Historical Materialism - A System of Sociology

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Nikolai Bukharin

Historical Materialism

A System of Sociology

Written: 1921Source: Nikolai Bukharin "Historical Materialism", International Publishers, 1925



ollo!in the author#s $lan in the %ussian e&ition, the material in the ori inal book !as $rinte& int!o &i''erent si(es o' t)$e* +he eneral &iscussion co erin the entire 'iel& a$$ears in lar er t)$e,an& ma) be rea& !ithout re'erence to the matter in smaller t)$e* More &etaile& eluci&ations o'certain sub-ects inclu&in a&&itional re'erences !ere $rinte& in smaller t)$e 'or the use o' thea& ance& stu&ent an& rea&er*

Intro&uction . +he Practical Im$ortance o' the Social Sciences

a*+he Social Sciences an& the /eman&s o' the Stru le o' the Workin 0lass b*+he Bour eoise an& the Social Sciencesc*+he 0lass 0haracter o' the Social Sciences&*Wh) is Proletarian Science su$erior to Bour eois Sciencee*+he arious Social Sciences an& Sociolo )'* +he +heor) o' Historical Materialism as a Mar ian Sociolo )

0ha$ter 3ne . 0ause an& Pur$ose in the Social Sciences 40ausation an& +eleolo )

a*+he 6ni'ormit) o' Phenomena in 7eneral an& o' Social Phenomena in Particular b*+he Nature o' 0ausation8 ormulation o' the uestionc*+eleolo ) an& 3b-ections to +eleolo )8 Immanent +eleolo )&*+eleolo ) in the Social Sciencese*0ausalit) an& +eleolo )8 Scienti'ic $lanations are 0ausal $lanations

0ha$ter +!o . /eterminism an& In&eterminism 4Necessit) an& ree Will

a*+he uestion o' ree&om or ;ack o' ree&om o' the In&i i&ual Will

b*+he %esultant o' the In&i i&ual Wills in 6nor ani(e& Societ)c*+he 0ollecti el) 3r ani(e& Will 4the %esultant o' In&i i&ual Wills in 3r ani(e& 0ommunistSociet)&*<cci&entalism in 7enerale*Historical "<cci&ent"'* Historical Necessit)

*<re the Social Sciences Possible= Is Pre&iction Possible in this iel&=

0ha$ter +hree . /ialectical Materialism

a*Materialism an& I&ealism in Philoso$h)8 the Problem o' the 3b-ecti e

b*+he Materialist <ttitu&e in the Social Sciencesc*+he /)namic Point o' ie! an& the %elation bet!een Phenomena&*+he Historical Inter$retation o' the Social Sciencese*+he 6se o' 0ontra&ictions in the Historical Process'* +he +heor) o' 0atacl)smic 0han es an& the +heor) o' %e olutionar) +rans'ormations in theSocial Sciences

0ha$ter our . Societ)

a*0once$t o' < re ates ;o ical an& %eal < re ates b*Societ) as a %eal < re ate or a S)stemc*+he 0haracter o' the Social %elations

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&*Societ) an& Personalit)8 Prece&ence o' Societ) o er the In&i i&uale*Societies in Process o' ormation

0ha$ter i e . +he >uilibrium bet!een Societ) an& Nature

a* Nature as the n ironment o' Societ) b*%elations bet!een Societ) an& Nature8 +he Process o' Pro&uction an& %e$ro&uctionc*+he Pro&ucti e orces8 +he Pro&ucti e orces as an In&icator o' the %elations bet!een Societ)an& Nature&*+he >uilibrium bet!een Nature an& Societ)8 its /isturbances an& %ea&-ustmentse*+he Pro&ucti e orces as the Point o' /e$arture in Sociolo ical <nal)sis*

0ha$ter Si . +he >uilibrium bet!een the lements o' Societ)

a*0onnection bet!een the arious Social Phenomena8 ormulation o' the uestion b*+hin s, Persons, I&easc*Social +echnolo ) an& the conomic Structure o' Societ)&*+he 3utlines o' the Su$erstructuree*Social Ps)cholo ) an& Social I&eolo )'* +he I&eolo ical Processes consi&ere& as /i''erentiate& ;abor

*+he Si ni'icance o' the Su$erstructuresh*+he ormati e Princi$les o' Social ;i'ei*+)$es o' conomic Structure8 +)$es o' arious Societies

-*+he 0ontra&ictor) 0haracter o' olution8 ternal an& Internal >uilibrium o' Societ)

0ha$ter Se en . /isturbance an& %ea&-ustment o Social >uilibrium

a*+he Process o' Social 0han es an& the Pro&ucti e orces b*+he Pro&ucti e orces an& the Social. conomic Structurec*+he %e olution an& its Phases&*0ause an& ''ect in the +ransition Perio&8 0ause an& ''ect in Perio&s o' /eclinee*+he olution o' the Pro&ucti e orces an& the Materiali(ation o' Social Phenomena4<ccumulation o' 0i ili(ation'* +he Process o' %e$ro&uction o' Social ;i'e as a Whole

0ha$ter i ht . +he 0lasses an& the 0lass Stru le

a*0lass, 0aste, ocation b*0lass Interestc*0lass Ps)cholo ) an& 0lass I&eolo )&*+he "0lass in itsel'" an& the "0lass 'or itsel'"e* orms o' a %elati e Soli&arit) o' Interests'* 0lass Stru le an& 0lass Peace

*+he 0lass Stru le an& the State Po!er h*0lass, Part), ;ea&ersi*+he 0lasses as an Instrument o' Social +rans'ormation

-*+he 0lassless Societ) o' the uture


















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Introduction: The Practical Importance of the Social Sciences

a. The Social Sciences and the Demands of the Struggle of the Working Class

Bour eois scholars s$eak o' an) branch o' learnin !ith m)sterious a!e, as i' it !ere a thin $ro&uce& in hea en, not on earth* But as a matter o' 'act an) science, !hate er it be, ro!s out o'the &eman&s o' societ) or its classes* No one takes the trouble to count the number o' 'lies on a!in&o!.$ane, or the number o' s$arro!s in the street, but one &oes count the number o' horne&cattle* +he 'ormer 'i ures are use'ul to no one8 it is er) use'ul to kno! the latter* But it is not onl)use'ul to ha e a kno!le& e o' nature, 'rom !hose arious $arts !e obtain all our substances,instruments, ra! materials, etc,8 it is -ust as necessar), in $ractice, to ha e in'ormation concerninsociet)* +he !orkin class, at each ste$ in its stru le, is brou ht 'ace to 'ace !ith the necessit) o'

$ossessin such in'ormation* In or&er to be able to con&uct its stru le !ith other classes $ro$erl), itis necessar) 'or the !orkin class to 'oresee ho! these classes !ill beha e* or this it must kno! on!hat circumstances the con&uct o' the arious classes, un&er ar)in con&itions, &e$en&s* Be'ore the!orkin class obtains $o!er, it is obli e& to li e un&er the )oke o' ca$ital an& to bear in min&constantl), in its stru le 'or liberation, !hat !ill be the beha ior o' all the i en classes* It mustkno! on !hat this beha ior &e$en&s, an& b) !hat such beha ior is &etermine&* +his >uestion ma)

be ans!ere& onl) b) social science* I' the !orkin class has con>uere& $o!er, it is un&er thenecessit) o' stru lin a ainst the ca$italist o ernments o' other countries, as !ell as a ainst theremnants o' counter.re olution at home8 an& #it is also obli e& to reckon !ith the e tremel) &i''iculttasks* o' the or ani(ation o' $ro&uction an& &istribution* What is to be the nature o' the economic

$lan8 ho! is the intelli entsia to be utili(e&8 ho! are the $easantr) an& the $ett) bour eoisie to betraine& to communism* ho! shall e $erience& a&ministrators be raise& 'rom the ranks o' the!orkers8 ho! shall the broa& masses o' the !orkin class itsel', as )et onl) sli htl) class.conscious,

be reache&8 etc*, etc*, . all these >uestions re>uire a kno!le& e o' societ) in or&er to ans!er them

$ro$erl), a kno!le& e o' its classes, o' their $eculiarities, o' their beha ior in this case or that8 the)re>uire a kno!le& e also o' $olitical econom) an& the social currents o' thou ht o' the ariousrou$s in societ)* +hese >uestions sho! the nee& 'or the social sciences* +he $ractical task o' a

reconstruction o' societ) ma) be correctl) sol e& b) the a$$lication o' a scienti'ic $olic) o' the!orkin class, i.e., a $olic) base& on scienti'ic theor)8 this scienti'ic theor), in the case o' the

$roletarian, is the theor) 'oun&e& b) ?arl Mar *

b. The Bourgeoisie and the Social Sciences

+he bour eoisie also has create& its o!n social sciences, base& on its o!n $ractical re>uirements*

When the bour eoisie is the rulin class, it must sol e a reat number o' >uestions: ho! to maintainthe ca$italist or&er o' thin s8 ho! to secure the so calle& "normal &e elo$ment" o' ca$italist societ),!hich means a re ular in'lu o' $ro'its8 ho! to or ani(e 'or this $ur$ose its economic institutions8ho! to con&uct its $olic) !ith re ar& to other countries8 ho! to maintain its rule o er the !orkinclass8 ho! to eliminate &isa reements in its o!n ranks8 ho! to train its sta''s o' o''icials: $riests,

$olice, scholars8 ho! to carr) on the business o' instruction so that the !orkin class ma) not become sa a e an& &estro) the machiner), but ma) continue to be obe&ient to its o$$ressors, etc*

or this $ur$ose the bour eoisie nee&s the social sciences8 these sciences ai& it in its a&a$tation tothe com$licate& social li'e an& in choosin a $ro$er course in the solution o' the $ractical $roblemso' li'e* It is interestin , 'or e am$le, to note that the 'irst bour eois economists !ere reat $racticalmerchants an& o ernment lea&ers, !hile the reatest theoretician o' the bour eoisie, %icar&o, !as a

er) able banker*



c. The Class Character of the Social Sciences

Bour eois scholars al!a)s maintain that the) are the re$resentati es o' so calle& "$ure science", thatall earthl) su''erin s, all con'lictin interests, all the u$s an& &o!ns o' li'e, the hunt 'or $ro'it, an&other earthl) an& ul ar thin s ha e no relation !hate er !ith their science* +heir conce$tion o' thematter is a$$ro imatel) the 'ollo!in : the scholar is a o&, seate& on a sublime eminence, obser in&is$assionatel) the li'e o' societ) in all its ar)in 'orms8 the) think 4an& )et more lou&l) $roclaimthat ile "$ractice" has no relation !hate er !ith $ure "theor)"* +his conce$tion is o' course a 'alseone8 >uite the contrar) is true: all learnin arises 'rom $ractice* +his bein the case, it is $er'ectl)clear that the social sciences ha e a class character* ach class has its o!n $ractice, its s$ecial tasks,its interests an& there'ore its ie! o' thin s* +he bour eoisie is concerne& chie'l) !ith sa'e uar&in ,

$er$etuatin , soli&i')in , e ten&in the rule o' ca$ital* +he !orkin class is concerne& in the 'irst $lace !ith the task o' o erthro!in the ca$italist s)stem an& sa'e uar&in the rule o' the !orkinclass in or&er to reconstruct li'e* It is not &i''icult to see that bour eois $ractice !ill &eman& onethin , an& $roletarian $ractice another8 that the bour eoisie !ill ha e one ie! o' thin s, an& the!orkin class another8 that the social science o' the bour eoisie !ill be o' one t)$e, an& that o' the

$roletariat un>uestionabl) o' a &i''erent t)$e*

d. Why is Proletarian Science Su erior to Bourgeois Science!

+his is the >uestion !e ha e no! to ans!er* I' the social sciences ha e a class character, in !hat !a)is $roletarian science su$erior to bour eois science, 'or the !orkin class also has its interests, itsas$irations, its $ractice, !hile the bour eoisie has a $ractice o' its o!n* Both classes must beconsi&ere& as intereste& $arties* It is not su''icient to sa) that one class is oo&, hi hmin&e&,concerne& !ith the !el'are o' humanit), !hile the other is ree&), ea er 'or $ro'its, etc* 3ne o' theset!o classes has one kin& o' e)e. lasses, re& ones, the other class has a &i''erent kin&, !hite ones*

Wh) are re& lasses better than !hite ones= Wh) is it better to look at realit) throu h re& ones= Wh)is there su$erior isibilit) throu h re& ones=

We must a$$roach the ans!er to this >uestion rather care'ull)*

We ha e seen that the bour eoisie is intereste& in $reser in the ca$italist s)stem* @et it is a !ell.kno!n 'act that there is nothin $ermanent un&er the sun* +here !as a sla er) s)stem8 there !as a'eu&al s)stem8 there !as, an& still is, the ca$italist s)stem8 there also ha e been other 'orms o'human societ)* It is e i&ent . an& incontro ertibl) so . that !e must in'er the 'ollo!in : he !ho!oul& un&erstan& social li'e on its $resent basis must also un&erstan&, at the outset, that all ischan in , that one 'orm o' societ) 'ollo!s u$on another* ;et us $icture to oursel es, 'or e am$le, the'eu&al ser'.o!ner, !ho li e& in the $erio& be'ore the liberation o' the $easants 'rom ser'&om* Such aman in man) cases coul& not e en ima ine that there mi ht e ist an or&er o' societ) in !hich it!oul& be im$ossible to sell $easants or e chan e them 'or re)houn&s* 0oul& such a ser'.o!nerreall) un&erstan& the e olution o' societ) correctl)= 3' course not* Wh) not= or the reason that hise)es !ere co ere& not b) lasses, but !ith blin&ers* He coul& not see 'urther than his nose, an&there'ore !as unable to un&erstan& e en the thin s oin on ri ht un&er his nose*

+he bour eoisie also !ears such blin&ers* +he bour eoisie is intereste& in the $reser ation o'ca$italism an& belie es in its $ermanence an& in&estructibilit)* It is there'ore blin& to such

$henomena an& such traits in the e olution o' ca$italist societ) as $oint to its tem$orar) nature, to itsa$$roachin ruin 4e en to the $ossibilit) o' its &estruction , to its bein succee&e& b) an) otheror ani(ation o' li'e* +his is ma&e most clear b) the e am$le o' the Worl& War an& the re olution*/i& an) one o' the more or less $rominent bour eois scholars 'oresee the conse>uences o' the !orl&





Sociolo ) is the most eneral 4abstract o' the social sciences* It is o'ten re'erre& to un&er othernames, such as: "the $hiloso$h) o' histor)", "the theor) o' the historical $rocess", etc*

It is e i&ent 'rom the abo e !hat relation e ists bet!een histor) an& sociolo )* Since sociolo )e $lains the eneral la!s o' human e olution, it ser es as a method'or histor)* I', 'or e am$le,

sociolo ) establishes the eneral &octrine that the 'orms o' o ernment &e$en& on the 'orms o'econom), the historian must seek an& 'in&, in an) i en e$och, $recisel) !hat are the relations, an&must sho! !hat is their concrete, s$eci'ic e $ression* Histor) 'urnishes the material 'or &ra!insociolo ical conclusions an& makin sociolo ical enerali(ations, 'or these conclusions are not ma&eu$ o' !hole cloth, but are &eri e& 'rom the actual 'acts o' histor)* Sociolo ) in its turn 'ormulates a&e'inite $oint o' ie!, a means o' in esti ation, or, as !e no! sa), a method'or histor)*

f. The Theory of Historical Materialism as a Marxian Sociology

+he !orkin class has its o!n $roletarian sociolo ), kno!n as historical materialism.In its mainoutlines this theor) !as elaborate& b) Mar an& n els* It is also calle& "the materialist metho& inhistor)", or sim$l) "economic materialism"* +his $ro'oun& an& brilliant theor) is the most $o!er'ulinstrument o' human thou ht an& un&erstan&in * With its ai&, the $roletariat 'in&s its bearin s in themost com$licate& >uestions in social li'e an& in the class stru le* With its ai&, communists correctl)

$re&icte& the !ar an& the re olution an& the &ictatorshi$ o' the $roletariat, as !ell as the con&uct o'the arious $arties, rou$s, an& classes in the reat trans'ormation throu h !hich humanit) is no!

$assin * +his book is &e ote& to e $oun&in an& &e elo$in this theor)*

Some $ersons ima ine that the theor) o' historical materialism shoul& un&er no circumstances beconsi&ere& a Mar ian sociolo ), an& that it shoul& not be e $oun&e& s)stematicall)8 the) belie ethat it is onl) a li in methodo' historical kno!le& e, that its truths ma) onl) be a$$lie& in the case

o' concrete an& historical e ents* In a&&ition, there is the ar ument that the conce$tion o' sociolo )itsel' is rather a ue, that "sociolo )" si ni'ies sometimes the science o' $rimiti e culture an& theori in o' the $rimiti e 'orms o' the human communit) 4'or instance, the 'amil) , an& at other timese tremel) a ue obser ations on the most arie& social $henomena "in eneral", an& at still othertimes, an uncritical com$arison o' societ) !ith an or anism 4the or anic, biolo ical school o'sociolo ) , etc*

<ll such ar uments are in error* In the 'irst $lace, the con'usion $re ailin in the bour eois cam$shoul& not in&uce us to create still more con'usion in our ranks* or the theor) o' historicalmaterialism has a &e'inite $lace, it is not $olitical econom), nor is it histor)8 it is the eneral theor)o' societ) an& the la!s o' its e olution, i.e*, sociolo )* In the secon& $lace, the 'act that the theor) o'

historical materialism is a metho& o' histor), b) no means &estro)s its si ni'icance as a sociolo icaltheor)* er) o'ten a more abstract science ma) 'urnish a $oint o' ie! 4metho& 'or the less abstractsciences* +his is the case here also, as the matter in lar e t)$e has sho!n*



1: Cause and Purpose in the Social Sciences (Causation and Teleology)

a. The #niformity of Phenomena in $eneral and of Social Phenomena inParticular

I' !e re ar& the $henomena o' nature !hich surroun& us, as !ell as those o' social li'e, !e shallobser e that these $henomena b) no means constitute a con'use& mass in !hich nothin ma) be&istin uishe& or un&erstoo& or $re&icte&* 3n the other han&, !e ma) e er)!here ascertain, b)attenti e obser ation, a certain re ularit) in these $henomena* Ni ht is 'ollo!e& b) &a)8 an&, -ust asine itabl), &a) is 'ollo!e& b) ni ht* +he seasons re ularl) 'ollo! one u$on the other, accom$anie&

b) a reat number o' concomitant $henomena, re$eatin themsel es )ear a'ter )ear8 the trees $ut'orth their lea es an& she& them8 arious kin&s o' bir&s o' $assa e 'l) into our countr) an& out a ain8men so! or rea$8 etc* Whene er a !arm rain 'alls, mushrooms ro! u$ in $ro'usion, an& !e e enha e a sa)in , "to ro! like mushrooms a'ter a rain*" < rain o' r)e, 'allin u$on the roun&, !illstrike root an& the $lant un&er certain circumstances !ill ultimatel) $ro&uce an ear o' rain* But !eha e ne er obser e& that an) such ear re! . let us sa) . out o' 'ro s# e s or 'rom bits o' san&stone*

er)thin in nature, there'ore, 'rom the mo ements o' the $lanets &o!n to the little rain ormushroom, is sub-ect to a certain uni'ormit) or, as it is enerall) $ut, to a certain natural law.

We obser e the same con&ition in social li'e also, i*e*, in the li'e o' human societ)* Ho!e ercom$licate& an& arie& this societ) ma) be, !e ne ertheless obser e an& &isco er in it a certainnatural la!* or e am$le, !here er ca$italism &e elo$s 4in <merica or in Ea$an, in <'rica or in<ustralia , the !orkin class also ro!s an& e $an&s, like!ise the socialist mo ement8 the theor) o'Mar ism is s$rea&* +o ether !ith the ro!th o' $ro&uction there is a ro!th in "mental culture": inthe number o' $ersons able to rea& an& !rite, 'or e am$le* In ca$italist societ), crises arise at&e'inite inter als o' time, !hich 'ollo! u$on in&ustrial booms in as $recise a succession as the

succession o' &a) an& ni ht* +he brin in out o' an) reat in ention !hich re olutioni(estechnolo ) also s$ee&il) alters the entire social li'e* 3r, let us take another e am$le8 let us count thenumber o' $ersons born e er) )ear in a certain countr): !e shall see that in the 'ollo!in )ear theincrease in the $o$ulation b) $ercenta e !ill be a$$ro imatel) the same* ;et us calculate the>uantit) o' beer consume& each )ear in Ba aria8 !e shall 'in& that this >uantit) is more or lessconstant, increasin !ith the increase in $o$ulation* I' there !ere no uni'ormit), no natural la!, it iso' course clear that nothin coul& be $re&icte&, nothin coul& be &one* /a) mi ht 'ollo! u$on ni htto&a), an& then there mi ht be &a)li ht 'or a !hole )ear* +his )ear, sno! mi ht 'all in !inter, !hilene t !inter oran es mi ht ro!* In n lan&, the !orkin class mi ht ro! u$ b) the si&e o'ca$italism, !hile in Ea$an the number o' lan&o!ners mi ht $erha$s increase* No! !e bake brea& inan o en but then . !h) not= . $erha$s loa es o' brea& !ill ro! on $ine trees instea& o' cones*

<s a matter o' 'act, ho!e er, no one has an) such thou hts, e er) one !ell kno!s that loa es o' brea& !ill not ro! on $ine.trees* er) one has obser e& that in nature an& societ) there is adefinitere ularit), a fixednatural la!* +he &etermination o' this natural la! is the 'irst task o'science*

+his causalit) in nature an& societ) is ob-ecti e8 it e ists !hether men are a!are o' it or not* +he 'irst ste$ o' science isto re eal this causalit) an& 'ree it 'rom the surroun&in chaos o' $henomena* Mar consi&ere& the earmark o' scienti'ickno!le& e to be its character as "a sum o' man) &eterminations an& relations", as o$$ose& to a "chaotic conce$tion"*4Intro&uction to A Critique of Political Economy,0hica o, 191F* +his character o' science o' "s)stemati(in ","coor&inatin ", "or ani(in ", etc*, is reco ni(e& b) all +hus Mach 4in Erkenntnis und Irrtum)&e'ines the $rocess o'scienti'ic thinkin as an a&a$tation o' thou hts to 'acts an& o' thou hts to thou hts* ?arl Pearson, an n lish $ro'essor,!rites: "Not the 'acts themsel es constitute science, but the metho& o' elaboratin them*" +he ori inal metho& o' scienceis the "classi'ication" o' 'acts, !hich &oes not mean a mere collection o' 'acts, but their "s)stematic connection"* 4?arl



Pearson, Grammar of Science,;on&on, 1D92, $*15 an& 92* @et, the reat ma-orit) o' $resent.&a) bour eois $hiloso$hers'in& the 'unction o' science to be not the &isco er) o' those causalities that e ist ob-ecti el), but the in ention o' suchcausalities b) the human $erson* But it is clear that the succession o' &a) an& ni ht, o' the seasons, the uni'orm se>uenceo' natural an& social $henomena, are in&e$en&ent o' !hether the min& o' the learne& bour eois !ill ha e it so or not*+he causalit) o' $henomena is an ob-ecti e causalit)*

b. The %ature of Causation& 'ormulation of the (uestion

I' uni'ormit), as state& abo e, ma) be obser e& in the $henomena o' nature an& societ), !e ma) !ellask !hat is this uni'ormit)= When !e e amine the mechanism o' a !atch an& note its $reciseo$eration, !hen !e obser e ho! beauti'ull) the little !heels ha e been a&-uste& one !ith re ar& tothe other, each tooth meshin !ith another, !e are 'ull) a!are !h) the mechanism !orks as it &oes*Watches are ma&e on a definite lan8 this instrument has been constructe& 'or a &e'inite en&8 eachscre! has been $ut in its $lace $recisel) 'or the attainment o' this en&* Similarl), in the reatuni erse, the $lanets mo e re ularl) an& smoothl) in their courses8 nature !isel) $reser es thes$eciall) &e elo$e& 'orms o' li'e* We ha e onl) to re ar& the construction o' the e)e o' an) animal

in or&er to obser e at once ho! cunnin l) an& skil'ull), !ith !hat $ractical lanfulnessthis e)e has been constructe&* <n& e er)thin in nature seems in'orme& !ith a $lan: the mole, li in un&er thesur'ace o' the roun&, has little blin& e)es, but er) e cellent hearin 8 !hile the &ee$.sea 'ish a ainst!hose bo&) the !ei ht o' the !ater is $ressin , resists this $ressure b) an e>ual $ressure 'rom !ithin4i' taken out o' the !ater, the 'ish !ill burst , etc* <n& ho! is it in human societ)= /oes nothumanit) $ro$ose a reat oal 'or itsel'8 namel), communism= /oes not the entire e olution o'histor) mo e to!ar& this reat oal= +here'ore, i' e er)thin in nature an& in societ) has an ob-ect,!hich ma) not in e er) case be kno!n to us, but !hich consists in an eternal $rocess o' $er'ection,shoul& !e not consi&er all thin s 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' these oals= In this case, the natural la!con&ition o' !hich !e ha e s$oken !ill a$$ear to be a con&ition o' ur osefulnatural la! 4or o'teleolo!ical natural la!8 'rom the 7reek telos, " oal", "$ur$ose" * +his is one o' t!o $ossibilities,

one o' the !a)s in !hich the >uestion as to the character o' natural la! ma) be 'ormulate&*

<nother 'ormulation o' the >uestion starts !ith the 'act that e er) $henomenon has its cause.Humanit) mo es to!ar& communism 'or the reason that the $roletariat has ro!n u$ !ithinca$italist societ) an& this $roletariat cannot be accommo&ate& in the 'rame!ork o' this societ): themole has $oor si ht an& e cellent hearin because in the course o' thousan&s o' )ears the naturalcircumstances ha e been e ertin their in'luence on these animals, an& the chan es calle& 'orth b)these circumstances ha e been han&e& &o!n to their o''s$rin 8 those animals !hich !ere morea&a$te& to these circumstances 'in&in it easier to continue to li e, to re$ro&uce an& to multi$l), thanthose less a&a$te& to the chan es* /a) is 'ollo!e& b) ni ht, an& ice. ersa, because the earthre ol es about its a is an& turns to the sun no! one si&e an& no! the other* In all these cases !e &onot ask 'or the ur ose4"'or !hat en&=" , but !e ask 'or the cause 4"!h)=" * +his is the causal4'rom ;atin causa, "cause" 'ormulation o' the >uestion* +he natural la! o' $henomena is herere$resente& as a la! o' cause and effect.

Such is the nature o' the con'lict bet!een causalit) an& teleolo )* We must &is$ose o' this con'lict atonce*

c. Teleology and )b*ections to Teleology& +mmanent Teleology

I' !e consi&er teleolo ) as a eneral $rinci$le, i.e., i' !e closel) e amine this ie!, accor&in to!hich e er)thin in the !orl& is sub-ect to certain $ur$oses, it !ill not be &i''icult to ras$ itscom$lete absur&it)* <'ter all, !hat is a oal= +he conce$tion o' a oal $resu$$oses the conce$tion o'



some one !ho sets this oal as a !oal, i.e., !ho sets it consciously.+here is no such thin as a $ur$ose a$art 'rom him !ho concei es the $ur$ose* < stone &oes not set an) oals 'or itsel', an)more than &oes the sun, or an) o' the $lanets, or the entire solar s)stem, or the Milk) Wa)* < $ur$oseis an i&ea !hich can be associate& onl) !ith conscious li in creatures, ha in &esires, re$resentinthese &esires to them sel es as oals, an& as$irin to the reali(ation o' these &esires 4in other !or&s,

to "a$$roach" a certain " oal" * 3nl) a sa a e ma) ask the $ur$ose $ursue& b) a stone l)in b) the!a)si&e* +he sa a e im$utes a soul to nature an& to the stone* +here'ore, "teleolo )" is &ominant inhis min&, an& the stone acts in the manner o' a conscious human bein * +he a& ocates o' teleolo )are similar to this sa a e, 'or in their min&s the entire !orl& has a $ur$ose, this $ur$ose ha in beenset b) some unkno!n bein * It is clear 'rom the abo e that the conce tion of ur ose, of lanfulness,etc., is a"solutely ina lica"le to the world as a whole, and that the natural law of henomena is not a teleolo!ical natural law.

It is not &i''icult to trace the roots o' the con'lict bet!een the a&herents o' teleolo ) an& those o' causalit)* er sincehuman societ) has been &i i&e& into rou$s, some o' !hich 4the minorit) rule, comman&, control, !hile the others arerule&, an& obe), them, men ha e been &is$ose& to measure the entire !orl& b) this stan&ar&* <s the earth hol&s kin s,

-u& es, rulers, etc*, !ho make la!s, $ronounce -u& ments, im$ose $unishments, so the uni erse has a celestial kin , acelestial -u& e, his hea enl) host, enerals 4arch.strate ists * +he uni erse has been concei e& as a $ro&uct o' thecreati e !ill !hich.a$$ro$riatel) enou h i es serious attention to 'i in the oals it has in min&, its "&i ine $lan"* +hecausalit) in $henomena has been taken to be an e $ression o' this &i ine !ill* <ristotle !ent so 'ar as to sa): "Nature isthe oal" 4# $% &'( * +% (* %(+ - )* 7reek nomos 4- /(* 0law0 meant both a "natural la!" an& a "moral la!"4comman&ment, stan&ar& o' con&uct , as !ell as or&er, $lan'ulness, harmon)*

<s the omni$otence o' the em$erors !as e ten&e&, the -uris$ru&ence o' ancient %ome also !as trans'orme& into a!orl&l) stu&) o' &i init)* Its 'urther &e elo$ment $rocee&e& han& in han& !ith &o matic theolo )* ;a! no! sim$l)meant a stan&ar& 4rule o' con&uct:1 2.3.), emanatin 'rom the su$reme $o!er . the celestial im$erator, in theolo )8 theterrestrial 7o&, in -uris$ru&ence . an& $rescribin a certain con&uct 'or its creatures* 4 * S$ektorsk): Sketches on the Philoso hy of the Social Sciences,Series I, 4he Social Sciences and 4heoretical Philoso hy, in %ussian, Warsa!, 19C , $* 15D* +he s)stem o' causalities in nature be an to be re ar&e& as a s)stem o' &i ine le islation* +he 'amous ?e$ler

thou ht the cor$oreal uni erse ha& its $an&ects 4 m$eror Eustinian#s co&es o' la! !ere calle& andects * Suchconce$tions are also 'oun& at later $erio&s, 'or instance, the rench $h)siocrats in the i hteenth 0entur) 'urnishe& the'irst master'ul outline o' ca$italist societ) an& con'use& the causalit) o' natural an& social $henomena !ith the la!s o'the state an& the &ecrees o' the &i ine $o!ers* +hus, ranGois uesna) !rites: "+he 'un&amental social la!s are the la!so' the natural or&er, !hich are most ad5anta!eous 'or the human race * * * * +hese la!s !ere fixed b) the creator 'or alltime* 3be&ience to these * * * 4i.e., &i ine#, immutable#* 2. 3.) la!s must be maintaine& b) the tutelar) authorit)6autorit7 tut7laire).04 * uesna): 8es otisme de la Chine,cha$* iii, $ar* 1, 2,9eu5res, ranc'ort, 1DDD, $* F *3b iousl), the la!s o' the tutelar) authorit) 4 i.e., the bour eois $oliceman are here skil'ull) ma&e to &e$en& on the"&i ine creator" 'or the su$$ort o' !hom the) !ere create&*

Numerous other e am$les mi ht be a&&uce&, all oin to sho! the same thin , namel), that the teleolo ical stan&$oint is base& on reli ion* In its ori in, this stan&$oint is a cru&e an& barbarous trans'er o' the earthl) relations o' sla er) an&submission, on the one han&, an& &omination on the other, to the uni erse as a !hole* It 'un&amentall) contra&icts ascienti'ic e $lanation, an& is base& on 'aith alone* No matter !hat 'ra rant sauce ma) be ser e& !ith it, it remains a

$riestl) $oint o' ie!*

But ho! shall !e then e $lain a number o' $henomena in !hich the "$ur$ose" is ob ious to thenake& e)e 4the "$lan'ulness" o' the construction o' certain or ans, social $ro ress, the $er'ection o'animal 'orms, o' the human 'orm, etc* = I' !e assume a cru&el) teleolo ical $oint o' ie! an&in oke 7o& <lmi ht) an& his "$lan", the 'oll) o' this "e $lanation" !ill become at once a$$arent*+here'ore, the teleolo ical $oint o' ie! assumes a more attenuate& 'orm in certain $ersons . he'orm o' the &octrine o' the so calle& "immanent teleolo )" 4a $ur$ose'ulness inherent in the

$henomena o' nature an& societ) *

Be'ore in esti atin this >uestion, it is !orth !hile to &e ote a 'e! !or&s to reli ious e $lanations* <n intelli ent bour eois economist, BJhm.Ba!erk, i es the 'ollo!in e am$le* ;et us assume, he sa)s, that I ha e set u$ a theor) to





'orms= It is not true* +here !ere once mammoths, no! there are none8 !ithin our o!n memories the bu''alo has &ie& out8 an&, in eneral, !e ma) sa) that an en&less multitu&e o' li in t)$es o' allkin&s ha e $erishe& 'ore er* With human rou$s, the tale is the same8 !here are no! the Incas an&the <(tecs, !ho once li e& in <merica= Where is the <ss)ro.Bab)lonian s)stem o' societ)= the0retan ci ili(ation= the ancient 7reek= Where is ancient %ome, ruler o' the !orl&= <ll these

societies ha e $erishe&8 their e istence is a thin o' the $ast* But a 'e! o' the countless multitu&eha e sur i e& an& "$er'ecte&" themsel es* "Pro ress" then sim$l) means that.let us sa).a ainst tenthousan& combinations, !hich !ere un'a orable 'or &e elo$ment, !e ha e one or t!o combinationsthat !ere 'a orable to &e elo$ment*

I' !e bear in min& onl) the 'a orable con&itions an& the 'a orable results, e er)thin !ill o' courseim$ress us as bein hi hl) $lan'ul an& mar elous 4"Ho! !on&rousl) this !orl& is ma&eA" * But our'rien&s the immanent teleolo ists &o not look on the re erse si&e o' the coin8 the) &o not consi&er thecountless instances o' &estruction* +he !hole matter re&uces itsel' to the 'act that there arecon&itions that are 'a orable an& others that are un'a orable 'or sur i al, that un&er 'a orablecon&itions !e obtain also 'a orable results, !hile un&er un'a orable con&itions 4!hich is much more're>uentl) the case !e ha e un'a orable results8 the !hole $icture at once loses its &i inel) $lan'ulhalo, an& the teleolo ical 'allac) 'alls o' its o!n !ei ht*

3ne o' the %ussian teleolo ists, once a Mar ist, later an ortho&o $riest an& $reacher o' $o roms un&er 7eneral Wran el4Ser e) Bul ako !rites, in the olume o' collecte& essa)s calle& Pro"lems of Idealism4in %ussian, Mosco!, 19C2,

$$*D, 9 : "B) the si&e o' the conce$tion o' e olution, as a colossal and directionless e5olution4our italics, N*B* , therearises the conce$tion o' $ro ress, o' teleolo ical e olution, in !hich causalit) an& the ra&ual un'ol&in o' the oal o'this e olution o erla$ to the $oint o' com$lete i&entit), $recisel) as in meta$h)sical s)stems*" +his clearl) sho!s us the

$s)cholo ical roots o' the seekin a'ter a :eltanschauun! that sho!s $ur$ose* +he soul o' the &iscontente& bour eois,'eelin insecure, lon s 'or consolation* +he course o' e olution actuall) o$erati e &is$leases him because it is not ui&e&

b) a sa in reason, a oal o' &eli erance* It is so much more $leasant to take a na$ a'ter a oo& meal, an& to kno! thatthere is one !ho !atches o er us*

It is unnecessar) to $oint out that the a$$arentl) teleolo ical elements in the 'ormulations o' Mar an& n els are to beun&erstoo& merel) as a meta$horic, esthetic mo&e o' e $ression8 !hen Mar s$eaks o' 5alueas con eale& muscle,ner es, etc*, onl) malicious o$$onents o' the !orkers, like P* Stru e, !ill take this 'i ure o' s$eech literall), an& look 'orreal muscles*

d. Teleology in the Social Sciences

When !e s$eak o' the teleolo ical $oint o' ie! in its a$$lication to inanimate nature, or to animalsasi&e 'rom man, the incorrectness an& 'oll) o' this $oint o' ie! are e i&ent* Ho! can there be a

$ur$ose'ul la! o' nature, !hen there is no $ur$oseA But the matter is >uite &i''erent !hen !e s$eak

o' societ) an& o' human bein s* +he stone sets no oal 'or itsel'8 the ira''e is &oubt'ul on this $oint8 but man &i''ers 'rom the other $ortions o' nature $recisel) b) irtue o' the 'act that he &oes $ursue&e'inite $ur$oses* Mar 'ormulates this &i''erence as 'ollo!s: "< s$i&er con&ucts o$erations thatresemble those o' a !ea er, an& a bee $uts to shame man) an architect in the construction o' hercells* But !hat &istin uishes the !orst architect 'rom the best o' bees is this, that the architect raiseshis structure in ima ination be'ore he erects it in realit)* <t the en& o' e er) labor.$rocess, !e et aresult that alrea&) e iste& in the ima ination o' the laborer at its commencement* He not onl) e''ectsa chan e o' 'orm in the material on !hich he !orks, but he also reali(es a $ur$ose o' his o!n that

i es the la! to his mo&us o$eran&i, an& to !hich he must subor&inate his !ill* <n& thissubor&ination is no mere momentar) act* Besi&es the e ertion o' the bo&il) or ans, the $rocess&eman&s that, &urin the !hole o$eration, the !orkman#s !ill be stea&il) in consonance !ith his

$ur$ose* +his means close attention*"1 Mar here &ra!s a shar$ line bet!een man an& the rest o'nature, an& he is ri ht in &oin this, 'or the thesis that man sets himsel' oals* ;et us no one can &en)

http://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1921/histmat/1.htm#1




see !hat are the in'erences &ra!n 'rom this 'act b) the a&herents o' the "teleolo ical metho&" insocial science*

or this $ur$ose let us consi&er the ie!s o' our most $rominent o$$onent, the 7erman scholar%u&ol' Stammler, !ho some time a o $ublishe& a lar e book in o$$osition to Mar ism un&er the

title: " conomics an& ;a! 'rom the Stan&$oint o' the Materialistic Inter$retation o' Histor)"6:irtschaft and ;echt nach der materiulistischen Geschichtsauffassun!,secon& e&ition *

What, asks Stammler, is the substance o' the social sciences= He ans!ers: +he social sciencesconcern themsel es !ith social $henomena* <n& social $henomena are &istin uishe& b) certain

$eculiarities !hich are not $resent in $henomena o' an) other kin&* or this reason s$ecial 4socialsciences are necessar)* No!, !hat is the s$ecial characteristic, the s$ecial token, o' social

$henomena= Stammler ans!ers as 'ollo!s: the earmark o' the social $henomenon is in the 'act thatit is re ulate& 'rom an e ternal stan&$oint, or, more &e'initel), b) the norms o' la! 4la!s, &ecreesor&inances, re ulations, etc* * Where there is no such re ulation, no $ractice o' la!, there is nosociet)* But !here there is a societ), this means that the li'e o' such a societ) is con&ucte& !ithin acertain 'rame!ork, an& a&a$ts itsel' to this 'rame!ork as molten metal a&a$ts itsel' to the moul&*

Stammler#s $recise !or&s are: "+his 4&eterminin * . N* B* 'actor is the re ulation b) men o' their intercourse an& theirli'e to ether* +he external re ulation o' human con&uct in mutual relations is the necessar) $rere>uisite o' a social li'e asa s$eci'ic oal* It is the ultimate factor,to !hich all social thou ht must 'ormall) be trace& back in its $eculiarities assuch" 4$* DF *

But i' it is the &istin uishin characteristic o' social $henomena that the) are sub-ect to re ulation,sa)s Stammler, it is $er'ectl) clear that the la! o' nature in social li'e is a ur osefulla! o' nature*<s a matter o' 'act, !ho "re ulates", an& !hat is the meanin o' "re ulation"= <en re ulate, b)creatin &e'inite norms 4rules o' con&uct 'or the attainment o' &e'inite ur oses,!hich are also

consciousl) 'ormulate& b) men.It 'ollo!s, accor&in to Stammler, that there is a tremen&ous&i''erence bet!een nature an& societ), bet!een social e olution an& e olution in nature 4social li'e,accor&in to Stammler, is somethin that is &irectl) "o$$ose& to nature" 2 an& conse>uentl) also

bet!een the natural sciences 4 2aturwissenschaften an& the sciences concerne& !ith societ)* +hesocial sciences are sciences with a ur ose4 =weckwissenschaften8 the natural sciences consi&er allthin s 'rom the stan&$oint o' cause and effect.

Is this $oint o' ie! a correct one= Is it true that there are t!o kin&s o' sciences, some o' !hich areas remote 'rom the others as the hea ens 'rom the earth= No, it is not true* <n& no! 'or the reason*

;et us a ree 'or a moment that the 'un&amental characteristic o' societ) actuall) is the 'act that menconsciousl) re ulate their relations !ith each other b) means o' la!* Woul& it 'ollo! that !e ma)ne er ask oursel es !h) $eo$le re ulate these relations at a certain time an& in a certain $lace in one!a), !hile the) or&er them >uite &i''erentl) in another $lace an& at another time= or e am$le, the

bour eois 7erman %e$ublic in 1919 an& 192C re ulate& social relations b) shootin the !orkers8 theSo iet Proletarian %e$ublic re ulates these relations b) shootin counter.re olutionar) ca$italists8the le islation o' bour eois o ernments $ursues the oal o' stren thenin , e ten&in , $er$etuatinthe rule o' ca$ital8 the &ecrees o' the $roletarian state $ursue the oal o' o erthro!in the rule o'ca$ital an& sa'e uar&in the rule o' labor* No!, i' !e shoul& !ish to un&erstan& scienti'icall), i.e., toe $lain these $henomena, !oul& it be su''icient sim$l) to sa) that the $ur$oses are &i''erent=

er)one !ill at once see that this !oul& not be su''icient, 'or e er)one !ill ask: but !h), !h)shoul& "men" in one case set themsel es one oal, an& in another case a &i''erent oal= +his brin sus 'ace to 'ace !ith the ans!er: because in the one case the $roletariat is in $o!er, in the other casethe bour eoisie8 the bour eoisie &esires one thin , because the con&itions o' its li'e cause it to ha e





one set o' &esires8 but the con&itions o' the li'e o' the !orkers cause them to ha e a &i''erent set o'!ishes, etc* In a !or&, as soon as !e !ish reall) to un&erstan& social $henomena, !e imme&iatel)'in& oursel es askin the >uestion: "!h)=" i*e*, !e ask concernin the causes o' these $henomena, ins$ite o' the 'act that these $henomena ma) be the e $ressions o' certain human $ur$oses* In other!or&s, e en i' men shoul& re ulate e er)thin consciousl), an& e en i' e er)thin shoul& be

accom$lishe& in societ) -ust as these men &esire, !e shoul& still nee& an e $lanation o' social $henomena, not teleolo ), but a consi&eration o' the causes o' the $henomena, i*e*, the &eterminationo' a cause an& e''ect relation, as their la!* <n& 'or this reason* there is no &i''erence at all in thisre ar& bet!een the social sciences an& the sciences concerne& !ith nature*

I' !e consi&er the matter !ell, it is at once a$$arent that it coul& not be other!ise* <s a matter o''act is not man himsel', is not an) s$eci'ic human societ), a $ortion o' nature= Is not the human racea $ortion o' the animal !orl&= <n)one &en)in this is i norant o' the er) ru&iments o' $resent.&a)science* But i' man an& human societ) are $ortions o' nature as a !hole, it !oul& reall) be er)remarkable to 'in& that this $ortion is in com$lete contra&iction !ith the rest o' nature* It is not&i''icult to see that the a& ocates o' teleolo ) here a ain &is$la) the thou ht o' the &i ine nature o'man, i.e., the nai e thou ht alrea&) &iscusse& abo e*

We ha e thus become a!are o' the com$lete 'allac) o' the teleolo ical stan&$oint, e en i' !e shoul&a&mit that the basic characteristic o' societ) is its e ternal re ulation 4la! * en here teleolo ) &oesnot "hol& !ater"* Besi&es, in the last anal)sis, "e ternal re ulation" is not the most 'un&amental traito' societ)* <lmost all the societies that ha e e iste&, to the $resent &a) 4$articularl) ca$italistsociet) ha e been &istin uishe& $recisel) b) the absence o' an) re ulation, b) their anarch)* In the

reat mass o' social $henomena, an) re ulation that $ositi el) re ulates in the manner &esire& b) thela!. i ers, has ne er $la)e& a er) &ecisi e $art* <n& ho! about the 'uture 4communist societ)= Inthat societ), there !ill be no "e ternal" 4le al re ulation at all* or the class.conscious $o$ulationthat has been traine& in the s$irit o' !orkers# soli&arit) !ill not be in nee& o' an) e ternal $ressure4!e shall &iscuss these >uestions in &etail in the 'ollo!in cha$ter * In other !or&s, e en 'rom this

$oint o' ie! Stammler#s theor) is o' no a ail, an& the sole correct metho& 'or a scienti'icconsi&eration o' social $henomena remains that base& on the la! o' cause an& e''ect*

Stammler#s theor) clearl) sho!s the i&eolo ) o' the ca$italist state o''icial, !hich seeks to $er$etuate essentiall)tem$orar) con&itions* State an& la! are in realit) $ro&ucts o' class societ), !hose $arts are in constant, sometimes er)

bitter, stru le !ith each other* /oubtless the le al stan&ar&s an& the state or ani(ation o' the rulin class !ere acon&ition 'or the e istence o' this societ)* But it is $recisel) in a classless societ) that the $icture chan es com$letel)* Wema) not there'ore re ar& a relation o' historicall) chan eable nature 4state, la! as a $ermanent attribute o' all societ)*

urthermore, Stammler o erlooks the 'ollo!in con&ition* er) 're>uentl) it ha$$ens that the la!s an& stan&ar&s o' the

state $o!er, !hereb) the rulin class seeks to attain certain results, in realit) b) reason o' a blin& e olution, an& thesocial anarch) lea& to entirel) &i''erent results than those ori inall) aime& at* +he Worl& War is an e cellent e am$le8!ith the ai& o' state measures 4mobili(ation o' arm) an& na ), militar) actions un&er the lea&ershi$ o' the state authorit),etc* , the bour eoisie o' the arious countries ima ine& it !oul& attain certain &e'inite oals* But the actual outcome !asthe re olution o' the $roletariat a ainst the bour eoisie* <$$arentl), Stammler#s $ious teleolo ical $oint o' ie! !ill not!ork here* His basic error is in o erestimatin the element o' "re ulation", an& un&er estimatin the elemental course o'e olution, an& all his lucubrations are there'ore &e oi& o' an) 'oun&ation*

e. Causality and Teleology, Scientific - lanations are Causal - lanations

It 'ollo!s 'rom the abo e that !hene er !e !ish to e $lain a certain $henomenon . an& this inclu&esan) $henomenon o' social li'e . !e must ine itabl) seek its cause* <ll the e''orts o' the teleolo ical

$seu&o.e $lanation are at bottom onl) e $ressions o' reli ious belie' an& cannot e $lain an)thin *We ma) there'ore ans!er the 'un&amental >uestion as to !hether the inherent la! in the $henomena



o' nature an& societ), the uni'ormit) !hich !e obser e in these 'iel&s, is teleolo ical or causal: 3othin nature and in society there exists o">ecti5ely4i*e*,re!ardless of whether we wish it or not, whether we are conscious of it or not) a law of nature that is causal in character.

