso'h" had been o.ercome and 0$inished

once and $or all& Perha's the $oundation includes the 'hiloso'hical basis in all its sta/es& !his is not

in.alidated b" the $act that its sense and 'ur'ose are not at all 'hiloso'hical but 'ractical andre.olutionar": the o.erthro( o$ the ca'italist s"stem throu/h the economic and 'olitical stru//le o$ the

'roletariat& What must be seen and understood is that economics and 'olitics ha.e become the economic

'olitical asis o$ the theor" o$ re.olution throu/h a uite 'articular, 'hiloso'hical inter'retation o$ human

e)istence and historical realiation& !he .er" com'licated relationshi' bet(een 'hiloso'hical and

economic theor" and bet(een this theor" and re.olutionar" 'ra)is, (hich can onl" be clari$ied b" an

anal"sis o$ the (hole situation in (hich historical materialism de.elo'ed, ma" become clear a$ter a $ull

inter'retation o$ the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts! 7 onl" (ant to introduce this 'rocess in m"

'a'er& rou/h $ormula (hich could be used as a startin/ 'oint (ould be that the re.olutionar" critiue o$

'olitical econom" itsel$ 'hiloso'h" a 'hiloso'hical $oundation, 8ust as, con.ersel", the 'hiloso'h"

underl"in/ it alread" contains re.olutionar" 'ra)is& !he theor" is in itsel$ a 'ractical one; 'ra)is does not

onl" come at the end but is alread" 'resent in the be/innin/ o$ the theor"& !o en/a/e in 'ra)is is not totread on alien /round, e)ternal to the theor"&

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With these introductor" remars (e can 'roceed to describe the o.erall content o$ the Manuscripts! Mar)

himsel$ describes their 'ur'ose as the criti"ue of political economy # a 0'ositi.e critiue, and thus one

(hich, b" re.ealin/ the mistaes o$ 'olitical econom" and its inadeuac" $or the sub8ect, also 'ro.ides it

(ith a basis to mae it adeuate $or its tas& !he 'ositi.e critiue o$ 'olitical econom" is thus a critical

foundation of 'olitical econom"& Within this critiue the idea o$ 'olitical econom" is com'letel"

trans$ormed: it becomes the science o$ the necessar" conditions $or the communist re.olution& !hisre.olution itsel$ si/ni$ies < uite a'art $rom economic u'hea.als < a re.olution in the (hole histor" o$

man and the de$inition o$ his bein/: 0!his communism&&&is the genuine resolution o$ the con$lict, bet(een

man and nature and bet(een man and man < the true resolution o$ the stri$e bet(een e)istence and

essence, bet(een ob8ecti$ication and sel$con$irmation, bet(een $reedom and necessit", bet(een the

indi.idual and the s'ecies& %ommunism is the riddle o$ histor" sol.ed, and it no(s itsel$ to be this

solution 5'& 13=6&

7$ 'olitical econom" can /ain such central im'ortance it is clear that, $rom a critical 'oint o$ .ie(, it must

be treated $rom the outset as more than 8ust another science or s'ecialied scienti$ic $ield& 7nstead it must

be seen as the scienti$ic e)'ression o$ a 'roblematic (hich in.ol.es the (hole bein/ o$ man& !hus (e

must be/in b" considerin/ more closel" $hat sort of 'olitical econom" is here sub8ect to criticism&

Political econom" is criticied as the scienti$ic 8usti$ication or concealment o$ the total 0estran/ement and

0de.aluation o$ human realit" re'resented in ca'italist societ" < as a science (hich treats man as

0somethin/ unessential 5'& 13>6 (hose (hole e)istence is determined b" the 0se'aration o$ labour, ca'ital

and land, and b" an inhuman di.ision o$ labour, b" com'etition, b" 'ri.ate 'ro'ert", etc& 5'& 1>?6& !his

ind o$ 'olitical econom" scienti$icall" sanctions the 'er.ersion o$ the historicalsocial (orld o$ man into

an alien (orld o$ mone" and commodities; a (orld (hich con$ronts him as a hostile 'o(er and in (hich

the /reater 'art o$ humanit" ceases to be an"thin/ more than 0abstract (orers 5torn a(a" $rom the realit"

o$ human e)istence6, se'arated $rom the ob8ect o$ their (or and $orced to sell themsel.es as a

commodit"&

s a result o$ this 0alienation o$ the (orer and o$ labour, the realiation o$ all mans 0essential 'o(ers

becomes the loss o$ their realit"; the ob8ecti.e (orld is no lon/er 0trul" human 'ro'ert" a''ro'riated in

0$ree acti.it" as the s'here o$ the $ree o'eration and sel$con$irmation o$ the (hole o$ human nature& 7t is

instead a (orld o$ ob8ects in 'ri.ate 'ossession (hich can be o(ned, used or e)chan/ed and (hose

seemin/l" unalterable la(s e.en man must obe" < in short, the uni.ersal 0domination o$ dead matter o.er

manind 5'& 1>26&

!his (hole situation has o$ten been described under the headin/s o$ 0alienation, 0estran/ement and

0rei$ication and is a (idel" no(n element o$ Mar)ist theor"& !he im'ortant 'oint is, ho(e.er, to see

ho( and $rom (hat an/le Mar) inter'rets it here at the startin/'oint o$ his theor"&

t the be/innin/ o$ his 'ositi.e critiue o$ 'olitical econom", at the 'oint (here he taes u' the matter o$

alienation and estran/ement, Mar) states: 0We 'roceed $rom an economic $act of the present 5'& 1>6! But

are alienation and estran/ement 0economic $acts lie, $or e)am'le, /round rent or the 'rice o$

commodities in its de'endence on su''l" and demand or an" other 0la( o$ the 'rocess o$ 'roduction,

consum'tion and circulation@

Bour/eois 'olitical econom", as criticied here, does not re/ard alienation and estran/ement as such as a

$act 5the circumstances to (hich these (ords re$er are co.ered in the bour/eois theor" under uite

di$$erent headin/s6; $or socialist 'olitical econom" this $act (ill onl" 0e)ist i$ and in so $ar as the theor" is

'laced on the $oundation (hich Mar) (ored out in the conte)t o$ the studies (e are discussin/& We must


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What (e are tr"in/ to sho( is this: $rom the outset the basic conce'ts o$ the critiue < alienated labour

and 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" < are not sim'l" taen u' and criticied as economic conce'ts, but as conce'ts $or a

crucial 'rocess in human histor"; conseuentl" the 0'ositi.e abolition o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" b" the true

a''ro'riation o$ human realit" (ill re.olutionie the entire histor" o$ manind& Bour/eois 'olitical

econom" has to be basicall" trans$ormed in the critiue $or this .er" reason: it ne.er /ets to see man (ho

is its real sub8ect& 7t disre/ards the essence o$ man and his histor" and is thus in the 'ro$oundest sense nota 0science o$ 'eo'le but o$ non'eo'le and o$ an inhuman (orld o$ ob8ects and commodities& 0%rude and

thou/htless communism 5'& 1336 is 8ust as shar'l" criticied $or the same reason: it too does not centre on

the realit" o$ the human essence but o'erates in the (orld o$ thin/s and ob8ects and thus itsel$ remains in a

state o$ 0estran/ement& !his t"'e o$ communism onl" re'laces indi.idual 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" b" 0uni.ersal

'ri.ate 'ro'ert" 5'& 1326; 0it (ants to destro" e.er"thin/ (hich is not ca'able o$ bein/ 'ossessed b" all as

'ri.ate 'ro'ert"& 7t (ants to do a(a" b" $orce (ith talent, etc& For it, the sole 'ur'ose o$ li$e and e)istence

is direct, 'h"sical 'ossession& !he tas o$ the labourer is not done a(a" (ith, but e)tended to all men 5''&

133$$&6&

!he ob8ections to the absolute economism o$ Mar)ist theor", (hich ha.e been thou/htlessl" raised time

and a/ain ri/ht u' to the 'resent da", (ere alread" raised here b" Mar) himsel$ a/ainst the crudecommunism (hich he o''osed: $or him the latter is merel" the sim'le 0ne/ation o$ ca'italism and as such

e)ists on the same le.el as ca'italism < but it is 'recisel" that le.el (hich Mar) (ants to abolish&

Be$ore startin/ our inter'retation (e need to a.ert another 'ossible misunderstandin/& 7$ Mar)s critiue

o$ 'olitical econom" and his $oundation o$ re.olutionar" theor" are here dealt (ith as philosophy this does

not mean that thereb" 0onl" theoretical 'hiloso'hical matters (ill be included, (hich minimie the

concrete historical situation 5o$ the 'roletariat in ca'italism6 and its 'ra)is& !he startin/ 'oint, the basis

and the /oal o$ this in.esti/ation is 'recisel" the 'articular historical situation and the 'ra)is (hich is

re.olutioniin/ it& #e/ardin/ the situation and 'ra)is $rom the as'ect o$ the histor" o$ mans essence

maes the acutel" 'ractical nature o$ the critiue e.en more trenchant and shar': the $act that ca'italist

societ" calls into uestion not onl" economic $acts and ob8ects but the entire 0e)istence o$ man and

0human realit" is $or Mar) the decisi.e 8usti$ication $or the 'roletarian re.olution as a total and radical

re.olution, unconditionall" e)cludin/ an" 'artial u'hea.al or 0e.olution& !he 8usti$ication does not lie

outside or behind the conce'ts o$ alienation and estran/ement < it is 'recisel" this alienation and

estran/ement itsel$& ll attem'ts to dismiss the 'hiloso'hical content o$ Mar)s theor" or to /loss o.er it

in embarrassment re.eal a com'lete $ailure to reco/nie the historical ori/in o$ the theor": the" set out

$rom an essential se'aration o$ 'hiloso'h", economics and re.olutionar" 'ra)is, (hich is a 'roduct o$ the

rei$ication a/ainst (hich Mar) $ou/ht and (hich he had alread" o.ercome at the be/innin/ o$ his critiue&

I

7n ca'italist societ" labour not onl" 'roduces commodities 5i&e& /oods (hich can be $reel" sold on the

maret6, but also 'roduces 0itsel$ and the (orer as a commodit", the (orer becomin/ 0an e.er chea'er

commodit" the more commodities he creates 5''& 1>$$&6& !he (orer not onl" loses the 'roduct o$ his

o(n labour and creates alien ob8ects $or alien 'eo'le; he is not onl" 0de'ressed s'irituall" and 'h"sicall"

to the condition o$ a machine throu/h the increasin/ di.ision and mechaniation o$ labour, so that 0$rom

bein/ a man he- becomes an abstract acti.it" and a bell" 5'& ?*6 < but he e.en has to 0sell himsel$ and his

human identit" 5'& >6, i&e& he must himsel$ become a commodit" in order to e)ist as a 'h"sical sub8ect&

So instead o$ bein/ an e)'ression o$ the (hole man, labour is his alienation; instead o$ bein/ the $ull and

$ree realiation o$ man it has become a 0loss o$ realiation& 0So much does labours realiation a''ear as

loss o$ realiation that the (orer loses realiation to the 'oint o$ star.in/ to death 5'& 1>*6&


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7t should be noted that e.en in this de'iction o$ the 0economic $act o$ alienated labour the sim'le

economic descri'tion is constantl" broen throu/h: the economic 0condition o$ labour is cast bac onto

the 0e)istence o$ the (orin/ man 5'& ?6; be"ond the s'here o$ economic relations the alienation and

estran/ement o$ labour concern the essence and realit" o$ man as 0man and onl" $or this reason can the

loss o$ the ob8ect o$ labour acuire such central si/ni$icance& Mar) maes this uite clear (hen he states

that the 0$act he has 8ust described is the 0e)'ression o$ a more /eneral state o$ a$$airs: 0!his $acte)'resses merel" that the ob8ect (hich labour 'roduces < labours 'roduct < con$ronts it as somethin/

alien, as a 'o(er inde'endent o$ the 'roducer& !he 'roduct o$ labour is labour (hich has been embodied

in an ob8ect, (hich has become material: it is the ob8ecti$ication o$ labour 5'& 1>*6, and (hen he sa"s:

0ll these conseuences 5o$ the ca'italist economic s"stem6 0result $rom the $act that the (orer is related

to the 'roduct o$ his labour as to an alien ob8ect 5ibid&6& !he economic $act o$ estran/ement and

rei$ication2- is thus /rounded in a 'articular attitude b" man 5as a (orer6 to(ards the ob8ect 5o$ his

labour6& 0lienated labour must no( be understood in the sense o$ this ind o$ relation o$ man to the

ob8ect, and no lon/er as a 'urel" economic condition& 0!he alienation o$ the (orer in his 'roduct means

not onl" that his labour becomes an ob8ect, an e)ternal e)istence, but that it e)ists outside him,

inde'endentl", as somethin/ alien to him, and that it becomes a 'o(er on its o(n con$rontin/ him& 7t

means that the li$e (hich he has con$erred on the ob8ect con$ronts him as somethin/ hostile and alien 5''&1>*$$&6& nd it (ill $urther be sho(n that the economic $act o$ 0'ri.ate 'ro'ert" too is grounded in the

situation o$ alienated labour, understood as the acti.it" o$ man: 0Pri.ate 'ro'ert" is thus the 'roduct, the

result, the necessar" conseuence, o$ alienated labour, o$ the e)ternal relation o$ the (orer to nature and

to himsel$ 5'&116&

n amain/, idealistic distortion o$ the actual $acts seems to ha.e taen 'lace here: an economic $act is

su''osed to ha.e its roots in a /eneral conce't and in the relation o$ man to the ob8ect& 0Pri.ate 'ro'ert"

thus results b" anal"sis $rom the conce't o$ alienated labour 5ibid&6 < this is Mar), not He/el, (ritin/

!he a''arent distortion e)'resses one o$ the crucial disco.eries o$ Mar)s theor": the breathrou/h $rom

economic $act to human $actors, $rom $act 5(at)sache)* to act 5(at)handlung)*+ and the com'rehension o$

$i)ed 0situations and their la(s 5(hich in their rei$ied $orm are out o$ mans 'o(er6 in motion+ in the

course of their historical de%elopment 5out o$ (hich the" ha.e $allen and become $i)ed6& 5%$& the

'ro/rammatic introduction o$ the ne( a''roach to the 'roblem on ''& 11*19 *! We cannot /o into the

re.olutionar" si/ni$icance o$ this method here; (e shall continue to 'ursue the line o$ a''roach outlined at

the be/innin/&

7$ the conce't o$ alienated labour includes the relation o$ man to the ob8ect 5and, as (e shall see, himsel$6

then the conce't o$ labour as such must also co.er a human acti.it" 5and not an economic condition6& nd

i$ the alienation o$ labour si/ni$ies the total loss o$ realiation and the estran/ement o$ the human essence

then labour itsel$ must be /ras'ed as the real e)'ression and realiation o$ the human essence& But that

means once a/ain that it is used as a philosophical cate/or"& es'ite the abo.e de.elo'ment o$ the sub8ect(e (ould be loth to use the o$ten misused term ontolo/" in connection (ith Mar)s theor", i$ Mar)

himsel$ had not e)'ressl" used it here: thus he sa"s that onl" 0throu/h the medium o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert"

does the ontological essence o$ human 'assion come into bein/, in its totalit" as in its humanit", 3- and he

su//ests that 0mans $eelin/s, 'assions, etc&, are not merel" anthro'olo/ical 'henomena &&& but trul"

ontolo/ical a$$irmations o$ bein/ 5o$ nature6 5ibid&6&+-

Mar)s 'ositi.e de$initions o$ labour are almost all /i.en as counterconce'ts to the de$inition o$

alienated labour, and "et the ontolo/ical nature o$ this conce't is clearl" e)'ressed in them& We shall

e)tract three o$ the most im'ortant $ormulations: 0Aabour is mans comin/tobe $or himsel$ (ithin

alienation, or as alienated man 5'& 16, it is 0mans act o$ sel$creation or sel$ob8ecti$ication 5'& 1**6,

0li$eacti.it", 'roducti.e li$e itsel$ 5'& 1136& ll three o$ these $ormulations, e.en i$ the" did not occur(ithin the conte)t o$ Mar)s e)'licit e)amination o$ He/el , (ould still 'oint to He/els ontolo/ical

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bein/ 5'& 1126& !he de$inition o$ man as a 0s'ecies bein/ has done a lot o$ dama/e in Mar)scholarshi';

our 'assa/e is so .aluable because it e)'oses the real ori/ins o$ Mar)s conce't o$ 0s'ecies& Man is a

0s'ecies bein/, i&e& a bein/ (hich has the 0s'ecies 5his o(n and that o$ the rest o$ e)istence6 as its ob8ect&

!he s'ecies o$ a bein/ is that (hich this bein/ is accordin/ to its 0stoc and 0ori/in; it is the 0'rinci'le

o$ its bein/ that is common to all the 'articular $eatures o$ (hat it is: the /eneral essence o$ this bein/& 7$

man can mae the s'ecies o$ e.er" bein/ into his ob8ect, the /eneral essence o$ e.er" bein/ can becomeob8ecti.e $or him: he can 'ossess e.er" bein/ as that (hich it is in its essence& 7t is $or this reason 5and this

is e)'ressed in the second hal$ o$ the sentence uoted6 that he can relate $reel" to e.er" bein/: he is not

limited to the 'articular actual state o$ the bein/ and his immediate relationshi' to it, but he can tae the

bein/ as it is in its essence be"ond its immediate, 'articular, actual state; he can reco/nie and /ras' the

possiilities contained in e.er" bein/; he can e)'loit, alter, mould, treat and tae $urther 50'roduce6 an"

bein/ accordin/ to its 0inherent standard 5'& 11+6& Aabour, as the s'eci$icall" human 0li$e acti.it", has its

roots in mans nature as a 0s'ecies bein/; it 'resu''oses mans abilit" to relate to the 0/eneral as'ect o$

ob8ects and to the 'ossibilities contained in it& S'eci$icall" human freedom has its roots in mans abilit" to

relate to his o$n s'ecies: the sel$realiation and 0sel$creation o$ man& !he relationshi' o$ man as a

s'ecies bein/ to his ob8ects is then more closel" de$ined b" means o$ the conce't o$ $ree labour 5$ree

'roductions6&

Man as a s'ecies bein/ is a 0uni.ersal bein/: e%ery bein/ can $or him become ob8ecti.e in its 0s'ecies

character; his e)istence is a uni.ersal relationshi' to ob8ecti.it"& He has to include these 0theoreticall"

ob8ecti.e thin/s in his 'ra)is; he must mae them the ob8ect o$ his 0li$e acti.it" and (or on them& !he

(hole o$ 0nature is the medium o$ his human li$e; it is mans means o$ li$e; it is his 'rereuisite, (hich he

must tae u' and reintroduce into his 'ra)is& Man cannot sim'l" acce't the ob8ecti.e (orld or merel"

come to terms (ith it; he must a''ro'riate it; he has to trans$orm the ob8ects o$ this (orld into or/ans o$

his li$e, (hich becomes e$$ecti.e in and throu/h them& 0!he uni.ersalit" o$ man a''ears in 'ractice

'recisel" in the uni.ersalit" (hich maes all nature his inor/anic bod" < both inasmuch as nature is 516 his

direct means o$ li$e and 526 the material, the ob8ect, and the instrument o$ his li$e acti.it"& 4ature is mans

inor/anic bod" < nature, that is, in so $ar as it is not itsel$ the human bod" 5'& 1126&

!he thesis o$ nature as a means $or man im'lies more than merel" that man is de'endent sim'l" $or his

'h"sical sur.i.al on ob8ecti.e, or/anic and inor/anic nature as a means o$ li$e, or that under the direct

'ressure o$ his 0needs he 0'roduces 5a''ro'riates, treats, 're'ares, etc&6 the ob8ecti.e (orld as ob8ects $or

$ood, clothin/, accommodation, etc& Mar) here e)'licitl" s'eas o$ 0s'iritual, inor/anic nature, 0s'iritual

nourishment and 0mans 'h"sical and s'iritual li$e 5'& 1126& !his is (h" the uni.ersalit" o$ man < as

distinct $rom the essentiall" limited nature o$ animals < is freedom+ $or an animal 0'roduces onl" under the

dominion o$ immediate 'h"sical need (hile man 0onl" trul" 'roduces in $reedom there $rom 5'& 1136&

n animal thus onl" 'roduces itsel$ and 0(hat it immediatel" needs $or itsel$ or its "oun/& 7t 'roduces one

sidedl", (hilst man 'roduces uni.ersall" 5ibid&6& Man does not ha.e ob8ects merel" as the en.ironment o$his immediate li$e acti.it" and does not treat them merel" as ob8ects o$ his immediate needs& He can

0con$ront an" ob8ect and e)haust and realie its inner 'ossibilities in his labour& He can 'roduce 0in

accordance (ith the la(s o$ beaut" and not merel" in accordance (ith the standard o$ his o(n needs 5'&

11+6& 7n this $reedom man re'roduces 0the (hole o$ nature, and throu/h trans$ormation and a''ro'riation

$urthers it, alon/ (ith his o(n li$e, e.en (hen this 'roduction does not satis$" an immediate need& !hus

the histor" o$ human li$e is at the same time essentiall" the histor" o$ mans ob8ecti.e (orld and o$ 0the