What constitutes such a la! o' cause an& e''ect= Such a la! is a necessar), ine itable, in ariable an&

uni ersal relation bet!een $henomena8 i', 'or e am$le, the tem$erature o' a bo&) rises, its olume!ill increase8 i' 'lui&s are heate& to a su''icient e tent, the) !ill be trans'orme& into a$ors8 i'immense >uantities o' $a$er mone) are issue&, 'ar e cee&in normal re>uirements, the) !ill become!orthless8 i' ca$italism e ists, there !ill necessaril) be !ars 'rom time to time8 i' in an) countr)there is a small.scale $ro&uction b) the si&e o' a lar e.scale $ro&uction, the lar e.scale $ro&uction!ill ultimatel) be the ictor8 i' the $roletariat launches an attack on ca$ital, ca$ital !ill &e'en& itsel'!ith all its mi ht8 i' the $ro&ucti it) o' labor increases, $rices !ill 'all8 i' a certain amount o' $oison

be intro&uce& into the human or anism, it !ill &ie, etc*, etc* In a !or& it ma) be sai& that an) la! o'cause an& e''ect ma) be e $resse& b) the 'ollo!in 'ormula: If certain henomena are actually resent, there must necessarily "e also resent certain other henomena corres ondin! to them.+hee $lanation o' an) $henomenon means the 'in&in o' its cause, in other !or&s, the 'in&in o' acertain other $henomenon on !hich it &e$en&s, i.e., the e $lanation o' the cause and effect relation

bet!een the $henomena* <s lon as this relation is not &etermine&, the $henomenon has not beene $laine&* 3nce this relation has been 'oun&, once it has been &isco ere& an& eri'ie& that thisrelation is reall) a constant one, !e are &ealin !ith a scienti'ic 4causal e $lanation* +his mo&e o'e $lanation is the sole e $lanation that is scienti'ic, both in the $henomena o' nature an& in those o'social li'e* +his metho& o' e $lanation com$letel) re-ects &i init)8 it com$letel) re-ects an) use o'su$ernatural 'orces, an) a$$eal to the time.!orn trum$er) o' the $ast, an& o$ens u$ the roa& 'or manto obtain a true control both o er the 'orces o' nature an& his o!n social 'orces*

Man) o$$ose the conce$tion o' causalit) an& la! in nature !ith the ar ument that 4as !e ha e seenthis conce$tion is itsel' the result o' an erroneous assum$tion o' a celestial la! i er* No &oubt that isthe ori in o' the i&ea, but the i&ea has le't its ori in 'ar behin&* ;an ua e $resents man) cases o'such e olution* When !e sa), 'or e am$le, "the sun has come u$", "the sun has one &o!n", o'course !e &o not belie e that the sun has actuall) "come", or " one", as a man comes or oes, ont!o le s, but that !as $robabl) the ori inal conce$tion* Similarl), in the case o' the !or& "la!", !ema) sa) that "a la! $re ails", or "a$$lies", !hich b) no means si ni'ies that the t!o $henomena4cause an& e''ect in ol e an) thir& in isible little o&, lo& e& in the cause, reins in han&* +he causalrelation is merel) the constantl) obser able connection bet!een $henomena* +his conce$tion o'causalit) is $er'ectl) in accor& !ith science*

B+B/+)$0APH1

7* Plekhano : Grund ro"leme des <arxismus4translate& 'rom the %ussian, $ublishe& b) /iet(,Stutt art *Criticism of our Critics4in %ussian * ?orsak:Society of ?aw and Society of ?a"or4in the%ussian collection: Sketches of a ;ealistic Conce tion of the @ni5erse).Stammler: :irtschaft und ;echt. <* Bo &ano :9n the Psycholo!y of Society4in %ussian * Ma <&ler: ausalitBt and4eleolo!ie im Streite um die :issenschaft.Ma <&ler: <arxistische Pro"leme cha$* ii: =ur Erkenntniskritik der So ialwissenschaften.rie&rich n els: Anti18Dhrin!. rie&rich n els: euer"ach 4translate& into n lish b) <ustin ;e!is, 0hica o, 19C * N* ;enin: <aterialism and Em irio1Criticism 4%ussian e&ition, $$*151.1 , 1D .19K8 'or n lish translation see olume LIII,;enin#s Collected :orks). Pro"lems of Idealism 4a collection o' essa)s a ainst Mar ism, in %ussian *

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%otes

1 Ca ital , 0hica o, 1915, ol* I, $*19D*

2 In 7erman: Ge!enstDck ur 2atur **

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2: Determinism and Indeterminism (Necessity and ree !ill)

a. The (uestion of 'reedom or /ack of 'reedom of the +ndi2idual

W ha e seen that in social li'e as !ell as in the li'e o' nature there is a certain re ularit) o' la!, )etone ma) ha e &oubts on this $oint* <s a matter o' 'act, social $henomena are create& b) $ersons*Societ) consists o' $ersons !ho think, co itate, 'eel, $ursue $ur$oses, act* 3ne &oes one thin 8another 'or e am$le, ma) &o the same thin 8 a thir&, another thin 8 etc* +he result o' all these actionsis a social $henomenon* Without $eo$le there !oul& be no societ), there !oul& be no social

$henomena* I' social $henomena 'ollo! a uni'orm la! an& i' the) are ne ertheless the result o' theactions o' men, it 'ollo!s that the actions o' each in&i i&ual also &e$en& on somethin * It thus'ollo!s that man an& his !ill are not 'ree, but boun&, bein sub-ect also to certain la!s* I' this !erenot the case, i' each man an& his !ill &i& not &e$en& on an)thin , !here !oul& !e et an) re ularit)in social $henomena= +here !oul& be no such thin * +his is clear to e er)one* I' e er)bo&) !erelame, it 'ollo!s that the !hole o' societ) !oul& be a societ) o' lame $ersons: there !oul& be nothin!ith !hich to 'orm a societ) o' m) other kin&*

But, on the other han&, !hat is this >uestion o' the &e$en&ence o' human !ill= /oes not man himsel' &eci&e !hat he !ishes to &o= I &eci&e& to &rink !ater, an& I am &rinkin !ater8 I &eci&e& then o tothe meetin , an& I ma&e u$ m) min& to o* 3n a 'ree e enin , m) comra&es $ro$ose& that !e o tothe Proletkult +heatre, !hile others !ante& to o to the 0ome&) +heatre8 I &eci&e& to o to theProletkult8 I m)sel' &eci&e& it* Has not man there'ore the 'ree&om o' choiceFIs he not 'ree in hisactions, in his !ishes, in his &esires, his as$irations= Is he a $u$$et, a mere chessman mo e& b)'orces outsi&e o' himsel'= /oes not e er) man kno! 'rom his o!n e $erience that he ma) 'reel)resol e, choose, act=

+his >uestion is calle& in $hiloso$h) the >uestion o' 'ree&om or o' 'ree&om o' the human !ill* +he&octrine !hich maintains that the human !ill is 'ree 4in&e$en&ent is calle& indeterminism4the&octrine o' the uncon&itione&, in&e$en&ent !ill * +he &octrine !hich maintains that the human !illis &e$en&ent, con&itione&, un'ree, is calle&determinism4the &octrine o' the &e$en&ence orcon&itionin o' the !ill * We must there'ore &eci&e !hich o' these t!o $oints o' ie! is the correctone*

irst o' all let us consi&er to !hat the &octrine o' in&eterminism !oul& lea& us i' !e shoul& $ursue itto its lo ical conclusion* I' the human !ill is 'ree an& &e$en&s on nothin at all, this !oul& meanthat it is !ithout cause* But this bein the case, !hat !oul& be the result= +he result !oul& be the

oo& 3l& +estament reli ious theor)* <s a matter o' 'act !e shoul& then ha e the 'ollo!in

con&ition: er)thin in the !orl& is accom$lishe& accor&in to certain la!s* er)thin , 'rom themulti$lication o' 'leas to the motions o' the solar s)stem has its causes8 onl) the human !ill is notsub-ect to this rule* It constitutes the sole e ce$tion* Here man is alrea&) no lon er a $art o' nature,he is a sort o' o& stan&in abo e the !orl&* 0onse>uentl) the &octrine o' 'ree&om o' the !ill lea&sstrai ht to reli ion, !hich e $lains nothin , 'or in reli ion there is no kno!le& e but onl) blin&

belie' in the $ractices o' the &e il, in the m)sterious, in the su$ernatural, in bu bears o' all kin&s*

3' course this is unreasonable* In or&er to crack this little nut, !e must &!ell on this $oint 'or a bit*3'ten . almost al!a)s . there is a con'usion bet!een the feelin! o' in&e$en&ence, an&real o">ecti5ein&e$en&ence* ;et us take an e am$le* ;et us su$$ose that at a meetin )ou are lookin at thes$eaker* He takes a lass o' !ater 'rom the table an& em$ties it thirstil)* What &oes he 'eel !hen hereaches 'or the lass= He is 'ull) conscious o' his 'ree&om* He himselfhas &eci&e& that he shoul&&rink the !ater an& not . let us sa) . &ance a -i * He feelshis 'ree&om* But &oes this mean that he is



reall) actin !ithout cause, an& that his !ill is trul) in&e$en&ent= B) no means* er) sensible man!ill at once reco ni(e the nature o' the case* He !ill sa): "+he s$eaker#s throat is &r)*" What &oesthis mean= Sim$l), that the e ertion o' s$eakin has brou ht about such chan es in the s$eaker#sthroat as to call 'orth in him a &esire to &rink !ater* +hat is the cause* <n alteration in his or anism4$h)siolo ical cause has brou ht about a certain &esire* It there'ore 'ollo!s that !e must not

con'use a sense o' 'ree&om o' the !ill, the feelin! o' in&e$en&ence, !ith causelessness, !ith anin&e$en&ence o' human &esires an& actions* +hese are t!o entirel) &i''erent thin s* <n& )et, thecon'usion o' these t!o thin s is er) 're>uent in all the reasonin s o' the in&eterminists, !ho !ish atan) $rice to rescue the s$ecial "&i init)" o' the human s$irit*

3ne o' the reatest $hiloso$hers, Baruch S$ino(a 41 F2.1 !rote concernin most o' these $hiloso$hers: "+he)ob iousl) think o' man in nature as o' a state !ithin the state, 'or the) belie e that man &isturbs nature more than hecom$lies !ith it8 an& that he has uncon&itional $o!er o er his actions, bein &etermine& 'rom !ithin himsel' an& not'rom else!here*" 6Ethics,7erman translation b) 3tto Baensch, ;ei$(i , 1919, $*9D * +his erroneous conce$tion arisesonl) because men are not )et conscious o' the e ternal causes o' their o!n actions* "+hus, a chil& belie es it &esires milk o' its o!n olition, like!ise, the an r) bo) belie es he &esires re en e, oluntaril), !hile the timi& man belie es he

oluntaril) &esires to 'lee" 4 i"id *, $*1C5 * ;eibnit( 41 K .1 1 like!ise s$eaks o' men as losin si ht o' the causes o'

their actions 6causas . . . fu!ientes),!hich i es them the illusion o' absolute 'ree&om8 he mentions the e am$le o' thema netic nee&le, !hich, i' it !ere able to think, !oul& surel) re-oice 4 laetaretur in its constantl) $ointin to the north

$ole 47* 7* ;eibnit( 9 era omnia, +omus I, 7ene ae, 1 D, $*155 *

+he thou ht !as e $resse& b) /* Mere(hko sk), be'ore he !as attacke& b) his a$ocal)$tic anti.bolshe ik insanit)

ach &ro$ o' rain,I' min&e& as )ou,/escen&in 'rom on hi h,< blessin 'rom hea en,Woul& surel) ha e surmise&:"No aimless $o!er 0ontrolleth me,

or o' m) o!n 'ree !ill6$on the thirstin 'iel&s belo!S!i'tl) I 'all*"

<t bottom, $eo$le com$letel) contra&ict in their actions the theor) o' the 'ree&om o' the !ill* or, i'the human !ill !ere entirel) in&e$en&ent o' e er)thin , it !oul& be im$ossible to act at all, sincethere !oul& be no $ossibilit) o' reckonin or o' $re&ictin * ;et us su$$ose that a s$eculator is ointo the market* He kno!s there !ill be tra&in an& ha lin there, that each seller !ill ask too much,an& that the $urchasers !ill attem$t to obtain lo!er $rices, etc* But he &oes not e $ect that $eo$le!ill be !alkin about on all 'ours in the market, like cats, because it is contrar) their nature* What&oes that mean= Sim$l), that their or anism is constitute& in a certain !a)* But &o not clo!ns oabout on all 'ours= @es, 'or the reason that their !ill is &etermine& other con&itions, an& !hen thes$eculator oes to the circus he e $ects that $eo$le !ill o about on all 'ours, at the circus, "contrar)to nature"* Wh) &o the bu)ers !ish to bu) chea$= or the sim$le reason that the) are bu)ers* +heir

$osition as bu)ers "obli es" them to secure chea$ oo&s8 their !ish, their !ill, their action is&etermine& in this &irection* But su$$ose this man is a seller= He !ill then act in the contrar)&irection* He !ill seek to sell as hi h as $ossible* It 'ollo!s, in conse>uence, that the !ill is not at allin&e$en&ent, that it is &etermine& b) a number o' causes, an& that $ersons coul& not act at all i' this!ere not the case*

;et us no! a$$roach the sub-ect 'rom another stan&$oint* er)one kno!s that a &runken man !ill&e elo$ "stu$i&" &esires an& that he !ill $er'orm "stu$i&" actions* His !ill acts in a &i''erent manner 'rom that o' the sober man8 the reason is to be 'oun& in alcoholic $oisonin * Sim$l) intro&uce acertain >uantit) o' alcohol into the human or anism, an& the "&i ine !ill" be ins to in&ul e in



$ranks that !ill sur$rise the saints* +he reason is ob ious* 3r, let us take another e am$le8 'ee& saltto a man8 he !ill necessaril) be in "'reel)" to &esire to &rink much more than usual8 the cause is>uite ob ious <n& su$$ose !e 'ee& the man "normall)"= He !ill then &rink a "normal" >uantit) o'!ater8 he !ill "'eel like" &rinkin as an) other man !oul& "'eel like" &rinkin * In other !or&s, inthis case also, the !ill is $recisel) as &e$en&ent as in the unusual cases*

Man !ill 'all in lo e !hen his or anism has &e elo$e& to that $oint* Man in a con&ition o' e tremee haustion surren&ers to "black &es$air"* In a !or&, man#s 'eelin an& !ill are &e$en&ent on thecon&ition o' his or anism an& on the circumstances in !hich on he 'in&s himsel'* His !ill, like allthe rest o' nature, is con&itione& b) certain causes, an& man &oes not constitute an e ce$tion to allthe rest o' the !orl&: !hether he &esire to scratch his ear, or accom$lish heroic &ee&s, all his actionsha e their causes* +o be sure, in some cases these causes are er) &i''icult to ascertain* But that isanother matter* We ha e b) no means succee&e& in ascertainin all the causes in the &omain o'inanimate nature* But this &oes not mean that these thin s cannot be e $laine& at all* We must bearin min& that, as !e ha e seen, not onl) the "normal" cases are sub-ect to the la! o' cause an& e''ect*<ll $henomena are sub-ect to this la!* +he mental &iseases ma) ser e as the clearest e am$le* Is it

$ossible that the incoherent, stu$i&, stran e an& $eculiar &esires an& actions o' the mentall)&eran e&, the insan, can ha e an) la! o' cause an& e''ect, an) "or&er"= en these ha e their causes*6n&er the in'luence o' certain causes the insane beha e in a certain !a)8 un&er certain otherin'luences, the) !ill beha e in another !a), un&er a thir& set o' causes, in still another !a)8 etc* Inother !or&s, e en in the case o' the insane, la! o' cause an& e''ect remains in 'ull 'orce*

+his is the basis o' the classi'ication o' mental &iseases, all o' !hich $la) be trace& back alon certain lines: 1* Here&it)4s)$hilis, tuberculosis, etc* 8 2* ;esions 4traumata 8 F* Into ications 4$oisons 8 K* arious &estructi e in'luences an&commotions 4c'* "Mental /iseases" in 7ranat#s %ussian nc)clo$e&ia * or e am$le, the &ementia o' &i$somania is&escribe& as 'ollo!s: "+he $atients belie e that e il thin s are $lanne& a ainst them, that all those aroun& them are in a

$lot, not onl) nei hbors, but e en &omestic animals an& inanimate ob-ects" etc* 4<* Bernstein, same article * /i$somaniais a result o' alcoholic into ication* In $ro ressi e $aral)sis 4&ue to s)$hilis !e ha e &i''erent "s)m$toms": first sta!e,mental &isturbance, le it), coarse actions, cre&ulit)8 second sta!e, hallucinations 4i&eas o' ran&eur8 the $atient becomesa millionaire, a kin , etc* 8third sta!e , eneral colla$se 4P* %osenbach: "Pro ressi e Paral)sis," in Brockhaus %ussian

nc)clo$e&ia, ol* K9 * In the case o' certain lesions &isease& con&ition o' certain $ortions o' the brain or ner ouss)stem , the !ill is &etermine& in certain &irections8 in other lesions, in other &irections, etc* +he entire $ractice o'me&icine in ner ous &iseases is base& on the &e$en&ence o' the mental li'e on certain causes*

We ha e $ur$osel) chosen e am$les o' the most arie& kin&* < consi&eration o' these e am$les hassho!n that un&er all con&itions, both usual an& unusual, both normal an& abnormal, the !ill, the'eelin , the actions, o' the in&i i&ual man al!a)s ha e a &e'inite cause8 the) are al!a)s con&itione&4"&etermine&" , &e'ine&* +he &octrine o' 'ree&om o' the !ill 4in&eterminism is at bottom anattenuate& 'orm o' a semi.reli ious ie! !hich e $lains nothin at all, contra&icts all the 'acts o'

li'e, an& constitutes an obstacle to scienti'ic &e elo$ment* +he onl) correct $oint o' ie! is that o'&eterminism*

b. The 0esultant of the +ndi2idual Wills in #norgani3ed Society

+here is no &oubt that societ) consists o' in&i i&ual $ersons, an& that a social $henomenon iscom$ose& o' a numerous a re ation o' in&i i&ual 'eelin s, moo&s, !ills, actions* < social

$henomenon is, in other !or&s, the result 4or, as is sometimes sai&, the "resultant", the sum total o'the in&i i&ual $henomena* Prices are an e cellent e am$le* Bu)ers an& sellers o to market* +hesellers ha e the oo&s, the bu)ers ha e the mone)* ach o' the sellers an& bu)ers is aimin at acertain ob-ect: each o' them makes a certain estimate o' oo&s an& mone), $on&ers, calculates,scratches an& bites* +he result o' all this commotion in the market is the market $rice* +his $ricema) not re$resent the i&ea o' an) in&i i&ual bu)er or seller8 it is a social $henomenon arisin as a



result o' a stru le o' the arious !ills* +he same $henomenon as in $rice.'i in is also obser ablein all other social relations* ;et us take, 'or e am$le, the e$och o' the re olution Some $ersons

$rocee& more ener eticall), others less so8 some are $ushin in one &irection8 others in another*rom this stru le "etween ersonsthere 'inall), a'ter the " ictor) o' the re olution", arises a ne!

social structure, a ne! or&er o' thin s* < certain or&er o' social relations, !rote Mar , "is as much a

$ro&uct o' human bein s as is can as, linen, etc*" 4?arl Mar : 4he Po5erty of Philoso hy, renche&ition, 7iar& an& Bri re, 19CD, $a e 155 *

We ma) consi&er in this connection t!o &i''erent cases, each o' !hich has $eculiarities o' its o!n*+hese t!o cases are: that o' unor ani(e& societ), or a sim$le commo&ities or ca$italistic societ)8 an&that o' or ani(e& communist societ)* In the 'ormer case, let us take the e tremel) t)$ical e am$lementione& abo e, namel) the e am$le o' $rice 'i in * What !ill be the relation of the rice!hich is'i e& on the market, with the desires,!ith the estimates an& intentions !hich !ere $resent in themin& o' each in&i i&ual !ho came to market= It is ob ious that the $rice !ill not coinci&e !ith these!ishes* or man) $ersons this $rice !ill be outri ht ruinous8 namel), 'or those !ho sim$l) cannot

bu) an)thin "at such $rices," an& !ho lea e the s$ot, their $ennies in their $ockets an& theirstomachs em$t)8 also 'or those !ho are wi ed out b) the, 'act that the $rice is too lo! 'or them*

er)one kno!s that a reat number o' tra&esmen, $ett) merchants an& $ett) $easants are &estro)e& b) the 'act that the reat 'actor) o!ners 'loo& the market !ith their chea$ !ares, !hich ruin the $ett) tra&er, unable to maintain the stru le, unable to meet $rices at the lo! $oints to !hich the)ma) o, !hen &e$resse& un&er the !ei ht o' the reat mass o' oo&s thro!n on the market b) the

reat ca$italists*

We mentione& abo e another characteristic e am$le, the e am$le o' the im$erialist !ar, in !hichman) ca$italists in the arious countries &esire& to make sei(ures, !ith reat resultinim$o erishment8 'rom this im$o erishment !as born the re olution a ainst the ca$italists8 althou h,o' course, these ca$italists ha& not &esire& such a re olution at all*

What &oes this mean= It means that an unor ani(e& societ), !here there is no $lan'ul $ro&uction!here classes are 'i htin each other, !here nothin is &one accor&in to $lan, but in an elementalnatural manner, the result obtaine& 4social $henomenon &oes not coinci&e !ith the !ishes o' man)

$ersons* 3r, as Mar an& n els 're>uentl) sai&, social $henomena are in&e$en&ent o' theconsciousness, the 'eelin an& the !ill o' in&i i&uals* +his "in&e$en&ence o' the !ill o' $ersons"consists not in the 'act that the e ents o' social li'e $rocee& outsi&e o' the $ersons concerne&, but inthe 'act that in unor ani(e& societ), in chaotic, elemental e olution, the social $ro&uct o' this !ill 4or !ills &oes not coinci&e !ith the ob-ects that are $ro$ose& b) man) $ersons, but sometimes is in&irect contra&iction !ith these ob-ects 4a man !ishin to make $ro'it 'in&s himsel' ruine& *

< reat man) ob-ections a ainst Mar ism are base& on the misun&erstan&in o' the $hrase "in&e$en&ence o' the !ill", asuse& b) Mar an& n els* < 'e! lines 'rom n els !ill be in $lace here:

"Nothin a$$ears !ithout an intentional $ur$ose, !ithout an en& &esire& * * * * +hat !hich is !ille& but rarel) ha$$ens* Inthe ma-orit) o' cases the &esire& en&s cross an& inter'ere !ith each other* So, the innumerable con'licts o' in&i i&ual!ills an& in&i i&ual a ents in the realm o' histor) reach a conclusion !hich is on the !hole analo ous to that in therealm o' nature, !hich is !ithout &e'inite $ur$ose* +he en&s o' the actions are inten&e&, but the results !hich 'ollo!'rom the actions are not inten&e&, or in so 'ar as the) a$$ear to corres$on& !ith the en& &esire&, in their 'inal results are>uite &i''erent 'rom the conclusion !ishe&" 6 euer"ach,translate& b) <ustin ;e!is, 0hica o 19C , $$*1CK, 1C5

"Men make their o!n histor), in that each 'ollo!s his o!n &esire& en&s in&e$en&ent o' results, an& the results o' theseman) !ills actin in &i''erent &irections an& their mani'ol& e''ects u$on the !orl& constitute histor) * * * * But *** !e ha eseen in histor) that the results o' man) in&i i&ual !ills $ro&uce e''ects, 'or the most $art >uite other than !hat is !ishe&. o'ten, in 'act, the er) o$$osite" 4 euer"ach, $*1C5, 1C *



rom the abo e it 'ollo!s that in unor ani(e& societ), as !ell as in an) other societ), e ents areaccom$lishe& not outsi&e o' the !ill o' the in&i i&uals, but throu h this !ill* In this case thein&i i&ual man is sub-ect to an unconscious natural $rocess !hich is the $ro&uct o' the in&i i&ual!ills*

;et us no! turn our attention to another circumstance* 3nce a certain social result o' the in&i i&ual!ills has been obtaine&, this social result &etermines the con&uct o' the in&i i&ual* We mustem$hasi(e this $oint, 'or it is er) im$ortant*

;et us be in !ith the e am$le that has alrea&) been mentione& t!ice, namel), that o' $rice 'i in *;et us assume that a $oun& o' carrots costs so much on the market* It is ob ious that both the ne!

$urchasers an& the ne! sellers alrea&) ha e ha& this $rice in min& in a& ance, that the) ha e alrea&) been a$$ro imatel) assumin this $rice in their reckonin s* In other !or&s, the social $henomenon4$rice has a &eterminin in'luence on the in&i i&ual $henomena 4o''ers an& &eman&s * +he samethin takes $lace in all the other $hases o' li'e* +he inci$ient $ainter bases his acti it) on all the

$rece&in e olution o' his art an& on the social 'eelin s an& social ten&encies !ith !hich he issurroun&e&* 3n !hat are the actions o' the statesman base&= 3n the circumstances un&er !hich heacts: he ma) &esire either to stren then a certain or&er or &estro) it* +his !ill &e$en& in turn on thesi&e on !hich he stan&s, on the en ironment in !hich he li es, on the social class an& on the socialas$irations 'rom !hich he &ra!s his stren th* In other !or&s, his !ill also is &etermine& b) socialcon&itions*

We ha e seen abo e that in unor ani(e& societ) the 'inal conse>uence er) o'ten is &i''erent .sometimes >uite &i''erent . 'rom the ori inal &esires o' the $ersons in ol e&* It ma) here be sai& thatthe "social $ro&uct" 4social $henomenon dominatesthe $ersons* <n& this, not onl) in the sense thatit &etermines the con&ucts o' these $ersons, but e en in the sense that it &irectl) contra&icts their&esires* +hus, inunor!ani edsociet) !e ma) set u$ the 'ollo!in la!s

1. Social henomena are the resultant of the conflict of indi5idual wills, feelin!s, actions, etc.

2*Social henomena determine at any !i5en moment the will of the 5arious indi5iduals.

F* Social henomena do not ex ress the will of indi5idual ersons, "ut frequently are a directcontradiction of this will they re5ail o5er it "y force, with the result that the indi5idual often feelsthe ressure of social forces on his actions4e am$le: the ruine& merchant, the ca$italist, !ho hasstoo& 'or !ar, is &isestablishe& b) the re olution, etc* *

c. The Collecti2ely )rgani3ed Will 4the 0esultant of +ndi2idual Wills in)rgani3ed Communist Society5

;et us no! consi&er the state o' a''airs in or ani(e& societ)* In such a societ) there is no anarch) in $ro&uction8 there are no classes, no class stru les, no o$$ositions o' class interests, etc* +here arenot e en contra&ictions bet!een $ersonal an& social interests* We are no! &ealin !ith a 'rien&l)

brotherhoo& o' !orkers !ith a common $lan 'or $ro&uction*

What no! is the situation o' the in&i i&ual !ill= 3' course, societ) !ill continue to consist o' $ersons, an& social $henomena !ill continue to be the $ro&uct o' the in&i i&ual !ills* But thecharacter o' this a re ation, the method b) !hich this resultant is obtaine&, are com$letel)&i''erent 'rom those obtainin in unor ani(e& societ)* In or&er to ras$ this &i''erence clearl), let ustake a little $reliminar) e am$le* ;et us su$$ose that !e ha e a little societ) or circle o' $ersons



!ho ha e or ani(e& to sin to ether* <ll $ro$ose the same oal 'or themsel es, $ro$ose to sol e the>uestions in ol e&, to e aluate the &i''iculties !ith !hich the) are 'ace&, in short, the) makeresolutions in common an& carr) them out in common* +heir common action, their commonresolution . these are alrea&) a collecti e "$ro&uct"* But this $ro&uct is not an e ternal, cru&e,elemental 'orce 'l)in in the 'ace o' the in&i i&ual &esires8 on the contrar), it constitutes an enhance&

$ossibilit) o' each in&i i&ual#s attainin his &esire* i e men resol e to li't a stone to ether* <lone,none o' them coul& li't it8 to ether, the) &o so !ithout &i''icult)* +he eneral resolution &oes not&i''er b) a hair#s brea&th 'rom the &esire o' each in&i i&ual* 3n the contrar), it ai&s in the reali(ationo' this &esire*

+he case !ill be the same . but on a more ma ni'icent scale, an& in more intricate 'orm . incommunist societ) 4b) !hich !e mean not the $erio& o' $roletarian &ictatorshi$, nor the 'irst ste$so' communism, but the 'ull) &e elo$e& communist societ) in !hich there are no remnants o'classes, no state, an& no e ternal le al norms * In such a societ), all the relations bet!een men !ill

be ob ious to each, an& the social olition !ill be the or!ani ationo' all their !ills* It !ill not be aresultant obtaine& b) elemental acci&ent, "in&e$en&ent" o' the !ill o' the in&i i&ual, but aconsciousl) or ani(e& social &ecision* We there'ore cannot ha e the same result as in ca$italistsociet)* 6n&er communism, the "social $ro&uct" !ill, not &ominate o er men, but men !ill controltheir o!n &ecisions, 'or the er) reason that it is the) !ho make the resol e, an& !ho make itconsciousl)* It !ill be im$ossible to obser e social $henomena !hose e''ect on the ma-orit) o' the

$o$ulation !ill be harm'ul an& ruinous*

But it b) no means 'ollo!s 'rom the abo e that in a communist societ) the social !ill an& the !ill o' the in&i i&ual !ill be in&e$en&ent o' e er)thin , or that there !ill be 'ree&om o' the !ill un&ercommunism, !ith man su&&enl) becomin a su$ernatural creature !ho is not sub-ect in an) !a) tothe la! o' cause an& e''ect* 6n&er communism, man !ill remain a $ortion o' nature, sub-ect to the

eneral la! o' cause an& e''ect* Will not each in&i i&ual continue to &e$en& on the circumstancessurroun&in him= He !ill8 he !ill not act as a sa a e in 0entral <'rica or as a banker belon in tothe tra&in 'irm o' E* Pier$ont, Mor an an& 0om$an), or as a hussar in the $erio& o' the im$erialist!ar* He !ill act as a member o' the communistsociet)* +he circumstances o' li'e !ill &etermineman#s !ill* er)one, 'or e am$le, un&erstan&s that it !ill be necessar) 'or a communist societ) tostru le !ith nature, an& conse>uentl) the con&itions o' this stru le !ill o' themsel es &e'ine thecon&uct o' men, etc* In a !or&, the &eterministic theor) !ill remain in 'ull 'orce in communistsociet) also*

+here'ore, !e ma) set u$ the 'ollo!in la!s in the case o' or!ani ed societ)

1 Social henomena are the resultant of the conflict of indi5idual wills, feelin!s, actions, etc.Buthere this $rocess &oes not $rocee& !ith elemental con'usion, but . in the &ecisi e instances . in anor ani(e& manner*

2 Social henomena determine at any !i5en moment the will of the 5arious indi5iduals.

F Social henomena are an ex ression of the will of men and usually do not fly in the face of thiswill men control their own decisions and do not feel any ressure of "lind social forces u on them, since these forces ha5e "een re laced "y a national social or!ani ation.

n els !rote that humanit), in its transition to communism, makes a "lea$" 'rom the realm o' necessit) into the realm o'

'ree&om* Some bour eois scholars in'erre& that n els meant that &eterminism !oul& lose its ali&it) in communistsociet)* +his ie! is base& on a cru&e &istortion o' Mar ism* n els meant . an& ri htl) that in the communist societ)e olution !oul& assume a consciousl) or ani(e& character, as o$$ose& to the unconscious, blin&, elemental sta e* Men





la! o' coe istence, nor e5en effects of the same ori!inal collocation of rime5al causes.0We ha e italici(e& the incorrectstatements* +he 'act is 4in the e am$le o' m) meetin a 'rien& that I &i& not lea e m) house because m) 'rien& ha& onea!a), an& m) 'rien& &i& not set out because I ha& one a!a)* But i' there is i en a certain "&istribution o' causes", i.e.,i' !e assume as i en that I !ent a!a) at a certain time, on a i en $ath, !ith i en s$ee&, an& i' !e assume the same&etails to be i en in the case o' m) 'rien&, !e are in $ossession o' the causes o' our meetin 8 there is as little o' acci&entan& in&e$en&ence in this "&istribution o' causes" as in the case o' ecli$ses o' the sun or moon, !hich are &etermine& b) a

certain situation 4"meetin " o' celestial bo&ies*

e. Historical 6Accident67

<'ter !hat has been sai& abo e, the >uestion o' so calle& "historical acci&ent" is a relati el) sim$lematter*

I' at bottom all thin s $rocee& in accor&ance !ith la!, an& i' there is nothin that is acci&ental .causeless . it is clear there can be no such thin as acci&ent in histor)* ach historical e ent, ho!e er acci&ental it ma) a$$ear, is absolutel) an& com$letel) con&itione& b) certain causes8 historicalacci&entalism also sim$l) means the intersection o' certain causal series o' !hich onl) one series iskno!n*

Sometimes, ho!e er, the term historical accident isuse& in another sense* or instance, !hen !esa) that the im$erialist !ar !as a necessaryresult o' the e olution o' !orl& ca$italism, !e are alsoin the habit o' a&&in that the mur&er o' the <ustrian <rch&uke !as an accidental $henomenon8 buthere "acci&ent" is somethin &i''erent* When !e s$eak o' the necessit) 4causal necessit),ine itabilit) o' the im$erialist !ar, !e in'er this ine itabilit) 'rom the immense $o!er o' certaincauses in the e olution o' societ), causes lea&in to !ar* Similarl), the !ar in its turn is also an e ento' immense im$ortance, an e ent e ertin a &ecisi e in'luence on the 'urther &estinies o' societ)*+here'ore, the e $ression "historical acci&ent" as use& here, si ni'ies a circumstance that &oes not

$la) an im$ortant $art in the chain o' social e ents: e en i' this "acci&ent" ha& not come to $ass, thesubse>uent e olution !oul& ha e been altere& so little as not to be essentiall) chan e& in an) !a)* Inthe i en case: the !ar !oul& ha e come i' the <rch&uke ha& not been kille&, 'or the "cru o' thematter" !as not in this sla)in , but in the shar$enin o' the bet!een the im$erialist $o!ers, ro!in'iercer &a) b) &a) !ith the e olution o' ca$italist societ)*

Ma) !e sa) that such "acci&ental" $henomena $la) no $art at all in social li'e, that the) ha e noe''ect on the &estinies o' societ), that the) are e>ui alent to (ero= < trul) correct ans!er coul& &en)the im$ortance e en o' "acci&ental" e ents, 'or each e ent, "insi ni'icant" thou h it ma) be, actuall)has an in'luence on all o' subse>uent histor)*

+he im$ortant $oint is the ma nitu&e o' the e''ect o' such an e ent on the e olution o' the 'uture*When !e s$eak o' $henomena that are "acci&ental" in the sense abo e in&icate&, their $racticalin'luence is unim$ortant, insi ni'icant, in'initel) small* +his in'luence ma) be in'initesimal, but it isnot (ero* We shall un&erstan& this i' !e consi&er the com"ineda re ate action o' such "acci&ental"'acts* or e am$le: let us consi&er the 'i in o' $rices* +he market $rice is 'i e& b) the con'lict o' a

reat mass o' uesses on the $art o' bu)ers an& sellers* I' !e consi&er a sin le case, a sin le $rice.estimate, the meetin o' a sin le bu)er an& a sin le seller, such an instance ma) be consi&ere&"acci&ental"* Merchant Eohn Bro!n 'leeces ol& man Smith* +his act, 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' themarket1 rice, i.e.,o' a social $henomenon, the resultant o' a multitu&e o' meetin s bet!een ariousestimates, acci&ental* What &oes it matter !hat ha$$ene& to Eohn Bro!n in an) i en case= What !e!ant is the 'inal result, the social $henomenon, the ty ical'act in the matter* We o'ten hear such

statements, an& the) are >uite reasonable* or the in&i i&ual case is o' ne li ible im$ortance* But -ust combine a reat number o' such "acci&ents", an& )ou !ill at once see that their "acci&ental





+his e am$le mi ht lea& to con'licts o' the 'ollo!in nature* <t the be innin o' this book !emercilessl) cast out teleolo )* No! it looks as i' !e !ere oursel es restorin it: "/ri e nature out b)the &oor, an& she !ill 'l) in throu h the !in&o!*" But &oes our 'ormulation o' this >uestion $ermitthis in'erence= or the ro!th o' societ), 'or the &oublin o' its numbers, it !as necessar) that

$ro&uction shoul& increase* +he ro!th an& increase o' societ) is the oal, the "telos"* +he increase

o' $ro&uction is the means 'or reali(in this oal* +he natural la! o' ro!th is there'ore ateleolo ical natural la!* But this !oul& be e>ui alent to a iolation o' scienti'ic metho&, an& to'allin into the o$en arms o' the $riests

<s a matter o' 'act, !e are &ealin !ith an entirel) &i''erent at all teleolo ical in its nature* We arehere $rocee&in 'rom the assum$tion that societ) has ro!n 4in a concrete case, !e ma) $rocee&'rom the fact that societ) has ro!n * But then, societ) ma) not ro!* <n& i' it shoul& not ro!, but. let us sa) . shoul& &ecrease b) one.hal', an& i', 'urthermore, the &ecrease shoul& be &ue toinsu''icient 'oo&, it is clear that $ro&uction must ha e been curtaile&* No man can be $re aile& u$onto behol& "$ur$ose" in the &estruction o' societ)* No one can be in&uce&, in this case, to reason as'ollo!s: the oal is the &ecrease in the numbers o' societ) b) insu''icient 'oo&8 the means 'orreali(in this oal is a curtailment o' $ro&uction* Here !e cannot see teleolo ) at all* We are sim$l)seekin the con&ition 4cause lea&in to the result 4e''ect * +he necessar) con&ition 'or 'urthere olution is also 're>uentl) calle& historical necessity.In this sense o' the term "historical necessit)",!e ma) s$eak o' the "necessit)" o' the rench %e olution, !ithout !hich ca$italism coul& not ha econtinue& to ro!8 or o' the "necessit)" o' the so calle& ";iberation o' the Ser's" in %ussia in 1D 1,!ithout !hich %ussian ca$italism coul& not ha e &e elo$e&* In this sense !e ma) also s$eak o' thehistorical necessit) o' socialism, since without ithuman societ) cannot continue to &e elo$* I'societ) is to continue to &e elo$, socialism !ill ine itabl) come* +his is the sense in !hich Maran& n els s$eak o' "social necessit)"*

+he metho& o' 'in&in the necessary conditions'rom the i en or acce$te& 'acts !as er) o'ten use& b) Mar an&n els, althou h but little attention has been i en to their use o' this metho&* +he !hole o' Ca ital is built u$ on it*

7i en: a commo&ities.$ro&ucin societ) !ith all its elements8 ho! e $lain its e istence= AnswerJit can e ist onl) un&er the con&ition that the la! o' alue e ists8 countless commo&ities are e chan e& a ainst each other8 ho! ma) !e e $lainthis= It is $ossible onl) i' !e assume the e istence o' a mone) s)stem 4social necessit) o' mone) * 0a$ital isaccumulate& on the basis o' the la!s o' commo&ities circulation* +his is $ossible onl) because the alue o' the labor

$o!er is lo!er than that o' the $ro&uct turne& out, etc*

g. Are the Social Sciences Possible! +s Prediction Possible in this 'ield!

rom !hat has been sai& abo e it 'ollo!s that $re&iction is $ossible in the &omain o' the socialsciences as !ell as in that o' the natural sciences* Such $re&iction is not o' the kin& $ractice& b) the

charlatan or 'aker, but is o' scienti'ic nature* We kno!, 'or e am$le, that astronomers are able to $re&ict !ith the utmost $recision the time o' an ecli$se o' the sun or moon8 the) can $re&ict thea$$earance o' comets or o' reat numbers o' "'allin stars"8 meteorolo ists can $re&ict the !eather .sunshine, !in&, storm rain* +here is nothin m)sterious about these $re&ictions, as !e ma) see 'romthe e am$le o' the astronomer, !ho kno!s the la!s o' motion o' the $lanets8 the $ath 'ollo!e& b)sun, moon, earth8 an& also, the elocities !ith !hich the) mo e, an& at !hat $oints the) !ill be intheir $aths at a certain time* +here is nothin miraculous in the 'act that un&er these con&itions it can

be $recisel) calculate& !hen the moon !ill come bet!een the earth an& the sun an& hi&e the "li hto' hea en" 'rom our si ht* No!, let us ask !hether there is an)thin similar to this in the socialsciences8 the ans!er is in the a''irmati e* I' !e kno! the la!s o' social ro!th, the $aths alon!hich societ) necessaril) tra els, the &irection o' this e olution, it !ill not be &i''icult 'or us to

&e'ine the 'uture societ)* In social science !e ha e ha& man) instances o' such $re&ictions !hichha e been 'ull) -usti'ie& b) the outcome* 3n the basis o' our kno!le& e o' the la!s o' social



e olution, !e $re&icte& economic crises, the &e aluation o' $a$er mone), the !orl& !ar, the socialre olution as a result o' the !ar8 !e $re&icte& the beha ior o' the arious rou$s, classes an& $artiesin the time o' the %ussian %e olution8 !e $re&icte&, 'or e am$le, that the Social.%e olutionists!oul& be trans'orme&, a'ter the $roletarian cou$ dKetat,into a counter.re olutionar) $art) o' rich

$easants, o' Whites, o' la!less ban&s8 lon be'ore the re olution, as earl) as the nineties o' the last

centur), %ussian Mar ists !ere $re&ictin the ine itable ro!th o' ca$italism in %ussia an& !ith itthe ine itable ro!th o' the !orkers# mo ement* We mi ht i e hun&re&s o' e am$les o' such

$re&ictions, in none o' !hich is there an)thin miraculous, once !e kno! the la!s o' the social.historical $rocess*

We cannot $re&ict the timeo' the a$$earance o' an) such $henomenon, 'or !e &o not )et $ossesssu''icient in'ormation re ar&in the la!s o' social e olution to be able to e $ress them in, $recise'i ures* We &o not kno! the elocit) o' the social $rocesses but !e are alrea&) in a $osition toascertain their direction*

Bul ako , in his Ca italism and A!riculture4in %ussian, 19CC, ol* $$*K5 .K5D sa)s: "Mar consi&ere& it $ossible to

measure an& $re&ict the 'uture in accor&ance !ith $ast an& $resent, !hereas each e$och 'urnishes ne! 'acts an& ne!'orces o' historical e olution . the creati e $o!er o' histor) ne er runs &r)* +here'ore, an) $ro nosis !ith re ar& to the'uture, !hich is base& on the results o' the $resent, must necessaril) 4AAA be in error* * * +he eil o' the 'uture isim$enetrable*" +he same author, in his Philoso hy of Economy4in %ussian, Mosco!, 19 2, $*2 2 : "But e en muchmore mo&est $re&ictions ma) be a&mitte&, in the case o' social science, onl) !ith a rain o' salt* +he ten&encies o'e olution# &etermine& b) science an& 'a orable to socialism, ha e er) little in common !ith the la!s o' naturalscience#, that Mar takes them to be* +he) are merel) em$irical# * * * the) ha e an entirel) &i''erent lo ical nature 'romthat o' the la!s o' mechanics*" +hese >uotations 'rom Pro'essor Bul ako !ill ser e as a er) characteristic e am$le o'the "re'utation" o' Mar ism8 nee&less to sa), the) !ill not hol& !ater* Bul ako thinks that the la!s o' ca$italiste olution, 'or e am$le, are "em$irical la!s"* " m$irical" is the term i en to such causal relations as ha e not )et beenunra ele&* or instance, it has been obser e& that more bo)s are born than irls, but the reasons 'or the $henomenon areunkno!n* Such "la!s" are trul) &i''erent in their "lo ical nature"* But this is not the case !ith the la!s o' e olution o'socialism, !hich ha e a causal threa&* +he la! o' the centrali(ation o' ca$ital, 'or instance, is not an "em$irical la!", buta real la! o' natural science* I' small $ro&uction units are com$etin !ith lar e ones, the ictor) o' the latter isine itable* We kno! the causal connections8 !e ma) $re&ict the ictor) o' lar e.scale $ro&uction in Ea$an or in 0entral<'rica*

3ur 'irst >uotation 'rom Bul ako is merel) su$er'icial literar) &ri el* Histor) "'urnishes ne! 'acts",the creati e $o!er o' histor) &oes not run &r), etc* But the e olution o' nature also 'urnishes "ne!'acts"8 such ne! 'acts are not unkno!n to the natural sciences, or to mathematics, !ith their &i''erent"lo ical nature"* Bul ako is ri ht onl) in his statement that !e ne er kno! e er)thin , but that isno reason 'or in'errin that science is an insu''icient instrument*

It is also >uite characteristic that Bul ako , in his Philoso hy of conom), &!ells 're>uentl) an&

er) seriousl) on an els, the lust o' the 'lesh, man#s 'all 'rom race, Saint So$hia, etc* +his stu'', to be sure, is o' a "&i''erent lo ical nature", one that much resembles the charlatanr) an& >uacker)attacke& b) Bul ako *

+he theor) o' &eterminism in the 'iel& o' social $henomena, an& o' the $ossibilit) o' scienti'ic $re&iction, has calle& 'orth a number o' re$lies, o' !hich !e shall consi&er one, 'rom the mouth o'%* Stammler* Stammler asks the Mar ists . !ho maintain that socialism must come !ith the same&e ree o' certaint) as &oes an ecli$se o' the sun . !h) the Mar ists shoul& attem$t to "rin! a"outsocialism in that case* 3ne o' t!o thin s is true, sa)s Stammler, either socialism !ill come, like anecli$se o' the sun, in !hich case there is no reason 'or e''ort, 'or stru le, 'or a $art) or ani(ation o'the !orkin class, etc*8 'or no one !oul& think o' or ani(in a $art) to su$$ort an ecli$se o' the sun8'or, in or ani(in a $art), in con&uctin the stru le, etc*, )ou are a&mittin that it is $ossible thatsocialism ma) not come8 but )ou desire it, an& conse>uentl) are stru lin 'or it*



But such is not the nature o' the necessit) o' socialism* It is eas), in ie! o' our 'ore oine $osition, to &etect Stammler#s error* <n ecli$se o' the sun &oes not &e$en& either &irectl) or

in&irectl) on human &esires8 in 'act, it &oes not &e$en& onmenat all* <ll humans mi ht &ie, !ithout&istinction o' class, se , nationalit), an& a e, an& )et the sun !oul& be ecli$se& at a certain moment*+he case !ith social $henomena is entirel) &i''erent, 'or the) are accom$lishe& throu!h the !ill o'

men* Social $henomena withouthumans, !ithout societ), !oul& be somethin like a roun& s>uare or burnin ice* Socialism !ill come ine itabl) because it is ine itable that men, &e'inite classes o' men,!ill stan& 'or its reali(ation, an& the) !ill &o so un&er circumstances that !ill make their ictor)certain* Mar ism &oes notdeny the will, "ut ex lains it.When Mar ists or ani(e the 0ommunistPart) an& lea& it into battle, this action is also an e $ression o' historical necessit), !hich 'in&s its'orm $recisel) throu h the !ill an& the r actions o' men*

Social determinism, i.e.,the &octrine that all social $henomena are con&itione&, ha e causes 'rom!hich the) necessaril) 'lo!, must not be con'use& !ith fatalism,!hich is a belie' in a blin&,ine itable &estin), a "'ate", !ei hin &o!n u$on e er)thin , an& to !hich e er)thin is sub-ecte&*Man#s !ill is nothin * Man is not a >uantit) to be consi&ere& amon causes8 he is sim$l) a $assi esubstance* +his teachin &enies the human !ill as a 'actor in e olution, !hich &eterminism &oes not*

+his " ate" is o'ten embo&ie& in o&like creatures, as the Moira o' the ancient 7reeks, the Parcae o'the %omans8 in a number o' athers o' the 0hurch 4'or instance, Saint <u ustine , the &octrine o'

$re.&estination $la)s the same role8 the %e'ormer 0al in illustrates the same $henomenon 4c'* %*Wi$$er: Church and State in Gene5a in the Sixteenth Century,in %ussian 8 !e ha e a $articularl)strikin e $ression o' 'atalism in Islam* But !e cannot hel$ callin attention to this 'atalisticten&enc) amon the Social./emocrats* Precisel) in that section o' the Social./emocrac) !hich hasallie& itsel' !ith the bour eoisie, Mar ism has &e enerate& into a 'atalistic notion* 0uno!, !hose!hole "$hiloso$h)" is e $resse& in the thesis that "histor) is al!a)s ri ht", an& that there'ore no oneshoul& o$$ose either the Worl& War or im$erialism, is the best e am$le o' this 'atalistic &istortion o'Mar ism* +his &istorte& ie! !oul& re$resent an) communist u$risin o' the !orkers as a senselesse''ort to iolate the la!s o' historical e olution 'rom !ithout, an& not as an outcome o' historicalnecessit)*

B+B/+)$0APH1

?arl Mar : A Contri"ution to a Critique of Political Economy, Introduction* rie&rich n els: Anti1 8Dhrin!. rie&rich n els: euer"ach4translation b) <ustin ;e!is, 0hica o, 19C * Plekhano4Belto : 3n the Luestion of the 8e5elo ment of the <onistic Stand oint in Mistory.Plekhano :Criticism of 9ur Critics.Plekhano : undamental Pro"lems of <arxism4all three in %ussian * N*

;enin: <aterialism and Em irio1Criticism 4translate& * * Ba(aro : Authoritarian <eta hysics andthe Autonomous Personality4in %ussian8 sketches contributin to a realistic :eltanschauun! * <;abriola: AufsBt e.

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": Dialectical #aterialism

a. Materialism and +dealism in Philoso hy, the Problem of the )b*ecti2e

In our consi&eration o' the >uestion o' the human !ill, the >uestion !hether it is 'ree, or &etermine& b) certain causes, like e er)thin else in the !orl&, !e arri e& at the conclusion that !e must a&o$tthe $oint o' ie! o' &eterminism* We 'oun& that the !ill o' man is not &i ine in character, that it&e$en&s on e ternal causes an& on the con&itions o' the human or anism* +his brou ht us 'ace to'ace !ith the most im$ortant >uestion that has trouble& the human min& 'or thousan&s o' )ears . the>uestion as to the relation bet!een matter an& min&, !hich in sim$le $arlance is o'ten s$oken o' asthe relation bet!een "soul" an& "bo&)"* In eneral, !e &istin uish bet!een t!o kin&s o' $henomena*Phenomena o' the one kin& ha e extension,occu$) s$ace, are obser e& throu h our e ternal senses:!e ma) see them, hear them, 'eel them, taste them, etc*8 such !e call material $henomena* 3thersha e no $lace in s$ace an& cannot be 'elt or seen* Such, 'or e am$le, are the human min&, or !ill, or'eelin * But no one can &oubt their e istence* +he $hiloso$her /escartes consi&ere& -ust thiscircumstance to be the $roo' o' man#s e istence8 /escartes sai& 0Co!ito, er!o sum" . I think,there'ore I am* @et, man#s thou ht cannot be 'elt or smelt8 it has no color an& cannot be &irectl)measure& in )ar&s or meters* Such $henomena are calle& sychical in sim$le lan ua e, "s$iritual"*We ha e no! to consi&er the >uestion o' the relation bet!een these t!o kin&s o' $henomena* Is themin& "the be innin o' all thin s", or is it matter= Which comes 'irst8 !hich is the basis8 &oes matter

$ro&uce min& or &oes min& $ro&uce matter= What is the relation bet!een the t!o= +his >uestionin ol es the 'un&amental conce$tion o' $hiloso$h), on the ans!er to !hich &ePen& the ans!ers toman) other >uestions in the &omain o' the social sciences*

;et us tr) to consi&er it 'rom as man) stan&$oints as $ossible* irst o' all, !e must bear in min& thatman is a $art o' nature* We cannot kno! 'or certain !hether other more hi hl) or ani(e& creatures

e ist on other $lanets, althou h it is $robable that such &o e ist, 'or the number o' $lanets seemsen&less* But it is clearl) a$$arent to us that the bein calle& "man" is not a &i ine creature, stan&inoutsi&e o' the !orl&, $ro-ecte& 'rom some other, unkno!n, m)sterious uni erse, but, as !e kno!'rom the natural sciences, he is a $ro&uct an& a $ortion o' nature, sub-ect to its eneral la!s* romthe e am$le o' the !orl& as !e kno! it, !e 'in& that $s)chic $henomena, the $henomena o' the socalle& "s$irit", are an in'initesimal $ortion o' the sum o' all $henomena* In the secon& $lace, !ekno! that man has s$run 'rom other animals, an& that, a'ter all, "li in creatures" ha e been ine istence on earth onl) 'or a time* When the earth !as still a 'lamin s$here, resemblin the sunto&a), lon be'ore it ha& coole&, there !as no li'e on its sur'ace, nor thinkin creatures o' an) kin&*3r anic nature re! out o' &ea& nature8 li in nature $ro&uce& a 'orm ca$able o' thou ht* irst, !eha& matter, inca$able o' thou ht8 out o' !hich &e elo$e& thinkin matter, man* I' this is the case .

an& !e kno! it is, 'rom natural science . it is $lain that matter is the mother o' min&8 min& is not themother o' matter* 0hil&ren are ne er ol&er than their $arents* "Min&" comes later, an& !e mustthere'ore consi&er it the o''s$rin , an& not the $arent, as the immo&eratel) $artisan !orshi$ers o'e er)thin "s$iritual" !oul& make it*

In the thir& $lace: "min&" &oes not a$$ear until !e alrea&) ha e matter or!ani ed in a certainmanner *

< (ero cannot think8 nor can a &ou hnut . or the hole in it . think8 nor can "min&" think !ithoutmatter* Man#s brain, a $art o' man#s or anism, thinks* <n& man#s or anism is matter or ani(e& in ahi hl) intricate 'orm*



In the 'ourth $lace: it is >uite clear 'rom the abo e !h) matter ma) e ist !ithout min&, !hile "min&"ma) not e ist !ithout matter* Matter e iste& be'ore the a$$earance o' a thinkin human8 the earthe iste& lon be'ore the a$$earance o' an) kin& o' "min&" on its sur'ace* In other !or&s, matter e istsob-ecti el), in&e$en&entl) o' "min&"* But the $s)chic $henomena, the so calle& "min&", ne er an&no!here e iste& !ithout matter, !ere ne er in&e$en&ent o' matter* +hou ht &oes not e ist !ithout a

brain8 &esires are im$ossible unless there is a &esirin or anism* "Min&" isalwaysclosel) connecte&!ith "matter" 4onl) in the Bible &o !e 'in& the "s$irit" ho erin unai&e& o er the !aters * In other!or&s: $s)chic $henomena, the $henomena o' consciousness, are sim$l) a ro erty of matteror!ani ed in a certain manner, a 0function0 of such master4a 'unction o' a certain >uantit) is asecon& >uantit) &e$en&in on the 'irst * No! man is a er) &elicatel) or ani(e& creature* /estro)this or ani(ation, &isor ani(e it, take it a$art, cut it u$, an& the "min&" at once &isa$$ears* I' men!ere able to $ut to ether this s)stem a ain, to assemble the human or anism, in other !or&s, i' it!ere $ossible to take a human bo&) a$art an& $ut it to ether a ain -ust as one ma) &o !ith the $artso' a clock, consciousness !oul& also at once return8 once the clock has been reassemble& it !illo$erate an& start to tick8 $ut to ether the human or anism, an& it !ill start to think* 3' course, !eare not )et able to &o this* But !e ha e alrea&) seen, in our &iscussion o' &eterminism, that the stateo' "min&" o' the consciousness, &e$en&s on the state o' the or anism* Into icate the or anism !ithalcohol, the consciousness !ill become con'use&, the min& is be'u&&le&* %estore the or anism to itsnormal state 4'or instance, a&minister anti&otes 'or to ic substances an& the min& !ill a ain be in to!ork in the normal manner* +he abo e clearl) sho!s the &e$en&ence o' consciousness on matter, orin other !or&s, "o' thou ht on li'e"*

We ha e seen that $s)chical $henomena are a $ro$ert) o' matter or ani(e& in a certain manner* Wema) there'ore ha e arious 'luctuations, arious 'orms o' material or ani(ation, an& also arious'orms o' mental li'e* <an, !ith his brain, is or ani(e& in one manner . he has the most $er'ect

$s)chical li'e on earth . a true consciousness8 the do! is or ani(e& in a &i''erent manner an& the $s)che o' the &o there'ore &i''ers 'rom that o' man8 the wormis also or ani(e& in a s$ecial manner,an& the "min&" o' the !orm is conse>uentl) e tremel) $oor, b) no means com$arable !ith that o'man8 the or ani(ation o' the stone $laces it !ith inanimate matter, an& it there'ore has no $s)chic li'eat all* < s$ecial an& intricate or ani(ation o' matter is re>uire& 'or the a$$earance o' a $s)che* <ne tremel) intricate or ani(ation o' matter is the necessar) $resu$$osition 'or the a$$earance o' anintricate $s)chic li'e, !hich !e call a consciousness* 3n earth, this consciousness a$$ears onl) !henmatter has been or ani(e&, as in the case o' man, !ith his most com$licate& instrument, the brain inhis hea&*

4hus, mind cannot exist without matter, while matter may 5ery well exist without mind matterexisted "efore mind mind is a s ecial ro erty of matter or!ani ed in a s ecial manner.

It is not &i''icult to &iscern that i&ealism 4the &octrine base& on a 'un&amental i&ea un&erl)in allthin s, a "s$irit" , is sim$l) a &ilute& 'orm o' the reli ious conce$tion accor&in to !hich a &i inem)sterious $o!er is $lace& a"o5e nature, the human consciousness bein consi&ere& a little s$arkemanatin 'rom this &i ine $o!er, an& man himsel' a creature chosen b) 7o&* +he i&ealistic $oint o'

ie!, i' $ursue& to its conclusion, lea&s to a number o' absur&ities, !hich are o'ten &e'ine& !ith aserious 'ace b) the $hiloso$hers o' the rulin classes* Particularl), !e 'in& associate& !ith i&ealismsuch ie!s as &en) the e ternal !orl&, i*e*, the e istence o' thin s ob-ecti el), in&e$en&entl) o' thehuman consciousness, sometimes also the e istence o' other $ersons* +he e treme an& mostconsistent 'orm o' i&ealism is the so calle& soli$sism 4;atin solos, "alone", "onl)"8 i se,"sel'" * +hesoli$sist reasons as 'ollo!s: "What &ata &o I $ossess= M) consciousness, nothin more8 the house in

!hich I li e is $resent onl) in m) sensations8 the man !ith !hom I s$eak, also onl) a sensation* In a!or&, nothin e ists outsi&e o' m)sel', there is onl) m) e o, m) consciousness, m) mental



e istence8 there is no e ternal !orl& a$art 'rom me8 it is sim$l) a creature o' m) min&* or I ama!are o' onl) m) o!n internal li'e, 'rom !hich I ha e no means o' esca$in * er)thin I see, hear,taste, e er)thin about !hich I think an& reason, is a sensation, a conce$tion, a thou ht, o' mine*"

+his insane $hiloso$h), concernin !hich Scho$enhauer !rote that enuine su$$orters o' it coul& be

'oun& onl) in the insane as)lum 4!hich &i& not $re ent Scho$enhauer, ho!e er, 'rom consi&erinthe !orl& als :ille and Norstellun!, "as olition an& conce$t", in other !or&s, 'rom bein an i&ealisto' the $urest !ater , is contra&icte& b) human e $erience at e er) ste$* When !e eat, con&uct theclass stru le, $ut on our shoes, $luck 'lo!ers, !rite books, take a !i'e or a husban&, none o' use er thinks o' &oubtin the e istence o' the e ternal !orl&, i.e., the e istence . let us sa) . o' the'oo& !e eat, the shoes !e !ear, the !omen !e marr)* None the less, this 'allac) is base& on the'un&amental $osition o' i&ealism* <s a matter o' 'act, i' "min&" is the basis o' all thin s, !hat !asthe state o' the case be'ore man e iste&= +here are t!o $ossible ans!ers: either !e must assume thee istence o' a certain e tra.human, &i ine s$irit o' the ariet) mentione& in the ancient Biblicalstories8 or, !e must assume that the e ents o' a es lon $ast are also the $ro&uct o' m) ima ination*+he 'irst solution lea&s us to so calle& ob-ecti e i&ealism, !hich reco ni(es the e istence o' ane ternal !orl& in&e$en&ent o' "m)" consciousness* +he essence o' this !orl& is 'oun& in its s$iritualori in, in 7o&, or in a "su$reme min&" !hich here takes the $lace o' 7o&, in a "!orl& !ill", or insome other such hocus $ocus* +he secon& solution lea&s us strai ht into soli$sism, throu hsub-ecti e i&ealism, !hich reco ni(es the e istence onl) o' s$iritual bein s, o' a number o' thinkinsub-ects* It is eas) to reco ni(e soli$sism as the most consistent 'orm o' i&ealism* But !here &oesi&ealism 'in& its basis as a matter o' 'act= Wh) &oes it consi&er the mental be innin to be more

$rimiti e an& 'un&amental= or the reason, in the last anal)sis, that it assumes "m)" &ata to consisto' m) sensations onl)* But i' this is the case, I ma) &oubt e>uall) !ell the e istence o' a $ost in the)ar&, an& o' an) other human bein but m)sel', inclu&in m) o!n $arents* +hus soli$sism commitssuici&e, 'or it &estro)s not onl) all o' i&ealism in $hiloso$h), but, in the consistent $ursuit o' itsi&ealistic ie!s, lea&s to a com$lete absur&it), to com$lete insanit), contra&icte& at e er) ste$ b) theactual $ractice o' men*

+heoretical materialism an& i&ealism must not be con'use& !ith "$ractical i&ealism" an& "materialism", 'or the latterha e nothin to &o !ith the 'ormer* < man !ho remains 'aith'ul to his i&eal is calle& an "i&ealist" in the $ractical sense8he ma) be an outs$oken o$$onent o' $hiloso$hical i&ealism, o' theoretical i&ealism* < communist !ho sacri'ices his li'eis an i&ealist in $ractice, an& )et a materalist throu h an& throu h* +he $hilistine !ho sobs to his ;or& ma) ha e er)i&ealistic notions, !hich &o not $re ent him, ho!e er, 'rom bein a base, stu$i&, sel'ish an& narro!.min&e& creature*

Plato is commonl) consi&ere& the 'oun&er o' $hiloso$hical i&ealism: Plato belie e& that onl) "i&eas" e ist ob-ecti el),i*e*, in realit)* Men, $ears, !a ons, &o not e ist8 the i&ea o' a man, o' a $ear, o' a !a on, &oes e ist* +hese i&eal $atterns,e istin 'rom the be innin o' time, &!ell in a s$ecial su$ermun&ane resort o' "reason"* What men consi&er to be $ears,!a ons, etc*, are merel) !retche& sha&o!s o' the corres$on&in i&ea* <bo e all these i&eas there ho ers, like the s$irito' 7o&, the su$reme i&ea, the "i&ea o' the 7oo&"* < ten&enc) to sub-ecti e i&ealism is usuall) 'oun& in those 7reek

$hiloso$hers kno!n as So$hists 4Prota oras, 7or ias, etc* , !ho set u$ the $rinci$le that "man is the measure o' allthin s"* In the Mi&&le < es, the Platonic "i&eas" be an to be inter$rete& as mo&els an& $atterns accor&in to !hich the;or& sha$es isible thin s* or instance, the louse that !e see is create& b) 7o& accor&in to his "louse.i&ea", !hich&!ells in a su$ersensual !orl&* More recentl), Bisho$ Berkele) &e elo$e& the ie! o' sub-ecti e i&ealism, maintaininthat onl) the s$irit e ists, the rest bein mere ima ination* ichte belie e& that !ithout a sub-ect 4a co ni(in s$irit therecoul& be no ob-ect 4e ternal !orl& , an& that matter is an e $ression o' the i&ea* Schellin hel& i&eas to be the essenceso' thin s, base& on a &i ine eternit)* <ll bein , accor&in to He el, is merel) an e''lu ium o' ob-ecti e reason in thecourse o' its un'ol&in *

Scho$enhauer re ar&s the !orl& as !ill an& conce$tion 6:ille and Norstellun!). ?ant reco ni(es the e istence o' theob-ecti e uni erse 68in! an sich), but it is not sub-ect to co nition an& is immaterial in its nature* I&ealism, !ith its man)sub&i isions, has become er) stron in mo&ern $hiloso$h), b) reason o' the $re&ilection o' the bour eoisie 'ore er)thin that is m)stical, an in&ication o' its lo! morale, no! 'ull o' &es$air, ea er 'or mental solace*



We 'irst 'in& ten&encies to materialist $hiloso$h) in the ancient 7reek $hiloso$hers o' the so calle& Ionic school, !hoconsi&ere& matter to be the basis o' all bein , but like!ise belie e& that all matter !as ca$able o' more or less 'eelin *+hese $hiloso$hers !ere there'ore calle& Mylo oists4those !ho $ut li'e into matter8 'rom 7reek hyle, O Q, matter8 an& oe,R T, li'e *

3' course these 'irst ste$s !ere rather unsatis'actor) in their result* +hus, +hales sou ht the basis o' all bein in !ater8<na imenes, in air8 Heraclitus, in 'ire, <na iman&er, in a certain substance o' in&e'inite nature an& embracin all thin s,calle& b) him a eiron, the "in'inite", "unlimite&"* +he H)lo(oists also inclu&e& the Stoics, !ho consi&ere& all e istinthin s to be material* Materialism !as 'urther &e elo$e& b) the 7reeks /emocritus an& $icurus, later b) the %oman;ucretius 0arus* /emocritus ma ni'icentl) e $oun&e& the basis o' the atomistic theor)* <ccor&in to his &octrine the!orl& consists o' mo in , 'allin material $articles, atoms, !hose combinations constitute the in isible uni erse* In theMi&&le < es, the i&ealistic cla$tra$ $re aile& on the !hole* +he brilliant an& $ro'oun& intellect o' Baruch S$ino(a&e elo$e& the i&ea o' the H)lo(oist materialists* In n lan&, the materialist stan&$oint !as &e'en&e& b) +homas Hobbes415DD.1 9 * Materialism !as much encoura e& in the $erio& $reliminar) to the rench re olution, !hich $ro&uce& anumber o' e cellent materialist $hiloso$hers: /i&erot, Hel etius, Holbach 4!hose chie' !ork, SystOme de la nature,a$$eare& in 1 C , ;amettrie6<an a <achine, 1 D5 ** +his rou$ o' $hiloso$hers o' the then re olutionar) bour eoisiehas 'urnishe& us !ith e cellent 'ormulations o' the materialistic theor) 4 cf. N* Belto : 3n the Luestion of E5olution ofthe <onistic Niew of Mistory,an& N* ;enin: <aterialism and Em irio1Criticism, $$* 2 et se>* * /i&erot in eniousl)&eri&e& the i&ealists o' the t)$e o' Berkele): "In a moment o' ma&ness, the sentient $iano ima ine& it !as the onl) $ianoe istin in the !orl&, an& that the entire harmon) o' the uni erse !as accom$lishe& !ithin itsel'" 4 9eu5res com lOtes de 8iderot, Paris, 1D 5, ol* ii, $* 11D In 7erman), in the Nineteenth 0entur), this cause !as a& ance& b) ;u&!i

euerbach, !ho ha& a reat in'luence on Mar an& n els, an& the), in turn, 'urnishe& the most com$lete theor) o'materialism, b) combinin it !ith the &ialectic metho& 4see belo! , an& e ten&e& the materialistic theor) to the socialsciences, banishin i&ealism 'rom its last $lace o' re'u e* 3' course, the senile bour eoisie, no! &roolin about 7o& likea so't.braine& ol& man, re ar&s materialism !ith hatre&* It is eas) to un&erstan& that materialism necessaril) !ill be there olutionar) theor) o' the )oun re olutionar) class, the $roletariat*

b. The Materialist Attitude in the Social Sciences

er)one !ill un&erstan& that this &is$ute bet!een materialism an& i&ealism cannot $ossibl) 'ail to be e $resse& in the social sciences also* In 'act, human societ) $resents a number o' $henomena o'

arious kin&s* or instance, !e 'in& "e alte& matters" such as reli ion, $hiloso$h) an& moralit)8 !ealso 'in& innumerable i&eas hel& b) men, in arious 'iel&s8 !e 'in& an e chan e o' oo&s or a&istribution o' $ro&ucts8 !e 'in& a stru le bet!een arious classes amon themsel es8 there is a

$ro&uction o' $ro&ucts, !heat, r)e, shoes, machiner), ar)in !ith the time an& $lace* Ho! shall !e $rocee& to e $lain this societ)= rom !hat an le shall !e a$$roach it= What shall !e consi&er its'un&amental element, an& !hat its secon&ar), or resultin element= <ll these are ob iousl) the same>uestions that ha e been 'ace& b) $hiloso$h) an& that ha e necessaril) &i i&e& the $hiloso$hers intot!o reat cam$s.that o' the materialists an& that o' the i&ealists* 3n the one han&, !e ma) ima ine

$ersons a$$roachin societ) in a$$ro imatel) the 'ollo!in manner: societ) consists o' $ersons,!ho think, act, &esire, are &ominate& b) i&eas, thou hts, "o$inions", 'rom !hich the) in'er: "o$inion

&ominates the !orl&"8 an alteration o' "o$inion", a chan e in the ie!s o' men is the 'un&amentalcause o' e er)thin that oes on in societ)8 in other !or&s, social science must in the 'irst $lacein esti ate $recisel) this $hase o' the matter, namel), the "social consciousness", the "min& o'societ)"* Such !oul& be the i&ealist stan&$oint in the social sciences* But !e ha e seen abo e thati&ealism in ol es an a&mission o' the in&e$en&ence o' i&eas 'rom the material, an& o' the&e$en&ence o' these i&eas on &i ine an& m)sterious s$rin s* It is there'ore ob ious that the i&ealist

$oint o' ie! in ol es a &o!nri ht m)sticism, or other tom'ooler), in the social sciences, an&conse>uentl) lea&s to a &estruction o' these sciences,to their substitution b) faith in the acts o' 7o&or in some other such conce$tion* +hus, the rench !riter Bossuet 4in his ;eflections on @ni5ersal Mistory,1 D2 &eclares that histor) re eals a "&i ine ui&ance o' the human race"8 the 7ermani&ealist $hiloso$her ;essin &eclares that histor) is an "e&ucation o' the human race b) 7o&"8 ichte

states that reason is mani'est in histor)8 Schellin , that histor) is a "constant an& $ro ressi el)&isco ere& re elation o' the <bsolute", in other !or&s, o' 7o&* He el, the reatest $hiloso$her o'



i&ealism, &e'ine& the histor) o' the !orl& as a "rational, necessar) e olution 4 Gan! o' the !orl&s$irit"* Man) other such e am$les coul& be i en, but the abo e !ill su''ice to sho! ho! close isthe connection bet!een $hiloso$hical ie!s an& those $re ailin in the social sciences*

+he i&ealist 'orms o' the social sciences an& the i&ealist sociolo ists there'ore behol& in societ), 'irst

o' all, "the i&ea" o' this societ)8 the) consi&er societ) itsel' as somethin $s)chical, immaterial8societ) in their o$inion is a reat mass o' human &esires, 'eelin s, thou hts, !ills, con'use& inen&less combinations8 in other !or&s, societ) is social $s)cholo ) an& the social consciousness isthe "min&" o' societ)*

But societ) ma) also be a$$roache& 'rom an entirel) &i''erent stan&$oint* In our &iscussion o'&eterminism, !e 'oun& that man#s !ill is not 'ree, that it is &etermine& b) the e ternal con&itions o'man#s e istence* Is not societ) also sub-ect to these la!s= Ho! shall !e e $lain the socialconsciousness= 3n !hat &oes it &e$en&= +he mere 'ormulation o' these >uestions brin s to min& thematerialist stan&$oint in social science* Human societ) is a $ro&uct o' nature* ;ike the human raceitsel', it &e$en&s on nature an& ma) e ist onl) b) obtainin its necessities 'rom nature* +his it &oes

b) the $rocess o' $ro&uction* It ma) not al!a)s &o so consciousl)8 a conscious $rocess is $ossibleonl) in an or ani(e& societ), in !hich e er)thin $rocee&s accor&in to a $lan* In unor ani(e&societ), the $rocess oes on unconsciousl): 'or e am$le, un&er ca$italism, the manu'acturer !ishesto obtain more $ro'its an& there'ore increases his $ro&uction 4but not 'or the $ur$ose o' a''or&inassistance to human societ) * +he $easant $ro&uces, in or&er to $ro i&e himsel' !ith 'oo&, an& to sella $ortion o' his $ro&uction to $a) his ta es8 the tra&esman, in or&er to kee$ himsel' abo e !ater an&establish himsel' in societ)8 the !orker, in or&er not to star e* <s a result, the entire societ) in some!a) continues to mu&&le alon , 'or better or 'or !orse* <aterial roduction and its means4"thematerial $ro&ucti e 'orces" are the 'oun&ation o' the e istence o' human societ)* Without it, therecannot be a "social consciousness", "mental culture", -ust as there cannot be a thou ht !ithout athinkin brain* We shall take u$ this >uestion in &etail later on8 'or the $resent let us consi&er onl)the 'ollo!in 8 let us ima ine t!o human societies8 one, a societ) o' sa a es8 the other, a societ) inthe 'inal sta e o' ca$italism* In the 'ormer societ), all acti ities are &e ote& to the imme&iatesecurin o' 'oo&stu''s, huntin , 'ishin , the atherin o' roots, $rimiti e a riculture8 o' "i&eas", o'"mental culture", etc*, there is er) little8 !e are &ealin here !ith men that are har&l) more thanmonke)s, tribal animals* In the secon& e am$le, !e ha e a sublime "mental culture", a reatBab)lonian con'usion o' moralit)8 -ustice, !ith its countless la!s8 hi hl) e ol e&, en&less sciences,

$hiloso$hies, reli ions, an& arts, 'rom architecture &o!n to 'ashion $lates* <n& )et, this Bab)loniancon'usion is o' one t)$e !here the bour eoisie rules8 it is >uite &i''erent !here $roletarians rule8&i''erent a ain 'or the $easants, etc* In a !or&, in this case, as !e usuall) $ut it, the sublime "mentalculture", the "min&" o' societ), the sum o' "i&eas", is e tremel) &e elo$e&* Ho! !as it $ossible 'or

this min& to &e elo$= What !ere the con&itions o' its ro!th= +he ro!th o' material roduction,the increase in the $o!er o' man o er nature, the increase in the roducti5ity of human la"or. or,!hen not all the a ailable time is consume& in e haustin material labor, $eo$le are 'ree a $ortion o' the time, !hich a''or&s them an o$$ortunit) to think, reason, !ork !ith a $lan, create a "mentalculture"* <s e er)!here else, so in societ) also, matter is the mother o' min& an& not min& themother o' matter8 it is not the social "mental culture" 4"social consciousness" that $ro&uces thesubstance o' societ), i.e., abo e all, material $ro&uction, the obtainin o' all kin&s o' use'ul ob-ects'rom nature b) societ), but it is the e olution o' this social substance, i.e., the e olution o' material

$ro&uction, that creates the 'oun&ation 'or the ro!th o' the so calle& "mental culture"* In other!or&s, the s$iritual li'e o' societ) must necessaril) &e$en& on the con&itions o' material $ro&uction,on the sta e that has been attaine& in the ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces in human societ)* 4he

mental life of society is a function of the forces of roduction.What this 'unction is, -ust ho! themental li'e o' societ) ro!s out o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces: that is a sub-ect that !ill be &iscusse& later*



or the $resent !e ma) onl) obser e that this ie! o' societ) naturall) makes us consi&er it not asan a re ate o' all $ossible kin&s o' o$inions, $articularl) in the &omain o' the "sublime an&

beauti'ul", the "ele ate& an& $ure", but 'irst o' all as a workin! or!ani ation4Mar sometimes calle&it a "$ro&ucti e or anism" *

Such is the materialist $oint o' ie! in the &omain o' sociolo )* +his $oint o' ie!, as !e kno!, b)no means &enies that "i&eas" ha e their e''ects* Mar e en sai& &istinctl), in &iscussin the hi heststa e o' consciousness, !hich is scienti'ic theory: 0E5erytheor) becomes a 'orce !hen it securescontrol o er masses*" But materialists cannot be satis'ie& !ith a mere re'erence to the 'act that"$eo$le thou ht so"* +he) ask: !h) &i& $eo$le in a certain $lace, at a certain time, "think" so, an&"think" other!ise un&er other con&itions= In 'act, !h) &o $eo$le think such an a!'ul lot an)!a) in"ci ili(e&" societ), $ro&ucin !hole mountains o' books an& other thin s, !hile the sa a e &oes not"think" at all= We shall 'in& the e $lanation in the material con&itions o' the li'e o' societ)*Materialism is there'ore in a $osition to e $lain the $henomena o' "mental li'e" in societ), !hichi&ealism cannot, 'or i&ealism ima ines "i&eas" &e elo$in out o' themsel es, in&e$en&entl) o' the

base earth* or this er) reason the i&ealists, !hene er the) !ish to construct an) real e $lanation,are 'orce& to resortin to the &i ine: "+his 7oo&", !rote, He el in his Philoso hy of Mistory,"this%eason in its most concrete conce$tion, is 7o&8 7o& rules the !orl& 8 the content o' his o ernment ;e!ierun!), the e ecution o' his $lan, is uni ersal histor):# 1 +o &ra in this $oor ol& man !hoconstitutes $er'ection, accor&in to his !orshi$ers, an& !ho is obli e& to create, to ether !ith<&am, lice an& $rostitutes, mur&erers an& le$ers, hun er an& $o ert) s)$hilis an& o&ka, as a

$unishment 'or sinners !hom he create& an& !ho commit sins b) his &esire, an& to continue $la)inthis come&) 'ore er in the e)es o' a &eli hte& uni erse . to &ra in 7o& is a necessar) ste$ 'ori&ealist theor)* But 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' science it means re&ucin this "theor)" to an absur&it)*

In other !or&s, in the social sciences also, the materialist $oint o' ie! is the correct one*

+he consistent a$$lication o' the materialist $oint o' ie! to the social sciences is the !ork o' Mar an& n els* In the)ear 41D59 in !hich Mar #s book, A Contri"ution to the Critique of olitical Economy,!hich $resents an outline o' hissociolo ical theor) 4the theor) o' historical materialism a$$eare&, there also a$$eare& the $rinci$al !ork o' 0harles/ar!in 4 9ri!in of S ecies , !hose author maintaine& an& $ro e& that chan es in the animal an& e etable kin &oms arein'luence& b) the material con&itions o' e istence* But it b) no means 'ollo!s that the /ar!inian la!s ma) be a$$lie&!ithout 'urther a&o to societ)* We ha e 'irst to $ro e the $eculiar 'orm in !hich the eneral la!s o' natural science area$$licable in human societ), a 'orm characteristic o' human societ) onl)* Mar bitterl) &eri&e& an)one !ho 'aile& toun&erstan& this8 thus he !rote, concernin the 7erman scholar * <* ;an e: "Herr ;an e, it seems, has ma&e a reat&isco er) : all histor) must be sublimate& un&er a sin le reat la! o' nature* +his la! o' nature is the hrase4'or in thisuse, /ar!in#s e $ression is a mere $hrase , the stru le 'or li'e#* Instea& o' anal)(in this stru le 'or li'e , !hiche $resses itsel' historicall) in &istinct an& arie& 'orms o' societ), all )ou nee& &o is to re.christen an) concrete stru le!ith the $hrase stru le 'or li'e#:# 4;etters to ?u elmann, Eune 2 , 1D C , 8ie 2eue =eit, 19C2, ol* 2C, $$* 5K1, 5K2

3' course, Mar ha& his 'orerunners, $articularl) the so calle& 6to$ian socialists 4Saint Simon * But be'ore Mar , thematerialist stan&$oint ha& not been consistentl) carrie& out b) an)one in a 'orm ca$able o' creatin a trul) scienti'icsociolo )*

c. The Dynamic oint of "ie8 and the 0elation Bet8een Phenomena

+here are t!o $ossible !a)s o' re ar&in e er)thin in nature an& in societ)8 in the e)es o' some,e er)thin is constantl) at rest, immutable 8 "thin s e er !ere an& e er !ill be thus" 8 "there isnothin ne! un&er the sun*" +o others, ho!e er, it a$$ears that there is nothin unchan in in natureor in societ)8 "all earthl) thin s ha e $asse& a!a)"8 "there is no oin back to the $ast*" +his secon&

$oint o' ie! is calle& the dynamic $oint o' ie! 47reek dynamis, "'orce", "motion" 8 the 'ormer $oint o' ie! is calle& static* Which is the correct $osition= Is the !orl& an immo able an&





$ermanent thin , or is it constantl) chan in , constantl) in motion, &i''erent to&a) 'rom )ester&a)=en a hast) lance at nature !ill at once con ince us that there is nothin immutable about it*

Peo$le 'ormerl) consi&ere& the moon an& the stars to be motionless, like ol&en nails &ri en into thesk)8 like!ise, the earth !as motionless, etc* But !e no! kno! that the stars, the moon, an& the earthare &ashin throu h s$ace, co erin enormous &istances* <n& !e also kno! that the smallest

$articles o' matter, the atoms, consist o' still smaller $articles, electrons, 'l)in about an& re ol in!ithin the atom, as the hea enl) bo&ies o' the solar s)stem re ol e aroun& the sun* But the !hole!orl& consists o' such $articles, an& ho! can an)thin be consi&ere& constant in a uni erse !hosecom$onent $arts )rate !ith !hirl!in& s$ee&= It !as 'ormerl) also belie e& that $lants an& animals!ere as 7o& create& them: ass an& asa'oeti&a, be&bu an& le$ros) bacillus, $lant.louse an& ele$hant,cuttle'ish an& nettle, all !ere create& b) 7o&, in the 'irst &a)s o' creation, in their $resent 'orm* Weno! kno! that such !as not the case* +he 'orms o' animals an& $lants are not such as the ;or& o'creation &ei ne& to make them* <n& the animals an& $lants no! li in on earth are >uite &i''erent'rom those o' other &a)s8 !e still 'in& skeletons or im$ressions in the rock, or remnants in the ice, o'the hu e beasts an& $lants o' b) one a es: i antic 'l)in beasts co ere& !ith scales 4$tero&act)ls ,hu e horse.tails an& 'erns 4!hole 'orests, later $etri'ie& into anthracite coal, a remnant o' the

$rime al 'orests o' $rehistoric &a)s , eritable monsters, such as ichth)osauri, brontosauri,i uana&ons, etc* <ll these once e iste& an& are no! e tinct* But !e then ha& no 'ir.trees, birches,co!s, or shee$, in a !or&, "all is chan in un&er our (o&iac"* What is more, there !ere no humans,'or the latter &e elo$e& 'rom hair) semi.a$es not er) lon a o* We no lon er mar el at the chan esthat ha e taken $lace in the 'orms o' animals an& $lants* But it shoul& sur$rise us still less that !eoursel es ma) out&o the <lmi ht) in this 'iel&: an) oo& s!ine.her&, b) an a$$ro$riate choice o''oo& an& an a$$ro$riate matin o' male an& 'emale can continue to $ro&uce ne! races8 the @orkshireho , !hich is so 'at that it cannot !alk, is a creature o' human e''ort, as is also the $inea$$le.stra!berr), the black rose, an& man) a ariet) o' &omestic animals an& culti ate& $lants* Is not manhimsel' constantl) chan in un&er our er) e)es= /oes the %ussian !orker o' the re olutionar)e$och e en e ternall) resemble the Sla ic sa a e an& hunter o' b) one &a)s= +he race an&a$$earance o' men are sub-ect to chan e !ith e er)thin else in the !orl&*

What is the in'erence= i&entl), that there is nothin immutable an& ri i& in the uni erse* We arenot &ealin !ith ri i& thin s, but !ith a $rocess* +he table at !hich I am !ritin at this momentcannot be consi&ere& an immutable thin : it is chan in 'rom secon& to secon&* +o be sure, thesechan es ma) be im$erce$tible to the human e)e or ear* But the table, i' it shoul& continue to stan&'or man) )ears !oul& rot a!a) an& be trans'orme& into &ust an& this !oul& merel) be a re$etition o' all that has one be'ore* Nor !oul& the $articles o' the table be lost* +he) !oul& assume another'orm, !oul& be carrie& a!a) b) the !in&, !oul& become a $ortion o' the soil, ser in as anourishment 'or $lants, thus bein trans'orme&, 'or instance, into $lant tissue, etc*8 there is there'ore

a constant chan e, a constant -ourne), a constant succession o' ne! 'orms* Matter in motion: such isthe stu'' o' this !orl&* It is there'ore necessar) 'or the un&erstan&in o' an) $henomenon to stu&) itin its $rocess o' ori ination 4ho!, !hence, !h) it came to be , its e olution, its &estruction, in a!or&, its motion, an& not its seemin state o' rest* +his &)namic $oint o' ie! is also calle& thedialectic $oint o' ie! 4other traits o' &ialectics !ill be treate& belo! *

+he &i''erence bet!een the &)namic an& static $oint o' ie! is alrea&) 'oun& in the ancient 7reek $hiloso$hers* +he socalle& leatic School, hea&e& b) Parmeni&es, tau ht that e er)thin !as immo able* <ccor&in to Parmeni&es, bein iseternal, constant, unchan e&, uni>ue, uni'orm, in&i isible, homo eneous, immutable, like a roun& s$here at rest* Ueno,an leatic $hiloso$her, sou ht to $ro e, b) means o' er) in enious obser ations, that motion !as im$ossible at all*Heraclitus, on the other han&, tau ht that there !as nothin that &i& not mo e8 he maintaine& that "e er)thin 'lo!s",nothin rests 4 anta rei, auta rei 8 accor&in to Heraclitus, it !as im$ossible to &escen& t!ice into the same ri er, 'or

the secon& time the ri er !oul& alrea&) be a &i''erent ri er* His associate, ?rat)los, !as o' the o$inion that it !asim$ossible to bathe e en once in the same ri er, since the latter !as constantl) chan in * /emocritus also assume&motion to be the basis o' all thin s, s$eci'icall), a strai ht.line motion o' atoms* <mon mo&ern $hiloso$hers, He el, o'



!hom Mar !as a &isci$le, &e'en&e& motionan&"ecomin! 4ori in, trans'ormation 'rom not.bein into bein !ith $articular $ersistence* But, 'or He el, the basis o' the uni erse !as the mo ement o' min&, !hile Mar .to use the latter#so!n !or&s . turne& He el#s &ialectics u$si&e &o!n, re$lacin the mo ement o' min& b) the mo ement o' matter* In thenatural sciences, the ie! still $re aile& at the be innin o' the Nineteenth 0entur) !hich !as e $resse& b) the 'amousscientist ;innaeus : "+here are as *man) s$ecies as the Su$reme Bein has create&*" 4+heor) o' the $ersistence o's$ecies* +he most im$ortant a& ocate o' the o$$osite ie! !as ;amarck an& later, as alrea&) in&icate&, 0harles /ar!in,