(hole o$ nature 50nature in the (ider sense /i.en to this conce't b" Mar), as also b" He/el6& - Man is

not in nature; nature is not the e,ternal (orld into (hich he $irst has to come out o$ his o(n in(ardness&

Man is nature& 4ature is his 0e)'ression, 0his (or and his realit" 5'& 11+6& Where.er (e come across

nature in human histor" it is 0human nature (hile man $or his 'art is al(a"s 0human nature too& We can

thus see 'ro.isionall" to (hat e)tent consistent 0humanism is immediatel" 0naturalism 5''& 13=, 1*16&

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Dn the basis o$ the unit" thus achie.ed bet(een man and nature Mar) mo.es to(ards the crucial

de$inition o$ o&ectification+ throu/h (hich the s'eci$icall" human relationshi' to ob8ecti.it", the human

(a" o$ 'roducin/, is more concretel" determined as uni.ersalit" and $reedom& Db8ecti$ication < the

de$inition o$ man as an 0ob8ecti.e bein/ < is not sim'l" a $urther 'oint a''ended to the de$inition o$ the

unit" o$ man and nature, but is the closer and dee'er $oundation o$ this unit"& 5Db8ecti$ication as such

belon/s < lie his 'artici'ation in nature < to the essence o$ man, and can thus not be 0su'erseded;accordin/ to re.olutionar" theor" onl" a 'articular $orm o$ ob8ecti$ication < rei$ication, 0estran/ement <

can and must be su'erseded&6

s a natural bein/ man is an 0ob8ecti.e bein/, (hich $or Mar) is a 0bein/ eui''ed and endo(ed (ith

ob8ecti.e 5i&e& material6 essential 'o(ers 5'& 1*>6, a bein/ (ho relates to real ob8ects, 0acts ob8ecti.el",

and 0can onl" e,press his li$e in real, sensuous ob8ects 5''& 1*1$$&6& Because the 'o(er o$ his bein/ thus

consists in li.in/ out 5i&e& throu/h and in e)ternal ob8ects6 e.er"thin/ he is, his 0sel$realiation at the

same time means 0the establishment o$ a real, ob8ecti.e (orld, (hich is o.er'o(erin/ because it has a

$orm e)ternal to him and is thus not 'art o$ his bein/ 5'& 1*>6& !he ob8ecti.e (orld, as the necessar"

ob8ecti.it" o$ man, throu/h the a''ro'riation and su'ersession o$ (hich his human essence is $irst

0'roduced and 0con$irmed, is 'art o$ man himsel$& 7t is real ob8ecti.it" onl" $or sel$realiin/ man, it isthe 0sel$ob8ecti$ication o$ man, or human ob8ecti$ication& But this same ob8ecti.e (orld, since it is real

ob8ecti.it", can a''ear as a 'recondition o$ his bein/ (hich does not belon/ to his bein/, is be"ond his

control, and is 0o.er'o(erin/& !his con$lict in the human essence < that it is in itsel$ ob8ecti.e < is the

root o$ the $act that ob8ecti$ication can become rei$ication and that e)ternaliation can become alienation&

7t maes it 'ossible $or man com'letel" to 0lose the ob8ect as 'art o$ his essence and let it become

inde'endent and o.er'o(erin/& !his 'ossibilit" becomes a realit" in estran/ed labour and 'ri.ate

'ro'ert"&

Mar) then attem'ts to im'lant ob8ecti$ication and the con$lict a''earin/ (ithin it e.en more dee'l" into

the de$inition o$ man& 0n ob8ecti.e bein/&&&(ould not act ob8ecti.el" i$ the ualit" o$ ob8ecti.it" did not

reside in the .er" nature o$ his bein/& He creates, 'osits ob8ects alone, ecause he is 'osited b" ob8ects <

because at bottom he is nature 5'& 1*>6& !he ualit" o$ bein/ 'osited b" ob8ects is, ho(e.er, the

$undamental determinant o$ 0sensuousness 5to ha.e senses, (hich are a$$ected b" ob8ects6 and thus Mar)

can identi$" ob8ecti.e bein/ (ith sensuous bein/, and the ualit" o$ ha.in/ ob8ects outside onesel$ (ith

the ualit" o$ bein/ sensuous: 0!o be sensuous, i&e& real, is to be an ob8ect o$ the senses, a sensuous ob8ect,

and there$ore to ha.e ob8ects outside onesel$ (hich are sub8ect to the o'erations o$ ones senses, and this

'assa/e: 0(o e ob8ecti.e, natural and sensuous, and at the same time to ha.e ob8ect, nature and sense

outside onesel$, or onesel$ to be ob8ect, nature and sense $or a third 'art", is one and the same thin/ 5'&

1*16& 5!he second identi$ication also included here (ill be discussed belo(&6 !hereb" 0sensuousness $or

Mar) mo%es into the centre o$ his 'hiloso'hical $oundation: 0Sensuousness 5see Feuerbach6 must be the

basis o$ all science 5'& 1+36&

7t is alread" clear $rom the abo.e deduction that 0sensuousness is here an ontolo/ical conce't (ithin the

de$inition o$ mans essence and that it comes be$ore an" materialism or sensualism& !he conce't o$

sensuousness here taen u' b" Mar) 5.ia Feuerbach and He/el6 /oes bac to ants Criti"ue of Pure

-eason! !here it is said that sensuousness is the human 'erce'tion throu/h (hich alone ob8ects are gi%en

to us& Db8ects can onl" be /i.en to man in so $ar as the" 0a$$ect to him& Human sensuousness is

a$$ectibilit"& *- Human 'erce'tion as sensuousness is rece'ti.e and 'assi.e& 7t recei.es (hat it is /i.en,

and it is de'endent on and needs this ualit" o$ bein/ /i.en& !o the e)tent to (hich man is characteried

b" sensuousness he is 0'osited b" ob8ects, and he acce'ts these 'rereuisites throu/h co/nition& s a

sensuous bein/ he is an a$$i)ed, 'assi.e and su$$erin/ bein/&



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7n Feuerbach, to (hom Mar) e)'licitl" re$ers in the 'assa/e uoted, the conce't o$ sensuousness

ori/inall" tends in the same direction as in ant& 7n $act (hen Feuerbach, in o''osition to He/el, (ants to

'ut the rece'ti.it" o$ the senses bac at the startin/'oint o$ 'hiloso'h", he initiall" almost a''ears as the

'reser.er and de$ender o$ antian criticism a/ainst 0absolute idealism& 0C)istence is somethin/ in (hich

not onl" 7, but also the others, and es'eciall" the o&ect+ 'artici'ate& 9- 0Dnl" throu/h the senses does an

ob8ect in the true sense become /i.en < not throu/h thinin/ $or itsel$; 0an ob8ect is /i.en not to m" C/o but to m" nonC/o, $or onl" (here 7 am 'assi.e does the conce'tion o$ an acti.it" e)istin/ outside me, i&e&

ob8ecti.it", come into bein/ 5ibid&, ''& 321$$&6& !his acce'tin/, 'assi.e bein/ (ith needs, de'endent on

/i.en thin/s, (hich $inds its e)'ression in mans sensuousness, is de.elo'ed b" Feuerbach into the

0'assi.e 'rinci'le 5ibid&, ''& 2=$$6 and 'laced at the a'e) o$ his 'hiloso'h" < althou/h he /oes in a

direction uite di$$erent $rom that o$ ant& !he de$inition o$ man as 'urel" a 'assi.e bein/ 0(ith needs is

the ori/inal basis $or Feuerbachs attac on He/el and his idea o$ man as a 'urel" $ree, creati.e

consciousness: 0onl" a 'assi.e bein/ is a necessar" bein/& C)istence (ithout needs is su'er$luous

e)istence & & & bein/ (ithout distress is a bein/ (ithout /round&&& non'assi.e bein/ is a bein/ (ithout

bein/& bein/ (ithout su$$erin/ is nothin/ other than a bein/ (ithout sensuousness and matter 5ibid&, ''&

2=?$6&

!he same tendenc" to /o bac to sensuousness is no( also discernible in Mar) < a tendenc" to

com'rehend mans bein/ de$ined b" needs and his de'endence on 'reestablished ob8ecti.it" b" means o$

the sensuousness in his o(n bein/& !his tendenc" in turn is sub8ect to the aim o$ achie.in/ a real, concrete

'icture o$ man as an ob8ecti.e and natural bein/, united (ith the (orld, as o''osed to He/els abstract

0bein/, $reed $rom 'reestablished 0naturalness, (hich 'osits both itsel$ and all ob8ecti.it"& 7n line (ith

Feuerbach, Mar) sa"s: 0as a natural, cor'oreal, sensuous, ob8ecti.e bein/ man- is a passi%e+ conditioned

and limited creature 5'&1*16 and: 0!o be sensuous is to e passi%e! Man as an ob8ecti.e, sensuous bein/ is

there$ore a passi%e bein/ < and because he $eels (hat he su$$ers, a 'assionate bein/ 5'& 1*26& Mans

'assion, his real acti.it" and s'ontaneit" is ascribed to his 'assi.it" and neediness, in so $ar as it is an

as'iration to a 'reestablished ob8ect e)istin/ outside him: 0Passion is the essential $orce o$ man

ener/eticall" bent on its ob8ect 5'& ?26& 1>- nd: 0!he rich man is simultaneousl" the man in need of a

totalit" o$ human mani$estations o$ li$e < the man in (hom his o(n realiation e)ists as an inner necessit",

as need 5'& 1++6&

We can no( understand (h" Mar) em'hasies that 0mans $eelin/s, 'assions, etc&&&&are trul" ontolo/ical

a$$irmations o$ bein/ o$ nature- 5'& 1?=6& !he distress and neediness (hich a''ear in mans sensuousness

are no more 'urel" matters o$ co/nition than his distress and neediness, as e)'ressed in estran/ed labour,

are 'urel" economic& istress and neediness here do not describe indi.idual modes o$ mans beha.iour at

all; the" are $eatures o$ his (hole e,istence! !he" are ontolo/ical cate/ories 5(e shall there$ore return to

them in connection (ith a lar/e number o$ di$$erent themes in these Manuscripts*!