!ho 'inall) re'ute& the ol& conce$tions*

+he !orl& bein in constant motion, !e must consi&er $henomena in their mutual relations, an& notas isolate& cases* <ll $ortions o' the uni erse are actuall) relate& to each other an& e ert an in'luenceon each other* +he sli htest motion, the sli htest alteration in one $lace, simultaneousl) chan ese er)thin else* +he chan e ma) be reat or small . that is another matter . at an) rate, there is achan e* or e am$le: let us sa) the ol a 'orests ha e been cut &o!n b) men* +he result is that less!ater is retaine& b) the soil, !ith a resultin $artial chan e in climate8 the ol a "runs &r),"na i ation on its !aters becomes more &i''icult, makin necessar) the use, an& there'ore the

$ro&uction, o' &re& in machiner)8 more $ersons are em$lo)e& in the manu'acture o' suchmachiner)8 on the other han&, the animals 'ormerl) li in in the 'orests &isa$$ear8 ne! animals,'ormerl) not &!ellin in these re ions, $ut in their a$$earance8 the 'ormer animals ha e either &ie&out or mi rate& to 'orest areas, etc*8 an& !e ma) o e en 'urther: !ith a chan e in climate, it is clearthat the con&ition o' the entire $lanet has been chan e&, an& there'ore an alteration in the ol aclimate to a certain e tent chan es the uni ersal climate* urther, i' the ma$ o' the !orl& is chan e&to the sli htest e tent, this in ol es also a chan e . !e must e en su$$ose . in the relations bet!eenthe earth an& the moon or sun, etc*, etc* I am no! !ritin on $a$er !ith a $en* I thus im$art

$ressures to the table8 the table $resses u$on the earth, callin 'orth a number o' 'urther chan es* Imo e m) han&, ibrate as I breathe, an& these motions $ass on in sli ht im$ulses en&in ;or& kno!s!here* +he 'act that these ma) be but small chan es, &oes not chan e the essential nature o' thematter* <ll thin s in the uni erse are connecte& !ith an in&issoluble bon& nothin e ists as anisolate& ob-ect, in&e$en&ent o' its surroun&in s* 3' course, !e are not obli e& at e er) moment to

$a) attention to the uni ersal concatenation o' $henomena: a &iscussion o' $oultr). raisin nee& notal!a)s lea& us into a &iscussion o' e er)thin else same time, the sun, the moon, 'or instance8 !hich!oul& be 'oll), 'or in this case the uni ersal bon& o' all $henomena !oul& not hel$ us* But in a&iscussion o' theoretical >uestions it is er) o'ten necessar) 'or us to bear this relation in min&8 e enin $ractice it cannot al!a)s be i nore&* We are in the habit o' sa)in that a certain man cannot "see'urther than his nose", !hich means that he consi&ers his en ironment as isolate&, as ha in norelation !ith !hat lies be)on& it* +hus, the $easant brin s his $ro&uct to the market, thinkin he !illmake a han&some $ro'it, but su&&enl) 'in&s $rices so lo! that he har&l) reco ers his outla)* +hemarket "inds him to ether !ith the other $ro&ucers, it trans$ires that so much rain has been

$ro&uce& an& thro!n on the market that onl) a lo! $rice can be obtaine&* Ho! coul& our $easant

make such a mistake= Sim$l) because he &i& not 4an& coul& not 'rom his out.o'.the.!a) homeobser e his o!n relations !ith the !orl& market* +he bour eoisie, instea& o' becomin richer a'terthe !ar, 'oun& itsel' 'acin a re olution o' the !orkers, 'or the reason that this !ar !as connecte&!ith a number o' other thin s !hich the bour eoisie &i& not un&erstan&* +he Menshe iks an& theSocial.%e olutionaries, the Social $atriots in all countries, &eclare& that the Bolshe ik $o!er in%ussia coul& not maintain itsel' 'or lon 8 the root o' their error !as in the 'act that the) re ar&e&%ussia as an isolate& case, ha in no relation !ith all o' Western uro$e or !ith the ro!th o' the!orl& re olution, !hich len&s assistance to the Bolshe iks* When, in sim$le $arlance, !e ri htl) sa)that "all the circumstances must be taken into consi&eration , !hat !e reall) mean is that a i en

$henomenon or a i en >uestion must be consi&ere& !ith re ar& to its connections !ith other $henomena, in&issoluble union !ith "all the circumstances"*



In the first lace, therefore, the dialectic method of inter retation demands that all henomena "econsidered in their indissolu"le relations in the second lace, that they "e considered in their stateof motion.

d. The Historical +nter retation of the Social Sciences

Since e er)thin in the !orl& is in a state o' chan e, an& in&issolubl) connecte& !ith e er)thinelse, !e must &ra! the necessar) conclusions 'or the social sciences*

;et us consi&er human societ), !hich has b) no means been al!a)s the same* < number o' er)&i''erent 'orms o' human societ) are kno!n to us* or instance, in %ussia, the !orkin class has hel&

$o!er since No ember, 191 , su$$orte& b) a $ortion o' the $easantr), !hile the bour eoisie is beinke$t !ithin boun&s, althou h a $art o' it 4about 2,CCC,CCC has emi rate&* +he !orkers# statecontrols the 'actories, machine sho$s, railroa&s* Be'ore 191 , the bour eoisie an& the lan&o!ners!ere in $o!er, controllin e er)thin , an& the !orkers an& $easants labore& 'or them* <t a stillearlier $erio&, be'ore the so calle& ;iberation o' the Peasants, in 1D 1, the bour eoisie !as 'or the

reater $art a tra&in class8 there !ere 'e! 'actories8 the lan&hol&ers rule& the $easants like cattle,an& ha& the ri ht to !hi$ them, sell them, or e chan e them* I' !e trace the course o' b) onecenturies, !e shall 'in& semi.sa a e noma&ic tribes* So sli ht is the similarit) bet!een these arious'orms o' societ) that i' !e shoul& be able b) a miracle to resuscitate a robust 'eu&al lan&o!ner,

i en to !hi$$in s an& re)houn&s, an& to brin him . let us sa) . into a meetin o' a 'actor) or!orks committee, or So iet, the $oor 'ello! !oul& $robabl) &ie o' heart.'ailure at once*

We are also ac>uainte& !ith other 'orms o' societ)* In ancient 7reece, 'or e am$le, !hen Plato an&Heraclitus !ere constructin their $hiloso$hies, e er)thin !as built u$ on the labor o' sla es, !ho!ere the $ro$ert) o' the reat sla ehol&ers* In the ancient <merican state o' the Incas, there !as a

re ulate& an& or ani(e& societ) &ominate& b) a class o' $riestl) nobles, a sort o' intelli entsia,!hich controlle& an& mana e& e er)thin , an& ui&e& the national econom), a rulin class su$eriorto all other classes* We mi ht i e man) other e am$les as e i&ence o' the constant 'lu in the socialstructure* Nor &oes this necessaril) mean that the human race has constantl) im$ro e&, i.e.,

ra&uall) a$$roache& $er'ection* We ha e alrea&) $ointe& out that there ha e been man) cases o' the&estruction o' er) hi hl) &e elo$e& human societies* +hus, 'or e am$le, the lan& o' the 7reeksa es an& sla ehol&ers $asse& a!a)* But 7reece an& %ome at least ha& an enormous in'luence on thelater course o' histor)8 the) ser e& as a 'ertili(er 'or histor)* But it has sometimes ha$$ene& thatentire ci ili(ations ha e &isa$$eare& !ithout a trace in other $eo$les an& other times* or e am$le,Pro'essor &uar& Me)er !rites concernin the e i&ences o' an ancient ci ili(ation &isco ere& in

rance b) means o' e ca ations: "We are here &ealin !ith a hi hl) &e elo$e& ci ili(ation o'

$rimiti e men V** !hich !as subse>uentl) &estro)e& b) a tremen&ous catastro$he an& ha& noinfluence!hate er on 'uture a es* +here is no historical relation bet!een this Palaeolithic culturean& the be innin s o' the neolithic e$och: 2 But while we may not always o"ser5e !rowth, there isalways motion and alteration, thou!h it may end in destruction or dissolution.

Such motion is obser e& not onl) in the 'act that the social s)stem is in $rocess o' chan e8 'or socialli'e as such is constantl) chan in decisi5ely in all its ex ressions.+he technolo ) o' societ) ischan in : !e nee& onl) to com$are the stone hatchets an& s$ear.hea&s o' ancient times !ith thesteam.hammer8 manners an& customs chan e: 'or instance, !e kno! that certain races o' man take

$leasure in eatin the ca$ti es the) ha e taken, !hich e en a rench im$erialist o' the $resent &a)!oul& not &o himsel' 4but he !ill ha e his black troo$s, in the $rocess o' ser in ci ili(ation, cut theears o'' &ea& bo&ies 8 certain tribes ha& the habit o' killin their ol& men or )oun irls, an& this

$ractice !as consi&ere& hi hl) moral an& hol)* +he $olitical s)stem is chan in : !e ha e seen !ith





our o!n e)es ho! the autocrac) )iel&e& to a &emocratic re$ublic, then to a So iet re$ublic8scienti'ic ie!s, reli ion, e er).&a) li'e an& all the relations bet!een these, chan e8 e en the thin s!e consi&er essential, 'un&amental, !ere b) no means al!a)s as the) are, !e ha e not al!a)s ha&ne!s$a$ers, soa$, clothin 8 !e ha e not e en al!a)s ha& a state, 'aith in 7o&, ca$ital, 'irearms*

en the conce$tion o' !hat is beauti'ul an& not beauti'ul is sub-ect to chan e* +he 'orms o' 'amil)

li'e are not immutable: !e are a!are o' the e istence o' $ol) am), $ol)an&r), mono am), an&"$romiscuous cohabitation"* In other !or&s, social li'e su''ers constant chan e to ether !ithe er)thin else in nature*

Human societ) there'ore $asses throu h &i''erent sta es, &i''erent 'orms, in its e olution or &ecline*

It 'ollo!s, in the 'irst $lace, that we must consider and in5esti!ate each form of society in its own eculiar terms.We cannot thro! into a sin le $ot all e$ochs, $erio&s, social 'orms* We cannotconsi&er un&er a sin le hea&, an& reco ni(e no &i''erences bet!een, the 'eu&al, the sla ehol&in , an&the $roletarian !orkers# s)stems o' societ)* We cannot a''or& to o erlook the &i''erences bet!een the7reek sla ehol&er, the %ussian 'eu&al lan&o!ner, the ca$italist manu'acturer* +he sla ehol&ins)stem is one thin 8 it has its s$ecial traits, its earmarks, its s$ecial ro!th* eu&alism is anothert)$e8 ca$italism, a thir&, etc* <n& communism . the communism o' the 'uture . also has its s$ecialstructure* +he transition $erio& $rece&in it . the $erio& o' $roletarian &ictatorshi$, is also a s$ecials)stem* ach such s)stem has $eculiar traits that re>uire s$ecial stu&)* B) this means onl), can !e

ras$ the $rocess o' chan e* or, since each 'orm has its s$ecial traits, it also must ha e its s$ecialla!s o' ro!th, its s$ecial la!s o' motion* or instance, Mar sa)s, in Ca ital,concernin theca$italist s)stem, that the main ob-ect o' his stu&) is to &isco er "the la!s o' motion o' ca$italistsociet)"* or this $ur$ose, Mar ha& to e $lain all the $eculiarities o' ca$italism, all its characteristictraits8 onl) thus coul& he &isco er its "la! o' motion" an& redictthe ine itable absor$tion o' $ett)

$ro&uction b) lar escale $ro&uction, the ro!th o' the $roletariat, its collision !ith the bour eoisie,the re olution o' the !orkin class, an&, to ether !ith this, the transition to the &ictatorshi$ o' the

$roletariat* Most bour eois historians &o not $rocee& thus* +he) are incline& to con'use themerchants o' ancient times !ith the $resent.&a) ca$italists, the $arasite lum en roletariato' 7reecean& %ome !ith the $roletariat o' the $resent &a)* +his con'usion is use'ul to the bour eoisie in itse''ort to &emonstrate the en&urin $o!er o' ca$italism an& the 'utilit) o' the sla e u$risin s in%ome, 'rom !hich it au urs the 'utilit) o' $resent.&a) $roletarian u$risin s* <n& )et, the %oman"$roletarians" ha& nothin in common !ith the $resent.&a) !orkers, an& the %oman merchants ha&

er) little similarit) !ith the ca$italists o' our time* +he !hole structure o' li'e !as &i''erent* It isthere'ore eas) to see that the course o' chan e must then ha e been &i''erent* Mar sa)s : " er)historical $erio& has la!s o' its o!n * * * * <s soon as societ) has outli e& a i en $erio& o'&e elo$ment, an& is $assin o er 'rom one i en sta e to another, it be ins to be sub-ect also to

other la!s*"F

or sociolo ), !hich is social science in its most eneral 'orm, &ealin not !ith thein&i i&ual 'orms o' societ), but !ith societ) in eneral, this la! is er) im$ortant as a ui&e 'or thes$eci'ic social sciences, 'or all o' !hich sociolo ), as !e ha e seen, constitutes a metho&*

In the second lace, each form must "e studied in its internal rocess of chan!e.We are not &ealin ,'irst, !ith a sin le 'orm o' social structure, $er'ect an& immutable, an& succee&e& b) another e>ualimmutable 'orm* In societ), it is untrue . 'or instance . that ca$italism continues throu hout its entire

$erio& in unchan e& 'orm, to be succee&e& b) an e>ual unchan in socialism* <s a matter o' 'act,each s$eci'ic 'orm is constantl) un&er oin chan e throu hout the $erio& o' its e istence* It has

$asse& throu h a number o' sta es in its &e elo$ment: tra&in ca$italism, in&ustrial, 'inancialca$italism !ith its im$erialist $olic), state ca$italism &urin the !orl& !ar* Nor &i& the nature o' the

case remain uni'orm !ithin each o' these sta es8 it !oul& then ha e been im$ossible 'or one sta e to)iel& $lace to another* In&ee&, each $rece&in sta e !as a $re$aration 'or the 'ollo!in sta e8 &urin





the $erio& o' in&ustrial ca$italism, 'or e am$le, the $rocess o' concentration o' ca$ital !as oin on*3n this 'oun&ation 'inancial ca$ital !ith its trusts an& banks !as built u$*

In the third lace, each form of society must "e considered in its !rowth and in its necessarydisa earance,i*e*,in its relation with other forms. No 'orm o' societ) &escen&s 'rom hea en8 each

is a necessar) conse>uence o' the $rece&in social state8 o'ten it is &i''icult to &iscern the boun&aries bet!een them, the termination o' one, the be innin o' the other8 one $erio& o erla$s the other*Historical e$ochs are not ri i& an& immo able units, like $h)sical ob-ects8 the) are $rocesses,current 'orms o' li'e, sub-ect to constant chan e* In or&er to trace $ro$erl) an) such 'orm o' societ)!e must o back to its roots in the $ast, 'ollo! the causes o' its ro!th, all the con&itions o' its'ormation, the moti e 'orces o' its &e elo$ment* <n& it is also necessar) to stu&) the causes o' itsine itable &estruction, the ten&encies !hich necessaril) in ol e the &isa$$earance o' this 'orm an&

$re$are the intro&uction o' the ne t 'orm* ach sta e is thus a link in the chain8 it is connecte& !ith alink behin& it an& a link ahea& o' it* en thou h bour eois scholars ma) a&mit this 'act as 'ar as the

$ast is concerne&, it is im$ossible 'or them to rant it !ith re ar& to the $resent: ca$italism !ill not $erish* +he) are !illin to o so 'ar as to trace the roots o' ca$italism, but the) are a'rai& to think o'the con&itions that lea& ca$italism to its &estruction* "+his blin&ness constitutes all the !is&om o'

$resent.&a) economists, !ho teach the $ermanence an& harmon) o' the e istin social relations*" K 0a$italism e ol e& 'rom me&ie al 'eu&al con&itions o!in to the ro!th o' the commo&itiess)stem* 0a$italism is $assin into communism throu h the &ictatorshi$ o' the $roletariat* 3nl) b)tracin the connections o' ca$italism !ith the $rece&in s)stem, an& its necessar) trans'ormationinto communism, can !e un&erstan& this 'orm o' societ)* er) other 'orm o' societ) must bestu&ie& 'rom the same $oint o' ie!8 this is one o' the &eman&s o' the &ialectic metho&, !hich ma)also be calle& "the historical $oint o' ie!", since it re ar&s each 'orm o' societ) not as ermanent,

but as an historical sta!e, a$$earin at a certain moment in histor), an& similarl) &isa$$earin *

+his historicism o' Mar has nothin in common !ith the so calle& "historical school" in -uris$ru&ence an& $oliticaleconom)* +his reactionar) school 'in&s its $rinci$al task in $ro in the slo!ness o' all chan es, an& in &e'en&in an) bito' anti>uate& ossi$ that is "hallo!e& b) a e"* Heinrich Heine alrea&) sai& concernin this school:

Be!are o' that kin in +hule, a oi&+he North an& its lurkin &an ers8Police, en&armes, !hole historic school@ou an& the) are better stran ers*

4Heinrich Heine, GermanyJ A :interKs 4ale,0a$ut i, in 0ollecte& Works, translate& b) Mar aret <rmour, ;on&on19C5, ol* i, $*D9 *

+o uar& the "sacre& tra&itions" is an im$erati e necessit) 'or the bour eoisie* It is 'or this reason, $articularl), that

$henomena that o!e their ori in to a s$eci'ic historical sta e are consi&ere& to be eternal, to ha e been han&e& &o!n b)7o&, an& there'ore insurmountable* We shall take three e am$les*

I* 4he State.We no! kno! that the state is a class or ani(ation, that there cannot be a state !ithout classes, that aclassless state is a roun& s>uare, that the state coul& not arise until a certain sta e in human e olution ha& been reache&*But listen to the bour eois historians, e en the best o' themA &uar& Me)er sa)s: "Ho! 'ar the 'ormation o' or anic

rou$s can $rocee& in the case o' animals, I o'ten ha& occasion to obser e, thirt) )ears a o, in 0onstantino$le, in thecase o' the street &o s8 the) !ere or ani(e& in shar$l) &istinct >uarters, into !hich the) !oul& a&mit no outsi&e &o s,an& e er) e enin all the &o s o' each >uarter ather in an em$t) lot 'or a meetin o' about hal' an hour, in !hich the)

bark lou&l)* We ma) there'ore actuall) s$eak o' &o states o' &e'inite outline in s$ace*" 4 &uar& Me)er:Geschichte des Altertums, ol* i, 'irst hal', F& e&*, $* , It !ill there'ore not sur$rise us to 'in& Me)er acce$tin the state as a necessar) $ro$ert) o' human societ)* I' e en &o s ha e states 4an& there'ore, o' course, la!s, -ustice, etc* , ho! coul& men etalon !ithout one=






II* Ca ital.3n this sub-ect the bour eois economists sho! the same i&ios)ncrasies* It is !ell kno!n that ca$ital has notal!a)s e iste&, nor ca$italism either* 0a$italists an& !orkers are a $henomenon o' historical ro!th, b) no meanseternal* But the bour eois scholars al!a)s &e'ine& ca$ital as i' it . an& also the ca$italist re ime . ha& e iste& 'rom alltime* +hus, +orrens !rote: "In the 'irst stone !hich he 4the sa a e 'lin s at the !il& animal he $ursues, in the stick thathe sei(es to strike &o!n the 'ruit !hich han s be)on& his reach, !e see the a$$ro$riation o' one article 'or the $ur$ose o' ai&in in the ac>uisition o' another, an& thus &isco er the ori in o' ca$ital*" 4Mar Ca ital , ol* i, 0hica o, 1915, $*2C5,

'ootnote* +he monke) beatin nuts out o' a tree is there'ore a ca$italist 4but !ithout !orkers A * Mo&ern economists arenot much better8 in or&er to $ro e the eternit) o' the state $o!er, these $oor !retches are obli e& to en&o! their &o s!ith the ca$acities o' ;lo)& 7eor e an& their monke)s !ith those o' the %othschil&sA

III* Im erialism.Bour eois scholars !ho take u$ this >uestion o'ten &e'ine im$erialism as the e''ort at e $ansion in an)'orm o' li'e* 3' course, im$erialism is the $olic) o' 'inancial ca$ital, an& 'inancial ca$ital itsel' &i& not arise as a&ominatin economic 'orm until the en& o' the Nineteenth 0entur)* ;ittle the bour eois scholars care about thatA In or&er to sho! that "thin s ha e e er been thus", the) ele ate the chicken !hich $icks u$ kernels into an im$erialist, since it"anne es" these kernelsA +he &o state, the ca$italist a$e an& the im$erialist chicken are an e cellent in&ication o' thele el o' mo&ern bour eois science*

e. The #se of Contradictions in the Historical Process

+he basis o' all thin s is there'ore the la! o' chan e, the la! o' constant motion* +!o $hiloso$hers $articularl) 4the ancient Heraclitus an& the mo&ern He el, as !e ha e alrea&) seen 'ormulate& thisla! o' chan e, but the) &i& not sto$ there* +he) also set u$ the >uestion o' the manner in !hich the

$rocess o$erates* +he ans!er the) &isco ere& !as that chan es are $ro&uce& b) constant internalcontra&ictions, internal stru le* +hus, Heraclitus &eclare&: "0on'lict is the mother o' allha$$enin s," !hile He el sai&: "0ontra&iction is the $o!er that mo es thin s*"

+here is no &oubt o' the correctness o' this la!* < moment#s thou ht !ill con ince the rea&er* or, i'there !ere no con'lict, no clash o' 'orces, the !orl& !oul& be in a con&ition o' unchan in , stablee>uilibrium, i.e., com$lete an& absolute $ermanence, a state o' rest $reclu&in all motion* Such astate o' rest !oul& be concei able onl) in a s)stem !hose com$onent $arts an& 'orces !oul& be sorelate& as not to $ermit o' the intro&uction o' an) con'licts, as to $reclu&e all mutual interaction, all&isturbances* <s !e alrea&) kno! that all thin s chan e, all thin s are "in 'lu ", it is certain thatsuch an absolute state o' rest cannot $ossibl) e ist* We must there'ore re-ect a con&ition in !hichthere is no "contra&iction bet!een o$$osin an& colli&in 'orces", no &isturbance o' e>uilibrium, butonl) an absolute immutabilit)* ;et us take u$ this matter some!hat more in &etail*

In biolo ), !hen !e s$eak o' a&a$tation, !e mean that $rocess b) !hich one thin assumes arelation to!ar& another thin that enables the t!o to e ist simultaneousl)* <n animal that is"a&a$te&" to its en ironment is an animal that has achie e& the means o' li in in that en ironment*It is suite& to its surroun&in s, its >ualities are such as to enable it to continue to li e* +he mole is"a&a$te&" to con&itions $re ailin un&er the earth#s sur'ace8 the 'ish, to con&itions in the !ater8either animal trans'erre& to the other#s en ironment !ill $erish at once*

< similar $henomenon ma) be obser e& also in so calle& "inanimate" nature: the earth &oes not 'allinto the sun, but re ol es aroun& it "!ithout misha$"* +he relation bet!een the solar s)stem: an& theuni erse !hich surroun&s it, enablin both to e ist si&e b) si&e, is a similar relation* In the latter case!e commonl) s$eak, not o' the a&a$tation, but o' the e>uilibrium bet!een bo&ies, or s)stems o'such bo&ies, etc* We ma) obser e the same state o' thin s in societ)* Whether !e like it or not,societ) li es !ithin nature: is there'ore in one !a) or another in e>uilibrium !ith nature* <n& the

arious $arts o' societ), i' the latter is ca$able o' sur i in , are so a&a$te& to each other as to enable

them to e ist si&e b) si&e: ca$italism, !hich inclu&e& both ca$italists an& !orkers, ha& a er) lone istenceA



In all these e am$les it is clear that !e are &ealin !ith one $henomenon, that o' equili"rium.+his bein the case, !here &o the contra&ictions come in= or there is no &oubt that con'lict is adistur"ance o' e>uilibrium* It must be recalle& that such e>uilibrium as !e obser e in nature an& insociet) is not an absolute, unchan in e>uilibrium, but an e>uilibrium in 'lu , !hich means that thee>uilibrium ma) be establishe& an& &estro)e&, ma) be reestablishe& on a ne! basis, an& a ain

&isturbe&*

+he $recise conce$tion o' e>uilibrium is about as 'ollo!s: "We sa) o' a s)stem that it is in a state o' e>uilibrium !henthe s)stem cannot o' itsel', i.e., !ithout su$$l)in ener ) to it 'rom !ithout, emer e 'rom this state*" I' . let us sa) .'orces are at !ork on a bo&), neutrali(in each other, that bo&) is in a state o' e>uilibrium8 an increase or &ecrease in oneo' these 'orces !ill &isturb the e>uilibrium*

I' the &isturbance o' e>uilibrium is o' short &uration an& the bo&) returns to its 'ormer $osition, the e>uilibrium is terme& sta"le i' this &oes not ensue, the e>uilibrium is unsta"le. In the natural sciences !e ha e mechanical e>uilibrium,chemical e>uilibrium, biolo ical e>uilibrium* 40'* H* on Halban:Chemisches Gleich!ewicht,in Mandw rter"uch der 2aturwissenschaften, ol* ii, Eena, 1912, $$*K C.519, 'rom !hich !e take the abo e >uotation*

In other !or&s, the !orl& consists o' 'orces, actin in man) !a)s, o$$osin each other* +hese 'orcesare balance& 'or a moment in e ce$tional cases onl)* We then ha e a state o' "rest", i.e., their actual"con'lict" is conceale&* But i' !e chan e onl) one o' these 'orces, imme&iatel) the "internalcontra&ictions" !ill be re eale&, e>uilibrium !ill be &isturbe&, an& i' a ne! e>uilibrium is a ainestablishe&, it !ill be on a ne! basis, i.e., !ith a ne! combination o' 'orces, etc* It 'ollo!s that the"con'lict", the "contra&iction", i*e*, the anta onism o' 'orces actin in arious &irections, &eterminesthe motion o' the s)stem*

3n the other han&, !e ha e here also the 'orm o' this $rocess: in the 'irst $lace, the con&ition o'e>uilibrium8 in the secon& $lace, a &isturbance o' this, e>uilibrium8 in the thir& $lace, thereestablishment o' e>uilibrium on a new basis* <n& then the stor) be ins all o er a ain: the ne!e>uilibrium is the $oint o' &e$arture 'or a ne! &isturbance, !hich in turn is 'ollo!e& b) another stateo' e>uilibrium, etc*, ad infinitum.+aken all to ether, !e are &ealin !ith a $rocess o' motion base&on the &e elo$ment o' internal contra&ictions*

He el obser e& this characteristic o' motion an& e $resse& it in the 'ollo!in manner: he calle& theori inal con&ition o' e>uilibrium the thesis, the &isturbance o' e>uilibrium the antithesis, thereestablishment o' e>uilibrium on a ne! basis the s)nthesis 4the uni')in $ro$osition reconcilin thecontra&ictions * +he characteristic o' motion $resent in all thin s, e $ressin itsel' in this tri$artite'ormula 4or tria& he calle&dialectic*

+he !or& "&ialectics" amon the ancient 7reeks meant the art o' elo>uence, o' &is$utation* +he course o' a &iscussion isas 'ollo!s: one man sa)s one thin , another the o$$osite 4"ne ates" !hat the 'irst man sai& 8 'inall), "truth is born 'romthe stru le", an& inclu&es a $art o' the 'irst man#s statement an& a $art o' the secon& man#s 4s)nthesis * Similarl), in the

$rocess o' thou ht* Since He el, bein an i&ealist, re ar&s e er)thin as a sel'.e olution o' the s$irit, he o' course &i&not ha e an) &isturbances o' e>uilibrium in min&, an& the $ro$erties o' thou ht as a s$iritual an& ori inal thin !erethere'ore, in his min&, $ro$erties also o' bein * Mar !rote in this connection: "M) &ialectic metho& is not onl) &i''erent'rom the He elian, but is its &irect o$$osite* +o He el, the li'e.$rocess o' the human brain, i*e*, the $rocess o' thinkin ,!hich, un&er the name o' the I&ea#, he e en trans'orms into an in&e$en&ent sub-ect, is the &emiur os o' the real !orl&,an& the real !orl& is onl) the e ternal $henomenal 'orm o' the I&ea#* With me, on the contrar), the i&eal is nothin elsethan the material !orl& re'lecte& b) the human min&, an& translate& into 'orms o' thou ht * * * * With him 4He el it4&ialectics is stan&in on its hea&* It must be turne& ri ht si&e u$ a ain, i' )ou !oul& &isco er the rational kernel !ithinthe m)stical shell" 4 Ca ital,0hica o, 1915, ol* i, $*25 * or Mar , &ialectics means e olution b) means o'contra&ictions, $articularl), a la! o' "bein ", a la! o' the mo ement o' matter, a la! o' motion in nature an& societ)* It'in&s its e $ression in the $rocess o' thou ht* It is necessar) to use the &ialectic metho&, the &ialectic mo&e o' thou ht,

because the &ialectics o' nature ma) thus be ras$e&*







the $oint o' ie! o' the contra&ictions $resent !ithin it* Mistorical 0!rowth0 is the de5elo ment ofcontradictions.

We must a ain $oint out a 'act !ith !hich !e shall ha e to &eal more than once in this book* Weha e sai& that these contra&ictions are o' t!o kin&s: bet!een the en ironment an& this s)stem, an&

bet!een the elements o' the s)stem an& the s)stem itsel'* Is there an) relation bet!een these t!o $henomena= < moment#s thou ht !ill sho! us that such a relation e ists*

It is >uite clear that the internal structure o' the s)stem 4its internal e>uilibrium must chan eto ether !ith the relation e istin bet!een the s)stem an& its en ironment* +he latter relation is the&ecisi e 'actor8 'or the entire situation o' the s)stem, the 'un&amental 'orms o' its motion 4&ecline,

$ros$erit), or sta nation are &etermine& b) this relation onl)*

;et us consi&er the >uestion in the 'ollo!in 'orm: !e ha e seen abo e that the character o' thee>uilibrium bet!een societ) an& nature &etermines the 'un&amental course o' the motion o' societ)*6n&er these circumstances, coul& the internal structure continue 'or lon to &e elo$ in the o$$osite&irection= 3' course not* In the case o' a ro!in societ), it !oul& not be $ossible 'or the internalstructure o' societ) to continue constantlyto ro! !orse* I', in a condition of !rowth,the structureo' societ) shoul& become $oorer, i.e., its internal &isor&ers ro! !orse, this !oul& be e>ui alent tothe a$$earance o' a ne! contra&iction: a contra&iction bet!een the e ternal an& the internale>uilibrium, !hich !oul& re>uire the societ), i' it is to continue ro!in , to un&ertake areconstruction, i.e., its internal structure must a&a$t itsel' to the character o' the e ternal e>uilibrium*0onse>uentl), the internal 6structural) equili"rium is a quantity which de ends on the externalequili"rium4is a 0function0 of this external equili"rium*

f. The Theory of Cataclysmic Changes anal the Theory of 0e2olutionary

Transformations in the Social SciencesWe ha e no! to consi&er the 'inal $hase o' the &ialectic metho&, namel), the theor) o' su&&enchan es* No &oubt it is a !i&es$rea& notion that "nature makes no su&&en -um$s"6natura non facit saltus * +his !ise sa)in is o'ten a$$lie& in or&er to &emonstrate "irre'utabl)" the im$ossibilit) o're olution, althou h re olutions ha e a habit o' occurrin in s$ite o' the mo&eration o' our 'rien&sthe $ro'essors* No!, is nature reall) so mo&erate an& consi&erate as the) $reten&=

In his Science of ?o!ic 4:issenschaft der ?o!ik 5 , He el sa)s: "It is sai& that there are no su&&enchan es in nature, an& the common ie! has it 6meint)that !hen !e s$eak o' a ro!th or a&estruction6Entstehen oder Ner!ehen),!e al!a)s ima ine a !radual ro!th 6Mer5or!ehen)or&isa$$earance 6Nerschwinden).@et !e ha e seen cases in !hich the alteration o' e istence 6desSeins)in ol es not onl) a transition 'rom one $ro$ortion to other, but also a transition, b) a su&&enlea$, into a quantitati5ely, an&, on the other han&, alsoqualitati5ely&i''erent thin 4 Anderswerden* 8an interru$tion o' the ra&ual $rocess 6ein A""rechen des AllmBhlichen),&i''erin >ualitati el) 'romthe $rece&in , the 'ormer, state" 4the italics are mine* . N* B* *

He el s$eaks o' a transition o' >uantit) into >ualit)8 there is er) sim$le illustration o' such atransition* I' !e shoul& heat ! ater, !e shoul& 'in& that throu hout the $rocess o' heatin , be'ore atem$erature o' 1CC 0* is reache&, the !ater !ill not boil an& turn into steam* Portions o' the !ater!ill mo e 'aster an& 'aster, but the) !ill not bubble on the sur'ace in the 'orm o' steam* +he chan ethus 'ar is merel) quantitati5e8 the !ater mo es 'aster, the tem$erature rises, but the !ater remains!ater, ha in all the $ro$erties o' !ater* Its >uantit) is chan in ha in its >ualit) remains the same*But !hen !e ha e heate& it to 1CC 0, !e ha e brou ht it to the "boilin .$oint"* <t once it be ins to





boil, at once the $articles that ha e been ma&l) in motion burst a$art an& lea$ 'rom the sur'ace in the'orm o' little e $losions o' steam.+he !ater has cease& to be !ater8 it becomes steam,a as* +he'ormer >ualit) is lost8 !e no! ha e a ne! >ualit), !ith ne! $ro$erties* We ha e thus learne& t!oim$ortant $eculiarities in the $rocess o' chan e*

In the 'irst $lace, ha in reache& a certain sta e in motion, the >uantitati e chan es call 'orth>ualitati e chan es 4or, in more abbre iate& 'orm, ">uantit) becomes >ualit)" 8 in the secon& $lace,this transition 'rom >uantit) to >ualit) is accom$lishe& in a su&&en lea$, !hich constitutes aninterru$tion in the ra&ual continuous $rocess* +he !ater !as not constantl) chan in , !ith ra&ual&eliberateness, into a little steam at a time, !ith the >uantit) o' steam constantlyincreasin * or alon time it &i& not boil at all* But ha in reache& the "boilin .$oint", it be an to boil* We mustconsi&er this a suddenchan e*

+he trans'ormation o' >uantit) into >ualit) is one o' the 'un&amental la!s in the motion o' matter 8 itma) be trace& literall) at e er) ste$ both in nature an& societ)* Han a !ei ht at the en& o' a strin ,an& ra&uall) a&& sli ht a&&itional !ei hts, each bein as small as )ou like8 u$ to a certain limit, thestrin !ill hol&"* But once this limit has been e cee&e&, it !ill su&&enl) break* orce steam into a

boiler8 all !ill o !ell 'or a !hile8 onl) the $ressure in&icator !ill sho! increases in the $ressure o'the steam a ainst the !alls o' the boiler* But !hen the &ial has e cee&e& a certain limit, the boiler!ill e $lo&e* +he $ressure o' the steam e cee&e& $erha$s b) a er) little the $o!er o' resistanceo''ere& b) the !alls o' the boiler* Be'ore this moment, the >uantitati e chan es ha& not le& to a"catacl)sm", to a qualitati5echan e, but at that "$oint" the boiler e $lo&e&*

Se eral men are unable to li't a stone* <nother -oins them8 the) are still unable to &o it* < !eak ol&!oman -oins them . an& their unite& stren th raises the stone* Here, but a sli ht a&&itional 'orce !asnee&e&, an& as soon as this 'orce !as a&&e& the -ob !as &one* ;et us take another e am$le* ;eo+olstoi !rote a stor) calle& "+hree %olls an& a 0ookie"* +he $oint o' the stor) is the 'ollo!in : aman, to a$$ease his hun er, ate one roll a'ter another, 'or each still le't him hun r)8 in 'act, a'ter histhir& roll, he !as still hun r)8 then he ate a little cookie, an& his hun er !as a$$ease&* He thencurse& his 'oll) 'or not ha in eaten the cookie 'irst: 'or then he !oul& not ha e ha& to eat the rolls*3' course, !e are a!are o' his mistake8 !e are &ealin here !ith a qualitati5echan e, the transition'rom the 'eelin o' hun er to that o' satiation, !hich transition !as accom$lishe& in one boun& 4a'ter eatin the cookie * But this >ualitati e &i''erenceensued after the quantitati5e differencesJthecookie !oul& ha e been o' no use !ithout the rolls*

We thus 'in& that it is 'oolish to &en) the e istence chan es, an& to a&mit onl) a &eliberate ra&ual $rocess* Su&&en lea$s are o'ten 'oun& in nature, an& the notion that nature $ermits o' no such iolent

alterations is merel) a re'lection o' the 'ear o' such shi'ts in societ), i.e., o' the 'ear o' re olution*It is a characteristic 'act that the earlier theories o' the bour eoisie, touchin the >uestion o' the creation o' the uni erse,!ere catastro$hic theories, thou h nai e an& !ron ones* Such, 'or instance, !as 0u ier#s theor)* +his !as &is$lace& b)the e olution theor), !hich intro&uce& man) ne! elements, but one.si&e&l) &enie& catacl)smic chan es* 3' such natureare the !orks o' ;)ell 4 Princi les of Geolo!y , in the 'iel& o' eolo )* But at the en& o' the last centur) there a ain arosea theor) !hich reco ni(e& the im$ortance o' su&&en chan es* or instance, the botanist /e ries 4the so calle& mutation theor) maintaine& that 'rom time to time, on the basis o' $re ious chan es, su&&en alterations o' 'orm ensue, !hichlater 'orti') themsel es an& become the startin $aints o' ne! courses o' e olution* +he ol&er ie!s, !hich !ere hostileto "su&&en chan es", are no! no lon er su''icient* Such notions 4;eibnit(, 'or instance, sa)s: " er)thin in nature oesste$ b) ste$, ne er b) lea$s an& boun&s" . tout 5a ar de!r7s dans la nature et rien ar saut e i&entl) arose on aconser ati e social soil*

+he &enial o' the contra&ictor) character o' e olution b) bour eois scholars is base& on their 'ear o'the class stru le an& on their concealment o' social contra&ictions* +heir 'ear o' su&&en chan es is



base& on their 'ear o' re olution8 all their !is&om is containe& in the 'ollo!in reasonin : there areno iolent chan es in nature, there cannot be an) such iolent chan es an)!here8 there'ore, )ou

$roletarians, &o not &are make a re olutionA @et here it becomes e ce$tionall) e i&ent that bour eoisscience is in contra&iction !ith the most 'un&amental re>uirements o' all science* er)bo&) kno!sthat there ha e been man) re olutions in human societ)* Will an)one &en) that there !as an n lish

%e olution, or a rench %e olution, or a %e olution o' 1DKD, or the %e olution o' 191 = I' theseiolent chan es ha e taken $lace in societ), an& are still takin $lace, science shoul& not "&en)"

them, re'usin to reco ni(e 'acts, but shoul& understand these su&&en shi'ts, an&ex lainthem*

%e olutions in societ) are o' the same character as the iolent chan es in nature* +he) &o notsu&&enl) "'all 'rom the sk)"* +he) are $re$are& b) the entire $rece&in course o' &e elo$ment, asthe boilin o' !ater is $re$are& b) the $rece&in $rocess o' heatin or as the e $losion o' a steam.

boiler is $re$are& b) the increasin $ressure o' the steam a ainst its !alls* < re olution in societ)means its reconstruction, "a structural alteration o' the s)stem"* Such a re olution is an ine itableconse>uence o' the contra&ictions bet!een the structure o' societ) an& the &eman&s 'or its&e elo$ment* We shall &iscuss the nature o' this $rocess belo!* or the $resent !e nee& onl) tokno! the 'ollo!in : in societ), as in nature, iolent chan es &o take $lace8 in societ), as in nature,these su&&en chan es are $re$are& b) the $rece&in course o' thin s8 in other !or&s, in societ) as innature, e olution 4 ra&ual &e elo$ment lea&s to re olution 4su&&en chan e : "+he iolent chan es

$resu$$ose a $rece&in e olution, an& the ra&ual chan es lea& to iolent chan es* +hese are t!onecessar) 'actors in a sin le $rocess*"

+he contra&ictor) nature o' e olution, the >uestion o' catacl)smic chan es, is one o' the most essential theoretical>uestions* +hou h a reat number o' bour eois schools an& ten&encies o$$ose teleolo ) an& 'a or &eterminism, etc*,the) ne ertheless stumble on these >uestions* +he Mar ian theor) is not a theor) o' e olution but o' re olution* or this

er) reason it is inacce$table to the i&eolo ists o' the bour eoisie, an& the) are there'ore rea&) to "acce$t" the !holetheor) e ce$t its re olutionar) &ialectics* 3b-ections to Mar ism usuall) assume the same 'orm* +hus, Werner Sombart,a 7erman $ro'essor, treats Mar !ith reat res$ect !here e olution is in ol e&, but at once attacks him as soon as hescents theoreticall) the re olutionar) elements o' Mar ism* ntire theories are e en built u$, sho!in that Mar !as ascholar in his e olutionar) $oint o' ie!, but cease& to be a scholar !hen he became . e en theoreticall) . are olutionist8 he then lea es the s$here o' science an& i es himsel' u$ to re olutionar) $assions* P* Stru e, once aMar ian, author o' the 'irst mani'esto o' the %ussian Social./emocrac), a man later metamor$hosi(e& into a $rota onisto' $o roms an& a $rime counter.re olutionar) i&eolo ist, also be an b) attackin Mar ism in its theor) o' catacl)smicchan es* Plekhano , then a re olutionist, !rote. "Mr* Stru e !ants to sho! us that nature makes no su&&en lea$s, an&that the intellect 4reason !ill not bear such lea$s* +he 'act is, Stru e means his o!n intellect, !hich in&ee& tolerates nolea s, 'or the sim$le reason, as is sai&, that he cannot "ear a certain dictatorshi J04+he italics are Plekhano #s8Criticism of 9ur 0ritics, $*99* +he so calle& "or anic school", the Positi ists, S$encerians, e olutionists, etc*, all o$$osecatacl)smic chan es because the) cannot bear a "certain &ictatorshi$" *

B+B/+)$0APH1

<s !ith cha$ters i an& ii, a&&in the 'ollo!in : /eborin : Introduction to the hiloso hy of 8ialectic <aterialism 4in %ussian * 7* Plekhano 4N* Belto :Criticisyia of 9ur Critics4in %ussian * ?arlMar : Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy , 0hica o, 191F* 7* Plekhano : undamental Pro"lems of <arxism 4translate& * E* Berman: 8ialectics in the ?i!ht of the <odern. 4heory ofCo!nition 4in %ussian8 not ortho&o , but critical * <* Bo &ano :General Science of 9r!ani ation4in%ussian8 an in enious attem$t to &is$ense !ith $hiloso$h) * ;* 3rtho&o 4< elro& : Philoso hicalSketches4in %ussian * ?arl ?autsk): Anti13ernstein4in 7erman * N* Bukharin:4he Economic4heory of the ?eisure Class4cha$ter one * +he critical literature !ritten in o$$osition to &ialecticmaterialism is e cee&in l) oluminous* +he most im$ortant %ussian !riters in this 'iel& are ?are)e

an& +u an.Barano sk) 44he 4heoretical oundations of <arxism







%)T-S

1 Philoso hie der Geschichte,%eclam e&ition, $a e K

2 &uar& Me)er Geschichte des Altertums,I, i, secon& e&ition, 191C, $a e 2K *

F ?arl Mar : Ca ital , ol* i, $$*22, 2F* 0hica o, 1915* +%<NS;<+3%#S N3+ : +his >uotation istaken b) Mar 'rom a $ara$hrase o' his $osition in the !or&s o' Pro'essor <* Sieber, o' the6ni ersit) o' ?ie *

K?arl Mar : Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy,Stutt art, 7erman e&ition, 1921, $* i*

5 Me!els :erke , 2& e&*, ol* iii, $*KFK 47erman ori inal *

Plekhano : Criticism of 9ur Critics4in %ussian , 19C e&ition, $*1CK*















$: Society

a. Conce t of Aggregates, /ogical and 0eal Aggregates

We encounter not onl) sim$le bo&ies, !hich at once im$ress us as constitutin units 4'or e am$le, asheet o' $a$er, a co!, Eohn Smith , but also meet !ith com$oun& units, intricate >uantities* Whenconsi&erin the mo ement o' the $o$ulation, !e ma) sa) the number o' male in'ants born !ithin acertain inter al o' time has increase& so much* We then re ar& this "number o' male in'ants" as atotal >uantit), e istin a$art 'rom the arious units, an& consi&ere& as a unit in itsel' 4a "statisticala re ate" * We also s$eak o' a 'orest, a class, human societ), an& at once 'in& that !e are &ealin!ith com$oun& >uantities: !e re ar& these >uantities as in&i i&ual >uantities, but !e like!ise kno!that these !holes consist o' elements ha in a certain &e ree o' in&e$en&ence the 'orest consists o'trees, bushes, etc*8 the class, o' the arious $ersons constitutin it, etc* Such com$osite >uantities arecalle& a re ates*

rom the e am$les i en abo e !e ma) learn, ho!e er, that a re ates ma) be o' arious kin&s:!hen !e s$eak o' the male in'ants born in a certain )ear, an& !hen !e s$eak o' the to!n 'orest, it isclear that there is a &i''erence bet!een the t!o* In the one case, that o' the male in'ants, !e kno!that these in&i i&uals are not 'oun& to ether in li'e, in actual realit): one is in one $lace an& anotherin another8 none has an) in'luence on another8 each is 'or himsel'* It is we !ho are combinin them!hen !e a&& them u$* It is we !ho make the a re ation: this is a mental a re ate, a $a$era re ate, not a li in or real a re ate* Such arti'icial a re ates ma) be calle& ima inar) orlo ical a re ates* But !hen !e s$eak o' societ), or o' a 'orest, or o' a class, the case is >uite&i''erent8 here the union o' the com$onent elements is not onl) a mental 4lo ical union* or !e ha e

be'ore us the 'orest, !ith its trees, bushes, rass, etc*, !hich surel) constitutes an actual li in!hole* +he 'orest is not merel) a summation o' its arious elements* <ll these elements are

continuall) interactin one u$on the other, in other !or&s, the) are in a state o' constant mutualinteraction* 0ut &o!n some o' the trees, an& $erha$s the others !ill !ither b) reason o' thesubse>uent &ecrease in moisture, or $erha$s the) !ill ro! better because the) can et more sun* Weare here clearl) &ealin !ith an interaction o' the $arts makin u$ "the 'orest", an& the interactionhere is a $er'ectl) real one, e istin in 'act, not ima ine& b) us 'or one $ur$ose or another*

urthermore: this interaction is o' lon &uration an& constant, bein $resent as lon as the !holecontinues to e ist* Such a re ates are calle&real a!!re!ates *

<ll these &i''erences are con&itional* Strictl) s$eakin , there are no sim$le units* Eohn Smith is in realit) a !hole colon)o' cells, i*e*, he is a hi hl) com$licate& bo&)* We ha e seen that e en the atom ma) be sub&i i&e&* <n& as 4in $rinci$lethere are no limits o' &i isibilit), so there are ultimatel) no uni'orm units* Ne ertheless, our &istinctions ma) hol& !ithincertain limits: an in&i i&ual human is an in&i i&ual bo&) an& not a totalit), !hen com$are& !ith societ)8 but he is acom$osite bo&), a real a re ate, !hen com$are& !ith the cell, etc* I' !e !ish to s$eak in a non.com$arati e !a), !emake use o' the term s)stem* System an&real a!!re!ate are i&entical terms* +he con&itional nature o' all these&istinctions ma) be sho!n in another !a) also: strictl) s$eakin , the entire uni erse is an in'inite real a re ate, all the

$articles o' !hich are in $rocess o' constant an& uninterru$te& interaction* We thus ha e an interaction bet!een all theob-ects an& elements o' the uni erse, but this interaction is in some cases more or less &irect, in some cases more or lessin&irect* Hence our &istinctions, as ma&e abo e8 the) hol& oo& . as !e ha e sai& . !hen un&erstoo& &ialecticall), i*e*,!ithin certain boun&s, con&itionall), accor&in to circumstances*

b. Society as a 0eal Aggregate or a System

;et us no! ie! societ) 'rom this stan&$oint* +here is no &oubt that societ) constitutes a reala re ate, 'or there is a constant uninterru$te& $rocess o' mutual interaction bet!een its arious

$arts* Mr* Smith !ent to the market8 there he tra&e&, e erte& an in'luence on the 'ormation o' themarket $rice, !hich in turn in'luence& the !orl& market, $erha$s in an in'initesimal &e ree, but



ne ertheless it !as an in'luence on !orl& $rices8 the latter, in turn, in'luence the market o' thecountr) in !hich Mr* Smith li es, an& the little market !hich he 're>uents8 on the other han&, let ussa) he bu)s a herrin at the market8 this !ill ha e an in'luence on his bu& et, 'or it !ill make hims$en& the rest o' his mone) in a certain !a), etc*, etc* +housan&s o' such little in'luences beenumerate&* Mr* Smith ets marrie& 'or this $ur$ose he has bou ht a number o' $resents an& thus

has e erte& economic in'luence on other $ersons* Bein an ortho&o 0hristian, an& not a Bolshe ik,he calls in the $riest an& thus stren thens the 0hurch or ani(ation, an& this act !ill ha e its e''ect inlittle !a es on the in'luence o' the 0hurch, an& on the entire s)stem o' 'eelin s an& ten&encies in the

i en societ)8 he has $ai& mone) to the $riest, an& thus has increase& the &eman& 'or thecommo&ities &eman&e& b) $riests, etc* His !i'e bears him chil&ren, an& this in turn $ro&ucesthousan&s o' conse>uences* It is eas) to see that man) $ersons are in'luence&, in ho!e er sli ht a&e ree, b) the 'act o' Eohn Smith#s marria e* Mr* Smith enters the ;iberal Part) in or&er to &o his"&ut) as a citi(en"* He be ins to atten& meetin s, to ether !ith hun&re&s like him, to e $erience thesame 'eelin s o' hatre& 'or the curse& rascals !ho loa' about the streets an& su$$ort those chil&ren o' Satan, the Bolshe iks* +heir in'luence at the meetin s, touches an& mo es, either &irectl) orin&irectl), a reat number o' $ersons* +o be sure, this in'luence ma) be &i''icult to ascertain but, nomatter ho! small it ma) be, it )et e ists* <n& no matter !hat branch o' acti it) our Mr* Smith mi htenter, )ou !oul& al!a)s obser e that he ha& an in'luence on others8 as !ell as others on him* or insociet), all thin s are unite& b) millions o' little threa&s*

We ha e be un !ith the in&i i&ual man, an& sho!n his in'luence on others* But !e mi ht -ust as!ell be in !ith the manner in !hich societ) acts on him* +here is a reat in&ustrial boom, an& theconcern 'or !hich Smith is !orkin as chie' bookkee$er is makin more $ro'its8 Mr* Smith ets alittle "raise"* War breaks out8 Mr* Smith is enliste&, &e'en&s the 'atherlan& o' his em$lo)ers 4he iscon ince& he is &e'en&in ci ili(ation an& is kille& in the !ar* Such is the $o!er o' social relations*

I' !e $icture to oursel es the immense number o' mutual interactions e istin in human societ), i'onl) in our &a), !e shall 'in& a ma ni'icent $icture takin sha$e be'ore us* Some o' these relationsare o' cru&e elemental 'orce8 the) are not re ulate& in an) !a), or b) an) $erson8 the interactions o'

$ersons on one another are countless in their e $ressions* But there are also man) more or lessre ulate& an& or ani(e& 'orms, 'rom o ernment authorit) &o!n to the chess club an& the bal&.hea&e& men#s societ)* I' !e consi&er that all these countless interactions are constantl) intersectineach other, !e shall un&erstan& ho! trul) tremen&ous is the Bab)lonian con'usion o' in'luences an&mutual interactions in social li'e*

Where er there is a mutual interaction o' lon &uration, !e ha e a real a re ate, a "s)stem"* But!e must $oint out the 'act that a real a re ate or s)stem is b) no means necessaril) characteri(e&

b) a conscious or!ani ationo' the $arts o' this s)stem, an& this statement is true both o' animatenature an& o' inanimate nature, both o' "mechanisms" an& o' "or anisms"* Some $ersons o so 'ar asto &en) the er) e istence o' societ) because there are other s)stems e istin !ithin societ) 4classes,

rou$s, $arties, circles, or ani(ations o' arious kin&s, etc*, etc* * But there is no &oubt o' the mutualinteraction o' these s)stems an& rou$s !ithin societ) 4stru les bet!een classes an& $arties,moments o' coo$eration, etc* 8 'urthermore, the $ersons constitutin these rou$s ma) bein'luencin the remainin $ersons in other connections in an entirel) &i''erent !a) 4the ca$italistan& the !orker, !ho $urchases 'rom the same ca$italist oo&s 'or his o!n consum$tion *

urthermore, these rou$s.in the mutual interactions bet!een them.are not or ani(e&8 !e here ha ean elemental social $ro&uct8 a "social resultant" 4see our &iscussion o' &eterminism, in cha$ter ii isne ertheless obtaine& in this unor ani(e& an& elemental $rocess 4!hich !ill continue until a

communist societ) is reali(e& * @et, there is such a social "$ro&uct"* It e ists8 it is an irre'utable 'acto' realit)8 !orl& $rices are a &e'inite 'act8 so are !orl& literature, or !orl& routes o' commerce, or



!orl& !ar8 these 'acts are . su''icient to sho! that human societ), embo&ie& in the s)stems o' thearious nations, reall) &oes e ist at the $resent time*

In eneral, !hene er !e ha e a s$here o' constant mutual interaction, !e also ha e a s$ecial s)stem,a s$ecial real a re ate*4he "roadest system of mutual interactions, em"racin! all the more ermanent interactions "etween ersons, is society.We &e'ine societ) as a real a re ate, or as a s)stem o' interactions, re-ectin all the attem$ts o' the so calle& "or anicschool" to inter$ret societ) in terms o' an or anism*

+he o''icial ob-ect o' the "or anic" theor) is $er'ectl) e $resse& in the 'able o' Menenius < ri$$a, a %oman $atrician!ho use& the 'ollo!in "or anic" ar uments to conciliate the rebellious Plebeians: the han&s ma) not rebel a ainst thehea&, 'or other!ise the entire human bo&) !oul& be ruine&* +he social inter$retation o' the or anic theor) is the'ollo!in : the rulin class is the hea&8 the !orkers, or sla es, are the arms an& le s8 as arms an& le s ma) not in naturere$lace the hea&, it is !ell 'or subor&inates to hol& their $eaceA

+his !ise humilit) on the $art o' the or anic theor) has ma&e it >uite $o$ular amon the bour eoisie* +he "'oun&er" o'

sociolo ), <u uste 0omte, consi&ere& societ) as a collecti e or anism 4 or!anisme collectif 8 Herbert S$encer, the most $o$ular o' bour eois sociolo ists, consi&ere& societ) to be somethin sel'.or anic, !ithout consciousness to be sure, but $ossessin or ans, tissues, etc* %enX Worms e en en&o!s societ) !ith consciousness, as in the case o' the in&i i&ual,an& ;ilien'el& &eclares outri ht that societ) is an or anism as much as a croco&ile or the in entor o' this theor)* No&oubt societ) has much in common !ith an or anism8 but it also has much in common !ith a mechanism* +hese traits,

$recisel), are the traits o' an) true totalit), an) s)stem* But as !e ha e no intention to take u$ such chil&ish $roblems asto !hat constitutes the li er or the ermi'orm a$$en&i o' societ), or !hat social $henomena are e>ui alent to ulcers, !eshall not &!ell on this $oint at all, the more since the a&herents o' the or anic theor) seem themsel es to be rea&) to 'allinto the arms o' m)sticism, an& to reconstruct societ) as a hu e 'abulous beast*

Societ) thus e ists as a true a re ate o' the $ersons com$osin it, as a s)stem o' mutuall)interactin elements* <s !e ha e seen, the number o' mutual interactions in this s)stem is en&less*

But the er) e istence o' societ) su ests that all these numberless 'orces, actin in the most arious&irections, &o not constitute a mere insane !hirl, but mo e, as it !ere, throu h certain channels, inobe&ience to an internal la!* I' there !ere an outri ht an& com$lete chaos, there !oul& be no

$ossibilit) o' e en an unstable e>uilibrium in societ), in other !or&s, there !oul& be no societ) atall* We ha e &iscusse& abo e the >uestion as to the la! o' human actions, 'rom the $oint o' ie! o'the in&i i&ual 4see cha$ter ii * We no! take u$ the >uestion 'rom the other si&e, 'rom the $oint o'

ie! o' societ) an& the con&itions o' its e>uilibrium* +he result, ho!e er, is the same8 !e are brou ht to reco ni(e the re!ularity o' the social $rocess* It is easiest to &isco er this uni'ormit)* inthe social $rocess b) an in esti ation o' the con&itions o' social e>uilibrium* But be'ore $rocee&into this sub-ect, !e must &!ell more in &etail on the nature o' societ) itsel'* It is not enou h to sa)that it is a s)stem o' mutuall) interactin $ersons, or that this s)stem is in 'orce o er a lon $erio&* It

is necessar) to e $lain the nature o' this s)stem, ho! it is &istin uishe& 'rom other s)stems, !hat isits necessar) con&ition o' li'e, an& its necessar) con&ition o' e>uilibrium*

c. The Character of the Social 0elations

+he mutual interaction bet!een $ersons, !hich constitutes social $henomena, is >uite arious* Whatis the condition'or the $ermanence o' these relations= In other !or&s, !here is the basic con&ition o' e>uilibrium 'or the !hole s)stem, amon all these interactions= What is the "asic t)$e o' socialrelation !ithout !hich all other t)$es !oul& be inconcei able=

+he basic social relation is that o' la"or, as e $resse& chie'l) in social la"or, i.e., in the conscious orunconscious !ork $er'orme& b) $eo$le 'or each other* +his becomes clear at once 'rom anassum$tion o' the o$$osite* ;et us assume 'or a moment that the labor relation bet!een $ersons



shoul& be &estro)e&, that $ro&ucts 4 oo&s shoul& not be transmitte& 'rom one $lace to another, that $eo$le shoul& cease !orkin 'or each other, that social labor shoul& lose its social character* +heresult !oul& be the &isa$$earance o' societ), !hich !oul& 'l) into a thousan& $ieces* 3r, to takeanother e am$le: 0hristian missionaries are sent to tro$ical countries to $reach a kno!le& e o' 7o&an& the /e il* +hese missionaries thus establish the so calle& hi her intellectual relations* Woul& it

be $ossible 'or these relations to en&ure bet!een the countr) 'rom !hich these entlemen ha e set'orth an& the "sa a es" to !hom the) are sent, i' there !ere no 're>uent steamers, no re!ular 4aso$$ose& tocasual) e chan e, i.e., i' no !orkin relations shoul& be establishe& bet!een the"ci ili(e&" countries an& the home o' the "sa a es"= <ll such relations can onl) be $ermanent !henthe) are o' the nature o' workin! relations* +he bon& o' labor is the 'un&amental con&ition 'or the

$ossibilit) o' an internal e>uilibrium in the s)stem o' human societ)*

We ma) also a$$roach this >uestion 'rom another si&e* No s)stem, inclu&in that o' human societ),can e ist in em$t) s$ace8 it is surroun&e& b) an "en ironment", on !hich all its con&itions ultimatel)&e$en&* I' human societ) is not a&a$te& to its en ironment, it is not meant 'or this !orl&8 all itsculture !ill ine itabl) $ass a!a)8 societ) itsel' !ill be re&uce& to &ust* +hinkin as har& as the) can,none o' the i&ealist $ro'essors can o''er the sli htest $roo' in o$$osition to our assertion that all theli'e o' societ), the er) >uestion o' its li'e or &eath, &e$en&s on the relation bet!een societ) an& itsen ironment, i*e*, nature* We ha e s$oken o' this abo e, an& ma) consi&er the sub-ect &is$ose& o'*+he social relation bet!een men !hich most clearl) an& &irectl) e $resses this relation to nature isthe relation o' !ork* Work is the $rocess o' contact bet!een societ) an& nature* B) !ork, ener ) istrans'erre& 'rom nature to societ)8 an& it is on this ener ) that societ) li es an& &e elo$s 4i' it&e elo$s at all * ;abor is also an acti e a&a$tation to nature* In other !or&s, the $rocess o'

$ro&uction is a 'un&amental li in $rocess* o' societ)* 0onse>uentl), the labor relation is a'un&amental social relation* 3r, in the !or&s o' Mar , "!e must seek the anatom) o' societ) in itseconom)", 1 i.e., the structure o' societ) is its la"or structure 4"its economic structure" *0onse>uentl), our &e'inition o' societ) !ill rea&: society is the "roadest system of mutuallyinteractin! ersons, em"racin! all their ermanent mutual interactions, and "ased u on their la"orrelations.

We ha e thus arri e& at a com$letel) materialist ie! o' societ)* +he basis o' its structure is a!orkin relation, -ust as the basis o' li'e is the material $rocess o' $ro&uction*

+he 'ollo!in ob-ection is o'ten raise&: "I' thin s are as )ou sa), ho! are the labor relationsestablishe&= /o not $eo$le s$eak to ether, think to ether, in the $rocess o' labor= Is the laborrelation then not a $s)chic, a s$iritual relation= Where is )our materialism no!= What &o all )ourlabor an& )our labor relations amount to, i' not to $s)cholo ical relations="

+his >uestion is !orth oin into, in or&er that 'uture misun&erstan&in s ma) be a oi&e&* ;et us be in !ith a sim$le e am$le, that o' a 'actor) at !ork* In the 'actor) there are unskille& !orkers an&

arious t)$es o' skille& !orkers8 some are !orkin at certain machines, some at others8 in a&&ition,there are 'oremen, en ineers, etc* Mar &escribes the con&ition as 'ollo!s in his Ca ital : 2 "+heessential &i ision is, into !orkmen !ho are actuall) em$lo)e& on machines 4amon !hom areinclu&e& a 'e! !ho look a'ter the en ine an& into mere atten&ants 4almost e clusi el) chil&ren o'these !orkmen* <mon the atten&ants are reckone&, more or less, 'ee&ers# !ho su$$l) the machines!ith the material to be !orke&* In a&&ition to these t!o $rinci$al classes, there is a numericall)unim$ortant class o' $ersons, !hose occu$ation it is to look a'ter the !hole machiner) an& re$air it'rom time to time8 such as en ineers, mechanics, -oiners, etc*" Such are the labor relations bet!een

the $eo$le in the 'actor)* What is the $rime nature o' these relations= In the 'act that each $erson isoccu$ie& !ith "his o!n -ob", but his -ob is onl) a $art o' the !hole* +he in&i i&ual !orker is







there'ore statione& at a certain $lace, oes throu h a certain motion, has a certain material contact!ith thin s an& !ith other !orkers, uses u$ a certain >uantit) o' material ener )* <ll these relationsare material, $h)sical relations* 3' course, the) ma) ha e their "$s)cholo ical" si&e8 $eo$le think,e chan e thou hts, con erse, etc* But these acti ities !ill be &etermine& b) their &istribution in the'actor) buil&in , b) the machines at !hich the) are statione&, etc* In other !or&s, the) are

&istribute& throu h the 'actor) as &istinct $h)sical bo&ies8 the) are there'ore in certain $h)sical,material relations in time an& in s$ace* Such is the material, !orkin or ani(ation o' the !orkers in a'actor), !hich Mar calls the "collecti e !orker"8 !e are no! &ealin !ith a material human!orkin s)stem* When in o$eration, !e ha e the $rocess o' material labor8 men i e out ener ), an&turn out a material $ro&uct* +his is also a material $rocess, also ha in its "$s)cholo ical" as$ect*

What !e ha e -ust obser e& in the 'actor) is also a$$licable on a more intricate an& 'ar aster scalein human societ) as a !hole* or all o' societ) constitutes a $eculiar human !orkin a$$aratus, in!hich the o er!helmin ma-orit) o' $ersons or rou$s o' $ersons occu$) a certain $lace in the!orkin $rocess* or instance, in $resent.&a) societ), !hich inclu&es all o' so calle& "ci ili(e&mankin&", an& $erha$s e en more, !heat, as !e ha e seen, is chie'l) $ro&uce& in certain countries8cacao, in certain other countries8 metal $ro&ucts, in still another rou$ o' countries, etc* <n& !ithinthe arious countries, certain 'actories $ro&uce one rou$ o' $ro&ucts, other 'actories other $ro&ucts*<ll these !orkers, $easants, colonial sla es, an& e en the en ineers, o erseers, 'oremen, or ani(ers,etc*, !ho are $lace& in the arious corners o' the earth, &istribute& o er the arious >uarters o' the

lobe, are all actuall), althou h $erha$s not consciousl), !orkin 'or each other* <n& !hen masseso' commo&ities $ass Yrom one countr) to another, 'rom 'actor) to market, 'rom market throu htra&esman to consumer, all this constitutes a material bon& bet!een all these $ersons* +he) are a $arto' the material skeleton, the !orkin a$$aratus o' a sin le social li'e* When !e rea& o' the li'e o' the

bees, !e &o not consi&er it remarkable to 'in& the !riter be innin !ith the &iscussion o' the kin&so' bees, the !ork the) $er'orm, the relations bet!een them, both in time an& in s$ace, in a !or&, thematerial !orkin a$$aratus o' the "societ) o' the bees"* No one !oul& think o' consi&erin the beesas a sychical a re ate, a "s$iritual brotherhoo&", althou h he mi ht s$eak o' the instincts an& the

$s)chic li'e o' the bees, o' their "manners an& customs", etc* But man, !ith his &i ine nature, mustnot be sub-ecte& to the same treatment as the beesA

It is sel'.e i&ent that $s)chical interactions o' the most arie& kin&s are inestimabl) more numerousin human societ) than e en in a her& o' the most hi hl) &e elo$e& a$es* +he "min&" o' humansociet), i*e*, all its $s)chic interactions, are as 'ar su$erior to the "min&" o' the her& o' a$es, as themin& o' the in&i i&ual man is su$erior to the min& o' the in&i i&ual a$e* But the in'initel) arie&,com$licate&, e ce$tionall) rich $atterns o' these mental an& s$iritual inter.relations, $resentin allthe colors o' the rainbo!, an& constitutin the "min&" o' $resent.&a) societ), also ha e their "bo&)",

!ithout !hich the) cannot e ist, an) more than the min& o' the in&i i&ual man can e ist !ithout hissin'ul earthl) bo&)* +his "bo&)" is the labor skeleton, the s)stem o' material relations bet!een $ersons in the $rocess o' labor, or, as Mar $uts it, the roduction relations*

Sentimental $ett) bour eois &ames ma) think it "terrible" to e $lain the &i ine 'ra rance o' the narcissus as &ue to ane citation o' so $rosaic an or an as the nasal mucous membrane8 an& these la&ies are not much &i''erent 'rom most

bour eois scholars* Some o' the latter !ill enture to &eri&e the "or anic theor)", as &oes an Italian $ro'essor* <* ;oria,!ho $la iari(e& Mar an& coul& not &i est him: "+he 7erman scholar SchZ''le oes to rotes>ue len ths in hisenumeration o' social strata, or ans, se ments, bloo& essels, motor centers, ner es, an& an lia8 but the othersociolo ists o' the same school are not much more mo&erate than he* +he) ha e alrea&) one so 'ar as to &escribe thesocial thi h, the social solar $le us, the social lun s* +he) alrea&) $oint to the ascular s)stem o' societ), re$resente& b)the sa in s banks* < $ro'essor at the Sorbonne &escribes the cler ) as a 'att) ner ous tissue* <nother sociolo istcom$ares the ner e 'ibers !ith tele ra$h !ires, an& the human brain !ith a central tele ra$h o''ice* 3ne !riter * oes so'ar as to &istin uish male nations 'rom 'emale nations* In his o$inion, the con>uerin states are males, !ho sub-u ate the&e'eate& nations8 !hile the &e'eate& nations "are 'emale nations*" 4<chille ;oria: 8ie So iolo!ie, Eena, 19C1, $*F9* +his



is all er) !ell, but e en the best o' the bour eois scholars become >uite timi& !hen the) reach the con'ines o'materialism* Pro'essor * /urkheim, in his book "3n the /i ision o' ;abor", ha in em$hasi(e& the conce$tion o'"moral &ensit)" 4b) !hich he means the 're>uenc) an& intensit) o' $s)chical interactions bet!een men , oes on to sa):+he moral &ensit) cannot become reater unless the material &ensit) simultaneousl) becomes reater" 4la &ensitX moraleme $eut &one s#accro[tre sans >ue la &ensitX materielle s#accroisse en m\me tem$s * * * * +his sim$l) means that the"mental turno er" bet!een men is base& on the "material turno er", i*e*, the &ensit) an& 're>uenc) o' the material,

$h)sical interactions is the con&ition 'or the corres$on&in &ensit) an& 're>uenc) o' their mental interactions* <'termakin this correct statement, M* /urkheim is 'ri htene& at ha in e $resse& so materialist a thou ht an& beats a retreat:"But it is useless 4AA to attem$t to sho! !hich o' the t!o $henomena &etermines the other8 it is su''icient to ha e state&that the) are in&issoluble*" 4 * /urkheim: 8e la di5ision du tra5ail social , Paris 1D9F: $*2DF* 6seless, I su$$ose,

because $eo$le are a'rai& to a$$ear in &ecent bour eois societ) as materialists*

Most mo&ern bour eois sociolo ists consi&er societ) to be a certain $s)chical s)stem, a $s)chical "or anism", or thelike, !hich is >uite in accor& !ith the i&ealist ie! o' the uni erse* +he 'un&amental error o' these theories is in theirse$aratin "min&" 'rom "matter", an& then &eclarin this "min&" to be inca$able o' e $lanation, i*e*, their &ei')in it* Insome societies, the $s)chical interactions are &i''erent 'rom those o' other societies* or instance, in the rei n o'

Nicholas I, there !as a "s$irit" o' $olice iolence, o' sub-ection un&er the 0(ar#s mi ht, lo e o' the tra&itional, !hileSo iet %ussia $resents somethin >uite &i''erent, i*e*, the $s)chical interrelations ha e become alto ether &i''erent*Ps)cholo ical theories o' societ) cannot e $lain this &i''erence8 here a ain the onl) scienti'ic conce$tion is that o'materialism 4Mar s$eaks o' an "or anism o' $ro&uction"8 c'* Ca ital , ol* iii *

d. Society and Personality, Precedence of Society o2er the +ndi2idual

Societ) consists o' in&i i&ual $ersons8 it coul& not e ist !ithout them, as !e ma) assume !ithout'urther &iscussion* But societ) is not merel) an a re ate o' $ersons, constitutin their sum* Societ)is more than a mere summation o' its arious Eacks an& Eills* We ha e alrea&) seen that societ) is areal a re ate, a "s)stem"8 !e ha e seen that it is a er) com$licate& s)stem o' mutual interactions

bet!een the arious $ersons, !hich interactions are e tremel) arie& in >ualit) an& >uantit)* +hismeans that societ), as a !hole, is reater than the sum o' its $arts* It cannot in an) !a) be re&uce& tothese $arts, !hich is also true o' man) s)stems o' arious kin&s, both li in or anisms an& &ea&mechanisms* or instance, let us take the case o' an) machine, a sim$le !atch, let us sa)* +ake an)such machine a$art an& la) its com$onent $arts in a hea$* +his hea$ !ill constitute their sum8 but it!ill not be the machine8 it !ill not be the !atch8 'or the hea$ lacks the &e'inite relation, the &e'initemutual interaction* o' the $arts !hich trans'orms them into a mechanism* What makes these $arts awhole= < certain arran ement o' them* +he same is true in societ)8 societ) consists o' $eo$le8 but i'these $eo$le, in the labor $rocess, shoul& not be at their $osts at each i en moment, i' the) !ere notconnecte& b) the labor bon& bet!een them, there !oul& be no societ)*

We must here $oint out another $henomenon obser e& in societ)8 namel), societ) consists not onl)o' arious $ersons mutuall) interactin , either &irectl) or in&irectl)8 it also consists o' mutuall)

interactin rou$s o' $ersons, also constitutin "real a re ates", stan&in as it !ere "etweensociet)an& the in&i i&ual* or instance, $resent.&a) societ) is e cee&in l) lar e8 alrea&) $eo$le in the mostremote countries ha e been brou ht into relation, are bein &ra!n in 'urther an& 'urther, b) a labor

bon&8 there is $racticall) a !orl& society.But this societ) o' almost 1,5CC,CCC,CCC $ersons mutuall)interactin , unite& b) the 'un&amental tie 4o' labor , as !ell as countless other ties, inclu&es !ithin it

$artial s)stems o' $ersons unite& in some !a) or other8 classes, states, church or ani(ations, $arties,etc* +his sub-ect !ill be &iscusse& in &etail later* or the $resent, !e must obser e that !ithin societ)there are a reat number o' rou$s o' men8 these rou$s, in turn, also consist o' in&i i&ual $ersons8the mutual interrelations bet!een these $ersons usuall) become more 're>uent an& intimate "in theiro!n circle" than bet!een men in eneral8 the 7erman $hiloso$her an& sociolo ist, 7* Simmel,ri htl) obser es that the narro!er the circle o' mutuall) interactin $ersons, the more intimate the

relations bet!een them, in eneral8 besi&es, all these rou$s come into contact amon themsel es* Inother !or&s, the arious in&i i&uals constitutin societ) &o not al!a)s in'luence each other &irectl),



but throu h rou$s, throu h $artial s)stems !ithin the sin le reat s)stem o' human societ)* ;et usconsi&er, 'or instance, an in&i i&ual !orker in ca$italist societ)* Whom &oes he meet most're>uentl), !ith !hom &oes he talk, &iscuss >uestions, etc*= Most o'ten, it is !ith !orkers8 er)rarel) &oes he meet artisans, or $easants, or bour eois* +his is an illustration o' the e istence o' theclass relation* +his !orker most 're>uentl) comes into contact !ith other classes, not sim$l) as an

in&i i&ual $ersonalit), but as a member o' his class, sometimes e en as a member o' a consciousl)or ani(e& bo&), a $art), a tra&e union, etc* +he same case a$$lies also to the other rou$s in societ),not onl) to classes: scholars associate mostl) !ith scholars8 -ournalists, !ith -ournalists8 $riests !ith

$riests, etc*

In the material 'iel&, !e 'in& that societ) is not a mere a re ate o' $ersons, that it is more than their sum, that their rou$in an& &e'inite "&is$osition" 4Mar calls it their "&istribution" in the labor

$rocess amounts to somethin ne!, somethin reater than their "sum" or "a re ate"* +he samehol&s oo& also in the $s)cholo ical 4"mental" li'e, !hich $la)s a er) im$ortant $art* We ha ealrea&) se eral times ma&e use o' the e am$le o' the 'i in o' a market $rice as a result o' ariousin&i i&ual uesses* +he $rice is a social $henomenon, a social "resultant", a $ro&uct o' the mutualinteractions o' $ersons* +he $rice is not an a era e o' the uesses, nor &oes it in e er) casea$$ro imate the in&i i&ual uesses, 'or the in&i i&ual uesses are a $ersonal matter, concernin oneman onl), e istin onl) in his min&, !hile the actual $rice is somethin that in'luences all8 it is anin&e$en&ent 'act !hich all must count on8 an ob-ecti e 'act thou h it be immaterial 4see cha$ter ii o'this book 8 the $rice, in other !or&s, is somethin ne!, somethin that lea&s its o!n social li'e, isin&e$en&ent more or less o' in&i i&ual $ersons, althou h it is create& b) them* +he case !ith theremainin e i&ences o' the $s)chical li'e is the same* ;an ua es, the $olitical s)stem, science, art,reli ion, $hiloso$h), an& a reat number o' less im$ortant $henomena an& sub&i isions, such as'ashions, customs, " oo& beha ior", etc*, etc*, all are $ro&ucts o' social li'e, a result o' the mutualinteraction o' $ersons, o' their constant association !ith each other*

Eust as societ) is not merel) a sum o' the $ersons com$osin it, so the mental li'e o' societ) is notmerel) a sum o' the i&eas an& 'eelin s o' the in&i i&ual $ersons com$osin it, but is a $ro&uct o' theassociation !ith each other, is to a certain e tent somethin a$art, ne!, not to be e $laine& as a merearithmetical sum8 it is a ne! element resultin 'rom the mutual interactions o' $ersons*

We can thus e $lain the necessit) o' s$ecial social sciences8 Wun&t correctl) remarks: "It is rather the unitin an&interactin o' in&i i&uals !hich $ro&uces this communit) as such, an& thereb) also a!akens in the in&i i&ual,

$er'ormances s$eci'icall) a$$ertainin to the common li'e*" 4W* Wun&t: N lkey sycholo!ie, ol* i, $art i, ;ei$(i ,* 1911, $*21*

In&i i&ual men are inconcei able outsi&e o' societ), !ithout societ)* Nor can !e ima ine societ)#s ha in been

establishe& b) the arious $ersons, li in , as it !ere, in their "natural state", comin to ether an& unitin in or&er to 'orma societ)* +his conce$tion !as at one time >uite !i&es$rea&, but it is entirel) erroneous* I' !e trace the &e elo$ment o'human societ), !e shall 'in& that it !as ori inall) com$ose& o' a her&, an& not at all o' in&i i&ual creatures o' humansha$e, li in in arious $laces, !ho su&&enl) &isco ere&, one 'ine &a), that it !oul& be a 'ine thin 4bri ht sa a es thatthe) !ereA to li e to ether8 an&, ha in talke& the thin o er to the eneral satis'action in their meetin s, ot to ether'or the construction o' a societ)* "+he startin $oint 4o' science, N* B* ," !rote ?arl Mar , "is the in&i i&ual, $ro&ucinin societ), an& thence comes the sociall) con&itione& $ro&uction o' these in&i i&uals* +he in&i i&ual an& isolate& hunteran& 'isher * * * belon s to the insi$i& illusions o' the i hteenth 0entur) "Pro&uction b) isolate& in&i i&ual sons outsi&eo' societ) * * * is as reat an absur&it) 4@ndin!)as !oul& be the ro!th o' lan ua e !ithout the assum$tion o' $ersonsli in to ether an& talkin !ith each other*"F

+he &octrine o' the in&i i&ual man enterin into contractual relations !ith others !as e $resse& !ith $articular crassness in E* E* %ousseau#s !ork, ?e Contrat social 41 2 8 man is born 'ree in a "state o' nature"8 to assure his libert), he enters into relations !ith others8 societ), as a state 'orm, arises onthe basis o' the "social contract" 4%ousseau &ra!s no &istinction bet!een state an& societ) * "+he





ob-ect o' the social contract," !rites %ousseau 4Book ii, cha$* 5 , "is to $rotect the si nator) $arties*"<s a matter o' 'act, %ousseau &oes not in esti ate the true ori in o' the societ) or the state, butmerel) states !hat must be, !hat is the conce$tion o' societ) 'rom the stan&$oint o' "reason", i.e.,ho! a &ecent societ) shoul& be constructe&* <n)one iolatin the "contract" is sub-ect to

$unishment* It 'ollo!e& lo icall) that kin s abusin their $o!er must be &e$ose&* +here'ore,

%ousseau#s &octrine, in s$ite o' its entirel) erroneous conce$tions, $la)e& an im$ortant re olutionar)role &urin the rench %e olution*

Man#s social >ualities coul& &e elo$ onl) in societ)* It is an absur&it) to su$$ose that man 4in thesa a e state coul& ha e reco ni(e& the a& anta es o' societ) !ithout e er ha in seen a societ)*+his !oul& reall) be e>ui alent to assumin the ro!th o' lan ua e amon $ersons not in contact!ith each other, an& &istribute& in arious $laces* Man al!a)s !as, as <ristotle $uts it, "a socialanimal", i*e*, an animal li in in societ), ne er out o' societ)* We cannot ima ine that human societ)!as "establishe&" 4a merchant, !ho has himsel' establishe& a cor$oration, ma) ima ine that humansociet) !as brou ht about in the same !a) * Human societ) has e iste& as lon as there ha e beenhumans8 humans ha e ne er e iste& outsi&e o' societ)* Man is a social animal "b) his nature"8 his"nature" is a social nature, chan in !ith societ)8 he li es in societ) "b) his nature", an& not b)a reement or contract !ith other $ersons*

Man ha in al!a)s li e& in societ), i*e*, ha in al!a)s been social man, it 'ollo!s that thein&i i&ual has al!a)s ha& societ) as his en ironment* Since societ) has al!a)s constitute& thisen ironment 'or the in&i i&ual, it is natural to in'er that this en ironment has also &etermine& the

arious in&i i&uals: one societ), or en ironment, has $ro&uce& one kin& o' in&i i&ual8 anothersociet), another kin& o' in&i i&ual8 "a man is kno!n b) the com$an) he kee$s"*

<n interestin >uestion !hich has been a source o' man) &is$utes, is that o' the role of theindi5idual in history*

+his >uestion is not as &i''icult as it ma) seem* /oes the in&i i&ual $la) a $art, or is he a mere (eroin the course o' e ents= 3' course, since societ) consists o' in&i i&uals, the action o' an) in&i i&ual!ill ha e its in'luence on social $henomena* +he in&i i&ual &oes $la) a "$art"8 his actions, 'eelin s,&esires enter into the social $henomenon as a com$onent $art8 "men make histor)"* Social

$henomena are com$ose& o' the mutual interactions o' the 'orces o' the arious in&i i&uals, as !eha e seen*

urthermore, i' the arious in&i i&uals in'luence societ), is it $ossible to &etermine ho! the actionso' the arious in&i i&uals are brou ht about= @es8 'or !e kno! that the !ill o' man is not 'ree, that it

is &etermine& b) e ternal circumstances* Since the e ternal circumstances, in the case o' thein&i i&ual, are social circumstances 4the con&itions o' li'e o' the 'amil), the rou$, the i enoccu$ation, the class, the situation o' the entire societ) at a certain moment , his olition !ill be&etermine& b) e ternal con&itions8 'rom them he !ill &ra! the moti es o' his acti it)* or instance,the sol&ier in the %ussian arm) at the time o' ?erensk) obser e& that his $easant 'arm !as oin to

$ieces, that li'e !as ettin har&er, that there !as no en& o' the !ar in si ht, that the ca$italists !ere becomin more im$u&ent, an& !ere not i in the lan& to the $easants* +hence arose the moti es o'his action: to $ut a sto$ to the !ar, sei(e the lan&, an&, 'or this $ur$ose, o erthro! the o ernment*Social circumstances there'ore &etermine the in&i i&ual#s moti es*

+hese circumstances set the limits 'or the reali(ation o' the oals $ro$ose& b) the in&i i&ual $erson*

Mil)uko , in 191 , !ishe& to stren then the in'luence o' the bour eoisie an& to lean 'or su$$ort on



the <llies8 but his &esire !as not reali(e&8 circumstances shi'te& so that Mil)uko obtaine& nothino' !hat he !ishe&*

urthermore, i' !e e amine each in&i i&ual in his &e elo$ment, !e shall 'in& that at bottom he is'ille& !ith the in'luences o' his en ironment, as the skin o' a sausa e is 'ille& !ith sausa e.meat*

Man "is traine&" in the 'amil), in the street, in the school* He s$eaks a lan ua e !hich is the $ro&ucto' social e olution8 he thinks thou hts that ha e been &e ise& b) a !hole series o' $rece&in

enerations8 he is surroun&e& b) other $ersons !ith all their mo&es o' li'e8 he has be'ore his e)es anentire s)stem o' li'e, !hich in'luences him secon& b) secon&* ;ike a s$on e he constantl) absorbsne! im$ressions* <n& thus he is "'orme&" as an in&i i&ual* ach in&i i&ual at bottom is 'ille& !ith asocial content* +he in&i i&ual himsel' is a collection o' concentrate& social in'luences, unite& in asmall unit*

<nother circumstance is !orth) o' attention* 3'ten the role o' the in&i i&ual is >uite lar e b) irtueo' his s$eci'ic $lace an& the s$eci'ic !ork !hich he $er'orms* or instance, the eneral sta'' o' anarm) consists o' a small number o' $ersons onl), !hile the arm) itsel' counts hun&re&s o' thousan&s,

$erha$s millions o' $ersons* It is a$$arent to an)one that the si ni'icance o' the 'e! $ersons in theeneral sta'' 'ar e cee&s that o' the reat number in the arm) 4sol&iers or o''icers * I' the enem)

shoul& succee& in takin the eneral sta'', this mi ht be e>ui alent, un&er certain circumstances, to a&e'eat o' the entire arm)* +he im$ortance o' these 'e! $ersons is there'ore er) reat* But !hat!oul& the eneral sta'' amount to !ithout its tele$hone s)stem, its re$orts, its announcements, itsma$s, its o$$ortunities to issue or&ers, the &isci$line in the arm), etc*= er) little* +he $ersonsconstitutin the eneral sta'' mi ht be no more than the rest o' the arm)8 their stren th, theirsi ni'icance is the result o' a s$ecial social connection, o' the or ani(ation !ithin !hich these

$ersons are !orkin * +o be sure, the) ma) be ca$able o' &ischar in their &uties 4the) ma) ha esu''icient trainin or natural a$titu&e, the latter &e elo$e& b) e $erience, as !as the case !ith man)o' Na$oleon#s enerals, or !ith the comman&ers o' the %e& <rm) * But a$art 'rom this s$ecialconnection, the) lose their si ni'icance entirel)* +he o$$ortunit) on the $art o' the eneral sta'' toe ert a $o!er'ul in'luence on the arm) is con&itione& b) the arm) itsel', b) its structure, its&is$ositions, b) the a re ate o' mutual interactions that ha e here been brou ht to ether*

In societ) the case is the same* +he role o' $olitical lea&ers, 'or instance, is much lar er than the roleo' the a era e man o' a certain class or $art)* 3' course, it is necessar) to ha e certain a$titu&es,mental >ualities, e $erience, etc*, in or&er to become a $olitical lea&er* But it is also clear that in theabsence o' the necessar) or ani(ations 4$arties, unions, a $ro$er a$$roach to the masses, etc* the"lea&ers" coul& not $la) such an im$ortant $art* It is the stren th o' the social bon&s that i esstren th to the in&i i&ual $ersons o' $rominence* uite similar is the case in other relations also, let

us sa) !ith re ar& to in entors, scholars, etc* +he) can "&e elo$" onl) un&er certain circumstances*Su$$ose an in entor, talente& b) nature, has ha& no o$$ortunit) to "$ush himsel'", has learne&nothin , rea& nothin , has been obli e& to take u$ an entirel) &i''erent acti it), 'or instance, sellinra s* His "talent" !oul& o to $ot8 no one !oul& e er hear o' him* Eust as the militar) lea&er isinconcei able !ithout an arm), so the technical in entor is inconcei able !ithout machiner),a$$aratus an& the $eo$le that o !ith them* <n&, on the other han&, i' our ra .&ealer shoul& succee&in "makin his !a) in the !orl&", i*e*, in occu$)in a certain $lace in the s)stem o' social relations,he mi ht become a secon& &ison* We mi ht i e an) number o' such e am$les, but it is sel'.e i&ent that in all these cases societ) has a certain in'luence, an& that it is im$ossible to "&e elo$"e ce$t on the basis o' this in'luence !ithin !hich the social 4class, rou$, eneral &eman& is 'elt*

+hus, the social relations themsel es im$art im$ortance to the arious in&i i&uals*



+his $oint o' ie! has ma&e er) slo! hea&!a), 'or the reasons so brilliantl) re eale& b) M* N* Pokro sk) 4 9utlines ofthe Mistory of ;ussian Culture, ol* i, $*F, in %ussian * +he historian, b) reason o' his $ersonal situation, is a mental!orker, an intellectual8 $rocee&in to a consi&eration o' his more s$eci'ic earmarks, he is a man !ho &oes !ork in!ritin , a literar) !orker* What is more natural 'or him than to consi&er mental !ork as the chie' substance o' histor),an& literar) !orks, 'rom $oems an& romances to $hiloso$hical treatises an& scienti'ic $ublications, as the 'un&amental'acts o' ci ili(ation=" urthermore, "men !ho &o mental !ork . >uite naturall) " !ere sei(e& !ith the $ri&e that &ictate&

the h)mns o' $raise to the Pharaohs* +he) be an to belie e that the) !ere makin histor)*" It shoul& be a&&e& that this $ro'essional stan&$oint 'ull) coinci&e& !ith the class stan&$oint o' the rulin classes, the minorit) that &ominate& thereat ma-orit)* It is not &i''icult to see that this em$hasis an& $re'erence 'or lea&ers, $articularl) kin s, $rinces, etc*, an&

also 'or so calle& eniuses . is closel) allie& !ith the reli ious $oint o' ie!8 'or here the social $o!er is o erlooke&, the $o!er !hich is con'erre& b) societ) on the in&i i&ual8 in its stea&, the historian isuali(es the inscrutable, i*e*, actuall),"&i ine" $o!er o' the in&i i&ual $erson* +his is e cellentl) e $resse& b) the %ussian $hiloso$her, * S* Solo )o , in his Qustification of the Good,cha$* i : "+he $ro i&ential $ersons !ho ha e enable& us to share the hei hts o' reli ion an& o'human enli htenment !ere ori inall) b) no means the creators o' these $ossessions* +hat !hich the) a e us !as taken

b) them 'rom earlier !orl&.historic eniuses, heroes an& mart)rs, all o' !hom !e must bear rate'ull) in min&* We mustattem$t to restore the 'ull line o' our mental ancestors, the men throu h !hom Pro5idencehas been im$ellin mankin&'or!ar& on the $ath to $er'ection* " In these Kchosen 5essels,K we worshi that which Me 6the Mea5enly ather) hasim"ued them with in these 5isi"le counterfeits of in5isi"le di5inity, the di5inity itself is reco!ni ed and worshi ed *" +his

bal&er&ash s$eaks 'or itsel' . it re>uires no re'utation*

It 'ollo!s 'rom the abo e that the "in&i i&ual" al!a)s acts as a social in&i i&ual, as a com$onent $art o' a rou$, a class, a societ)* +he "in&i i&ual" is al!a)s 'ille& !ith a social content, 'or !hichreason it is necessar), in an e''ort to un&erstan& the ro!th o' societ), to be in !ith a consi&erationo' the social con&itions, an& to $rocee& 'rom them, i' that be necessar), to the in&i i&ual8 thecontrar) $rocess is !orthless* B) means o' the social relations . b) an in esti ation o' the con&itionso' the entire social li'e, the li'e o' a class, o' a tra&e rou$, the 'amil), the school, etc*. !e ma) moreor less e $lain the &e elo$ment o' the in&i i&ual8 but !e coul& ne er e $lain the &e elo$ment o'societ) b) means o' the &e elo$ment o' the "in&i i&ual"* or each in&i i&ual, !hate er be hisacti it), al!a)s has in min& !hat has alrea&) taken $lace in societ)8 'or e am$le, !hen the bu)er

oes to market to bu) shoes or brea&, his $rice estimates are base& on his $ersonal a$$ro imation to $rices no! $re alent or 'ormerl) $re alent on the market* When the in entor &e ises a ne! machine,he $rocee&s on the basis o' !hat is alrea&) in e istence, on the basis o' e istin techni>ue or e istinscience, on the $roblems $resente& b) this science, on the &eman&s o' $ractical !ork, etc* In a !or&,i' !e shoul& attem$t . as &o certain bour eois scholars . to e $lain social $henomena on the basis o'in&i i&ual $henomena 4on the in&i i&ual $s)cholo ) , !e shoul& ha e not an e $lanation, but anabsur&it)8 the social $henomenon 4'or instance, the $rice cannot be e $laine& b) the in&i i&ual