7t (as necessar" to /i.e such an e)tensi.e inter'retation o$ the conce't o$ sensuousness in order to 'oint

once a/ain to its real meanin/ in o''osition to its man" misinter'retations as the basis o$ materialism& 7n

de.elo'in/ this conce't Mar) and Feuerbach (ere in $act comin/ to /ri's (ith one o$ the crucial 'roblems

o$ 0classical German 'hiloso'h"& But in Mar) it is this conce't o$ sensuousness 5as ob8ecti$ication6 (hich

leads to the decisi.e turn $rom classical German 'hiloso'h" to the theor" o$ re.olution, $or he inserts the

basic traits o$ practical and social e)istence into his de$inition o$ mans essential bein/& s ob8ecti.it",

mans sensuousness is essentiall" 'ractical ob8ecti$ication, and because it is 'ractical it is essentiall" a

social ob8ecti$ication&

III

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We no( $rom Mar)s (heses on .euerach that it is 'recisel" the conce't o$ human pra,is that dra(s

the line o$ demarcation bet(een himsel$ and Feuerbach& Dn the other hand, it is throu/h this 5or more

e)actl", throu/h the conce't o$ labour6 that he reaches bac be"ond Feuerbach to He/el: 0!he outstandin/

achie.ement o$ He/els Phenomenology and o$ its $inal outcome&&&is thus&&& that He/el&&&/ras's the essence

o$ labour and com'rehends ob8ecti.e man < true, because real man < as the outcome o$ mans o(n labour

5'& 16& !hin/s are thus not as sim'le as (e (ould e)'ect; the road $rom Feuerbach to Mar) is notcharacteried b" a strai/ht re8ection o$ He/el& 7nstead o$ this, Mar), at the ori/ins o$ re.olutionar" theor",

once a/ain a''ro'riates the decisi.e achie.ements o$ He/el on a trans$ormed basis&

We sa( that mans sensuousness si/ni$ied that he is 'osited b" 'reestablished ob8ects and there$ore also

that he has a /i.en, ob8ecti.e (orld, to (hich he relates 0uni.ersall" and 0$reel"& We must no( describe

more closel" the (a" in (hich he 'ossesses and relates to the (orld&

7n Feuerbach mans 'ossession o$, and relation to, the (orld remains essentiall" theoretical, and this is

e)'ressed in the $act that the (a" o$ relatin/, (hich reall" 'ermits 0'ossession o$ realit", is 0'erce'tion&11- 7n Mar), to 'ut it brie$l", labour re'laces this 'erce'tion, althou/h the central im'ortance o$ the

theoretical relation does not disa''ear: it is combined (ith labour in a relationshi' o$ dialecticalinter'enetration& We ha.e alread" su//ested abo.e that Mar) /ras's labour, be"ond all its economic

si/ni$icance, as the human 0li$eacti.it" and the /enuine realiation o$ man& We must no( 'resent the

conce't o$ labour in its inner connection to the de$inition o$ man as a 0natural and 0sensuous 5ob8ecti.e6

bein/& We shall see ho( it is in labour that the distress and neediness, but also the uni.ersalit" and

$reedom o$ man, become real&

0Man is directl" a natural bein/& s a natural bein/ and as a li.in/ natural bein/ he is on the one hand

endo(ed (ith natural 'o(ers o$ li$e < he is an acti%e natural bein/& !hese $orces e)ist in him as

tendencies and abilities < as instincts& Dn the other hand, as a natural, cor'oreal, sensuous, ob8ecti.e bein/

he is a su$$erin/, conditioned and limited creature&&&& !hat is to sa", the ob8ects o$ his instincts e)ist outside

him, as o&ects inde'endent o$ him; "et these ob8ects are ob8ects that he needs # essential ob8ects,

indis'ensable to the mani$estation and con$irmation o$ his essential 'o(ers 5'& 1*16& Db8ects are thus not

'rimaril" ob8ects o$ 'erce'tion, but o$ needs, and as such ob8ects o$ the 'o(ers, abilities and instincts o$

man& 7t has alread" been 'ointed out that 0creed is not to be understood onl" in the sense o$ 'h"sical

neediness: man needs 0a totalit" o$ human mani$estations o$ li$e 5'& 1++6& !o be able to realie himsel$ he

needs to e)'ress himsel$ throu/h the 'reestablished ob8ects (ith (hich he is con$ronted& His acti.it" and

his sel$a$$irmation consist in the a''ro'riation o$ the 0e)ternalit" (hich con$ronts him, and in the

trans$erence o$ himsel$ into that e)ternalit"& 7n his labour man su'ersedes the mere ob8ecti.it" o$ ob8ects

and maes them into 0the means o$ li$e& He im'resses u'on them the $orm o$ his bein/, and maes them

into 0his (or and his realit"& !he ob8ecti.e 'iece o$ $inished (or is the realit" o$ man; man is as he has

realied himsel$ in the ob8ect o$ his labour& For this reason Mar) can sa" that in the ob8ect o$ his labourman sees himsel$ in ob8ecti.e $orm, he becomes 0$or himsel$, he 'ercei.es himsel$ as an ob8ect& 0!he

ob8ect o$ labour is, there$ore, the ob8ecti$ication o$ mans s'ecies li$e: $or he du'licates himsel$ not onl",

as in consciousness, intellectuall", but also acti.el", in realit", and there$ore he contem'lates himsel$ in a

(orld that he has created 5'& 11+6&

Db8ecti$ication o$ the 0s'ecies li$e: $or it is not the isolated indi.idual (ho is acti.e in labour, and the

ob8ecti.it" o$ labour is not ob8ecti.it" $or the isolated indi.idual or a mere 'luralit" o$ indi.iduals < rather

it is 'recisel" in labour that the s'eci$icall" human uni%ersality is realied&

!hus (e can alread" discern the second basic characteristic o$ ob8ecti$ication: it is essentiall" a 0social

acti.it", and ob8ecti$"in/ man is basicall" 0social man& !he s'here o$ ob8ects in (hich labour is 'er$ormed is 'recisel" the s'here o$ common li$eacti.it": in and throu/h the ob8ects o$ labour, men are



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sho(n one another in their realit"& !he ori/inal $orms o$ communication, the essential relationshi' o$ men

to one another, (ere e)'ressed in the common use, 'ossession, desire, need and en8o"ment, etc& o$ the

ob8ecti.e (orld& ll labour is labour (ith and $or and a/ainst others, so that in it men $irst mutuall" re.eal

themsel.es $or (hat the" reall" are& 12- !hus e.er" ob8ect on (hich a man (ors in his indi.idualit" is

0simultaneousl" his o(n e)istence $or the other man, the e)istence o$ the other man, and that e)istence $or

him 5'& 13?6&

7$ the ob8ecti.e (orld is thus understood in its totalit" as a 0social (orld, as the ob8ecti.e realit" o$ human

societ" and thus as human ob8ecti$ication, then throu/h this it is also alread" de$ined as a historical realit"&

!he ob8ecti.e (orld (hich is in an" /i.en situation 'reestablished $or man is the realit" o$ a 'ast human

li$e, (hich, althou/h it belon/s to the 'ast, is still 'resent in the $orm it has /i.en to the ob8ecti.e (orld&

ne( $orm o$ the ob8ecti.e (orld can thus onl" come into bein/ on the basis, and throu/h the su'ersession

o$ an earlier $orm alread" in e)istence& !he real human and his (orld arise $irst in this mo.ement, (hich

inserts the rele.ant as'ect o$ the 'ast into the 'resent: 0Histor" is the true natural histor" o$ man, his 0act

o$ ori/in 5'& 1*26, 0the creation o$ man throu/h human labour 5'& 1+=6& 4ot onl" man emer/es in histor",

but also nature, in so $ar as it is not somethin/ e)ternal to and se'arated $rom the human essence but

belon/s to the transcended and a''ro'riated ob8ecti.it" o$ man: 0(orld histor" is 0the emer/ence o$nature $or man 5ibid&6&

7t is onl" no(, a$ter the totalit" o$ the human essence as the unit" o$ man and nature has been made

concrete b" the 'ractical socialhistorical 'rocess o$ ob8ecti$ication, that (e can understand the de$inition

o$ man as a 0uni.ersal and 0$ree s'ecies bein/& !he histor" o$ man is at the same time the 'rocess o$ 0the

(hole o$ nature; his histor" is the 0'roduction and re'roduction o$ the (hole o$ nature, $urtherance o$

(hat e)ists ob8ecti.el" throu/h once a/ain transcendin/ its current $orm& 7n his 0uni.ersal relationshi' 13-

to the (hole o$ nature, there$ore, nature is ultimatel" not a limitation on or somethin/ alien outside him to

(hich he, as somethin/ other, is sub8ected& 7t is his e)'ression, con$irmation, acti.it": 0e)ternalit" is&&&the

self/e,ternalizing $orld of sense o'en to the li/ht, o'en to the man endo(ed (ith senses 5'& 1926&

We no( (ant to summarie brie$l" the de$initions brou/ht to/ether in the conce't o$ man as a uni.ersal

and $ree bein/& Man 0relates to himsel$ and (hate.er e)ists, he can transcend (hat is /i.en and 're

established, a''ro'riate it and thus /i.e it his o(n realit" and realie himsel$ in e.er"thin/& !his $reedom

does not contradict the distress and neediness o$ man, o$ (hich (e s'oe at the be/innin/, but is based

u'on it in so $ar as it is $reedom onl" as the transcendence o$ (hat is /i.en and 'reestablished& Mans

0li$eacti.it" is 0not a determination (ith (hich he directl" mer/es lie an animal 5'& 1136, it is 0$ree

acti.it", since man can 0distin/uish himsel$ $rom the immediate determination o$ his e)istence, 0mae it

into an ob8ect and transcend it& He can turn his e)istence into a 0means 5ibid&6, can himsel$ /i.e himsel$

realit" and himsel$ 0'roduce himsel$ and his 0ob8ecti.it"& 7t is in this dee'er sense 5and not onl"

biolo/icall"6 that (e must understand the sentence that 0man 'roduces man 5''& 13?, 136 and thathuman li$e is /enuinel" 0'roducti.e and 0li$een/enderin/ li$e 5'& 1136&

!hereb" Mar)s de$inition returns to its startin/'oint: the basic conce't o$ 0labour& 7t is no( clear to

(hat e)tent it (as ri/ht to deal (ith labour as an ontolo/ical cate/or"& s $ar as man, throu/h the creation,

treatment and a''ro'riation o$ the ob8ecti.e (orld, /i.es himsel$ his o(n realit", and as $ar as his

0relationshi' to the ob8ect is the 0mani$estation o$ human realit" 5'& 1396, labour is the real e)'ression o$

human $reedom& Man becomes $ree in his labour& He $reel" realies himsel$ in the ob8ect o$ his labour:

0(hen, $or man in societ", the ob8ecti.e (orld e.er"(here becomes the (orld o$ mans essential 'o(ers <

human realit", and $or that reason the realit" o$ his o$n essential 'o(ers < &&& all ob8ects become $or him

the ob8ecti$ication o$ himsel$ become ob8ects (hich con$irm and realie his indi.idualit", become his

ob8ects: that is, man himself becomes the ob8ect 5'& 1+>6&

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IV

7n the 'recedin/ sections (e ha.e attem'ted to 'resent in its conte)t the de$inition o$ man underl"in/ the

Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts and to re.eal it as the basis o$ the critiue o$ 'olitical econom"&