$henomenon 4'or instance, the alue $ut u$on the oo&s b) Smith, Eones, or %obinson , but theirestimates can be e $laine& b) the $rice !hich Smith, Eones, or %obinson ha& in min& 'rom some

$re ious occasion* We ha e there'ore seen that the in&i i&ual &ra!s his moti es 'rom the eneralit),the social en ironment8 the con&itions un&er !hich the social en ironment &e elo$s $ro i&e the

limits 'or the in&i i&ual#s acti it)8 the in&i i&ual#s role is &etermine& b) social con&itions* Societ)takes $rece&ence o er the in&i i&ual*

e. Societies in Process of 'ormation

+he 'act that man has al!a)s e iste& in societ) b) no means si ni'ies that newsocieties ma) not be'orme& or that ol& societies ma) not ro!*

;et us assume that at a certain time arious human rou$s are in e istence at arious $oints on theearth#s sur'ace, an& that these human or ani(ations ha e no relation !hate er !ith each other8 the)are &i i&e& b) mountains, ri ers an& oceans, an& ha e not )et attaine& a sta e o' "cultural

&e elo$ment" that !oul& enable them to o ercome these obstacles* I' the) succee& in comin into



contact !ith each other at all, it is onl) at the rarest inter als, an& !ith no re ularit)8 a $ermanentrelation &oes not e ist bet!een them*

6n&er these circumstances, !e cannot s$eak o' a sin le reat societ) embracin these ariousrou$s* Instea& o' a uni ersal societ), !e ha e as man) societies as there are rou$s o' the kin&

mentione&, 'or the basis o' societ), its most outstan&in characteristic, is a $ermanent la"or "ond, aseries o' "$ro&uction relations", constitutin a skeleton 'or the entire s)stem* In the case abo e&escribe& there is no such relation bet!een the rou$s, no uni ersal societ), but a number o' $ett)societies, each !ith its o!n s$ecial histor)*

We cannot there'ore s$eak o' a union o' "men" in a sin le societ), but ma) onl) rou$ them as"men", as o$$ose& to other animals8 in other !or&s, !e ma) consi&er them as unite& in a biolo ical

rou$ 4as &istinct 'rom 'leas, ira''es, ele$hants 8 but not in a social rou$ 'rom the stan&$oint o'social science, o' sociolo )8 !e are &ealin !ith a sin le t)$e o' animal, but not !ith a sin lesociet)* rom the stan&$oint o' biolo ical unit), it is su''icient that these animals shoul& ha e thesame mor$holo ), the same or ans, etc* But sociolo ical unit) !oul& re>uire that these animalsshoul&work to!ether in some !a) or other, not simultaneousl), not merel) in $arallel acti ities, butto ether*

Some o so 'ar as to &en) that societ) e ists as a unit* or e am$le, Pro'essor Wi$$er sa)s: K "<com$letel) close& s)stem o' natural econom) has $erha$s ne er e iste& 'rom the be innin o'ci ili(ation* We ha e al!a)s ha& commercial relations, coloni(ation, mi rations, $ro$a an&a*/oubtless, in&e$en&ent !ork has been &one in certain $laces, much has been simultaneousl)accom$lishe& !ithin arious eo ra$hical limits an& con&itions b) in&e$en&ent e''ort, but $erha$sthe ne t 'ollo!in sta e in e olution has in most cases been attaine& b) a su&&en boun&, as a sort o'

$remature lesson, cru&el) an& im$er'ectl) tau ht, but ne ertheless re$eate& b) others an& laterlearne&*" But !hile there ma) ne er ha e been an a"solute, com$lete s)stem, there is no &oubt!hate er that the e chan e relations e istin bet!een arious human societies !ere once e tremel)sli ht* or instance, !hat relations e iste& bet!een the uro$ean $eo$les an& <merica* be'ore0olumbus= en amon the uro$ean $eo$les themsel es . let us sa) . in the Mi&&le < es, relations!ere er) !eak* It is there'ore im$ossible in such cases to s$eak o' a sin le human societ)8humanit) !as then a unit onl) 'rom the biolo ical stan&$oint*

;et us no! su$$ose that contacts be in bet!een our arious societies, 'irst, militar) contacts, thencommercial relations* +hese commercial relations become more an& more $ermanent8 'inall) a timecomes !hen one societ) cannot e ist !ithout the other8 certain societies $ro&uce chie'l) one thin ,!hile others $ro&uce another thin 8 these $ro&ucts are e chan e& an& thus the societies !ork u$on

each other, this !ork no! ha in a re ular an& not merel) acci&ental character, !hich is necessar)'ar the e istence o' both rou$s o' societies* We no! alrea&) ha e a sin!le societyon a lar e scale,'orme& b) the union o' societies once &istinct 'rom each other*

+he o$$osite $rocess ma) also take $lace8 un&er certain con&itions, societ) ma) &issol e into anumber o' societies 4usuall) un&er con&itions o' &ecline *

It 'ollo!s that societ) is not a $ermanent thin , e istin 'rom time immemorial 'or !e ma) trace, the $rocess o' its 'ormation* or e am$le, !e ha e seen such a $rocess oin on in the secon& hal' o'the Nineteenth 0entur) an& the be innin o' the +!entieth 0entur)* In arious !a)s 4throu hcolonial !ars, the increase in e chan es o' oo&s, e $ort an& im$ort o' ca$ital, mo ement o'

$o$ulation 'rom one countr) to another, an& the like closet an& closer mutual relations ha e been built u$ bet!een countries* <ll countries ha e been -oine& b) $ermanent economic bon&, !hich





means, in the last anal)sis, labor bon&* < !orl& economic s)stem has resulte&, !orl& ca$italism hasro!n u$, all o' !hose $arts are interrelate& !ith each other* +o ether !ith the international

mo ement o' thin s an& $eo$le: commo&ities, ca$ital, !orkers, merchants, en ineers, tra elinsalesmen, etc*, a tremen&ous current o' i&eas has also been mo in 'rom countr) to countr):scienti'ic i&eas, artistic i&eas, $hiloso$hical i&eas, reli ious i&eas, $olitical i&eas, etc*, etc* +he !orl&

tra&e in ma terial thin s has brou ht !ith it a !orl& e chan e o' mental $ro&ucts* < sin le humansociet) has be un to e ist, ha in a sin le histor)*

B+B/+)$0APH1

?* Mar : A Contri"ution to a Critique of Political Economy, 0hica o, 191F* ?* Mar : Ca ital, 5ol. i,0hica o, 19158 * n els: Anti18Dhrin! 8 * n els: euer"ach 4translate& into n lish b) <ustin;e!is, 0hica o, 19C 8 H* 0uno!: So iolo!ie, Ethnolo!ie and materialistischeGeschichtsauffassun!.H* 0uno!: 8ie <arxsche Geschichts1, Gesellschafts1 and StaatslehreGrund ii!e der <arxschen So iolo!ie, ol* i8 Plekhano :4wenty Rears4in %ussian 8 N* Bukharin:4he Economic 4heory of the ?eisure Class.3n the sub-ect o' $ro&uction relations, c'* N* Bukharin: Im erialism and :orld Economy*

%)T-S

1 Contri"ution to a Critique of Political Economy.

2 0hica o, 0harles H* ?err 0om$an), 1915, ol* i, $*K59*

F ?arl Mar : Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy, $rinte& !ith A Contri"ution to theCritique of Political Economy,0hica o, 191F, $$*2 5.2 1*

K?In his article, "Ne! Hori(ons in the Science Histor)" 4in %ussian , o' in the $erio&icalSo5remenny <ir, No ember, 19C *

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%: The &'uili rium et een Society and Nature

a. %ature as the -n2ironment of Society

< consi&eration o' societ) as a s)stem in ol es the reco nition o' "e ternal nature" as itsen ironment, i*e*, chie'l) the terrestrial lobe !ith all its natural $ro$erties* Human societ) isunthinkable !ithout its en ironment* Nature is the source o' 'oo&stu''s 'or human societ), thus&eterminin the latter#s li in con&itions* But nothin coul& be more incorrect than to re ar& nature'rom the teleolo ical $oint o' ie!: man, the lor& o' creation, !ith nature create& 'or his use, an& allthin s a&a$te& to human nee&s* <s a matter o' 'act, nature o'ten 'alls u$on the "lor& o' creation" insuch a sa a e manner that he is obli e& to a&mit her su$eriorit)* It has taken man centuries o' bitterstru le to $lace his iron bit in nature#s mouth*

No! man, as an animal 'orm, as !ell as human societ), are $ro&ucts o' nature, $arts o' this reat,en&less !hole* Man can ne er esca$e 'rom nature, an& e en !hen he "controls" nature, he is merel)makin use o' the la!s of nature 'or his o!n en&s* It is there'ore clear ho! reat must be thein'luence o' nature on the !hole &e elo$ment o' human societ)* Be'ore $rocee&in to a stu&) o' therelations e istin bet!een nature an& man, or o' the 'orms in !hich nature o$erates on humansociet), !e must consi&er 'irst o' all !ith !hat $hases o' nature man comes chie'l) in contact* Weha e onl) to look about us in or&er to $ercei e the &e$en&ence o' societ) on nature: "+he soil 4an&this, economicall) s$eakin , inclu&es !ater in the ir in state in !hich it su$$lies man !ithnecessaries or the means o' subsistence rea&) to han&, e ists in&e$en&entl) o' him, an& is theuni ersal sub-ect o' human labor* <ll those thin s !hich labor merel) se$arates 'rom imme&iateconnection !ith their en ironment, are sub-ects o' labor s$ontaneousl) $ro i&e& b) nature* Such are'ish !hich !e catch an& take 'rom their element !ater, timber !hich !e 'ell in the ir in 'orest, an&ores !hich !e e tract 'rom their eins " <s the earth is his ori inal lar&er, so too it is his ori inal

tool house* It su$$lies him, 'or instance, !ith stones 'or thro!in , rin&in , $ressin , cuttin , etc*"1

Nature is the immediateob-ect o' labor in the ac>uisiti e in&ustries 4minin , huntin , $ortions o'a riculture, etc* * In other !or&s, nature &etermines !hat ra! materials are to be mani$ulate&* Man,as !e ha e seen abo e, is constantl) makin use o' the la!s o' nature in his stru le !ith her* "Hemakes use o' the mechanical, $h)sical an& chemical $ro$erties o' some bo&ies in or&er to makeother substances subser ient !ith his aims:" 2 Man makes use o' the $o!er o' steam, electricit), etc*,the attraction o' the earth 'or bo&ies 4la! o' ra itation , etc* It is im$ossible, there'ore, 'or the stateof natureat a certain $lace an& at a certain time not to act u$on human societ)* 0limate 4>uantit) o'moisture, !in&s, tem$erature, etc* , con'i uration o' sur'ace 4hills or alle)s, &istribution o' !ater,character o' ri ers, $resence o' metals, minerals, all the resources burie& in the earth , the charactero' the shore 4in the case o' a maritime communit) , the &istribution o' lan& an& !ater, the $resence

o' arious animals an& $lants, etc*, such are the chie' elements o' nature that in'luence humansociet)* Whales an& 'ish ma) not be cau ht on lan&8 a riculture ma) not be $ursue& on rock)mountains8 &eserts are a $oor $lace 'or 'orestr)8 )ou cannot li e in tents in col& countries &urin the!inter, nor &o )ou heat )our but in hot !eather *** i' no metals are in the roun&, )ou cannot con-urethem &o!n 'rom hea en or suck them out o' )our 'in er.ti$s, etc*

In &etail, the in'luence o' nature is 'oun& e $resse& in the 'ollo!in con&itions:

8istri"ution of land and water.In eneral, man is a lan& animal8 the ocean there'ore has a &ouble in'luence: it &i i&es:an&, on the other han&, 'urnishes a trans$ortation route* +he 'ormer in'luence is earlier than the latter* +he in'luence o'the coast.line is chie'l) in its $ossessin . or not $ossessin . oo& harbors* With 'e! e ce$tions 40herbour , 'orinstance , mo&ern sea$orts are establishe& !here the natural cur es o' the seacoast $ro i&e natural harbors* +he sur'aceo' the earth, !hose in'luence on man is 'elt throu h the animal an& e etable kin &oms, has also a more &irect in'luence







. ar)in reatl) in accor&ance !ith the sta e in e olution . b) &eterminin the nature an& &irection o' trans$ortationroutes 4$aths, hi h!a)s, railroa&s, tunnels, etc* *

Stones and minerals.0onstruction !ork &e$en&s on the nature o' the a ailable stone >uarries* In mountainous re ions,the har& arieties 4'or instance, $or$h)r), basalt, etc* $re&ominate8 in alle)s, so'ter arieties* +he im$ortance o'minerals an& metals has increase& $articularl) in recent &a)s 4iron, coal * 0ertain minerals 'urnish the $rinci$al reason'or the mi ration o' nations, as !ell as coloni(ation* 4+he $resence o' tin lure& the Phoenicians north!ar&8 ol& &re!them to South <'rica an& ast In&ia8 ol& an& sil er brou ht the S$aniar&s to <merica* +he centers o' mo&ern hea )in&ustr) are &etermine& b) the location o' &e$osits o' iron ore an& coal* +he character o' the soil, to ether !ith theclimate, ha e their in'luence on the e etable kin &om*

Continental "odies of water.Water is o' alue, in the 'irst $lace, 'or &rinkin $ur$oses 4there'ore it is so $recious in the&esert 8 secon&, !e ha e its si ni'icance 'or a riculture 4the soil . &e$en&in on the amount o' !ater in it . must be&raine& or irri ate& * It is !ell kno!n ho! si ni'icant are the inun&ations o' the reat ri ers 4Nile, 7an es, etc* 'ora riculture, an& ho! reat !as the in'luence o' this circumstance on the ancient )$tians an& ast In&ians* Water isalso im$ortant as moti e $o!er 4!ater.mills are amon the earliest in entions8 there'ore, cities arose in close $ro imit)to re ions rich in !ater8 more recentl), the utili(ation o' !ater $o!er in electri'ication ma) be mentione&, the so calle&

!hite coal," no! !i&el) e $loite& in <merica, 7erman), Nor!a), S!e&en an& Ital) * inall), there is the 'act that !ater 'urnishes trans$ortation routes, !hich some scholars consi&er its most im$ortant 'unction*

4he ClimateKsin'luence is chie'l) throu h its e''ect on $ro&uction* +he s$ecies o' $lants to be culti ate& &e$en& on theclimate, !hich also &etermines the len th o' the a ricultural season 4 er) short in %ussia8 lastin nearl) a )ear insouthern countries 8 labor 'orces are there'ore liberate& in northern climates, becomin a ailable 'or in&ustr), etc*0limate also has an in'luence on trans$ortation 4tra''ic b) slei h in !inter8 harbors 'ro(en u$ or o$en in !inter, alsori ers, etc* * < col& climate re>uires a reater >uantit) o' labor &e ote& to nourishment, clothin , housin , arti'icialheatin , etc*8 in the north, more time is s$ent in&oors8 in the south, more in the o$en air*

4he lora has a ar)in in'luence: at lo!er le els o' culture, the $aths &e$en&e& on the nature o' the 'orests 4inaccessible $rime al 'orests , the s$ecies o' trees &etermine the character o' construction, 'uel, etc*, also the chase, a riculture, e enthe s$eci'ic ariet) o' a riculture* +he same is true o' cattle bree&in * +he fauna, 'or $rimiti e tribes, constitutes a

$o!er'ul hostile element, ser in chie'l) 'or nutrition, in other !or&s, as the ob-ect o' the chase an& o' 'isher)8 later,

there came the tamin o' beasts, !ith a 'urther e''ect on $ro&uction an& trans$ortation 4&rau ht animals *

4he 9cean has al!a)s been o' reat im$ortance8 tra el an& 'rei ht are chea$er b) sea8 the ocean also 'urnishes thetheater 'or man) branches o' $ro&uction 4'isheries, !halin , sealin , etc* * 4 Cf. A.Hettner: 8ie !eo!ra hischen 3edin!un!en der menschlichen :irtschaft in Grundriss der 2ational konomik,+]bin en 191K* +he in'luence o'climatic con&itions ma) be illustrate& as 'ollo!s: in the matter o' a era e annual tem$eratures 4so calle& isothermsonthe charts , "it ma) be obser e& that the reatest $o$ulations ha e con re ate& bet!een the isotherms o' ^ 1 _ 0* an& ^K_ 0* +he isotherm ^ 1C_ 0* coinci&es $rett) closel) !ith the central a is o' this climatic an& cultural (one, an& on thisisotherm lie the richest an& most $o$ulous cities o' the lobe: 0hica o, Ne! @ork, Phila&el$hia, ;on&on, ienna,3&essa, Pekin 8 on isotherm ^ 1 _ !e 'in&: St* ;ouis, ;isbon, %ome, 0onstantino$le, 3saka, ?ioto, +okio8 on isotherm ^K_, !e ha e: uebec, 3slo, Stockholm, ;enin ra&, Mosco!* er) 'e! cities o' more than 1CC,CCC inhabitants are 'oun&south o' isotherm ^ 1 _: Me ico, Ne! 3rleans, 0airo, <le an&ria, +eheran, 0alcutta, Bomba), Ma&ras, 0anton* +henorthern limit . isotherm ^ K_ . is more shar$l) &ra!n8 north o' it, the onl) im$ortant cities are Winni$e 40ana&a an&the a&ministrati e centers o' Siberia*" 4;* I* Mechniko :Ci5ili ation and the Great Mistorical ;i5ers,>uote& 'rom the%ussian e&ition, Petersbur , 1D9D, $$*FD, F9*

b. 0elations bet8een Society and %ature, the Process of Production and0e roduction

We alrea&) kno! that in an) s)stem the cause 'or alterations in the s)stem must be sou ht in itsrelations !ith its en ironment8 also, that the 'un&amental &irection o' ro!th 4$ro ress, rest, or&estruction o' the s)stem , &e$en&s $recisel) on !hat the relation is bet!een the i en s)stem an&its en ironment* <n alteration in this relation im$els us to seek a cause $ro&ucin a chan e in thes)stem itsel'* Where shall !e seek the constantl) chan in relations bet!een societ) an& nature=



We ha e alrea&) seen that this chan in relation is in the 'iel& o' social labor* <s a matter o' 'act,ho! &oes the $rocess o' a&a$tation o' human societ) to nature e $ress itsel'= What is the charactero' the unstable e>uilibrium bet!een societ) an& nature=

Human societ), e er since it be an, has ha& to abstract material ener ) 'rom e ternal nature8 !ithout

these loans it coul& not e ist* Societ) best a&a$ts itsel' to nature b) abstractin 4an& a$$ro$riatin toitsel' more ener ) 'rom nature8 onl) b) increasin this >uantit) o' ener ) &oes societ) succee& in

ro!in * ;et us su$$ose, 'or e am$le, that on a certain &a) all labor shoul& sto$.in 'actories,machine.sho$s, mines, on railroa&s, in the 'orests an& 'iel&s, b) lan& an& sea* Societ) !oul& not beable to maintain itsel' 'or a sin le !eek, 'or e en in or&er to li e on the e istin su$$lies, it !oul&ha e to trans$ort, 'or!ar&, an& &istribute them* " er) chil& kno!s that an) nation !oul& $erish o'hun er i' it shoul& sto$ !ork, I shall not sa) 'or a )ear, but onl) 'or a 'e! !eeks*" F Men culti atethe roun&, raise !heat, r)e, mai(e8 the) bree& an& ra(e animals8 the) raise cotton, hem$ an& 'la 8the) cut &o!n trees, break stone in >uarries, an& thus satis') their &eman&s 'or 'oo&, clothin , an&shelter* +he) sei(e coal an& iron.ore in the bo!els o' the earth an& create reat machines o' steel,!ith the ai& o' !hich the) &i &o!n into nature in arious &irections, chan in the entire earth into a

i antic !orksho$, in !hich men beat !ith hammers, !ork at the benches, &i holes un&er roun&,see to it that the reat en ines run smoothl), cut tunnels throu h the mountains, cross the oceans inhu e shi$s, bear bur&ens throu h the air, trace a reat net!ork o' rails o er the earth, la) cables atthe bottom o' the sea.an& e er)!here, 'rom the nois) cit) centers to the remote countr) nooks on theearth#s sur'ace, the) !ork like bea ers 'or their "&ail) brea&", al!a)s b) a&a$tin themsel es tonature an& a&a$tin nature to themsel es* 3ne $art o' nature, external nature, the $art that !e arecallin the "en ironment", is o$$ose& to another $art, !hich is human societ)* <n& the 'orm o'contact bet!een these t!o $arts o' a sin le !hole is the $rocess o' human labor* ";abor is, in the'irst $lace, a $rocess in !hich both man an& nature $artici$ate, an& in !hich man o' his o!n accor&,starts, re ulates, an& controls the material reactions bet!een himself and nature.He o$$oses himsel' to nature as one o' her o!n 'orces*" K +he imme&iate contact bet!een societ) an& nature, i.e., theabstraction o' ener ) 'rom nature, is a material $rocess* "Man sets in motion his arms an& le s, hea&an& han&s, the natural 'orces o' his bo&), in or&er to a$$ro$riate nature#s $ro&uctions in a 'orma&a$te& to his o!n !ants*" 5

+his material $rocess o' "metabolism" bet!een societ) an& nature is the 'un&amental relation bet!een en ironment an& s)stem, bet!een "e ternal con&itions" an& human societ)*

In or&er that societ) ma) continue to li e, the $rocess o' $ro&uction must be constantl) rene!e&* I'!e assume that at an) moment a certain amount o' !heat, shoes, shirts, etc*, ha e been $ro&uce&,an& that all these are eaten, !orn, use& u$, in the same $erio&, it is clear that $ro&uction must at once

re$eat its c)cle8 in 'act, it must be constantl) re$eate&, each c)cle 'ollo!in imme&iatel) u$on theother* +he $rocess o' $ro&uction, ie!e& 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' a re$etition o' these $ro&ucti ec)cles, is calle& the re roducti5e rocess. or a reali(ation o' the re$ro&ucti e $rocess it is necessar)that all its material con&itions be re$eate&, 'or e am$le: 'or the $ro&uction o' te tile 'abrics, !e nee&looms8 'or looms !e nee& steel8 'or steel !e nee& iron ore an& coal8 'or trans$ortin the lattersubstances !e nee& rail, roa&s, an& there'ore also rails, locomoti es, etc*, also hi h!a)s, steamers,etc*8 !arehouses, 'actor) buil&in s, etc*8 in other !or&s, !e nee& a lon series o' material $ro&uctso' the most arie& nature* 3' course, all these material $ro&ucts &eteriorate . some 'aster than others. in the $rocess o' $ro&uction8 the 'oo&stu''s obtaine& b) the !ea ers are eaten u$8 the !ea inlooms !ear out8 the !arehouses become ol&, nee& o erhaulin 8 locomoti es et out o' re$air, cars,the ties, must be re$lace&* In 'act, a constant re$lacement 4b) ne! roduction)o' !orn.out, use& u$,

consume& ob-ects, in all their arious material 'orms, is a necessar) con&ition o' the $rocess o're$ro&uction* <t an) i en moment, human societ) re>uires 'or continuin the $ro ress o'












+he $rocess o' social $ro&uction is an a&a$tation o' human societ) to e ternal nature* +he $rocess isan acti e one* When an) t)$e o' animal a&a$ts itsel' to nature, this t)$e is sub-ect, at bottom, to theconstant action o' its en ironment* When human societ) a&a$ts itsel' to its en ironment, it alsoa&a$ts the en ironment to itsel', not onl) becomin sub-ect to the action o' nature, as a material, butalso simultaneousl) trans'ormin nature into a material 'or human action* or e am$le, !hen certain

'orms o' insects or bir&s ha e a colorin similar to that o' their en ironment 4mimicr) , this $henomenon is not a result o' an) e''ort on the $art o' these or anisms, an& certainl) not a result o'their action on e ternal nature* +his result !as obtaine& at the $rice o' the &estruction o' countlessm)ria&s o' in&i i&ual animals, in the course o' man) thousan&s o' )ears, !ith those best a&a$te&sur i in an& multi$l)in * Human societ) stru les !ith nature8 man $lo!s the roun&, constructsroa&s throu h im$assable 'orests, con>uers the 'orces o' nature, uses them 'or his o!n en&s, chan esthe !hole 'ace o' the earth8 this is an acti e, not a $assi e, a&a$tation, an& constitutes one o' the

basic &i''erences bet!een human societ) an& the other t)$es o' animals*

+his !as alrea&) !ell un&erstoo& b) the rench Ph)siocrats in the i hteenth 0entur)* +hus, !e 'in& in NicolasBau&eau 4 PremiOre introduction de la hiloso hie Ocononomique, ou analyse des 7tats oli7es, 1 , Collection des

Economistes et des ;7formateurs sociaux de rance, $ublishe& b) /ubois, Paris, 191C, $*2 : "<ll animals are &ail)attem$tin to 'in& $ro&ucts $ro&uce& b) nature,i.e., 'oo& 'urnishe& b) the earth itsel'* 0ertain s$ecies * * * collect thesecommo&ities an& $reser e them * * * * Man onl), &estine& 4this thou ht is e $resse& teleolo icall)* N*B* to in esti ate them)steries o' nature an& its 'ruit'ulness, can obtain more use'ul $ro&ucts than he 'in&s on the sur'ace o' the earth in its!il& an& un!orke& con&ition* +his acti it) 4cet art is $erha$s one o' man#s noblest traits on earth*"

"Man," !rites the eo ra$her ;* Mechniko 4o$* cit *, $*KK , "!ho shares !ith all other or anisms the aluable $ro$ert)o' a&a$tation to his en ironment, &ominates all b) reason o' the more $recious abilit) . $eculiar to him . o' a&a$tin theen ironment to his nee&s*

Strictl) s$eakin , acti e a&a$tation 4b) means o' labor is 'oun& in elementar) outline amon certain t)$es o' so calle&social animals 4bea ers, !ho buil& &ams8 ants, !ho erect lar e hills8 $lant.lice, !ho e $loit certain $lants8 bees, etc* 8 the

$rimiti e 'orms o' human labor !ere also animal.like, instincti e 'orms o' labor*

c. The Producti2e 'orces, the Producti2e 'orces as an Indicator of the Relationsbetween Society and Nature

+hus, the interrelation bet!een societ) an& nature is a $rocess o' social re$ro&uction* In this $rocess,societ) a$$lies its human labor ener ) an& obtains a certain >uantit) o' ener ) 'rom nature 4"nature#smaterial", in the !or&s o' Mar * +he "alance bet!een e $en&iture an& recei$ts is here ob iousl)the &ecisi e element 'or the ro!th o' societ)* I' !hat is obtaine& e cee&s the loss b) labor,im$ortant conse>uences ob iousl) 'ollo! 'or societ), !hich ar) !ith the amount o' this e cess*

;et us su$$ose a certain societ) must &e ote all its !orkin time to co erin its most ru&imentar)nee&s* It is ob ious that the $ro&ucts obtaine& !ill be consume& as ra$i&l) as ne! $ro&ucts are

$ro&uce&* +his societ) !ill there'ore not ha e enou h time to $ro&uce an a&&itional >uantit) o' $ro&ucts, to e ten& its re>uirements, to intro&uce ne! $ro&ucts8 it !ill har&l) be able to make en&smeet, !ill li e 'rom han& to mouth, !ill eat u$ !hat it $ro&uces, consumin -ust enou h to kee$ on!orkin 8 all its time !ill be s$ent in the $ro&uction o' an un ar)in >uantit) o' $ro&ucts* +hissociet) !ill remain at the same lo! le el o' e istence* It !ill be im$ossible 'or its &eman&s toincrease8 it !ill ha e to suit its !ants to its resources an& both !ill remain unchan e&*

No! let us su$$ose that 'or some reason the same >uantit) o' necessar) $ro&ucts is obtaine& !ith ane $en&iture, not o' all o' societ)#s time, but o' onl) one.hal' o' this time 4'or e am$le, the $rimiti etribe has mi rate& to a $lace !here there is t!ice as much ame, t!ice as man) beasts o' all kin&s,



or !here the earth is t!ice as 'ruit'ul8 or, the tribe has im$ro e& its metho& o' !orkin the soil, or&e ise& ne! tools, etc* *

In such a case, societ) !ill be 'ree 'or one.hal' o' its 'ormer !orkin time* It ma) &e ote this 'reetime to ne! branches o' $ro&uction: to the manu'acture o' ne! tools8 to the obtainin o' ne! ra!

materials, etc*, an& also to certain 'orms o' mental labor* Here the ro!th o' ne! &eman&s becomes $ossible, 'or the 'irst time !e ha e an o$$ortunit) 'or the birth an& &e elo$ment o` so calle&"mental culture"* I' the 'ree time no! a ailable is use& onl) $artl) in $er'ectin the 'ormer t)$es o'labor, it 'ollo!s that in the 'uture the 'ormer &eman&s ma) be satis'ie& b) &e otin to them e en lessthan one.hal' the entire labor time 4ne! $er'ections in the labor $rocess arise 8 in the ne t c)cle o're$ro&uction, still less time is re>uire&, etc*, an& the time thus ren&ere& a ailable !ill be &e ote& in

reater an& reater measure to the manu'acture o' more an& more im$ro e& tools, instruments,machines, on the one han&, an&, on the other han&, to ne! branches o' $ro&uction, satis')in ne!!ants8 an&, in the thir& $lace, to "mental culture", be innin !ith those $hases that are more or lessconnecte& !ith the $rocess o' $ro&uction*

;et us no! su$$ose that the same >uantit) o' necessar) ob-ects !hich 'ormerl) &eman&e& thee $en&iture o' the entire labor time, no! re>uire not one.hal' this time, but t!ice the time 4'orinstance, o!in to an e haustion o' the soil 8 it is clear that unless ne! mo&es o' labor are resorte&to, or ne! lan&s settle&, this societ) !ill &ecline, a $ortion o' its numbers !ill &ie out* ;et us 'urthersu$$ose that a hi hl) &e elo$e& societ), !ith a rich "mental culture", !ith the most arie& !ants, anin'inite number o' &i''erent branches o' $ro&uction, !ith "arts an& sciences" in 'ull bloom, su&&enl)'in&s &i''icult) in satis')in its nee&s8 $erha$s, o!in to certain reasons, the societ) is not able tomani$ulate its technical a$$aratus 4'or e am$le, there ma) be constant class !ar, !ith no class

ainin the u$$er han&, an& the $ro&ucti e $rocess, !ith its hi hl) &e elo$e& techni>ue, &ies out 8 itis then necessar) to return to an ol&er sta e o' labor, in !hich, 'or co erin the 'ormer &eman&s, amuch reater $erio& o' time !oul& be re>uire&, at $resent an im$ossibilit)8 $ro&uction !ill becurtaile&, the stan&ar& o' li in !ill o &o!n, the 'lourishin "arts an& sciences" !ill !ither8 mentalli'e !ill be im$o erishe&8 societ), unless this lo!erin o' its stan&ar& is the result o' merel)tem$orar) causes, !ill be "barbariani(e&", !ill o to slee$*

+he most note!orth) 'eature in all these cases is the 'act that the ro!th o' societ) is &etermine& b)the )iel& or roducti5ity of social la"or the $ro&ucti it) o' labor means the relation bet!een the>uantit) o' $ro&uct obtaine& an& the >uantit) o' labor e $en&e&8 in other !or&s, the $ro&ucti it) o'labor is the >uantit) o' $ro&uct $er unit o' !orkin time, 'or e am$le, the amount o' $ro&uct turne&out in one &a), or in one hour, or in one )ear* I' this amount o' $ro&uct obtaine& $er !orkin hour is&ouble&, !e sa) the $ro&ucti it) o' labor has increase& 2CC $er cent*, i' it is hal e&, !e sa) it has

one &o!n 5C $er cent*

3b iousl), the $ro&ucti it) o' labor is a $recise measure o' the "balance" bet!een societ) an&nature8 it is a measure o' the mutual interaction bet!een the en ironment an& the s)stem b) !hichthe $osition o' the s)stem in the en ironment is &etermine&, an& an alteration o' !hich !ill in&icateine itable chan es throu hout the internal li'e o' societ)*

In consi&erin the $ro&ucti it) o' social labor, !e must also consi&er amon labor e $en&itures theamount o' human labor !hich is &e ote& to the $ro&uction o' suitable instruments o' labor* I', 'ore am$le, a certain $ro&uct has hitherto been manu'acture& b) human han&s onl), $racticall) !ithouttools, an& no! be ins to be ma&e !ith the ai& o' com$licate& machiner), an& i' the a$$lication o'

this machiner) makes $ossible the manu'acture o' t!ice the >uantit) o' $ro&ucts in the same time as'ormerl), this !ill not mean that the $ro&ucti it) o' labor o' the entire societ) !ill be &ouble&* or



!e ha e not counte& the e $en&iture o' human labor that !ent into the manu'acture o' the machines4or, more correctl), !e ha e not counte& the labor that is indirectly in ol e& in the $ro&uct because it!ent directly into the machines * +he total $ro&ucti it) o' labor !ill there'ore be 'oun& to ha esome!hat less than &ouble&*

+hose !ho lo e to har$ on $ett) thin s ma) ob-ect to the conce$tion o' the $ro&ucti it) o' social labor, an& itsa&a$tation to societ) as a !hole, as &oes P* P* Maslo 4Ca italism, in %ussian * or e am$le, one ma) raise the ob-ectionthat the conce$tion o' the $ro&ucti it) o' labor is ali& onl) as a$$lie& to sin le branches o' $ro&uction* In a certain )ear,in so man) !orkin hours, so man) $airs o' boots !ere turne& out* In the 'ollo!in )ear, t!ice as man) in the sametime* But ho! ma) !e com$are an& a&& to ether the $ro&ucti it) o' labor in the 'iel&s . let us sa) . o' $i .bree&in an&oran e.culture= Is this not as sill) as the com$arison bet!een music, bills o' e chan e, an& su ar.beets, o' !hich Mars$oke so scorn'ull)= Such ob-ections ma) be ans!ere& in t!o !a)s8 in the 'irst $lace, all the use'ul $ro&uctsa$$ro$riate& b) societ) ma) be measure& com$arati el), as use'ul ener ies8 !e alrea&) e $ress r)e, !heat su ar.beets,an& $otatoes, in calories8 i' !e ha e not )et a& ance& so 'ar as to be able to e $ress these other thin s in actual $ractice,!e must not attach too much im$ortance to this inabilit)8 !e must reco ni(e that such a $rocess !ill ultimatel) be

$ossible8 in the secon& $lace, !e are alrea&) able to com$are !ith each other, b) in&irect an& com$licate& metho&s,>uantities o' >uite arie& ob-ects* +his is not the $lace 'or in&icatin the metho& $ursue&, but !e shall a&&uce a sim$lecase* I', 'or e am$le, in a certain )ear, in a certain number o' hours o' labor, there !ere $ro&uce& 1,CCC $airs o' boots

$lus 2,CCC $acka es o' ci arettes $lus 2C machines, an& in another )ear, in the same labor $erio&: 1,CCC $airs o' boots $lus 1,999 $acka es o' ci arettes $lus 21 machines $lus 1CC !oolen s!eaters, !e ma) maintain !ithout error that the $ro&ucti it) o' labor has increase& on the !hole* 3' course, !e can also ima ine the ob-ection that not onl) $ro&ucts o'consum$tion are $ro&uce&, but also instruments o' $ro&uction* +his !oul&, o' course com$licate the calculationconsi&erabl), but suitable metho&s ma) be &e ise& 'or inclu&in this circumstance*

+hus, the relation bet!een nature an& societ) is e $resse& in the relation bet!een the >uantit) o'use'ul ener ) turne& out . an& the e $en&iture o' social labor, i*e*, the $ro&ucti it) o' social labor*+he e $en&iture o' labor consists o' t!o com$onents: the labor that is cr)stalli(e& an& inclu&e& inthe instruments o' $ro&uction, an& the "li in " labor, i.e., the &irect e $en&iture o' !orkin ener )*I' the $ro&ucti it) o' labor as a >uantit) be re ar&e& 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' the com$onentmaterial 'actors o' this >uantit), !e 'in& !e are &ealin !ith three >uantities: 'irst, the >uantit) o'

$ro&ucts obtaine&8 secon&, the >uantit) o' instruments o' $ro&uction8 thir&, the >uantit) o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, i*e*, li in !orkers* <ll these >uantities are mutuall) &e$en&ent* or, i' !e kno!!hat !orkers are in ol e&, !e shall also kno! !hat the) !ill $ro&uce in a i en len th o' time8these t!o >uantities &etermine the thir& >uantit), the $ro&uct turne& out* +aken to ether, these t!o>uantities constitute !hat !e call the material roducti5e forces of society.I', in the case o' a certainsociet), !e kno! !hat instruments o' $ro&uction it controls, ho! man) such instruments, !hatkin&s o' !orkers an& ho! man), !e shall also kno! !hat !ill be the $ro&ucti it) o' social labor,an& !hat !ill be the &e ree to !hich this societ) has con>uere& nature, etc* In other #!or&s, theinstruments o' $ro&uction an& the !orkin 'orces i e us a $recise material measure 'or the sta eattaine& in the social e olution*

We ma) also lance a little &ee$er8 !e ma) o so 'ar as to sa) that the instruments o' $ro&uction&etermine e en the nature o' the !orker* or e am$le, !hen the linot)$e machine is a&&e& to thes)stem o' social labor, !orkers !ill be 'oun& to run the machine* +he elements actin in the labor

$rocess are there'ore not merel) an a re ation o' $ersons an& thin s, but a s)stem in !hich allthin s an& all $ersons stan&, as it !ere, at their $osts, ha in become a&a$te& to each other* +hee istence o' certain means o' $ro&uction im$lies also the e istence o' !orkers to mani$ulate them*

urthermore, the means o' $ro&uction themsel es ma) be &istin uishe& into t!o reat rou$s: ra!materials an& instruments o' labor* en the instrument o' labor 4tool $er'orms an acti e $art8 !ithit, the !orker !orks the ra! material* +he e istence in a certain societ) o' certain tools necessaril)im$lies the e istence o' the ra! material 'or !hich these tools are inten&e& 4o' course, in the normal

course o' re$ro&uction * We ma) there'ore &e'initel) state that the s)stem o' social instruments o'labor, i*e*, the technolo ) o' a certain societ), is a $recise material in&icator o' the relation bet!een



the societ) an& nature* +he material $ro&ucti e 'orces o' societ) an& the $ro&ucti it) o' social labor!ill 'in& their e $ression in this technical s)stem* "%elics o' b) one instruments o' labor $ossess thesame im$ortance 'or the in esti ation o' e tinct economical 'orms o' societ) 4societies o' arioust)$es, 2. 3 * as &o 'ossil bones 'or the &etermination o' e tinct s$ecies o' animals* It is not thearticles ma&e, but ho! the) are ma&e an& b) !hat instruments, that enables us to &istin uish

&i''erent economic e$ochs*"

+he >uestion ma) also be a$$roache& 'rom another an le* +he "a&a$tation" o' animals to natureconsists in an alteration o' the arious or ans o' these animals: their 'eet, -a!s, 'ins, etc*, !hichconstitutes a $assi e, "iolo!ical a&a$tation* But human societ) a&a$ts itsel' not biolo icall), buttechnicall), acti el), to nature* "<n instrument o' labor is a thin , or a com$le o' thin s, !hich thelaborer inter$oses bet!een himsel' an& the sub-ect o' his labor, an& !hich ser es as the con&uctor o' his acti it)* He makes use o' the mechanical, $h)sical, an& chemical $ro$erties o' some substancesin or&er to make other substances subser ient to his aims * * *thus nature becomes one o' the or anso' his acti it), one that he anne es to his o!n bo&il) or ans, a&&in stature to himsel' in s$ite o' theBible*" Human societ) in its technolo ) constitutes an arti'icial s)stem o' or ans !hich also are its&irect, imme&iate an& acti e a&a$tation to nature 4it ma) be state& $arentheticall) that this ren&erssu$er'luous a &irect bo&il) a&a$tation o' man to nature8 e en as com$are& !ith the orilla, man is a!eak creature8 in his stru le !ith nature he &oes not "inter$ose" his -a!s, but a s)stem o'machines * When ie!e& 'rom this $oint o' ie!, the >uestion lea&s us to the same conclusion: thetechnical s)stem o' societ) ser es as a $recise material in&icator o' the relation bet!een societ) an&nature*

In another $assa e in Ca ital,Mar sa)s: "/ar!in has intereste& us in the histor) o' Nature#s +echnolo ), i.e., in the'ormation o' the or ans o' $lants an& animals, !hich or ans ser e as instruments of $ro&uction 'or sustainin li'e* /oesnot the histor) o' the $ro&ucti e or ans o' man, o' or ans that are the material basis o' all social or ani(ation &eser ee>ual attention= " +echnolo ) &iscloses man#s mo&e o' &ealin !ith Nature, the $rocess o' $ro&uction b) !hich he

sustains his li'e, an& thereb) also la)s bare the mo&e o' 'ormation o' his social relations, an& o' the mental conce$tionsthat 'lo! 'rom them" 4 Ca ital, ol* i, 0hica o, 1915, $*KC , 'ootnote * "+he use an& 'abrication o' instruments o' labor,althou h e istin in the erm in certain s$ecies o' animals, is s$eci'icall) characteristic o' the human labor.$rocess, an&

ranklin there'ore &e'ines man as a tool.makin animal" 4 i"id *, ol* i, $* 2CC * It is interestin to obser e that the earliesttools !ere actuall) constructe& "accor&in to the ima e" o' the or ans o' the human bo&)* "6tili(in the ob-ects 'oun&

at han&# in the imme&iate en ironment, the 'irst tools $ut in their a$$earance as a $rolon ation, e $ansion, or re&uctiono' bo&il) or ans" 4 rnst ?a$$: Grundlinien einer Philoso hie der 4echnik,Braunsch!ei , 1D , $*K2 * "Blunt tools areantici$ate& in the human 'ist, !hile e& e& tools are antici$ate& in the 'in er.nails an& the incisor teeth* +he hammer, !ithits $ene, i es rise to the arious 'orms o' a e an& hatchet8 the in&e 'in er, hel& ri i&, !ith its shar$ nail, is imitate& inthe borer8 a sin le ro! o' teeth is &u$licate& in 'ile an& sa!, !hile the ri$$in han& an& the closin -a! are e $resse& inthe hea& o' a $air o' ton s an& in the -a!s o' the ise* Hammer, a e, kni'e, chisel, borer, sa!, ton s.all are $rimiti etools" 4i"id., .KFK>* * "+he 'in er, crooke&, becomes a hook8 the hollo! o' the han&, a bo!l8 s!or&, s$ear, ru&&er,sho el, rake, $lo!, tri&ent, re$resent the arious &irections an& $ostures o' arm, han& an& 'in ers" 6i"id., .K5 +he

e am$le o' $rimiti e tools also sho!s ho! sim$le instruments !ere &e elo$e& into more intricate ones: "+he sta''e ol es into a number o' &i''erent 'orms8 it becomes a club 'or $ur$oses o' i orous a ression8 a $ointe& stick 'orturnin o er the roun&8 a s$ear 'or $alin s an& 'or thro!in at ame" 4 rie&rich on 7ottl.3ttlilien'el&: :irtschaft and4echnikin Grundriss der 2ationalokonomie, ol* ii, $* 22D *

+he close connection bet!een technolo ) an& the so calle& "cultural !ealth" is ob ious* We nee& onl) to com$are $resent.&a) 0hina an& Ea$an* In 0hina.b) irtue o' a number o' circumstances . the $ro&ucti it) o' social labor, an& thesocial technolo ), &e elo$e& er) slo!l), an& 0hina ma) there'ore be consi&ere&, 'or the moment, a sta nantci ili(ation* +he ne! ca$italist technolo ) !ill here e ert a re olutioni(in in'luence* In Ea$an, on the other han&, reata& ances in technical e olution ha e been ma&e in recent &eca&es, an& Ea$an#s culture has corres$on&in l) &e elo$e&ra$i&l)8 a lance at the state o' Ea$anese science !ill sho! this*

In the earl) Mi&&le < es, culturall) at a lo!er le el than so calle& anti>uit), "technolo ) ma&e a reat retro ression ascom$are& !ith anti>uit), an& man) metho&s an& mechanical in entions o' the ancient !orl& !ere 'or otten " +he solee ce$tion !as the techni>ue o' !ar'are an& the metallur ) o' iron connecte& !ith that techni>ue" 4W* ?* < a'ono :





<odern 4echnolo!y, in %ussian, ol* iii, $*1 * 3b iousl), no cultural accumulation !as $ossible on this technical'oun&ation: societ)#s li in sa$ !as too $oor to make a "'ull li'e" $ossible* +he s!i't ro!th o' uro$e coinci&es !iththe ca$italist machine technolo )8 the centur) 1 5C.1D5C !itnesse& a re olution in technolo )8 steam.en ine, steamtrans$ortation, coal, machine metho&s in obtainin iron etc* +here 'ollo!e& the a$$lication o' electricit), turbine en ines,/iesel motors, the automobile, a iation* +he technical basis o' societ), an& its $ro&ucti e 'orces, rose to un$rece&ente&hei hts* 6n&er these circumstances, o' course, human societ) !as ca$able o' &e elo$in a er) intricate an& ersatile

"mental li'e"* I' !e e amine the ancient ci ili(ations, !ith their com$arati el) intricate mental li'e, the back!ar&ness o'e en their technolo ) as com$are& !ith the ca$italist technolo ) o' mo&ern uro$e an& <merica is er) strikin * Moreor less com$licate& machines !ere use& chie'l) 'or construction !ork, !ater su$$l) s)stems, an& minin * en the

reatest establishments came into bein not b) reason o' their $er'ect instruments, but o!in to their use o' an immensenumber o' li in labor 'orces* "Hero&otus re$orts that 1CC,CCC men carrie& stones 'or three months 'or the $)rami& o'0heo$s 42DCC B*0* , an& ten )ears ha& to be s$ent in the $reliminar) !ork o' makin a roa& lea&in 'rom the >uarries&o!n to the Nile" 4< a'ono : i"id *, $*5 * +he com$arati e $o ert) o' ancient technolo ) is a$$arent 'rom the &e'initiono' a "machine", i en b) the ancient %oman en ineer itru ius "< machine is an articulate& connection o' !oo&,a''or&in reat a& anta es in li'tin !ei hts" 4 i"id *, $*F * +hese !oo&en "machines" !ere use& chie'l) 'or "raisin!ei hts", but the) ha& to be su$$lie& !ith much human or animal labor*

d. The -9uilibrium Bet8een %ature and Society, +ts Disturbances and

0ead*ustments

0onsi&ere& as a !hole, !e 'in& that the $rocess o' re$ro&uction is a $rocess o' constant &isturbancean& reestablishment o' e>uilibrium bet!een societ) an& nature*

Mar &istin uishes bet!een sim lere$ro&uction an& re$ro&uctionon an extendin! scale.

;et us 'irst consi&er the case o' sim$le re$ro&uction* We ha e seen that in the $rocess o' $ro&uction,the means o' $ro&uction are use& u$ 4the ra! material is !orke& o er, arious au iliar) substancesare re>uire&, such as lubricatin oil, ra s, etc*8 the machines themsel es, an& the buil&in s in !hichthe !ork is &one, as !ell as all kin&s o' instruments an& their $arts, !ear out 8 on the other han&,labor $o!er is also e hauste& 4!hen $eo$le !ork, the) also &eteriorate, their labor $o!er is use& u$,an& a certain e $en&iture must be incurre& in or&er to reestablish this labor $o!er * In or&er that the

$rocess o' $ro&uction ma) continue, it is necessar) to re$ro&uce in it an& b) means o' it thesubstances that it consumes* or e am$le, in te tile $ro&uction, cotton is consume& as a ra!material, !hile the !ea in machiner) &eteriorates* In or&er that $ro&uction ma) continue, cottonmust continue to be raise& some!here, an& looms to be manu'acture&* <t one $oint the cotton&isa$$ears b) reason o' its trans'ormation into 'abrics, at another $oint, 'abrics &isa$$ear 4!orkers,etc*, use them an& cotton rea$$ears* <t one $oint, looms are bein slo!l) !i$e& out, !hile atanother the) are bein $ro&uce&* In other !or&s, the necessar) elements o' $ro&uction re>uire& inone $lace must be $ro&uce& some!here else8 there must be a constant re$lacement o' e er)thinnee&e& in $ro&uction8 i' +his re$lacement $rocee&s smoothl) an& at the same rate as the&isa$$earance, !e ha e a case o' sim$le re$ro&uction, !hich corres$on&s to a situation in !hich the

$ro&ucti e social labor remains uni'orm, !ith the $ro&ucti e 'orces unchan in , an& societ) mo inneither 'or!ar& nor back!ar&* It is clear that this is a case o' stable e>uilibrium bet!een societ) an&nature* It in ol es constant &isturbances o' e>uilibrium 4&isa$$earance o' $ro&ucts in consum$tionan& &eterioration an& a constant reestablishment o' e>uilibrium 4the $ro&ucts rea$$ear 8 but thisreestablishment is al!a)s on the ol& basis: -ust as much is $ro&uce& as has been consume&8 an&a ain -ust as much is consume& as has been $ro&uce&, etc*, etc* +he $rocess o' re$ro&uction is here a&ance to the same ol& tune*

But !here the $ro&ucti e 'orces are increasin , the case is &i''erent* Here, as !e ha e seen, a $ortion

o' the social labor is liberate& an& &e ote& to an e tension o' social $ro&uction 4ne! $ro&uction branches8 e tension o' ol& branches * +his in ol es not onl) a re$lacement o' the 'ormerl) e istin



elements o' $ro&uction, but also the insertion o' ne! elements into the ne! c)cle o' $ro&uction*Pro&uction here &oes not continue on the same $ath, mo in in the same c)cle all the time, butincreases in sco$e* +his is roduction on an extendin! scale,in !hich case e>uilibrium is al!a)sestablishe& on a ne! basis8 simultaneousl) !ith a certain consum$tion $rocee&s a lar er $ro&uction8consum$tion conse>uentl) also increases, !hile $ro&uction increases still 'urther* >uilibrium

results in each case in a !i&er basis8 !e are no! &ealin !ith unsta"le equili"rium with ositi5eindication*

+he thir& case, 'inall), is that o' a &ecline in the $ro&ucti e 'orces* In this case, the $rocess o're$ro&uction 'alls aslee$: smaller an& smaller >uantities are re$ro&uce&* < certain >uantit) isconsume&, but re$ro&uction in ol es a smaller >uantit) still8 less is consume&8 an& still less isre$ro&uce&, etc* Here a ain, re$ro&uction &oes not re$eat the same ol& c)cle in each case8 its s$here

ro!s narro!er an& narro!er8 societ)#s con&ition o' li'e becomes $oorer an& $oorer* +hee>uilibrium bet!een societ) an& nature is reestablishe& on a le el that oes lo!er an& lo!er eachtime*

Societ) mean!hile is a&a$tin itsel' to this continuall) narro!in stan&ar& o' li in , !hich can onl) be &one b) the $artial &isinte ration o' societ)* We are here &ealin !ith unsta"le equili"rium withne!ati5e indication.+he re$ro&uction in this case ma) be terme& ne!ati5ely e ten&e& re$ro&uction,or e ten&e&insufficiency of roduction.

Ha in &iscusse& the sub-ect 'rom all an les, !e ha e 'oun& the same result al!a)s, each case&e$en&in on the character o' the e>uilibrium bet!een societ) an& nature* Since the $ro&ucti e'orces ser e as a $recise e $ression o' this e>uilibrium, these 'orces enable us to -u& e its character*3ur remarks !oul& a$$l) -ust as !ell i' !e !ere s$eakin o' the technolo!yo' societ)*

e. The Producti2e 'orces as the Point of De arture in Sociological Analysisrom all that has been sai& abo e, the 'ollo!in scienti'ic la! results ine itabl): an) in esti ation o'

societ), o' the con&itions o' its ro!th, its 'orms, its content, etc*, must be in !ith an anal)sis o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, or o' the technical bases, o' societ)* ;et us 'irst take u$ a 'e! o' the ob-ectionsthat are ma&e . or mi ht be ma&e . a ainst this ie!*

In the 'irst $lace, let us consi&er some ob-ections a& ance& b) scholars !ho in eneral acce$t thematerialist $oint o' ie!* 3ne o' these, Heinrich 0uno!, sa)s D that technolo ) "is relate& to a er)

reat e tent !ith the con&itions o' nature* +he $resence o' certain ra! materials 6das Norkommen"estimmter ;ohmaterialien) &etermines, 'or e am$le, !hether it is $ossible 'or certain 'orms o'

technolo ) to &e elo$ at all, as !ell as the &irection !hich the) !ill take* or instance, !here certains$ecies o' stone, or !oo&s, or ores, or 'ibers, or shell.'ish, are not $resent, the nati es o' thesere ions !ill o' course ne er be able to &e elo$ o' themsel es these natural substances, or make toolsan& !ea$ons 'rom them*" <t the be innin o' this cha$ter !e ha e alrea&) a&&uce& &ata as to thein'luence o' the natural con&itions* Wh) shoul& !e not be in !ith these con&itions in nature= Wh)shoul& the startin $oint o' our metho&olo ) not be nature itsel'= +here is no &oubt that its in'luenceon technolo ) is as reat as 0uno! sa)s, an&, in a&&ition, nature o' course e iste& be'ore societ)*<re !e not there'ore sinnin a ainst true materialism !hen !e base it on an anal)sis o' the materialtechnical a$$aratus o' human societ)=

Ho!e er close a e amination o' the >uestion !ill sho! ho! erroneous are 0uno!#s conclusions* +o be sure, !here there are no &e$osits o' coal, no coal can be &u 'rom the roun&* But, !e mi ht alsoa&&, )ou can#t &i it out !ith )our 'in ers either8 an& it !ill be some!hat har& to make use o' it i'





)ou &on#t kno! its use'ul >ualities* "%a! materials", in 'act, &o not "e ist" in nature as 0uno! sa)s*"%a! materials" accor&in to Mar are $ro&ucts o' labor, an& the) ha e as little e istence in the

bo!els o' nature as has a $aintin b) %a$hael or Herr 0uno!#s !aistcoat 40uno! is here con'usin"ra! materials" !ith all sorts o' "ob-ects o' labor * 9 0uno! com$letel) 'or ets that a certain sta e o' technolo ) must ha e been reache& be'ore !oo&, or, 'ibers, etc*, ma) $la) the $art o' ra! materials*

0oal becomes a ra! material onl) !hen technolo ) has &e elo$e& so 'ar as to &el e in the bo!els o' the earth an& &ra their contents into the li ht o' &a)* +he in'luence o' nature, in the sense o'

$ro i&in materials, etc*, is itsel' a $ro&uct o' the &e elo$ment o' technolo )8 be'ore technolo ) ha&con>uere& coal, coal ha& no "in'luence" at all* Be'ore technolo ) !ith its 'eelers ha& reache& theiron.ore, this iron.ore !as $ermitte& to slee$ its eternal slumber8 its in'luence on man !as (ero*

Human societ) !orks in nature an& on nature, as the sub-ect o' its labor* But the elements e istin assuch in nature are here more or less constant an& there'ore cannot ex lain chan!es.It is the socialtechnolo ) !hich chan es, !hich a&a$ts itsel' to that !hich e ists in nature 4there is no $ossibilit)o' a&a$tin onesel' to em$t) s$ace8 it *is the cannon, an& not the hole, that is manu'acture& *+echnolo ) is a ar)in >uantit), an& $recisel) its ariations $ro&uce the chan es in the relations

bet!een societ) an& nature8 technolo ) there'ore must constitute a $oint o' &e$arture in an anal)siso' social chan es*1C

;* Mechniko e $resses this i&ea er) stu$i&l): " ar be it 'rom me to i e su$$ort to the theor)# o' eo ra$hical'atalism, !hich is o'ten o$$ose& as a $ro$a atin $rinci$le o' the all.&eterminin in'luence o' the en ironment inhistor)* In m) o$inion * * * the chan es must be sou ht not in the en ironment itsel', but in the mutual relations arisin

bet!een the en ironment an& the natural ca$acities o' its inhabitants 'or coo$eration an& team worko' a social or&er 4m)italics, N* B* * It 'ollo!s that the historical alue o' one eo ra$hical en ironment or another.e en assumin that itremain $h)sicall) unchan e& un&er all circumstances . can an& must ar) !ith the &e ree o' ca$acit) o' its inhabitants'or oluntar) team work04Mechniko , i"id *, $$*2 , 2D * <ll o' !hich &oes not $re ent Mechniko himsel' 'romo erestimatin " eo ra$h)"* 4Cf. Plekhano #s criticism in the collection Criticism of 9ur Critics* +he $assi e charactero' the in'luence o' nature is no! reco ni(e& b) almost all eo ra$hers, althou h bour eois scholars o' this t)$e o' course

kno! nothin o' historical materialism* +hus, Eohn Mc arlane 6Economic Geo!ra hy,;on&on !rites concernin the"natural con&itions o' economic acti it)" 4cha$* i : "+hese $h)sical 'actors " &o not determine the economic lifea"solutely, but the) &o ha e an in'luence u$on it, !hich is un>uestionabl) more noticeable in the earlier sta e o' humanhistor), but !hich is -ust as real in the a& ance& ci ili(ations, a'ter man has learne& to a&a$t himsel' to his en ironmentan& to &ra!, more an& more, an increase& bene'it 'rom it*" +he role $la)e& b) coal, an& the &e$en&ence o' our in&ustr)u$on it, are !ell kno!n* <s the techni>ue o' !innin an& !orkin $eat chan es, the si ni'icance o' coal ma) &ecrease,an& this !oul& in ol e an immense &islocation o' the in&ustrial centers* +he $ro ress o' electri'ication assi ne& a moreim$ortant role to aluminium, 'ormerl) o' subsi&iar) im$ortance* Water as a 'orm o' $o!er !as once o' reat im$ortance4the mill!heel, then &eclinin , an& no! a ain risin 8 turbines, "!hite coal" * S$ace relations in nature remain the same8

but &istances are &ecrease& 'or men b) the use o' trans$ortation &e ices8 the &e elo$ment o' a iation is chan in the $icture still more*

+his in'luence o' trans$ortation 4a er) ariable >uantit), &e$en&in on technolo ) is o' &ecisi e im$ortance e en in theeo ra$hic location o' in&ustr)* tremel) interestin obser ations on this $oint are to be 'oun& in <l're& Weber#s

"+heor) o' the ;ocation o' In&ustr)", in his Industrielle Standortslehrein Grundriss, $$*5D, 59, et seq.,Section i8 alsoin Weber#s @"er den Standort der Industries, $art iJ ;eine 4heorie des Standortes, 19C9*

< $oetic e $ression o' the ro!in $o!er o' man o er nature, his acti5e $o!er, is i en b) 7oethe in his $oemPrometheus"

0o er th) s$acious hea ens, Ueus,With clou&s o' mist,<n&, like the bo) !ho lo$s+he thistles# hea&s,/is$ort !ith oaks an& mountain.$eaks8

@et thou must lea eM) earth still stan&in 8M) cotta e, too, !hich !as not raise& b) thee8







;ea e me m) hearth,Whose kin&l) lo!B) thee is en ie&*

4+ranslate& b) & ar <l're& Bo!rin , 4he Poems of Goethe, Ne! @ork, 1DD1, $$*191, 192*

It is there'ore ob ious that the &i''erences in the natural con&itions !ill e $lain the &i''erent e olution o' the &i''erentnations, but not the course 'ollo!e& b) the e olution o' one an& the same societ)* +he natural &i''erences, !hen thesenations combine into a societ), later become a basis 'or the social &i ision o' labor* "It is not the absolute 'ruit'ulness o'the soil, but its &i''erentiation, the mani'ol&ness o' its natural $ro&ucts, !hich constitutes the basis o' the social &i isiono' labor, an& !hich s$urs man on, to the multi$lication o' his o!n nee&s, abilities, instruments an& mo&es o' labor,o!in to chan es in the natural circumstances in !hich he &!ells" 4Mar , Ca ital , ol* i *

<nother rou$ o' ob-ections to the conce$tion o' social &e elo$ment that !e ha e a& ance& abo e is base& on the &ecisi e an& 'un&amental im$ortance o' the ro!th o' $o$ulation* or the ten&enc) tomulti$lication is inera&icabl) $resent in human nature, !here it has e iste& since be'ore the

be innin s o' histor)* +his ten&enc) is o' animal, biolo ical nature8 it is ol&er than human societ)*

/oes not this $rocess stan& at the be innin o' the entire e olution= /oes not the increasin'ruit'ulness an& &ensit) o' the $o$ulation &etermine the course o' social e olution=

<ctuall), this !oul& be reasonin back!ar& alon a la! o' nature, 'or it is on the sta e o'&e elo$ment o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, or, !hat amounts to the same thin , on the sta e o' technical&e elo$ment, that the er) $ossibilit) o' a numerical ro!th o' $o$ulation &e$en&s* < more or lesscontinuous increase in $o$ulation is nothin more nor less than an e tension an& ro!th o' the socials)stem, !hich is $ossible onl) !hen the relation bet!een societ) an& nature has been altere& in a'a orable &irection* It is not $ossible 'or a reater number o' $ersons to li e unless the bases o' li'eare !i&ene&* 3n the other han&, an im$o erishment o' these bases o' li'e !ill ine itabl) e $ressitsel' in a smaller $o$ulation* +he >uestion o' ho! this ha$$ens is another matter !hether it is b) a

lo!erin o' the birth rate, or b) its arti'icial re ulation, or b) a $rocess o' &)in out, b) an increasein the mortalit) 'rom &iseases, b) a $remature e haustion o' the or anisms an& a &ecrease in thea era e len th o' li'e8 the 'act remains that this 'un&amental relation bet!een the bases o' the li'e o'societ) an& the >uantit) o' its $o$ulation !ill e $ress itsel' in one !a) or another*

Besi&es, it is entirel) erroneous to re$resent the ro!th o' $o$ulation as a $urel) biolo ical4"natural" $rocess o' multi$lication* +his $rocess &e$en&s on an) number o' social con&itions: onthe &i ision into classes, the $osition o' these classes, an& conse>uentl), on the 'orms o' the socialeconom)* No!, the 'orms o' societ), its structure, as !e shall sho! belo!, &e$en& on the le elreache& in the e olution o' its $ro&ucti e 'orces* It is >uite clear that the relation bet!een the ro!tho' technolo ) an& the mo ement o' $o$ulation, i.e., alterations in its number, are not at all sim$le*3nl) nai e $ersons coul& ima ine that the $rocess o' multi$lication $rocee&s as $rimiti el) an&sim$l) amon human bein s as amon animals* or e am$le, 'or an increase o' $o$ulation, insociet), it is al!a)s necessar) that the $ro&ucti e 'orces shoul& be increase&, other!ise, as !e ha ealrea&) sho!n, the e cess $o$ulation !ill ha e nothin to eat* <n&, on the other han&, an increase inmaterial !ell.bein &oes not al!a)s an& in all classes $ro&uce a more ra$i& multi$lication: !hile the

$roletarian 'amil) ma) be arti'iciall) limitin the number o' its chil&ren because o' the har&con&itions o' li'e, a societ) la&) ma) be renouncin motherhoo& in or&er not to s$oil her 'i ure,!hile a rench $easant !ishes to ha e no more than t!o chil&ren because he &oes not !ant his 'armsto be &i i&e& u$* +he mo ement o' $o$ulation is there'ore a result o' a number o' social con&itions,an& is &e$en&ent on the 'orm o' societ) an& on the situation o' the arious classes an& rou$s !ithinsociet)*



We ma) there'ore make the 'ollo!in statement !ith re ar& to $o$ulation8 an increase in the $o$ulation in&is$utabl) $resu$$oses an increase in the $ro&ucti e 'orces o' societ)8 in the secon& $lace, each e$och, each 'orm o' societ), the ar)in situations o' the arious classes, result in s$ecialla!s 'or the mo ement o' $o$ulation* "<n abstract la! o' $o$ulation e ists 'or $lants an& animalsonl), an& onl) in so 'ar as man has not inter'ere& !ith them"8 " "e er) s$ecial historic mo&e o'

$ro&uction has its o!n s$ecial la!s o' $o$ulation, historicall) ali& !ithin its limits alone"* 11 Butthe historic mo&e o' $ro&uction, i.e., the 'orm o' societ), is &etermine& b) the &e elo$ment o' the

$ro&ucti e 'orces, i.e., the &e elo$ment o' technolo )* We thus see that the absence o' natural la! inthe mo ement o' $o$ulation is a &ecisi e 'actor, !hile the ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, an& theuni'ormit) o' this ro!th 4or &ecline , o' themsel es &etermine the mo ement o' $o$ulation*

+he bour eoisie has re$eate&l) attem$te& to re$lace the social la!s b) means o' "la!s" sho!in the necessit) o' the&i inel) or&aine& $o ert) o' the masses, an& that this con&ition is in&e$en&ent o' the social or&er* It is to this e''ort that!e must trace the o erestimatin o' " eo ra$h)", etc*, in the &octrine o' en ironment, natural $henomena bein &ra e&in b) the ears in or&er to e $lain historical e ents* +hus, rnst Miller "$ro e&" the &e$en&ence o' historical e olution onterrestrial ma netism8 Ee ons "e $laine&" in&ustrial crises b) means o' sun.s$ots, etc* Here belon s also the 'amousattem$t o' the n lish cler )man economist, %obert Malthus, to e $lain the &iscom'orts o' the !orkin class on the

basis o' man#s sin'ul &esire 'or multi$lication* Malthus# "abstract la! o' $o$ulation" is 'ormulate& in the thesis that $o$ulation ro!s more ra$i&l) than the means o' subsistence8 the latter increase in arithmetical $ro ression !hile the $o$ulation increases in eometrical $ro ression* <mon mo&ern scientists, the conce$tions o' bour eois scholars areun&er oin ra&ical chan es, an& Malthus# theor) is no! in &is'a or8 this is &ue to the 'act that 4'irst in rance, then inother countries also the increase in $o$ulation is so slo! that the bour eoisie 'ears a lack o' able.bo&ie& sol&iers4cannon.'o&&er , an& there'ore attem$ts to encoura e the !orkin class to $ro&uce more chil&ren*

+he Ph)siocrats !ere alrea&) a!are o' the &e$en&ence o' $o$ulation increases on the sta e reache& b) the $ro&ucti e'orces* ;e Mercier &e la %i i re 4 ?Kordre naturel et essentiel des soci7t7s olitiques, 1 , $$*5, sa)s: "I' men shoul&nourish themsel es !ith $ro&ucts 'urnishe& b) the earth itsel' * * * !ithout an) $reliminar) labor, an immense e tent o'area !oul& be re>uire& 'or the subsistence o' e en a small number o' $ersons8 but !e kno! 'rom e $erience that b)reason o' our natural constitution 4 lKordre hysique de notre constitution !e ten& to multi$l) consi&erabl)* +his natural

$ro$ert) !oul& be a contra&iction, a &iscor& in nature * * * i'the natural order of re roduction of the means of su"sistencedid not ermit them to multi ly to the same extent as we doJ04M) italics, N* B* urther on, !e rea&: "I am not at alla'rai& o' the ar uments that !ill be brou ht to bear a ainst me, base& on certain <merican tribes, in or&er to $ro e thatthe natural or&er o' births makes culti ation unnecessar)* I kno! there are some tribes that ha e $racticall) noculti ation 4ne culti5ent oint ou resque oint o' the soil8 )et, thou h soil an& climate are e>uall) 'a orable to them,the) &estro) their chil&ren, kill their ol&, an& make use o' me&icaments to $re ent the natural course o' birth*" rnst7rosse 6 ormen der amilie and ormen der :irtschaft , 1D9 , $*F sa)s amon other thin s: "+he Bushmen an& the<ustralians are accustome&, 'or a oo& cause, to !ear hun er.belts#* +he Pata onians su''er nee& $racticall) al!a)s*<n& in the tales o' the skimos, 'amine $la)s " a reat role "* < $o$ulation limite& to such im$er'ect $ro&uction can o'course ne er become er) numerous "* +here'ore, $rimiti e hunters usuall) see to it themsel es that their numbers shallnot e cee& !hat can be 'e& !ith the a ailable 'oo&stu''s* In'antici&e !ith this $ur$ose is er) common in <ustralia* <lar e chil& mortalit) takes care o' the rest" . "We e en hear, o' tribes in the Pol)nesian Islan&s, that the) ha e re ulations

$ermittin onl) a minimum o' chil&ren to each 'amil), a 'ine bein im$ose& 'or iolations*" 4P* Mombert:

3e5 lkerun!slelare in Grundriss der So ial konomie, $art ii, +iibin en, 191K, $* 2* * Mombert mentions the 'ollo!in'acts a'ter &escribin the economic a& ance in the 0arolin ian ra 4transition to the three.'iel& s)stem, etc* : "<s aconse>uence o' this reat e $ansion in the $ro&uction o' 'oo&stu''s, !e meet !ith an e ce$tionall) lar e increase o'

$o$ulation in 7erman)" 4$* K* * In the Nineteenth 0entur), uro$e $resents an immense a& ance in the 'iel& o'a ricultural $ro&uction, "accom$anie& b) a reat increase in the uro$ean $o$ulation, 'ar e cee&in an) such increase inthe $ast" 4$* K * +here ensues a $erio& in !hich the increase in $o$ulation, &ue to the abo e cause, mo es 'aster than theincrease in the means o' subsistence* +he result isJ emi ration to <merica* +he same la! ma) be obser e& in %ussia 4c'*the stu&ies o' M* N* Pokro sk) *

We must 'inall) $oint out a number o' other ob-ections to the theor) o' historical materialism,namel), those theories that are kno!n as "racial theories"* +hese theories ma) be &escribe& as'ollo!s: societ) consists o' men8 these men &o not a$$ear al!a)s the same in histor), but &i''erent8

the) ha e &i''erent skulls, &i''erent brains, &i''erent skin an& hair, &i''erent $h)sical structure, an&conse>uentl), &i''erent abilities* It is clear that at the ban>uet o' histor) there !ill be man) calle& but







race !hich is characteristic o' ori inal <siatic con&itions is $erha$s to be sou ht be)on& the Paci'ic 3cean or at the<rctic 0ircle* In <'rica, the same $rocess !as 're>uentl) re$eate&* In <merica, !here a similar con&ition ma) beobser e& in historical times, !e 'in& no $rimiti e races, but onl) the results o' en&less mi tures an& cross.bree&in s*

&uar& Me)er er) con incin l) obser es: "<s 'or the >uestion o' race, it is o' course $ossible that the human racea$$eare& at its ori in in a number o' arieties, or !as sub&i i&e& into such at an earl) e$och8 I am incom$etent to -u& eo' this* But it is absolutel) certain that all the human races are constantl) min lin " that a shar$ line ma) not be &ra!n

bet!een them . the tribes o' the Nile alle) are a t)$ical e am$le . an& that so calle& $ure racial t)$es ma) be 'oun&onl) in $laces !here certain tribes ha e been ke$t in a con&ition o' arti'icial isolation o!in to e ternal circumstances,as, 'or e am$le, on the islan&s o' Borneo an& <ustralia* But there is no -usti'ication 'or the assum$tion that !e are&ealin !ith $rimiti e natural con&itions o' the human race e en here8 it seems 'ar more $robable that this homo eneit),on the contrar), is the result o' isolation" 4 i"id *, $$* K*, 5 * Pro'essor %* Michels 6:irtschaft und ;asse, in Grundrissder So ial koromie, $art ii, $*9Det seq.), i es a number o' interestin e am$les, e cellentl) sho!in the mutabilit) o'so calle& race traits, in the 'iel& o' labor* or e am$le: the $o!er o' resistance o' 0hinese !orkers is er) hi h, enablinthem to bear hea ) bur&ens8 thence the !i&es$rea& use o' 0hinese coolies* But it is >uite clear that the "bur&ens"im$ose& u$on the coolies are a result, in $art, o' a semi.colonial ensla ement* Ne roes are consi&ere& $oor !orkers, buta rench $ro erb sa)s: "I ha e !orke& like a ne ro" 4 >Kai tra5aill7 comme un nO!re* Ne roes rarel) became em$lo)ers,

$erha$s because the) !ere bo)cotte& b) the !hites, etc* +he e am$les in the &omain o' national &i''erences are e enmore interestin : "When the 'irst railroa&s !ere built in 7erman), a 7erman uttere& the !arnin that railroa&s !ere o'no alue in ie! o' the 7erman national character, !hich . thank 7o&A . !as e $resse& in the s$len&i& $rinci$le o'

festina lente4"make haste slo!l)" 8 railroa&s coul& be o' use $erha$s to a &i''erent race, a &i''erent mo&e o' li'e, a&i''erent mo&e o' thou ht* ?ant rebuke& the Italians 'or their $ractical.min&e&ness, 'or their hi hl) &e elo$e& bankins)stem8 )et to&a) !e kno! that other re ions take $rece&ence o' Ital) in this res$ect," etc* Michels &ra!s the absolutel)correct conclusion "that the &e ree o' economic utilit) o' an) $eo$le is about e>ui alent to the &e ree o' technical an&moral.intellectual ci ili(ation# attaine& b) it at the i en moment" 4$*1C1 *

+he a&herents o' the race theor) succee&e& in makin their most absur& statements &urin the Worl& War, !hich the)attem$te& to e $lain as a race con'lict, althou h the absolute ri&iculousness o' this notion !as mani'est to an) $erson inhis soun& min&8 'or the Serbs, allie& !ith the Ea$anese, !ere 'i htin the Bul arians8 the n lish, allie& !ith the%ussians, !ere 'i htin the 7ermans* 7um$lo!ic( is consi&ere& the $rinci$al a& ocate o' the race theor) in sociolo ) *

B+B/+)$0APH1

+he books name& a'ter the $re ious cha$ters8 also: ;* Mechniko Ci5ili ation and the Great Mistorical ;i5ers 4in %ussian * P* Maslo : Entwicklun!stheorie der Nolkswirtschaft. P.Maslo : 8ie A!rarfra!e, ol* i* P* Maslo : a italismus. N* Bukharin: 8ie 9ekonomik der4ransformations eriode,cha$* i* 0uno!: 8ie Stellun! der 4echnik in der <arxschen:irtschaftsauffassun! 4 8ie 2eue =eit , ol* F9, $art ii, no*15 * %osa ;u embur : 8ie Akkumulationdes a itals4on the $rocess o' re$ro&uction * ?arl ?autsk): Entwicklun! und Nermehrun! in 2aturund Gesellschaft.?arl ?autsk): Are the Qews a ;aceF

%)T-S

1 ?arl Mar : Ca ital , 0hica o, 1915, ol* i*, $$*19D, 199*

2 I"id *, $*199*

F ?arl Mar #s letters to ?u elmann, in 8ie 2eue =eit, 19C1.19C2, $art ii, No* , $*222*

KCa ital,0hica o, 1915, ol* i, $$*19 , 19D*

5 I"id *, $*19D*

?arl Mar : Ca ital , ol i, $*2C1*















?arl Mar : Ca ital , ol* i, $$*199.2CC*

D/ie Neue Ueit, ol* F9, $art ii, $$*F5C et seq*

9 0If, on the other hand, the su">ect of la"or has, so to say, "een filtered throu!h re5ious la"or, wecall it raw material.<ll ra! material is the sub-ect o' labor, but not e er) sub-ect o' labor is ra!material*" 4Ca ital , ol* i, $* 199*

1C 0uno!#s mistakes &o not $re ent him 'rom raisin a number o' er) a$$ro$riate ob-ections to7orter, P* Barth, an& others, !ho con'use the metho& o' $ro&uction !ith technolo )* We shall&iscuss this sub-ect later*

11 Ca ital , ol* i, $* 9F*

12 A Criticism of 9ur Critics 4in %ussian , St* Petersbur , 19C , $*2DF

1F Cf. 'or e am$le, ?h osto , 4heory of the Mistorical Process, $*2K : "It is e tremel) $robable that ** , the truth is on the si&e o' the a& ocates o' race e>ualit)*"

















*: The &'uili rium et een the &lements of Society

a. Connection bet8een the "arious Social Phenomena, 'ormulation of the(uestion

In our &iscussion o' the e>uilibrium bet!een societ) an& nature, !e 'oun& that this e>uilibrium is bein constantl) &isturbe& an& constantl) reestablishe&, that there it is sub-ect to contra&ictions!hich are constantl) o ercome an& then set u$ ane!, an& then a ain o ercome, an& that thisconstitutes the 'un&amental course o' social e olution or social &ecline* W e must there'ore i esome attention to this "internal li'e" o' societ)*

In &iscussions as to the relati e stan&ar& o' social e olution, !e o'ten hear such -u& ments as: "the&e ree o' social e olution is &etermine& b) the >uantit) o' soa$ use&"8 others measure the sta e o'this a& ance b) the e tent o' the abilit) to rea& an& !rite8 still others, b) the number o' ne!s$a$ers8a 'ourth rou$, b) the state o' technical $ro ress8 a 'i'th rou$, b) the sta e o' &e elo$ment o' the

sciences, etc* < 7erman $ro'essor 4Schul(e.7ae ernit(8 see his bookNolkswirtschaftliche Studien

aus ;ussland has a& ance& the $ro$osition that the sta e o' ci ili(ation is best in&icate& b) themanner o' constructin toilet con eniences* We 'in& that be innin !ith the latter an& risin to themost sublime $ro&ucts o' the human min&, e er)thin has been use& as a stan&ar& b) !hich tomeasure the sta e o' social &e elo$ment*

Where is the truth= Whose )ar&stick is the true )ar&stick= Wh) ha e there been so man) &i''erentans!ers to this sin le >uestion=

< consi&eration o' all the abo e ans!ers !ill sho! that each o' them is more or less correct* /oesnot the use o' soa$ increase !ith the ro!th o' "culture an& ci ili(ation"= It &oes8 so &oes the

number o' ne!s$a$ers, or the social technolo ), or science* <t an) i en time, the social $henomenao' the $erio& are al!a)s relate& !ith each other8 -ust !hat this relation is, is another >uestion, !hich!e shall &iscuss er) soon* But that there is such a relation no one can &oubt8 that is !h) all o' theabo e ans!ers are ri ht* Eust as the a e o' a man ma) be a$$ro imatel) &etermine& on the basis o'the structure an& har&ness o' his bones, or on the a$$earance o' his 'ace 4his color, !rinkles, ro!tho' hair, etc* , or his mo&e o' thou ht, or his mo&e o' lin uistic e $ression, so !e ma) also -u& e thesta e o' ro!th o' societ) on the basis o' a number o' in&ications, 'or all these in&ications areconnecte& !ith other in&ications, an& !ith still others, etc* I' !e stan& 'ace to 'ace !ith beauti'ul

$ro&ucts o' art, or com$licate& s)stems o' science, !e ri htl) &eclare that these thin s coul& not be $ro&uce& e ce$t in a hi hl) &e elo$e& societ)* We shoul& make the same remark in the $resence o' arich an& com$licate& technolo ), an& our remark !oul& be -ust as correct* +he 'act that the most

arie& social $henomena are connecte&, are mutuall) con&itione&, is almost sel'.e i&ent* < series o'sim$le >uestions !ill con ince the rea&er imme&iatel)* Was 'uturist $oetr) $ossible, 'or e am$le, acentur) a o= No, it !as not* 0oul& skimos li in on the ice ha e in ente& !ireless tele ra$h)= Is it

$ossible 'or $resent.&a) science to $re&ict man#s 'ate 'rom the stars= 0oul& Mar ism ha e ori inate&in the Mi&&le < es= It is ob ious that all these thin s are im$ossible* uturism coul& not ha ea$$eare& one hun&re& )ears a o, because li'e !as then calmer an& >uieter8 'uturism re! u$ in

$a emente& cities, !ith their noise an& racket, their ner ous e haustion, in the militaristic turmoil o'a &issol in bour eois ci ili(ation* +his $oetr) o' the bra(en blare coul& no more ha e ro!n u$ onehun&re& )ears a o than i ) coul& ro! on a recentl) tarre& roo'* skimos li in on the ice coul& notha e in ente& the !ireless tele ra$h, 'or the) cannot e en han&le an or&inar) tele ra$h instrument*Present.&a) science &oes not occu$) itsel' !ith such i&ios)ncrasies as rea&in the stars, becausescience at its $resent le el &es$ises these thin s* Mar ism coul& not ha e be un in the Mi&&le < es,

because the $roletariat !as not )et in e istence, an& there'ore there !as no soil in !hich the Mar ist



theor) coul& ro!* No! !e ha e a hi hl) &e elo$e& technolo ), a $roletariat, a reat number o'ne!s$a$ers, a& ertisin on a tremen&ous scale, trusts, 'uturism, aero$lanes, the electron theor), Mr*%ocke'eller#s &i i&en&s, strikes o' coal.miners8 the 0ommunist Part), the ;ea ue o' Nations, the+hir& International, electri'ication $ro-ects, armies consistin o' millions, ;lo)& 7eor e, ;enin, etc*8an& all these thin s are mani'estations o` the same $erio&, the same e$och, -ust as !e ma) also

re ar& as mani'estations o' another e$och 4the Mi&&le < es all o' the 'ollo!in : the $o!er o' thePo$es at %ome, a com$arati el) lo! le el o' technolo ), com$ulsor) labor o' $easant ser's, sciencein the han&s o' $riests 4scholastic $hiloso$h) , the search 'or the $hiloso$her#s stone 4!hich !oul&turn base metals into ol&, etc* , the in>uisition, $oor roa&s, illiterac) e en amon kin s, illa e.commons, !itches, tra&e uil&s, &o ;atin 4s$oken an& !ritten b) scholars , robber kni hts, etc*;enin, ;lo)& 7eor e, ?ru$$, these ha e no $lace in the Mi&&le < es* <n&, on the other han&, !e &onot e $ect to 'in& on the %e& S>uare in Mosco!, a me&ie al tournament !ith kni hts &oin eachother to &eath 'or the 'a or o' a la&)#s smile* "3ther times, other son bir&s8 other son bir&s, otherson s*" +here is no &oubt o' the eneral connection bet!een social $henomena, o' the "a&a$tation"o' certain social $henomena to others, in other !or&s, o' the e istence o' a certain e>uilibrium !ithinsociet) bet!een its elements, its com$onent $arts, bet!een the arious 'orms o' social $henomena*

<u uste 0omte alrea&) state& that the arious $hases o' social li'e are al!a)s a&a$te& to each other at an) $erio& 4the socalle&consensus).M]ller.;)er 4 Phasen der ultur,M]nchen, $*FKK states this e en more clearl): "<n) sociolo ical'unction, an) cultural $henomenon, 'or instance, art, science, manners, econom), state or ani(ation, 'ree&om o' thein&i i&ual, $hiloso$h)8 the social $osition o' !oman, etc*, &o!n to the use o' soa$, an& the like, ma) be taken as themeasure o' the cultural le el* <n&, i' all the cultural $henomena shoul& &e elo$ $arallel to each other an& at the samerate, it !oul& not matter !hich o' these criteria shoul& be a$$lie&*" 3ne o' the latest !riters o' the har&.$resse& 7erman

bour eoisie, 3s!al& S$en ler 4 8er @nter!an! des A"endlandes,M]nchen, 192C, ol* i, $*D , !rites: "Ho! man) $eo$lekno! that there is a $ro'oun& relation in 'orm bet!een the &i''erential calculus an& the &)nastic state $rinci$le o' thee$och o' ;ouis LI , bet!een the ancient state 'orm o' the $olis 4in 7reece an& ucli&ean 7eometr), bet!een the

$ers$ecti e &ra!in o' !estern $aintin an& the con>uest o' s$ace b) railroa&s, tele$hones, an& lon .ran e uns, bet!een contra$untal instrumentation in music an& the economic cre&it s)stem=" S$en ler#s 'ormulation ma) be&is$ute&, but there is no &oubt o' the correctness o' his thou ht: that the most arie& social $henomena are interrelate&*

b. Things& Persons& +deas

We &e'ine& societ) abo e as an a re ation o' $ersons* In the broa&er sense, ho!e er, societ) alsoinclu&es thin s* Present.&a) societ), 'or instance, !ith its ast stone cities, its iant structures, itsrailroa&s, harbors, machines, houses, etc*8 all these thin s are material technical "or ans" o' societ)*<n) s$eci'ic machine !ill at once ;ose its si ni'icance as a machine outsi&e o' human societ)8 it

becomes merel) a $ortion o' e ternal nature, a combination o' $ieces o' steel, !oo&, etc* When areat liner sinks to the bottom, this li in monster !ith its $o!er'ul en ines that cause the !hole

mar elous structure o' steel to ibrate, !ith its thousan&s o' a$$liances o' e er) $ossible kin&, 'rom

&ish.ra s to !ireless station, no! lies at the bottom o' the sea an& the !hole mechanism loses itssocial si ni'icance* Barnacles !ill attach themsel es to its bo&), its !oo& constructions !ill rot inthe !ater, crabs an& other animals !ill li e in the cabins, but the steamer ceases to be a steamer8ha in lost its social e istence, it is e clu&e& 'rom societ), has cease& to be a $ortion o' societ), to

$er'orm its social ser ice, an& is no! merel) an ob-ect . no lon er a social ob-ect . like an) other $art o' e ternal nature !hich &oes not come in &irect contact !ith human societ)* +echnical &e icesare not merel) $ieces o' e ternal nature: the) are e tensions o' societ)#s or ans8 !e ma) there'oretake a broa&er ie! o' societ) than !e ha e thus 'ar &one8 !e ma) make it inclu&e also thin s, i*e*,societ)#s technical a$$aratus, its s)stem o' !orkin &e ices* Strictl) s$eakin , not all thin s areinclu&e& amon the means o' $ro&uction8 some ma) e en ha e a er) remote relation !ith this

$ro&uction, asi&e 'rom the 'act that the) themsel es constitute $ro&ucts o' material $ro&uction: 'ore am$le, books, ma$s, &ia rams, museums, $icture alleries, libraries, astronomical obser atories,meteorolo ical stations 4!e al!a)s s$eak o' their "$h)sical e>ui$ment" , laboratories, measurin



instruments, telesco$es an& microsco$es o' e er) kin&, test.tubes, retorts, etc* <ll these thin s arenot &irectl) connecte& !ith the $rocess o' material $ro&uction an& conse>uentl) are not a $art o'social technolo ), ma) not be consi&ere& amon the material $ro&ucti e 'orces8 ne ertheless,e er)one kno!s their 'unction8 the) are not merel) sections o' e ternal nature8 the) also ha e their"social e istence"8 the) also must be inclu&e& un&er our conce$t o' societ) in its broa&er a$$lication*

We ha e seen in cha$ter i that societ) constitutes a s)stem o' ersonsconsi&ere& to ether8 no! !esee that thin!s must also be so consi&ere&* But, in the narro!er sense o' the !or&, !e un&erstan& b)"societ)" not merel) the a re ate o' $ersons in ol e&, but the connecte& s)stem* We 'irst re ar&e&these $ersons as material bo&ies at !ork* Societ) there'ore, as !e ha e e $laine&, is abo e all a!orkin or ani(ation, a human !orkin a$$aratus* But !e kno! er) !ell that human bein s arenot merel) $h)sical bo&ies, the) think, 'eel, !ish, $ursue oals an& are constantl) chan in in theirthou hts an& &esires* +he relations bet!een $ersons are not onl) material !orkin relations, but also

$s)chical relations, "mental" relations8 societ) $ro&uces not onl) material ob-ects: it also $ro&ucesthe so calle& "cultural alues": art, science, etc*8 in other !or&s, it $ro&uces ideas in a&&ition tothin s* +hese i&eas, once the) ha e been $ro&uce&, ma) be &e elo$e& into lar e systems of ideas*