7t almost a''ears, des'ite all 'rotestations to the contrar", as i$ (e are mo.in/ in the $ield o$ 'hiloso'hical

in.esti/ations, $or/ettin/ that these Manuscripts are concerned (ith the $oundation o$ a theor" o$re.olution and hence ultimatel" (ith re.olutionar" pra,is! But (e onl" need to 'ut the result o$ our

inter'retation ne)t to its startin/ 'oint to $ind that (e ha.e reached the 'oint (here the 'hiloso'hical

critiue in itsel$ directl" becomes a 'ractical re.olutionar" critiue&

!he $act $rom (hich the critiue and the inter'retation set out (as the alienation and estran/ement o$ the

human essence as e)'ressed in the alienation and estran/ement o$ labour, and hence the situation o$ man

in the historical $acticit" o$ ca'italism& !his $act a''ears as the total per%ersion and concealment o$ (hat

the critiue had de$ined as the essence o$ man and human labour& Aabour is not 0$ree acti.it" or the

uni.ersal and $ree sel$realiation o$ man, but his ensla.ement and loss o$ realit"& !he (orer is not man

in the totalit" o$ his li$ee)'ression, but a non'erson, the 'urel" 'h"sical sub8ect o$ 0abstract acti.it"&

!he ob8ects o$ labour are not e)'ressions and con$irmations o$ the human realit" o$ the (orer, but alien

thin/s, belon/in/ to someone other than the (orer < 0commodities& !hrou/h all this the e)istence o$

man does not become, in estran/ed labour, the 0means $or his sel$realiation& !he re.erse ha''ens:

mans sel$ becomes a means $or his mere e)istence& !he 'ure 'h"sical e)istence o$ the (orer is the /oal

(hich his entire li$eacti.it" ser.es& 0s a result, there$ore, man the (orer- onl" $eels himsel$ $reel"

acti.e in his animal $unctions < eatin/, drinin/, 'rocreatin/, or at most in his d(ellin/ and in dressin/u',

etc&, and in his human $unctions he no lon/er $eels himsel$ to be an"thin/ but an animal& What is animal

becomes human and (hat is human becomes animal 5'& 1116&

We ha.e seen that Mar) describes this estran/ement and loss o$ realit" as the 0e)'ression o$ a total

'er.ersion o$ the beha.iour o$ man as man: in his relationshi' to the 'roduct o$ his labour as an 0alienob8ect e)ercisin/ 'o(er o.er him and simultaneousl" in the relationshi' o$ the (orer to his o(n acti.it"

as 0an alien acti.it" not belon/in/ to him 5ibid&6& !his rei$ication is b" no means limited to the (orer

5e.en thou/h it a$$ects him in a uniue (a"6; it also a$$ects the non(orer < the ca'italist& !he 0dominion

o$ dead matter o.er man re.eals itsel$ $or the ca'italist in the state of 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" and the manner in

(hich he has and 'ossesses it& 7t is reall" a state o$ bein/ 'ossessed, o$ bein/ had, sla.er" in the ser.ice o$

'ro'ert"& He 'ossesses his 'ro'ert" not as a $ield o$ $ree sel$realiation and acti.it" but 'urel" as ca'ital:

0Pri.ate 'ro'ert" has made us so stu'id and onesided that an ob8ect is onl" ours (hen (e ha.e it < (hen

it e)ists $or us as ca'ital, or (hen it is directl" 'ossessed, eaten, drun, (orn, inhabited, etc&, in short,

(hen it is used b" us&&&the li$e (hich the" realiations o$ 'ossession- ser.e as means is the li$e o$ 'ri.ate

'ro'ert", labour, and con.ersion into ca'ital 5'& 1396& 5We shall return to the de$inition o$ 0true

'ossession underl"in/ this descri'tion o$ 0$alse 'ro'ert" belo(&6

7$ historical $acticit" thus re.eals the total 'er.ersion o$ all the conditions /i.en in the de$inition o$ the

human essence, does it not 'ro.e that this de$inition lacs content and sense, and that it is onl" an

idealistic abstraction, (hich does .iolence to historical realit"@ We no( the cruel derision (ith (hich, in

his German 'deology, (hich a''eared onl" a "ear a$ter these Manuscripts+ Mar) destro"ed the idle tal o$

the He/elians, such 'eo'le as Stirner and the 0true socialists, about the essence, the man, etc& id Mar)

himsel$, in his de$inition o$ the human essence, /i.e in to this idle chatter@ Dr does a radical chan/e tae

'lace in Mar)s $undamental .ie(s bet(een our Manuscripts and the German 'deology@

!here is indeed a chan/e, e.en i$ it is not in his $undamental .ie(s& 7t must be em'hasied a/ain and a/ain

that in la"in/ the $oundations o$ re.olutionar" theor" Mar) is $i/htin/ on %arious fronts: on the one handa/ainst the 'seudoidealism o$ the He/elian school, on the other a/ainst rei$ication in bour/eois 'olitical


14/25

econom", and then a/ain a/ainst Feuerbach and 'seudomaterialism& !he meanin/ and the 'ur'ose o$ his

$i/ht thus .aries accordin/ to the direction o$ his attac and de$ence& Here, (here he is 'rinci'all" $i/htin/

rei$ication in 'olitical econom", (hich turns a 'articular ind o$ historical $acticit" into ri/id 0eternal

la(s and socalled 0essential relationshi's, Mar) 'resents this $acticit" in contrast to the real essence o$

man& But in doin/ this he brin/s out its truth, because he /ras's it (ithin the conte)t o$ the real histor" o$

man and re.eals the necessit" o$ its bein/ o.ercome&

!hese chan/es, then, result $rom shi$ts in the terrain o$ the con$lict& But the $ollo(in/ 'oint is still more

decisi.e& !o 'la" o$$ essence 5the determinants o$ 0the man6 and $acticit" 5his /i.en concrete historical

situation6 a/ainst each other is to miss com'letel" the ne( stand'oint (hich Mar) had alread" assumed at

the outset o$ his in.esti/ations& For Mar) essence and $acticit", the situation o$ essential histor" and the

situation o$ $actual histor", are no lon/er se'arate re/ions or le.els inde'endent o$ each other the historical

e)'erience o$ man is taken up into the definition of his essence! We are no lon/er dealin/ (ith an abstract

human essence, (hich remains euall" .alid at e.er" sta/e o$ concrete histor", but (ith an essence (hich

can be de$ined in history and only in histor"& 57t is there$ore uite a di$$erent matter (hen Mar) s'eas o$

the 0essence o$ man, as o''osed to Bruno Bauer, Stirner and Feuerbach6 1+- !he $act that des'ite or

'recisel" because o$ this it is al(a"s man himsel$ that matters in all mans historical 'ra)is is so sel$e.ident that it is not (orth discussin/ $or Mar), (ho /re( u' in a direct relationshi' (ith the most li.el"

'eriod o$ German 'hiloso'h" 58ust as the o''osite seems to ha.e become sel$e.ident $or the e'i/ones o$

Mar)ism6& C.en in Mar)s e)tremel" bitter stru//le (ith German 'hiloso'h" in the 'eriod o$ its decline, a

'hiloso'hical im'etus li.es on (hich onl" com'lete naI.etJ could misconstrue as a desire to destro"

'hiloso'h" alto/ether&

!he disco.er" o$ the historical character o$ the human essence does not mean that the histor" o$ mans

essence can be identi$ied (ith his $actual histor"& We ha.e alread" heard that man is ne.er directl" 0one

(ith his li$eacti.it"; he is, rather, 0distinct $rom it and 0relates to it& Cssence and e)istence separate in

him: his e)istence is a 0means to the realiation o$ his essence, or < in estran/ement < his essence is a

means to his mere 'h"sical e)istence 5'& 1136& 7$ essence and e)istence ha.e thus become se'arated and i$

the real and $ree task o$ human 'ra)is is the uni$ication o$ both as $actual realiation, then the authentic

tas, (hen $acticit" has 'ro/ressed so $ar as totall" to per%ert the human essence, is the radical aolition

o$ this $acticit"& 7t is 'recisel" the unerrin/ contem'lation o$ the essence o$ man that becomes the

ine)orable im'ulse $or the initiation o$ radical re.olution& !he $actual situation o$ ca'italism is

characteried not merel" b" economic or 'olitical crisis but b" a catastro'he a$$ectin/ the human essence;

this insi/ht condemns an" mere economic or 'olitical reform to $ailure $rom the outset, and

unconditionall" reuires the catacl"smic transcendence o$ the actual situation throu/h total re%olution!

Dnl" a$ter the basis has been established in this (a", so $irml" that it cannot be shaen b" an" merel"

economic or 'olitical ar/uments, does the uestion o$ the historical conditions and the earers o$ the

re.olution arise: the uestion o$ the theor" o$ class stru//le and the dictatorshi' o$ the 'roletariat& n"critiue (hich onl" 'a"s attention to this theor", (ithout comin/ to /ri's (ith its real $oundation, misses

the 'oint&

We shall no( loo at the Manuscripts to see (hat the" contribute to the 're'aration o$ a 'ositi.e theor" o$

re.olution and ho( the" treat the real su'ersession o$ rei$ication, the su'ersession o$ alienated labour and

o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert"& We shall once a/ain limit oursel.es to the basic state o$ a$$airs e)'ressed in the

economic and 'olitical $acts& What also belon/s to this 'ositi.e theor" o$ re.olution is < as (e shall sho(

< an in.esti/ation o$ the origin o$ rei$ication: an in.esti/ation o$ the historical conditions and emer/ence

o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert"& !(o main uestions must there$ore be ans(ered: 1& Ho( does Mar) describe the

accom'lished su'ersession o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert", i&e& the state o$ the human essence a$ter the total

re.olution@ 2& Ho( does Mar) handle the 'roblem o$ the ori/in o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" or the emer/ence and



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16/25

the basis o$ the state o$ 'ro'ert", and not mere ha.in/ and 'ossessin/& We must no( more closel" de$ine

this ne( conce't o$ a''ro'riation and 'ro'ert" (hich underlies Mar)s anal"sis&

We ha.e seen ho( 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" consists in an untrue mode o$ ha.in/ and 'ossessin/ ob8ects& 7n

conditions o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" an ob8ect is 0'ro'ert" (hen it can be 0used; and this use consists either in

immediate consum'tion or in its ca'acit" to be turned into ca'ital& 0Ai$eacti.it" stands in the ser.ice o$ 'ro'ert" instead o$ 'ro'ert" standin/ in the ser.ice o$ $ree li$eacti.it"; it is not the 0realit" o$ man (hich

is a''ro'riated but ob8ects as thin/s 5/oods and commodities6 and e.en this ind o$ a''ro'riation is 0one

sided: it is limited to the 'h"sical beha.iour o$ man and to ob8ects (hich can immediatel" 0/rati$" or be

turned into ca'ital& 7n contrast to this, 0true human 'ro'ert" is no( described in its true a''ro'riation:

0the sensuous a''ro'riation $or and b" man o$ the human essence and o$ human li$e, o$ ob8ecti.e man, o$

human achie.ements < should not be concei.ed merel" in the sense o$ immediate+ onesided gratification

# merel" in the sense of possession+ of ha%ing! Man a''ro'riates his total essence in a total manner, that is

to sa", as a (hole man& !his total a''ro'riation is then more closel" described: 0Cach of his human

relations to the (orld < seein/, hearin/, smellin/, tastin/, $eelin/, thinin/, obser.in/, e)'eriencin/,

(antin/, actin/, lo.in/ < in short, all the or/ans of his indi.idual bein/&&&are in their ob8ecti.e orientation

or in their orientation to the ob8ect, the a''ro'riation o$ that ob8ect 5''& 13*96&

Be"ond all economic and le/al relations, a''ro'riation as the basis of 'ro'ert" thus becomes a cate/or"

(hich com'rehends the uni.ersal and $ree relationshi' of man to the ob8ecti.e (orld: the relationshi' to

the ob8ect (hich is becomin/ ones o(n is 0total < it 0emanci'ates all the human senses& !he $hole man

is at home in the $hole ob8ecti.e (orld (hich is 0his (or and his realit"& !he economic and legal

su'ersession of 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" is not the end+ but onl" the eginning of the communist re.olution& !his

uni.ersal and $ree a''ro'riation is laour+ $or as (e sa(, the s'eci$icall" human relationshi' to the ob8ect

is one o$ creatin/, 'ositin/, $ormin/& But in this case labour (ould no lon/er be an alienated and rei$ied

acti.it", but allround sel$realiation and sel$e)'ression&

!he inhumanit" re'resented b" rei$ication is thus abolished at the 'oint (here it (as most dee'l" rooted

and dan/erous: in the conce't o$ 'ro'ert"& Man no lon/er 0loses himsel$ in the ob8ecti.e (orld, and his

ob8ecti$ication is no lon/er rei$ication, i$ ob8ects are (ithdra(n $rom 0onesided o(nershi' and

'ossession and remain the (or and realit" of the one (ho 0'roduced or realied them and himsel$ in

them& 7t is not, ho(e.er, the isolated indi.idual or an abstract 'luralit" o$ indi.iduals (hich has been

realied in them, but social man, man as a social bein/& Mans return to his true 'ro'ert" is a return into

his social essence; it is the liberation o$ societ"&

V

0Man is not lost in his ob8ect onl" (hen the ob8ect becomes $or him a human ob8ect or ob8ecti.e man& !hisis 'ossible onl" (hen the ob8ect becomes $or him a social ob8ect, he himsel$ $or himsel$ a social bein/,

8ust as societ" becomes a bein/ $or him in this ob8ect 5'& 1+>6& !here are thus t(o conditions $or breain/

throu/h rei$ication as outlined abo.e: the ob8ecti.e relations must become human < i&e& social < relations

and the" must be reco/nied and consciousl" 'reser.ed as such& !hese t(o conditions are $undamentall"

interrelated, $or the ob8ecti.e relations can onl" become human and social i$ man himsel$ is conscious o$

them as such+ i&e& in his kno$ledge o$ both himsel$ and the ob8ect& !hus (e a/ain encounter the central

role (hich a 'articular ind o$ insi/ht 5mans 0comin/tobe $or himsel$6 'la"s in the $oundation o$

Mar)s theor"& !o (hat e)tent can co/nition, the reco/nition o$ ob8ecti$ication as somethin/ social,

become the real im'ulse $or the abolition o$ all rei$ication@

We no( that ob8ecti$ication is essentiall" a social acti.it" and that it is 'recisel" in his ob8ects and in hislabour on them that man reco/nies himsel$ as a social bein/& !he insi/ht into ob8ecti$ication, (hich


17/25

breas throu/h rei$ication, is the insi/ht into societ" as the sub8ect o$ ob8ecti$ication& For there is no such

thin/ as 0societ" as a sub8ect outside the indi.idual; Mar) e)'ressl" (arns a/ainst 'la"in/ societ" as an

inde'endent entit" o$$ a/ainst the indi.idual: 0bo.e all (e must a.oid 'ostulatin/ Societ"K a/ain as an

abstraction .isL.is the indi.idual& !he indi.idual is the social eing! His li$e, e.en i$ it ma" not a''ear in

the direct $orm o$ a communal li$e in association (ith others, is there$ore an e)'ression and con$irmation

o$ social li$e 5''& 13*6&

7nsi/ht into ob8ecti$ication thus means insi/ht into ho( and throu/h (hat man and his ob8ecti.e (orld as

social relations ha.e become (hat the" are& 7t means insi/ht into the historicalsocial situation o$ man&

!his insi/ht is no mere theoretical co/nition or arbitrar", 'assi.e intuition, but pra,is: the su'ersession o$

(hat e)ists, main/ it a 0means $or $ree sel$realiation&

!his also means that the insi/ht (hich de$ines this tas is b" no means a.ailable to e.er"one: it can onl"

be no(n b" those (ho are actuall" entrusted $ith this task b" their historicalsocial situation 5(e cannot

'ursue the (a" in (hich the 'roletariat becomes the bearer o$ this insi/ht in the situation anal"sed b"

Mar): its content is 'resented at the close o$ Mar)s 'ntroduction to the Criti"ue of Hegel)s Philosophy of

-ight 6& 7t is not a matter o$ the tas $or man as such but o$ a 'articular historical cas in a 'articularhistorical situation& 7t is there$ore necessar" that 0the transcendence o$ the estran/ement al(a"s 'roceeds

$rom that $orm o$ the estran/ement (hich is the dominant 'o(er 5'& 1=+6& Because it is de'endent on the

conditions 'reestablished b" histor", the 'ra)is o$ transcendence must, in order to be /enuine

transcendence, re.eal these conditions and a''ro'riate them& 7nsi/ht into ob8ecti$ication as insi/ht into the

historical and social situation o$ man re.eals the historical conditions o$ this situation and so achie.es the

practical force and concrete form throu/h (hich it can become the le.er o$ the re.olution& We can no(

also understand ho( $ar uestions concernin/ the origin o$ estran/ement and insi/ht into the origin o$

'ri.ate 'ro'ert" must be an inte/ratin/ element in a 'ositi.e theor" o$ re.olution&

Mar)s handlin/ o$ the uestion o$ the ori/ins o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" sho(s the 'ioneerin/ ne( 0method o$

his theor"& Mar) is $undamentall" con.inced that (hen man is conscious o$ his histor" he cannot $all into

a situation (hich he has not himsel$ created, and that onl" he himsel$ can liberate himsel$ $rom an"

situation& !his basic con.iction alread" $inds its e)'ression in the conce't o$ $reedom in the Manuscripts!

!he 'hrase that the liberation o$ the (orin/ class can onl" be the (or o$ the (orin/ class itsel$

resonates clearl" throu/h all the economic e)'lanations; it onl" enters into 0contradiction (ith historical

materialism i$ the latter is $alsi$ied into a .ul/ar materialism& 7$ the relations o$ 'roduction ha.e become a

0$etter and an alien $orce determinin/ man, then this is onl" because man has at some sta/e himsel$

alienated himsel$ $rom his 'o(er o.er the relations o$ 'roduction& !his is also true i$ one sees the relations

o$ 'roduction as bein/ determined 'rimaril" b" the /i.en 0natural $orces o$ 'roduction 5e&/& climatic or

/eo/ra'hical conditions, the condition o$ the land, the distribution o$ ra( materials6 and i/nores the $act

that all these 'h"sical data ha.e al(a"s e)isted in a $orm historicall" handed do(n and ha.e $ormed a 'arto$ 'articular human and social 0$orms o$ intercourse& For the situation o$ man (hich e)ists throu/h such

'ree)istin/ $orces o$ 'roduction onl" becomes an historical and social situation throu/h the $act that man

0reacts to (hat he $inds 'ree)istin/, i&e& throu/h the manner in (hich he a''ro'riates it& 7n truth these

relations o$ 'roduction (hich ha.e been rei$ied into alien, determinin/ $orces are al(a"s ob8ecti$ications

o$ 'articular social relations, and the abolition o$ the estran/ement e)'ressed in these relations o$

'roduction can onl" be total and real i$ it can account $or economic re.olution in terms o$ these human

relations& !hus the uestion o$ the ori/in o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" becomes a uestion o$ the acti.it" throu/h

(hich man alienated 'ro'ert" $rom himsel$: 0Ho(, (e no( as, does man come to alienate, to estran/e,

his labour@ Ho( is this estran/ement rooted in the nature o$ human de.elo'ment@ nd bein/ a(are o$ the

crucial im'ortance o$ this ne( (a" o$ $ormulatin/ the uestion, Mar) adds: 0We ha.e alread" /one a lon/

(a" to the solution o$ this 'roblem b" trans$ormin/ the uestion o$ the ori/in o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" into theuestion o$ the relation o$ alienated labour to the course o$ humanit"s de.elo'ment& For (hen one s'eas


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o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert", one thins o$ dealin/ (ith somethin/ e)ternal to man& When one s'eas o$ labour, one

is directl" dealin/ (ith man himsel$& !his ne( $ormulation o$ the uestion alread" contains its solution

5''& 11*196&

!he ans(er to this uestion is not contained in the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts; it is (ored

out in his later critiues o$ 'olitical econom"& !he Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts do, ho(e.er,contain a 'roo$ (ithin the de$inition o$ mans essence that ob8ecti$ication al(a"s carries (ithin it a

tendenc" to(ards rei$ication and labour a tendenc" to(ards alienation, so that rei$ication and alienation

are not merel" chance historical $acts& 7n connection (ith this it is also sho(n ho( the (orer e.en

throu/h his alienation 0en/enders the non(orer and thus the domination o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert" 5''& 11?

16, and ho( he there$ore has his $ate in his o(n hands at the ori/in o$ estran/ement and not 8ust a$ter

liberation&

Mar) /i.es his de$inition o$ estran/ement as sel$estran/ement in a re$erence to the real achie.ement o$

He/els Phenomenology: 0!he real, acti.e orientation o$ man to himsel$ as a s'ecies bein/&&&is onl"

'ossible throu/h the utilization o$ all the 'o(ers he has in himsel$ and (hich he has as belon/in/ to a

s'ecies &&& , treatin/ these /eneric 'o(ers as ob8ects and this, to be/in (ith, is a/ain only possile in the form of estrangement 5'& 1; m" italics6&

We $ail to $ind an e)'lanation here as to (h" this is, to be/in (ith, onl" 'ossible in the $orm o$

estran/ement; and it is, strictl" s'eain/, im'ossible to /i.e one, $or (e are con$ronted (ith a state o$

a$$airs that has its roots in man < as an 0ob8ecti.e bein/ < and (hich can onl" be re.ealed as such& 7t is

mans 0need < as alread" inter'reted abo.e < $or ob8ects alien to him, 0o.er'o(erin/ and 0not 'art o$ his

bein/, to (hich he must relate as if the" (ere e)ternal ob8ects, althou/h the" onl" become real ob8ects

throu/h and $or him& Db8ects $irst con$ront him directl" in an e)ternal and alien $orm and onl" become

human ob8ects, ob8ecti$ications o$ man, throu/h conscious historical and social a''ro'riation& !he

e)'ression o$ man thus $irst tends to(ards alienation and his ob8ecti$ication to(ards rei$ication, so that he

can onl" attain a uni.ersal and $ree realit" throu/h 0the ne/ation o$ ne/ation: throu/h the supersession o$

his alienation and the return out o$ his estran/ement&

$ter the 'ossibilit" o$ alienated labour has been sho(n to ha.e its roots in the essence o$ man the limits

o$ 'hiloso'hical descri'tion ha.e been reached and the disco.er" o$ the real ori/in o$ alienation becomes

a matter $or economic and historical anal"sis& We no( that $or Mar) the startin/ 'oint $or this anal"sis is

the di%ision of laour 5c$&, $or e)am'le, '& 1=96; (e cannot /o $urther into this here and shall onl" loo

uicl" at the (a" Mar) sho(s that alread" (ith the alienation o$ labour the (orer 0en/enders the

domination o$ the ca'italist and thereb" o$ 'ri.ate 'ro'ert"& t the head o$ this anal"sis there stands the

sentence: 0C.er" sel$estran/ement o$ man, $rom himsel$ and $rom nature, a''ears in the relation in (hich

he 'laces himsel$ and nature to men other than and di$$erentiated $rom himsel$ 5'& 11?; m" italics6& Weare alread" acuainted (ith the conte)t o$ this sentence: the relation o$ man to the ob8ect on (hich he

(ors is directl" his relation to other men (ith (hom he shares this ob8ect and himsel$ as somethin/

social& So that althou/h the (orer in the sel$alienation o$ his labour 0'ossesses the ob8ect as somethin/

alien, o.er'o(erin/ and not belon/in/ to him, this ob8ect no(here con$ronts him as an isolated thin/,

belon/in/ to no one and, as it (ere, outside humanit"& !he situation is rather this: 07$ the 'roduct o$ labour

does not belon/ to the (orer, i$ it con$ronts him as an alien 'o(er, then this can onl" be because it

belon/s to some other man than the $orker 5'& 11=6& With the alienation o$ labour the (orer

immediatel" stands as 0ser.ant in the ser.ice o$ a 0master: 0!hus, i$ the 'roduct o$ his labour&&&is $or him

an alien&&&ob8ect&&&then his 'osition to(ards it is such that someone else is master o$ this ob8ect, someone

(ho is alien&&&&7$ he is related to his o(n acti.it" as to an un$ree acti.it", then he is related to it as an

acti.it" 'er$ormed in the ser.ice, under the dominion, the coercion, and the "oe o$ another man 5''&11?$$&6&


19/25


20/25

historical and social, 'ractical bein/6 in the conte)t o$ our inter'retation o$ the critiue o$ 'olitical

econom"&

Mar) be/ins b" 'ointin/ out the necessit" o$ discussin/ a uestion (hich has still not been adeuatel"

ans(ered: 0Ho( do (e no( stand as re/ards the He/elian dialectic@ 5'& 1>6& !his uestion, comin/ at

the conclusion o$ his 'ositi.e critiue o$ 'olitical econom" and the $oundation o$ re.olutionar" theor",sho(s ho( much Mar) (as a(are o$ (orin/ in an area o'ened u' b" He/el and ho( he e)'erienced this

$act < in contrast to almost all the He/elians and almost all his later $ollo(ers < as a scienti$ic

'hiloso'hical obli/ation to(ards He/el& $ter brie$l" dis'atchin/ Bruno Bauer, Strauss, etc&, (hose

0critical critiue maes the need to come to terms (ith He/el an"thin/ but su'er$luous, Mar)

immediatel" /i.es his su''ort to Feuerbach: 0the onl" one (ho has a serious, critical attitude to the

He/elian dialectic and (ho has made /enuine disco.eries in this $ield 5'& 126& Mar) mentions three such

disco.eries: Feuerbach 516 reco/nied 'hiloso'h" 5i&e& the 'urel" s'eculati.e 'hiloso'h" o$ He/el6 as a

0$orm and manner o$ e)istence o$ the estran/ement o$ the essence o$ man, 526 established 0true

materialism b" main/ 0the social relationshi' o$ man to manK the basic 'rinci'le o$ his theor" and 536

'recisel" throu/h this 'rinci'le o''osed He/els mere 0ne/ation o$ ne/ation, (hich does not /o be"ond

ne/ati.it", (ith a 0sel$su''ortin/ 'ositi.e, 'ositi.el" based on itsel$ 5''& 12$$&6& With this enumeration,Mar) simultaneousl" articulated the three main directions o$ his o(n critiue o$ He/el, and it is to these

that (e no( turn&

0Dne must be/in (ith He/els Phenomenology+ the true 'oint o$ ori/in and the secret o$ the He/elian

'hiloso'h" 5'& 136& From the be/innin/ Mar) tacles He/els 'hiloso'h" (here its ori/in is still .isible

in an unconcealed $orm: in the Phenomenology! 7$ at the be/innin/ o$ the critiue it ma" still ha.e looed

as i$ it (as reall" onl" a critiue o$ (hat one is accustomed to re/ard as He/els 0dialectic, (e no( see

that (hat Mar) criticies as the dialectic is the $oundation and actual 0content o$ He/els 'hiloso'h" < not

its 5su''osed6 0method& nd (hile Mar) criticies, he simultaneousl" e)tracts the 'ositi.e as'ects, the

/reat disco.eries made b" He/el < i&e& onl" because $or Mar) there are /enuinel" 'ositi.e disco.eries in

He/el, on the basis o$ (hich he can and must do $urther (or, can and must He/els 'hiloso'h" become

$or him the sub8ect o$ a critiue& We shall be/in (ith the ne/ati.e 'art o$ his critiue < Mar)s collation o$

He/els 0mistaes < so that (e can then e)tract the 'ositi.e as'ects $rom these ne/ati.e ones and sho(

that the mistaes are reall" onl" mistaen inter'retations o$ /enuine and true states o$ a$$airs&

7n the Phenomenology He/el /i.es 0s'eculati.e e)'ression to the mo.ement o$ the histor" o$ the 0human

essence, but not o$ its real histor", onl" its 0/enetic histor" 5'& 136& !hat is, he /i.es the histor" o$ the

human essence, in (hich man $irst becomes (hat he is and (hich has, as it (ere, al(a"s alread" taen

'lace (hen the real histor" o$ man occurs& C.en (ith this /eneral characteriation Mar) has /ras'ed the

sense o$ the Phenomenology more 'ro$oundl" and accuratel" than most inter'reters o$ He/el& He then

'roceeds to a critiue o$ the core o$ He/els o(n 'roblematic: He/els 'hiloso'hical descri'tion o$ thehistor" o$ the human essence $ails at the start, because He/el $rom the outset /ras's it onl" as abstract

0sel$consciousness 50thou/ht, 0mind6 and thus o.erloos its true concrete $ullness: 0For He/el the

essence o$ man < man < euals sel$consciousness 5'& 1*6; the histor" o$ the human essence runs its

course 'urel" as the histor" o$ sel$consciousness or e.en as histor" (ithin sel$consciousness& What Mar)

had sho(n to be crucial $or the de$inition o$ mans essence and (hat he had 'ut at the centre o$ his

conce'tual structure < the 0ob8ecti.it" o$ man, his 0essential ob8ecti$ication < is 'recisel" (hat is

ominousl" /i.en a di$$erent meanin/ and 'er.erted b" He/el& !he ob8ect 5i&e& ob8ecti.it" as such6 is in

He/el onl" an ob8ect for consciousness in the .er" stron/ sense that consciousness is the 0truth o$ the

ob8ect and that the latter is onl" the ne/ati.e side o$ consciousness: ha.in/ been 0'osited 5created,

en/endered6 b" consciousness as its alienation and estran/ement, it must also be 0transcended b"

consciousness a/ain, or 0taen bac into consciousness& !he ob8ect is thus, b" the nature o$ its e)istence,a 'urel" ne/ati.e thin/, a 0nullit" 5'& 1*26; it is merel" an ob8ect o$ abstract thou/ht, $or He/el reduces


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sel$consciousness to abstract thou/ht& 0!he main 'oint is that the ob8ect o$ consciousness is nothin/ else

but sel$consciousness, or that the ob8ect is onl" ob8ecti$ied sel$consciousness < sel$consciousness as an

ob8ect&&&&!he issue, there$ore, is to surmount the ob8ect o$ consciousness& Db8ecti.it" as such is re/arded as

an estran/ed human relationshi' (hich does not corres'ond to the essence o$ man 5'& 1*6& For Mar),

ho(e.er, ob8ecti.it" (as 'recisel" the human relationshi' in (hich man could alone come to sel$

realiation and sel$acti.it"; it (as 0real ob8ecti.it", the 0(or o$ human labour and certainl" not theob8ect o$ abstract consciousness& From this stand'oint Mar) can sa" that He/el $i)es man as 0a non

ob8ecti.e, s'iritual bein/ 5'& 1*6& !his bein/ ne.er e)ists (ith /enuine ob8ects but al(a"s onl" (ith the

sel$'osited ne/ati.it" o$ itsel$& 7t is actuall" al(a"s 0at home (ith itsel$ in its 0otherness as such 5'&

1*36& 7t is thus ultimatel" 0nonob8ecti.e, and 0a nonob8ecti.e bein/ is a&&&non/eing 5'& 1*26&

!his also constitutes a critiue o$ the Phenomenology in so $ar as it claims to 'resent the mo.ement o$ the

histor" o$ mans essential bein/& 7$ this bein/ (hose histor" is bein/ 'resented is a 0 non/eing , then this

histor" must also be 0inessential in the $ull sense o$ the (ord& Mar) 'ercei.es He/els disco.er" o$ the

mo.ement o$ human histor" in the mo.ement o$ 0ob8ecti$ication as loss o$ the ob8ect, as alienation 5'&

16 and in the 0transcendence o$ this alienation as it recurs in man" $orms in the (hole o$ the

Phenomenology! But the ob8ecti$ication is onl" a''arent, 0abstract and $ormal, since the ob8ect onl" has0the semblance o$ an ob8ect and the sel$ob8ecti$"in/ consciousness remains 0at home (ith itsel$ in this

seemin/ alienation 5''& 1*3$$&6& Aie estran/ement itsel$, its su'ersession is onl" a semblance: alienation

remains& !he $orms o$ estran/ed human e)istence (hich He/el cites are not $orms o$ estran/ed real li$e

but onl" o$ consciousness and no(led/e: (hat He/el deals (ith and su'ersedes are not 0real reli/ion, the

real state, or real nature, but reli/ion as a sub8ect o$ no(led/e, i&e& o/matics; the same (ith

Euris'rudence, Political Science and 4atural Science 5''& 1*?6& Because alienation is thus onl"

su'erseded in the mind and not in realit", i&e& because 0this su'ersession o$ thou/ht lea.es its ob8ect

standin/ in realit", Mar) can sa" the (hole Phenomenology+ and indeed the (hole o$ He/els s"stem in

so $ar as it is based on the Phenomenology+ remains (ithin estran/ement& !his comes out in He/els

s"stem as a (hole in the $act, $or e)am'le, that 0nature is not /ras'ed as mans 0sel$e)ternaliin/ (orld

o$ sense in its e)istential unit" (ith man or its 0humanit", but is taen as e)ternalit" 0in the sense o$

alienation, o$ a mistae, a de$ect, (hich ou/ht not to be, < a 0nothin/ 5'& 1926&

We shall not /o into the other $eatures o$ the ne/ati.e critiue here: the" are alread" $amiliar $rom the

Criti"ue of Hegel)s Philosophy of -ight1 e&/& the con.ersion o$ mind into an absolute, the h"'ostatiation

o$ an absolute sub8ect as the bearer o$ the historical 'rocess, the in.ersion o$ sub8ect and 'redicate 5'&

1**6, etc& What must be borne in mind is that Mar) re/ards all these 0inadeuacies as (ithin a real state

o$ a$$airs& 7$ He/el 'osits the human essence as a 0nonbein/, then it is the nonbein/ o$ a real bein/ and

thus a real nonbein/; i$ he has 0onl" $ound the abstract, lo/ical, s'eculati.e e)'ression $or the mo.ement

o$ histor" 5'& 136, then this is still an e)'ression $or the mo.ement o$ real histor"; i$ he has described

ob8ecti$ication and estran/ement in their abstract $orms, then he has still seen ob8ecti$ication andestran/ement as essential mo.ements o$ human histor"& !he em'hasis o$ Mar)s critiue o$ He/el is

de$initel" on the positi%e 'art, to (hich (e no( 'roceed&

0!he outstandin/ achie.ement o$ He/els Phenomenology and o$ its $inal outcome, the dialectic o$

ne/ati.it" as the mo.in/ and /eneratin/ 'rinci'le, is thus $irst that He/el concei.es the sel$creation o$

man as a 'rocess, concei.es ob8ecti$ication as loss o$ the ob8ect, as alienation and as transcendence o$ this

alienation; that he thus /ras's the essence o$ labour and com'rehends ob8ecti.e man&&&as the outcome o$

mans o(n labour 5'& 16& !he $ull si/ni$icance o$ the inter'retation o$ the Phenomenology /i.en here

b" Mar) could onl" be /ras'ed i$ (e un$olded the central 'roblematic o$ He/els (or, (hich (e

ob.iousl" cannot do here; it (ould also onl" then become a''arent (ith (hat unheard o$ sureness Mar)

sees throu/h all the m"sti$"in/ and misleadin/ inter'retations 5(hich be/in e.en (ithin He/els (or6


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and /ets bac to the bedroc o$ the 'roblems (hich (ere raised, $or the $irst time in modern 'hiloso'h",

in the Phenomenology!

7n the sentence uoted abo.e Mar) has brou/ht to/ether all the disco.eries o$ He/el (hich he reco/nies

as crucial: in (hat $ollo(s (e (ant brie$l" to e)'lain these, $or Mar), 0'ositi.e moments o$ the He/elian

dialectic&

!he Phenomenology 'resents the 0sel$creation o$ man, (hich means, a$ter (hat has alread" been said,

the 'rocess in (hich man 5as an or/anic, li.in/ bein/6 becomes (hat he is accordin/ to his essence < i&e&

human essence& 7t thus /i.es the 0/enetic histor" 5'& 136 o$ the human essence or mans essential histor"&

Mans 0act o$ creation is an 0act o$ sel$/enesis 5'& 1**6, i&e& man /i.es his essence to himsel$: he must

$irst mae himsel$ (hat he is, 0'osit himsel$, and 0'roduce himsel$ 5(e ha.e alread" /one into the

meanin/ o$ this conce't6& !his histor" (hich is /i.en into mans o(n hands is /ras'ed b" He/el as a

0'rocess characteried b" alienation and its su'ersession& !he 'rocess as a (hole stands under the title o$

0ob8ecti$ication& !he histor" o$ man thus occurs and $ul$ils itsel$ as ob8ecti$ication: the realit" o$ man

consists o$ creatin/ real ob8ects out o$ all his 0s'ecies 'o(ers, or 0the establishin/ o$ a real, ob8ecti.e

(orld 5'& 1*>6& 7t is this establishin/ o$ an ob8ecti.e (orld (hich He/el treats merel" as the alienation o$0consciousness or no(led/e, or as the relation o$ abstract thou/ht to 0thin/hood, (hile Mar) /ras's it

as the 0'ractical realiation o$ the (hole o$ man in historical and social labour 5ibid&6&

He/el de$ines the relation o$ no(led/e to the ob8ecti.e (orld in such a (a" that this ob8ecti$ication is

simultaneousl" the loss o$ the ob8ect, i&e& the loss o$ realit" or estran/ement, so that, 0to be/in (ith, it- is

a/ain onl" 'ossible in the $orm o$ estran/ement 5'& 16& !hat is to sa": no(led/e, in the 'rocess o$

becomin/ ob8ecti.e, initiall" loses itsel$ in its ob8ects: the" con$ront it as somethin/ alien and other, in the

$orm o$ an e)ternal (orld o$ thin/s and matters (hich ha.e lost their inner connection (ith the

consciousness (hich has e)'ressed itsel$ in them and no( continue as a 'o(er inde'endent o$

consciousness& 7n the Phenomenology+ $or e)am'le, moralit" and ri/ht, the 'o(er o$ the state and (ealth

a''ear as estran/ed ob8ecti.e (orlds and it is here that Mar) accuses He/el o$ dealin/ (ith these (orlds

onl" as 0(orlds o$ thou/ht and not as real (orlds 5''& 1+$$&6, since $or He/el the" are e)ternaliations o$

0Mind onl" and not o$ real, total human e)istence&

lthou/h ob8ecti$ication consists initiall" in the loss o$ the ob8ect or estran/ement, it is 'recisel" this

estran/ement (hich in He/el becomes the reco.er" o$ true bein/& 0He/el concei.es mans sel$

estran/ement, the alienation o$ mans essence, mans loss o$ ob8ecti.it" and his loss o$ realness as sel$

disco.er", chan/e o$ his nature, ob8ecti$ication and realiation 5''& 1**6& !he human essence < al(a"s

concei.ed in He/el as e)clusi.el" no(led/e < is such that it must not onl" e)'ress but alienate itsel$, not

onl" ob8ecti$" itsel$ but lose its ob8ect, to be able to disco.er itsel$& Dnl" i$ it has reall" lost itsel$ can it

come to itsel$, onl" in its 0otherness can it become (hat it is 0$or itsel$& !his is the 0'ositi.e meanin/ o$ne/ation, 0the dialectic o$ ne/ati.it" as the mo.in/ and /eneratin/ 'rinci'le 5'& 16& We should ha.e to

/o into the $oundations o$ He/els ontolo/" to 8usti$" and clari$" this assertion: here (e need onl" sho(

ho( Mar) inter'rets this disco.er" b" He/el&

!hrou/h the 'ositi.e conce't o$ ne/ation 8ust re$erred to, He/el concei.es 0labour as mans act o$ sel$

/enesis 5'& 1**6; 0he /ras's labour as the essence o$ man < as mans essence in the act o$ 'ro.in/ itsel$

5'& 16& With re$erence to this Mar) /oes so $ar as to sa": 0He/els stand'oint is that o$ modern 'olitical

econom" 5ibid&6 < a seemin/l" 'arado)ical statement in (hich, ho(e.er, Mar) summaries the colossal,

almost re.olutionar" concreteness o$ He/els Phenomenology! 7$ labour is here de$ined as mans essence

in the act o$ 'ro.in/ itsel$ this ob.iousl" re$ers to labour not 'urel" as an economic, but as an

0ontolo/ical cate/or", as Mar) de$ines it in this .er" 'assa/e: 0Aabour is mans comin/tobe $or himsel$(ithin alienation, or as alienated man 5'& 16& Ho( does it come about that Mar) should tae 'recisel"


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the cate/or" o$ labour to inter'ret He/els conce't o$ ob8ecti$ication as sel$disco.er" in estran/ement and

o$ realiation in alienation@

7t is not onl" because He/el uses labour to re.eal the ob8ecti$ication o$ the human essence and its

estran/ement, or because he de'icts the relation o$ the labourin/ 0ser.ant to his (orld as the $irst

0su'ersession o$ estran/ed ob8ecti.it" 577, ''& 1+? $$6& 7t is not onl" because o$ this; althou/h the $act thatthis is .ie(ed as the real be/innin/ o$ human histor" in the Phenomenology is neither a coincidence nor

the result o$ a 'urel" arbitrar" decision, but e)'resses the innermost direction o$ the entire (or& Mar) has

thereb" < albeit in an e)a//erated $orm < disco.ered the ori/inal meanin/ o$ the histor" o$ the human

essence as it is elaborated in the Phenomenology in the $orm o$ the histor" o$ sel$consciousness& 7t is

'ra)is, $ree sel$realiation, al(a"s tain/ u', su'ersedin/ and re.olutioniin/ 'reestablished

0immediate $acticit"& 7t has alread" been 'ointed out that Mar) holds He/els real mistae to be the

substitution o$ 0Mind $or the sub8ect o$ this 'ra)is& Hence $or Mar), 0the onl" labour (hich He/el no(s

and reco/nies is abstract mental labour 5'& 16& But this does not alter the $act that He/el /ras'ed

labour as mans essence in the act o$ 'ro.in/ itsel$ < a $act (hich retains its .ital im'ortance: des'ite the

0s'iritualiation o$ histor" in the Phenomenology+ the actual leadin/ conce't throu/h (hich the histor" o$

man is e)'licated is trans$ormin/ 0acti.it" 577, ''& 1+1, 19?, 3+?, +2?, etc&6&

7$ the inner meanin/ o$ ob

Documents

The Foundation of Historical Materialism