+he trinit) o' elements in societ) there'ore inclu&es: thin s, $ersons, i&eas* We must b) no meansassume that these are in&e$en&ent elements: it is, o' course, clear that i' there !ere no $eo$le there!oul& be no i&eas, that i&eas e ist onl) in $eo$le an& &o not s!im about in s$ace like oil on thesur'ace o' !ater* But this &oes not $re ent us 'rom &istin uishin these three elements8 it is like!iseclear that there must be a certain e>uilibrium bet!een the three elements* %ou hl) s$eakin : societ)coul& not e ist, unless the s)stem o' thin s, the s)stem o' $ersons, an& the s)stem o' i&eas !erea&a$te& each to the other* We shall ha e to o into this more in &etail8 !e shall then un&erstan& therelation bet!een $henomena that is so mani'est on the sur'ace, an& concernin !hich !e s$oke inthe $rece&in $ara ra$h*

c. Social Technology and the -conomic Structure of Society

We ha e alrea&) $ointe& out that in a consi&eration o' social $henomena it is necessar) to be in !iththe social, material $ro&ucti e 'orces, !ith the social technolo ), the s)stem o' tools o' labor* Wema) no! su$$lement these remarks* In s$eakin o' the social technolo ), !e o' course meant not acertain tool, or the a re ate o' &i''erent tools, but the !hole systemo' these tools in societ)* Wemust ima ine that in a i en societ), in arious $laces, but in a certain order , there are &istribute&looms an& motors, instruments an& a$$aratus, sim$le an& com$licate& tools* In some $laces the) arecro!&e& close to ether 4'or instance, in the reat in&ustrial centers , in other $laces, other tools are scattered. But at an) i en moment, i' $eo$le are connecte& b) a labor relation, i' !e ha e a societ),

all these instruments o' $ro&uction.tools an& machines, lar e an& small, sim$le an& com$licate&,manual or $o!er.&ri en.are unite& into a sin le s)stem* 43' course, a certain ty eo' tool is al!a)s $re&ominant: at the $resent time this is the t)$e o' machines an& mechanisms, !hile 'ormerl) it !asthat o' han& tools8 the si ni'icance o' a$$aratus an& sel'.actin machiner) is increasin more an&more* In other !or&s, !e ma) consi&er the social technolo ) as a !hole, in !hich each o' the $artsat a i en moment is sociall) necessar) 4ine itable * Wh) ma) it be so consi&ere&= Wherein lies theunit) o' all the $arts o' the technical s)stem o' societ)=

In or&er to ras$ this matter 'ull), let us su$$ose that on a certain &a) . let us sa), in mo&ern7erman), all the machines ser in the $ur$oses o' coal minin shoul& miraculousl) ascen& tohea en* +he result !oul& be a cessation o' $racticall) the entire in&ustrial li'e* It !oul& beim$ossible to obtain 'uel 'or 'actories an& sho$s8 all the machines an& instruments in these 'actories!oul& sto$ !orkin , i.e., !oul& be eliminate& 'rom the $rocess o' $ro&uction* +he technolo ) o' one



branch !oul& thus in'luence $racticall) all the other branches* <s a matter o' 'act, the arious branches o' $ro&uction constitute a !hole, not onl) in our thou hts, but ob-ecti el), in realit)8 the)make u$ a sin le social technolo )* +he social technolo ), !e reiterate, is not there'ore a merea re ate o' the arious instruments o' labor, but is their connectin s)stem* 3n an) in&i i&ual $arto' this s)stem &e$en&s all the rest o' the s)stem* <t an) i en moment, also, the arious $arts o' this

technolo ) are relate& in a certain $ro$ortion, a certain >uantitati e relation* I', in a certain 'actor),!e must ha e a certain number o' s$in&les an& a certain number o' !orkers to $ro i&e material 'or acertain number o' looms, the more or less normal $ro ress o' social $ro&uction throu hout societ)!ill also in ol e the $resence o' a certain &e'inite relation bet!een the number o' blast 'urnaces an&the number o' machines an& mechanical tools in metallur ), as !ell as in the te tile in&ustr), thechemical in&ustr), or an) other in&ustr)* +o he sure, this relation ma) not be $recisel) fixed,as in asin le 'actor)8 but bet!een the "technolo ical s)stems" o' the arious branches o' $ro&uction there&oes e ist a certain necessar) relation, !hich ma) in unor ani(e& societ) be the result o' a blin&natural $rocess, !hile in or ani(e& societ) it is the result o' a conscious $rocess8 but it e ists in allsociet)* It is inconcei able, 'or instance, that a 'actor) shoul& ha e ten times as man) s$in&les as itnee&s8 it is like!ise inconcei able that ten times as much coal shoul& be mine& as is nee&e&, an& thatthe machines an& a$$liances use& in minin coal shoul& be ten times as numerous as is re>uire& inor&er to su$$l) the other branches o' $ro&uction* +hus, as there is a &e'inite relation an& a &e'inite

$ro$ortion bet!een the arious branches o' $ro&uction8 there is also in social technolo ) a certain&e'inite relation bet!een its $arts as !ell as a &e'inite $re ailin $ro$ortion* +his circumstancechan es the mere a re ate o' tools, machines, instruments, etc*, into a s)stem o' social technolo )*

+his bein the case, it is also clear that each i en s)stem o' social technolo ) also &etermines thes)stem o' labor relations bet!een $ersons*

Is it concei able, 'or instance, that the technolo ical s)stem o' societ), the structure o' its tools,shoul& be alon certain lines, !hile the structure o' human relations shoul& be alon entirel)&i''erent lines= More concretel): is it $ossible that the technolo ical s)stem o' societ) shoul& be

base& on machines, !hile the $ro&ucti e relation, the actual labor relation, shoul& be base& on $ett)in&ustr) !orkin !ith han& tools= 3' course, this is an im$ossibilit)8 !here er a societ) e ists, theremust be a certain e>uilibrium bet!een its technolo ) an& its econom), i.e., bet!een the totalit) o' itsinstruments o' labor an& its !orkin or ani(ation, bet!een its material $ro&ucti e &e ices an& itsmaterial human labor s)stem*

;et us e $lain b) means o' an e am$le, namel), b) means o' a com$arison bet!een so calle&"ancient societ)" an& $resent.&a) ca$italist societ)8 let us be in !ith technolo )* <lbert Neubur er, 1

!ho is incline& more to e a erate than belittle the accom$lishments o' ancient technolo ), sa)s:

"<ristotle in his Pro"lems of <echanics enumerates 'or us the au iliar) mechanical &e ices ma&euse o' in ancient times* +he) inclu&e onl) the 'ollo!in : the &ra!.!ell 4le er !ith counter.!ei ht ,the e>ual.arme& balance, the une>ual.arme&, or %oman balance 4steel)ar& , the ton s, the !e& e, thea e, the !in&lass, the c)lin&rical roller, the !a on.!heel, the sha't, the $ulle), the slin , the ru&&er,the $otter#s !heel, as !ell as re ol in !heels o' co$$er or iron !ith &i''erent &irections o're olution, !hich er) $robabl) are e>ui alent to our toothe& !heels 4 ear.!heels *"

+hese are the most ru&imentar) technical a$$liances, other!ise kno!n as "sim$le machines" 4le er,incline& $lane, ton s, rollers * It is ob ious that not much a& ance !as $ossible !ith such &e ices,!hich !ere use& chie'l) in the !orkin o' metals* It is clear that onl) the metallic skeleton o' the

$ro&ucti e 'orces constitutes the 'irst $ermanent basis 'or their &e elo$ment* @et, o' the metals

!orke&, ol& !as the most im$ortant8 the reater >uantit) o' metal !as use& 'or the manu'acture o'ob-ects inten&e& 'or non.$ro&ucti e consum$tion* +he sole e ce$tion is blacksmith !ork, b) means





o' !hich rather $rimiti e tools !ere $ro&uce& !ith the ai& o' hammer, an il, ton s, 'ile, ise, an&other com$arati el) sim$le instruments 4$ro&ucin $rinci$all) a es, hammers, hoes, horseshoes,nails, chains, $itch'orks, sho els, s$oons, etc* 8 the castin o' metals stoo& chie'l) in the ser ice o'turnin out statues an& other non.$ro&ucti e ob-ects* It is there'ore not sur$risin to learn that

itru ius &e'ines a "machine" as a "&e ice ma&e o' !oo&"*

" or !hole centuries technolo ) stoo& still," sa)s Sal ioli, 2 o' course not meanin an absolutesta nation, but an e tremel) slo! &e elo$ment o' ancient technolo )*

+hese technical &e ices naturall) also &etermine& the ty e of worker,the &e ree o' his skill, an& alsothe !orkin relations, the $ro&ucti e con&itions*

+here coul& onl) be one t)$e o' !orker un&er such a technolo ): a han& !orker, a $ett) artisan*Blacksmiths, car$enters, masons, !ea ers, ol&smiths, miners, !a on.buil&ers, sa&&lers, harness.makers, lathe.!orkers, sil ersmiths, $otters, &)ers, tanners, lassmakers, locksmiths, etc*, etc*, suchare the t)$es o' $ro&ucti e !orkers *F +hus, the social technolo ) con&itione& the character o' theli in !orkin machiner), i*e*, the t)$e o' !orker, his labor "skill"* But this technolo ) alsocon&itione& the relation bet!een the $ersons at !ork* <s a matter o' 'act, because !e see hereenumerate& a number o' t)$es o' !orkers, it is $lain that !e are &ealin !ith a &i ision o'

$ro&uction into a number o' branches, each one o' !hich $ro&uces onl) a sin le t)$e o' !orker* +hisis calle& thedi5ision of la"or *

+he cause o' this &i ision o' labor !as the e istence o' corres$on&in labor tools* But this &i isiono' labor !as o' a $eculiar kin&: "+he &i ision o' labor coul& not here lea& to the results !hich it hasha& in mo&ern societies, 'or in ancient times this &i ision !as not a 'unction o' the machine $rocess*It !as not an out ro!th o' a s)stem o' reat 'actories 4 de !randes usines , but o' $ett) an& me&ium.si(e& in&ustr)*"K ";ar e.scale $ro&uction !as 'orei n to the ancient !orl&, !hich ne er a& ance&

be)on& the sta e o' $ett) artisanr)*" 5 Here is a &i''erent 'orm o' $ro&ucti e labor con&itions, also base&, as !e ha e seen, on the s)stem o' technolo )* en !hen !e learn o' reat structures beinraise&, !e must remember that the) !ere o'ten accom$lishe& b) means o' $ett) labor* +hus, in thecase o' the construction o' one o' the reat a>ue&ucts at %ome, the o ernment si ne& a contract!ith three thousan& master masons8 these !orke& to ether !ith their sla es* <n& in cases !here

$ro&uction !as on a com$arati el) lar e scale, it coul&, un&er the $re ailin s)stem o' technolo ),e ist onl) b) makin use o' 'orces l)in outsi&e the economic s)stem: 'or instance, sla e labor,!hole armies o' sla es bein im$orte& a'ter the conclusion o' ictorious !ars, !ho !ere sol& an&&istribute& to the reat estates an& the sla e.o$erate& 'actories 4er!astula * 6n&er a &i''erent s)stemo' technolo ), sla e labor !oul& ha e been im$ossible: the sla es s$oil &elicate machiner), an&

sla e labor &oes not $a)* +hus, e en such a $henomenon as the labor o' im$orte& sla es can bee $laine&, un&er the i en historical con&itions, b) the tools !ith !hich social labor !orks* 3r, totake another e am$le: !e kno! that, in s$ite o' the rather hi h &e elo$ment o' commercial.ca$italistcon&itions in ancient times, the econom) o' that $erio& !as on *the !hole a natural econom)4$a)ments in commo&ities, in kind,rather than in mone) * Peo$le !ere not in close economicrelations8 the e chan e o' commo&ities !as much less &e elo$e& than in our &a)8 reat >uantities o'

$ro&ucts !ere turne& out in the reat estates 4 latifundia an& in -ail.like sho$s, 'or their o!nconsum$tion* +his is also a &e'inite sta e o' labor, a 'orm o' $ro&ucti e relation, an& a ain thee $lanation is e i&ent: it can be e $laine& on the basis o' the lo! &e elo$ment o' the $ro&ucti e'orces, the !eakness o' technolo )* 6n&er such a technical s)stem, it !as &i''icult to attain a reate cess $ro&uction* In a !or&, it is e i&ent that the relations bet!een $eo$le in the labor $rocess are

&etermine& b) the sta e o' a& ance in the e olution o' technolo )8 the ancient econom) !as, as it!ere, ada ted tothe ancient technolo )*













;et us com$are this con&ition !ith that un&er ca$italist societ)* +akin u$, in the 'irst $lace, thematter o' technolo ), it is su''icient to cast a lance o er a list o' some o' the branches o'

$ro&uction* ;et us consi&er onl) t!o o' the rou$s o' ca$italist in&ustr): the construction o'machiner), instruments an& a$$aratus, as one branch, an& the electro.technical in&ustr), as another

branch* Here is the $icture that $resents itsel':

I* Manu'acture o' machines, instruments an& a$$aratus

a* $o!er machines

1* locomoti es2* stationar) en inesF* other $o!er machines

b* mani$ulatin machiner) in eneral use

1* machines 'or !orkin metals, !oo&, stone, an& other materials2* $um$sF* li'tin cranes an& carr)in machinesK* other machines

c* mani$ulatin machiner) in arious s$ecial branches

1* s$innin machiner)2* a ricultural machiner)F* s$ecial machiner) 'or the obtainin o' ra! materials

K* s$ecial machiner) 'or the manu'acture o' arms an& ammunition5* s$ecial machiner) 'or turnin out &elicate $ro&ucts* manu'acture o' arious kin&s o' machines

&* re$air.sho$ machiner)

e* boilers, a$$liances an& in entor)

1* steam boilers2* boilers, a$$liances, an& in entor) 'or s$ecial branches 4e clu&in !orkin machiner)

'* machine instruments an& machine $arts

1* machine tools2* machine $art

* mill construction

h* shi$.buil&in an& the construction o' marine machiner)

i* the construction o' airshi$s an& aero$lanes, an& their $arts

-* as tanks



k* $ro&uction o' ehicles

1* bic)cles, an& their $arts2* motor.carsF* railroa& cars

K* !a on.buil&in an& carria e.buil&in5* $ro&uction o' other means o' trans$ortation, not inclu&in !ater an& air trans$ortation

l* manu'acture o' clocks an& !atches, an& their $arts

m* $ro&uction o' musical instruments

1* $ro&uction o' $ianos2* $ro&uction o' other musical instruments

n* o$tical an& other &elicate mechanical &e ices, also the $re$aration o' (oolo ical an&microsco$ical s$ecimens

1* the $re$aration o' o$tical an& &elicate mechanical instruments, inclu&in cameras an& other $hoto ra$hic a$$aratus

2* the $ro&uction o' sur ical instruments an& a$$aratusF* the $ro&uction o' (oolo ical an& microsco$ical a$$aratus

o* the $ro&uction o' lobes an& lam$s 4e ce$t such as are connecte& !ith the

electrical in&ustr)

II lectrical In&ustr)

a* manu'acture o' &)namos an& electro.motors b* manu'acture o' stora e batteries an& other batteries* c* manu'acture o' cables an& insulate& !ire &* manu'acture o' electrical measurin instruments, counters an& clocks e* manu'acture o' electrical a$$aratus an& installation in entor) '* manu'acture o' lam$s an& searchli hts * manu'acture o' electrical me&ical machiner) h* manu'acture o' !eak current a$$aratus

i* manu'acture o' electrical insulatin &e ices -* manu'acture o' electrical $ro&ucts o' reat establishments k* re$air stations 'or electrical $ro&ucts o' all kin&s*

It is su''icient to com$are this list !ith the "machines" s$oken o' b) <ristotle or itru ius, toun&erstan& the tremen&ous &i''erence bet!een the technolo ) o' ancient societ) an& that o' mo&ernca$italist societ)* Eust as the ancient technolo ) &etermine& the ancient 'orm o' econom), soca$italist technolo ) &etermines the $resent.&a) ca$italist econom)* I' !e coul& enumerate the entire

$o$ulation, let us sa), o' ancient %ome an& o' $resent.&a) Berlin or ;on&on, an& &i i&e these $o$ulations into tra&es, b) their actual occu$ations, the $ro'oun& ul' that se$arates us 'rom ancienttimes !oul& become a$$arent* We no! ha e 4as a result o' our machine technolo ) t)$es o'!orkers that ne er e iste& in ancient times* Instea& o' the $ett) artisans 4'or instance, the fa"ri ferrarii , !e no!. 'in&, in our societ), electricians, machinists, machine constructors, boiler.










instrument, tool, or machine* In a certain com"ination of these workin! onstrumerits, in their distri"ution in the lant, acertain distri"ution. of men is also in5ol5ed, the latter "ein! determined "y the former *

Precisel) as the $ro&uction relations in ancient 7reece or %ome !ere an out ro!th o' the s)stem o'technolo ) characteristic o' $ett) an& me&ium $ro&uction, so the con&itions o' lar e.scale

$ro&uction in mo&ern times are a result o' the mo&ern technolo )* Here a ain, there is a relati ee>uilibrium bet!een the social technolo ) an& the social econom)*

We ha e abo e obser e& that the $oor technolo ) o' ancient times resulte& in a $oor e chan e $rocess, an& that the econom) remaine& 'or the most $art econom) in kind : the relation bet!een theeconomies !as er) loose8 such !ere the &e'inite $ro&uction relations o' anti>uit)* But mo&ernca$italist technolo ) $ermits the sen&in 'orth o' hu e >uantities o' $ro&ucts* +he &i ision o' laboralso has its in'luence in causin the entire $ro&uction to be ma&e 'or the market* or themanu'acturer &oes not himsel' !ear the millions o' $airs o' sus$en&ers turne& out b) his 'actor)*+here'ore, the $ro&uction con&itions o' the commo&ities econom) are also a conse>uence o' thetechnolo ) o' our &a)*

We ha e a$$roache& the >uestion 'rom 'our &i''erent an les: 'irst, the nature o' the labor 'orces8secon&, the &istribution o' labor bet!een them8 thir&, the e tent o' $ro&uction, i*e*, o' theor ani(ation o' in&i i&uals in the arious economies8 'ourth, the relations bet!een these ariouseconomies8 an& in e er) case !e ha e seen 'rom the e am$le o' the t!o &i''erent societies chosen4the ancient an& the mo&ern that thecom"inations of the instruments of la"or 6the socialtechnolo!y) are the decidin! factor in the com"inations and relations of men,i*e. in social economy*But there is another $hase o' the $ro&uction relations, namel), the >uestion o' the social classes,!hich is to be &iscusse& later in &etail8 let us consi&er this >uestion no! 'rom the stan&$oint o' the

$ro&uction relations*

In consi&erin the relations o' men in the $ro&uction $rocess, !e obser e e er)!here 4e ce$t in theso calle& $rimiti e communism that the rou$in s o' men are not accom$lishe& in such manner asto cause the arious rou$s to lie in a hori(ontal line, but rather in a ertical line* or e am$le, in thecon&itions o' me&ie al ser'&om, !e 'in& at the to$ the o!ners o' the estates, un&er them thea&ministrators, ma)ors, su$er isors, an& at the bottom the $easants* In ca$italist $ro&uction relations!e 'in& that men are not onl) &istribute& amon mol&ers, machinists, railroa& !orkers, tobacco!orkers, etc*, all o' !hom . in s$ite o' the reat &i''erences bet!een their tasks . are !orkin alonthe same lines.occu$)in the same relati e station in $ro&uction8 but !e 'in& that here too a numbero' $ersons stan& abo e the others in the labor $rocess: abo e the !orkers are the "salarie&em$lo)ees" 4the me&ium. ra&e technical sta'': master mechanics, en ineers, s$ecialists, a riculturale $erts, etc* 8 abo e these "salarie& men" stan& the hi her o''icials 4su$erinten&ents, &irectors 8abo e them are the so calle& o!ners o' enter$rises, ca$italists, the comman&ers.in.chie' an&controllers o' the &estinies o' the $ro&uction $rocess* ;et us also consi&er the latifundium o' a rich%oman lan&lor&* Here a ain !e 'in& a re ular ra&ation o' $ersons8 on the lo!est run o' the la&&erare the sla es 4"the s$eakin instruments", instrumenta 5ocalia, as the %omans terme& them, as&istin uishe& 'rom the "semi.s$eakin instruments", instrumenta semi15ocalia, namel), bleatincattle, an& the "mute instruments", instrumenta muta, inanimate ob-ects 8 abo e the sla es stan& thesla e &ri ers, o erseers, etc*8 then come the su$erinten&ents8 'inall) !e ha e the o!ner o' thelatifundium himsel', !ith his honore& 'amil) 4his !i'e usuall) ha& char e o' certain &omestico$erations * < blin& man can see that !e are &ealin !ith &i''erentl) constitute& relations bet!een

$ersons at !ork* <ll the $ersons enumerate& $artici$ate in one !a) or another in the labor $rocess

an& there'ore ha e certain &e'inite relations to each other* In classi')in them, !e ma) &i i&e themaccor&in to their tra&es an& callin s8 but !e ma) also &i i&e them accor&in to their classes* I' our



&i ision is on the basis o' occu$ations or callin s, !e shall ha e blacksmiths, locksmiths, lathe.!orkers, etc* In the hi her class, chemists, mechanics, boiler.en ineers, te tile e $erts, locomoti es$ecialists, etc* It is ob ious that the locksmiths, lathe.!orkers, machine.!orkers, ste e&ores, are inone class, !hile the en ineer, the s$ecialist, etc*, are in another class8 the ca$italist, !ho has controlo' all, is a ain in another class* +hese $ersons cannot all be thro!n into the same $ot* In s$ite o' the

&i ision bet!een the !ork $er'orme& b) the locksmith, the turner an& the com$ositor, the) all stan&in the same relation to each other in the eneral labor $rocess* uite &i''erent is the relation bet!eenlocksmith an& en ineer, or bet!een locksmith an& ca$italist* urthermore, the locksmith, turner,linot)$er, in&i i&uall) an& as a bo&), are in the same relation to all the en ineers an& in the sameremoter relation to all su$erinten&ents, "ca$tains o' in&ustr)", ca$italists* +he reatest &i''erenceshere are in the $ro&ucti e 'unction, in the $ro&ucti e si ni'icance, in the character o' the relations

bet!een men8 the ca$italist in his 'actor) &istributes an& arran es his !orkers as he mi ht thin s ortools8 but the !orkers &o not "&istribute" the ca$italists 4un&er the ca$italist s)stem o' societ) 8 the)"are &istribute&" b) these ca$italists* +his is a relation o' "master an& ser ant", as Mar sa)s, !ith"ca$ital in comman&"* It is their &i''erent 'unction in the $ro&uction $rocess that constitutes the basis'or the &i ision o' men into &i''erent social classes*

<n im$ortant $oint to be note& here is the nature o' the relation bet!een the $rocess o' $ro&uctionan& that o' &istribution, since !e ha e seen that the latter is, so to s$eak, the re erse si&e o' thesocial $rocess o' $ro&uction* 0oncernin this sub-ect o' the $rocess o' &istribution, Mar sa)s the'ollo!in : "In the most shallo! conce$tion o' &istribution, the latter a$$ears as a &istribution o'

$ro&ucts an& to that e tent as 'urther remo e& 'rom an& >uasi.in&e$en&ent o' $ro&uction* But be'ore&istribution means &istribution o' $ro&ucts, it is, 'irst a &istribution o' the means o' $ro&uction, an&,secon&, !hat is $racticall) another !or&in o' the same 'act, it is a &istribution o' the members o'societ) amon the arious kin&s o' $ro&uction 4the sub-ection o' in&i i&uals to certain con&itions o'

$ro&uction * +he &istribution o' $ro&ucts is mani'estl) a result o' this &istribution, !hich is boun& u$!ith the $rocess o' $ro&uction an& &etermines the er) or ani(ation o' the latter* +o treat o'

$ro&uction a$art 'rom the &istribution !hich is com$rise& in it, is $lainl) an i&le abstraction*0on ersel), !e kno! the character o' the &istribution o' $ro&ucts the moment !e are i en thenature o' that other &istribution !hich 'orms ori inall) a 'actor o' $ro&uction" 4 A Contri"ution to theCritique of Political Economy,0hica o, 191F, $*2D *

+hese sentences o' Mar &eser e more o' our attention*

We 'in&, 'irst o' all, that the $rocess o' the $ro&uction o' $ro&ucts &etermines the $rocess o' the&istribution o' $ro&ucts* I', 'or e am$le, $ro&uction is carrie& on in in&e$en&ent establishments 4b)

arious ca$italist enter$rises, or b) in&i i&ual artisans , each establishment no, lon er $ro&ucin all

o' its re>uirements, but turnin out some s$ecial $ro&uct 4!atches, rain, iron locks, hammers,ton s, etc*, as the case ma) be , it is ob ious that the &istribution o' the $ro&uct !ill take the 'orm o'e chan e* Persons $ro&ucin locks cannot clothe themsel es in such locks or consume them 'or&inner, nor can $ersons $ro&ucin rain lock their barns !ith rain8 the) must ha e locks an& ke)s'or this $ur$ose* +he manner o' $ro&uction !hich is 'ollo!e& also &etermines the manner o'&istributin the $ro&uct8 this &istribution ma) not be consi&ere& as in&e$en&ent o' $ro&uction* 3nthe contrar), it is &etermine& "y $ro&uction an&, to ether !ith it, constitutes a section o' material social re roduction*

But $ro&uction itsel' in ol es t!o 'urther "&istributions": 'irst, the &istribution o' $ersons, theirarran ement in the $ro&uction $rocess, &e$en&in on their 'unction, as alrea&) &iscusse&8 secon&,

the &istribution o' $ro&uction tools amon these $ersons* +hese "&istributions" are a $art o' $ro&uction or, in the !or&s o' Mar , are "in ol e&" in $ro&uction* We ha e seen, 'or e am$le, in one



o' the s)stems o' societ) &iscusse&, namel), ca$italist societ), that its "&istribution o' $ersons" alsoinclu&es a &i ision into classes, base& on the &i''erence o' 'unction in the $ro&ucti e $rocess* Butthis ar)in "&istribution o' $ersons", &e$en&in on their ar)in assi nment in $ro&uction is alsoconnecte& !ith a &istribution o' the means o' labor: +he ca$italist, the o!ner o' the latifundium,an&the estate o!ner control these means o' labor 4'actor) an& machiner), the estate an& the com$ulsor)

sho$s, the soil an& structures , !hile the !orker has no instruments o' $ro&uction asi&e 'rom his o!nlabor $o!er8 the sla e &oes not e en o!n his o!n bo&), nor &oes the $easant ser'* It is there'oreob ious that the ar)in 'unction o' classes in $ro&uction is base& on the &istribution o' instrumentso' $ro&uction amon them* In his re ie! o' Mar #s book, < Contri"ution to the Critique of Political Economy, n els sa)s: a " conom) &eals not !ith thin s but !ith relations bet!een $ersons an& inthe last anal)sis bet!een classes8 but these relations al!a)s are boun& u$ !ith thin!s an& a$$ear asthin!s*"D or e am$le, the current class relations in ca$italist societ), namel), the relations bet!eenca$italists an& !orkers, are boun& u$ !ith a thin!J the instruments o' $ro&uction in the han&s o' theca$italists, controlle& b) the latter, not o!ne& b) the !orkers* +hese instruments o' $ro&uction ser ethe ca$italists as tools 'or the obtainin o' $ro'its, as means o' e $loitin the !orkin class* +he) arenot mere thin s, the) are thin s in a s$ecial social si ni'icance, in that the) here ser e not onl) asmeans o' $ro&uction, but also as a means o' e $loitin !a e laborers* In other !or&s, this thin!e $resses the relation bet!een classes, or, in the !or&s o' n els, these class relations are boun& u$!ith the thin!. In the last anal)sis, this thin!, in our e am$le, is ca ital *

+he s$ecial 'orm o' $ro&uction relations, there'ore, e istin in the relations bet!een classes, is&etermine& b) the ar)in 'unction o' these rou$s o' $ersons in the $ro&uction $rocess, an& the&istribution o' the means o' $ro&uction amon them* +his 'ull) con&itions the &istribution o' the

$ro&ucts*

+he ca$italist obtains $ro'it because he o!ns instruments o' $ro&uction: because he is a ca$italist*

+he class relations in $ro&uction, i.e., the relations boun& u$ !ith the ar)in &istribution o' themeans o' $ro&uction, are $articularl) im$ortant in societ)* It is the) !hich &etermine in the 'irst

$lace the outline o' societ), its s)stem or, in the !or&s o' Mar , its economic structure*

No!, the $ro&uction relations are e tremel) numerous, an& arie&* I' !e recall, 'urthermore, that !eare consi&erin the &istribution o' $ro&ucts as a $ortion o' re$ro&uction, it also becomes clear thatthe relations bet!een $ersons in the $rocess o' &istribution are also inclu&e& in the $ro&uctionrelations* In a com$licate& s)stem o' societ) there are innumerable such relations, such as, bet!eenmerchants, bankers, clerks, brokers, tra&esmen o' all kin&s, !orkers, consumers, salesmen, tra elinsalesmen, messen ers, manu'acturers, shi$.o!ners, sailors, en ineers, unskille& !orkers, etc*, etc*,

!hich all constitute $ro&uction relations* <ll are inter!o en in the most arie& combinations, themost $eculiar $atterns, the most unusual con'usions* But the 'un&amental scheme o' all these $atterns is im$ortant8 namel), the relations bet!een the reat rou$s kno!n as social classes* +hes)stem o' societ) !ill &e$en& on the classes inclu&e& in societ), their mutual $osition, their'unctions in the $ro&uction $rocess, the &istribution o' instruments o' labor* We ha e a ca$italistsociet) i' the ca$italist is on to$8 !e ha e a sla e s)stem i' the estate o!ner is on to$, an& in controlo' e er)thin 8 !e ha e a &ictatorshi$ o' the $roletariat i' the !orkers are on to$* +o be sure, e en theabsence o' all classes !oul& not mean the &isa$$earance o' societ), but merel) the &isa$$earance o'class societ)* +here !ere no classes, 'or e am$le, in the $rimiti e communist societ), nor !ill there

be an) in the communist societ) o' the 'uture*

We obser e& abo e that the $ro&uction relations chan e !ith the social technolo )8 a lance at theactual historical &e elo$ment o' an) societ) !ill be su''icient to sho! that this $rinci$le also hol&s







o' the cause is also true o' the e''ect* Instruments o' $ro&uction are rather $ro&ucts o' the human min&:" 4MaUetterbaum: =ur materialistischen Geschichtsauffassun!in 8ie 2eue =eit, ol* 21, $art ii, $*KCF* Uetterbaum iscon'use& b) the 'act that machines are not ma&e b) soulless men* But as men themsel es are not be otten b) cor$ses, heconsi&ers e er)thin in societ) to be a $ro&uct o' s$irit !ithout bo&) . a er) irtuous s$irit there'ore* It 'ollo!s that themachine is $s)chical, an& societ) has no "matter"* But is ob ious that sin'ul 'lesh is some!here in ol e&, 'or e en asinless s$irit coul& not be et men an& machines* urthermore, a 'leshless s$irit !oul& not e en &esire to occu$) himsel'

!ith such a''airs* What remains o' the "relation"= We must a ain $oint out to Herr Uetterbaum that the solar s)stem is amaterial s)stem8 that !e call it a s)stem because its $arts 4sun, earth, other $lanets are in &e'inite relations to each other,occu$) a certain $osition in s$ace at an) i en moment* Eust as the totalit) o' $lanets, in certain relations !ith eachother, constitutes the solar s)stem, so the totalit) o' $ersons in $ro&uction relations constitutes the economic structure o'societ), its material basis, its $ersonal a$$aratus* ?autsk), !ho sometimes con'uses technolo ) an& econom) mostsin'ull), also makes some er) ulnerable statements* <ll such claims ma) be ans!ere& b) the 'ollo!in $assa e 'romthe arch.bour eois, Werner Sombast* +his $ro'essor, !ho is >uite 'ree 'rom materialism, tells us: " i urati el) s$eakin ,the economic li'e ma) be consi&ere& as an or anism consistin o' a bo&) an& a soul* +he e ternal 'orms o' theo$erations o' the economic li'e are its bo&)8 the 'orms o' economic an& 'actor) o$eration, the most arie& or ani(ations!ithin !hich an& !ith the ai& o' !hich the economic $rocess continues*" 4Werner Sombart: 8er 3our!eois, M]nchenan& ;ei$(i , 191F, $$*1 2* 3' course, the entire economic structure o' societ) must be inclu&e& un&er the hea& o'economic 'orm an& economic or ani(ation, bein there'ore, "'i urati el) s$eakin ", the bo&) o' this societ)*

d. The )utlines of the Su erstructure

<mon the remainin $hases o' social li'e !hich !e must no! consi&er are such $henomena as thesocial an& $olitical s)stem o' societ) 4the state, the or ani(ation o' classes, $arties, etc* 8 manners,customs an& morals 4the social norms o' human con&uct 8 science an& $hiloso$h)8 reli ion, art, an&'inall), lan ua e, the means o' communication bet!een men* +hese $henomena, e ce$tin the socialan& $olitical s)stem, are 're>uentl) re'erre& to as our "mental" or "s$iritual culture"*

+he !or& culture comes 'rom a ;atin erb meanin "to culti ate"* 0ulture there'ore means e er)thin that is the !ork o' human han&s, in the !i&er sense, i.e., e er)thin $ro&uce& b) social man in one 'orm or another* "Mental culture" is alsoa $ro&uct o' the social li'e, is inclu&e& in the eneral li'e.$rocess o' societ)* It cannot be un&erstoo& unless it beinter$rete& as a $ortion o' this eneral li'e.$rocess* @et, certain bour eois scholars !oul& isolate this "mental culture"absolutel) 'rom the li'e.$rocess o' societ), i.e., the) !oul& &ei') it, make it an entit) in&e$en&ent o' the bo&), a&isembo&ie& s$irit* +hus, <l're& Weber68er so iolo!ische ultur"e!riff , in Nerhandlun!en des weiten deutschenSo iolo!enta!es,+]bm en, 191F , !ho consi&ers the e $ansion o' social li'e, its intricac) an& !ealth, as a $rocess o'e ternal ci ili(ation, !rites: "But !e 'eel to&a) that culture is su$erior to all these thin s8 that culture means somethin&i''erent to us "* 3nl) !hen " li'e, risin abo e its necessities an& utilities, has assume& a hi her le el than these thin s,onl) then ha5e we a culture" 4$$*1C, 118 Weber#s italics * In other !or&s, culture is a $ortion o' li'e, but is not &etermine&

b) the necessities an& utilities o' li'e, i.e., it transcen&s the boun&s o' societ), is not con&itione& b) this societ)* It isob ious that such a $oint o' ie! !oul& lea& to a renunciation o' science an& an acce$tance o' 'aith* Note that Weber#schie' $roo' is the 'act that "!e 'eel"*

< use'ul transition to a consi&eration o' this "mental culture" is a stu&), in broa& outline, o' the

social and olitical structure ofsociet), !hich is &irectl) &etermine&, as !e shall see, b) itseconomic structure*

+he most ob ious e $ression o' the social an& $olitical structure o' societ) is the state $o!er, !hich!ill be un&erstoo& i' !e un&erstan& the necessar) con&ition 'or the e istence o' a societ) o' classes*

or in such a societ) the arious classes must ha e &i''erent interests* Some $ossess all8 others, $racticall) nothin 8 some are in comman&, an& a$$ro$riate to themsel es the $ro&ucts o' the !ork o' others8 others obe), carr) out the comman&s o' stran ers, an& )iel& u$ !hat the) ha e $ro&uce& !iththeir o!n han&s* +he $osition o' the classes in $ro&uction an& &istribution, i*e*, the con&ition o' their e istence is their 'unction in societ), "their social bein ", results also in the ro!th o' a s$eci'icconsciousness* <s e er)thin in the uni erse is the result o' the con&itions that brin it about, the

arious situations o' the classes must result in a &i''erence in their interests, as$irations, stru les,e en in their &eath stru les* It is interestin to obser e the nature o' the e>uilibrium e istin in the



structureo' a societ) o' classes* +he 'act that such a societ), in !hich, in the !or&s o' an n lishstatesman, there are in realit) t!o "nations" 4classes , can e ist at all, !ithout &an er o'&isinte ratin at an) moment, is o' itsel' er) strikin *

@et there is no &oubt o' the e istence o' class societies* In some !a) or other, a uni')in bon& has

been attaine& in such societies, a sort o' hoo$ hol&in to ether the sta es o' the barrel8 this hoo$ isthe state, an or ani(ation o' all societ), !ith its threa&s, retainin them all in the s)stem o' itstentacles* I' !e shoul& ask ho! the state ori inates, !e shoul& not be satis'ie& !ith an) ans!erattributin a su$ernatural ori in to the state, nor !ith an) &eclaration that the state stan&s be)on& allclasses8 'or the sim$le reason that classless $ersons &o not e ist in a class societ)* +here !oul&there'ore be no material !ith !hich to construct an or ani(ation stan&in outsi&e o' all classes orabo e all classes, no matter ho! o'ten this ma) be asserte& b) bour eois scholars* +he or ani(ationo' the state is alto ether an or ani(ation o' the "rulin class"*

It no! becomes o' interest to &etermine !hich is the rulin class, 'or !e shall then un&erstan& !hichclass is re$resente& b) the state $o!er, !hich sub-u ates all the other classes b) means o' itsstren th, its 'orce, its mental s)stem, its !i&el) rami'ie& a$$aratus* +he >uestion is not &i''icult toans!er* In ca$italist societ), !e 'in& the ca$italist class &ominant in $ro&uction8 it !oul& be absur&to e $ect to 'in& the $roletariat $ermanentl) &ominant in the state, 'or one o' the 'un&amentalcon&itions o' e>uilibrium !oul& no! be lackin 8 either the $roletariat !oul& also sei(e control o'

$ro&uction, or the bour eoisie !oul& sei(e the state $o!er* +he e istence o' a societ) !ith a s$eci'iceconomic structure also in ol es the a&a$tation o' its state or ani(ation8 in other !or&s, theeconomic structure o' societ) also &etermines its state an& $olitical structure* +he state, 'urthermore,is a hu e or ani(ation embracin an entire nation an& rulin man) millions o' men* +hisor ani(ation nee&s a !hole arm) o' em$lo)ees, o''icials, sol&iers, o''icers, le islators, -urists,ministers, -u& es, enerals, etc*, etc*, an& embraces reat la)ers o' human bein s, one su$erim$ose&on the other* +his structure is a $recise re'lection o' the con&itions in $ro&uction* In ca$italist*societ), 'or e am$le, the bour eoisie is in control o' $ro&uction, an& there'ore also o' the state*

ollo!in u$on the manu'acturer comes the 'actor) su$erinten&ent himsel', o'ten a ca$italist8 thesame is true o' the ministers o' a ca$italist state, its $oliticians in hi h $laces* rom these circles arerecruite& the enerals 'or the arm)8 the interme&iate $ositions in $ro&uction are 'ille& b) thetechnical s$ecialist, the en ineer, the technical mental !orker8 these mental !orkers occu$) the

$osts o' interme&iate o''icials in the state a$$aratus8 the) o'ten 'urnish the arm) o''icers* +he lo!erem$lo)ees, as !ell as the sol&iers, are 'urnishe& b) the !orkin class* 3' course, there are man)'luctuations, but the structure o' the state authorit) corres$on&s closel), on the !hole, to the structureo' societ)*

I' !e shoul& assume, 'or a moment, that b) a miracle the lo!er em$lo)ees ha& raise& themsel esabo e the hi her em$lo)ees, our assum$tion !oul& in ol e a loss o' e>uilibrium in the !hole o'societ), i*e*, a re olution* But such a re olution also cannot take $lace unless corres$on&inalterations ha e alrea&) been accom$lishe& in $ro&uction* Here also it is a$$arent that the structureo' the state a$$aratus itsel' re'lects the economic structure, i*e*, the same classes occu$) relati el)the same $ositions*

;et us i e a 'e! e am$les 'rom arious times an& $laces* In ancient )$t, the a&ministration o' $ro&uction !as $racticall) i&entical !ith that o' the state, the reat lan&lor&s hea&in both* <n im$ortant 'raction o' $ro&uction !as thatturne& out b) the lan&lor& state* +he role o' the social rou$s in $ro&uction coinci&e& !ith their caste, !ith !hether the)!ere hi her, mi&&le, or lo!er o''icials o' the state, or sla es 43tto Neurath: Antike :irtschafts!eschichte, ;ei$(i , 19C9,

$*D * "+he 'amilies o' the reat# are o' course lan&hol&in 'amilies, but the) are also, abo e all, a"ureaucratic nobilit)*"4Ma Weber: A!rar5erhBltnisse im Altertum,in Mand"uch der Staatswissenschaften, ol* i* Sometimes the combinationo' state authorit) an& lea&ershi$ in $ro&uction !as em$haticall) 'ormulate&* In the i'teenth 0entur), the bankin house



o' the Me&ici rule& the Italian tra&e.ca$italist %e$ublic o' lorence: "+he Bank o' the Me&ici an& the lorentine State+reasur) !ere i&entical* +he bankru$tc) o' this commercial 'irm occurre& at the same moment as the colla$se o' the

lorentine %e$ublic" 4M* Pokro sk): Economic <aterialism, Mosco!, 19C , $*2 , in %ussian * In the secon& hal' o' thei hteenth 0entur), the lan&lor&s !ere &ominant in %ussian $ro&uction, rulin o er the $easant ser's* +hese lan&lor&s

there'ore also controlle& the state, bein s$eciall) or ani(e& as a $ri ile e& nobilit)* When the $easants rose un&erPu acho , the lan&lor&.em$ress 0atherine II ser e& as an incarnation o' the e istin state $o!er, !hen she ai&e& . as

"lan&hol&er o' ?a(an" . in 'ormin a ca alr) re iment 'or $uttin &o!n this "rabble", !here!ith she arouse& a eritablestorm o' im$erial 'i&elit) amon the ?a(an lan&lor&s* Her 're>uent association !ith rench 'ree.thinkin $hiloso$hers&i& not $re ent 0atherine 'rom intro&ucin ser'&om into 6kraine, a contrast !hich has been !ell state& b) <* +olstoi:

"+he reat $o$ulationIn )our lan&s;on s 'or ree&om

rom )our han&s*+hen s$ake she 'ull o' noble (eal:Messieurs, o!s me comble(,Whereu$on she e ten&e& ser'&om+o co er 6kraine also*"

In the 6nite& States, 'inancial ca$ital, a cli>ue o' bankers an& trust ma nates, is &ominant in $ro&uction8 the) alsocontrol the state $o!er to such an e tent that con ressional &ecisions are not ma&e be'ore the) ha e been mostthorou hl) &iscusse& behin& the scenes b) combine& ca$ital*

But the social an& $olitical structure o' societ) is not limite& to the state authorit)* +he rulin class,as !ell as the o$$resse& classes, $resent the most arie& or ani(ations an& 'orms o' common action*

ach class usuall) has its an uar&, consistin o' its most "class.conscious" members, an&constitutin the $olitical $arties com$etin 'or &omination in societ)* 6suall), the rulin class, theo$$resse& classes, an& the "mi&&le classes", each ha e their s$eci'ic $art)* Since there are arious

rou$s e istin !ithin each class, it is ob ious that a class ma) ha e a number o' $arties, thou h themost $ermanent an& 'un&amental o' its interests can be e $resse& onl) in one $art)* Besi&es there ularl) or ani(e& bo&ies, there ma) be a number o' other bo&ies: the $resent.&a) <mericanca$italists, 'or e am$le, ha e not onl) or ani(ations to combat the !orkers, but also s$ecialor ani(ations 'or election mani$ulations 4+amman) Hall, 'or e am$le an& or ani(ations 'orrecruitin strike.breakers, or ani(ations o' in&ustrial s$ies 4the Pinkerton an& other &etecti ea encies , the secret rou$s o' the most in'luential ca$italist 'irms an& the most $o!er'ul $oliticians,'ollo!in strictl) cons$irati e metho&s8 the o''icial state or ans al!a)s carr) out the !ill o' these

bo&ies* In %ussia, there !as an au iliar) or ani(ation o' the state o' the lan&e& $ro$rietors, namel),the semi.criminal ban& o' the "Black Hun&re&" !hich ha& a''iliations !ith the rei nin %omano&)nast)* +his role !as $la)e& in Ital), in 1921, b) the ascisti, an& in 7erman) b) the 3r esch* 11 +he o$$resse& classes also ha e a number o' economic or ani(ations in a&&ition to their $arties 4'orinstance, the tra&e unions , not to mention 'i htin or ani(ations an& clubs, in !hich !e ma) inclu&esuch bo&ies as the "ban&s" o' Stenka %a(in or Pu acho *12 In short, all or ani(ations !a in theclass !ar, 'rom the >eunesse dor7eo' the 7erman stu&ent 'raternities u$ to the state $o!er itsel', onthe one han&.'rom the $art) to the club, on the other han&8 all these are a $ortion o' the social an&

$olitical structure o' societ)* +heir basis is as clear as &a)8 their e istence is a re'lection an& ane $ression o' classes here also econom) con&itions olitics*

In our consi&eration o' this "$olitical su$erstructure", !e cannot a''or& to lose si ht o' the 'act that .as the abo e e am$les alone !oul& sho! . this $olitical su$erstructure is not merel) a $ersonala$$aratus* It consists, 'or all societ), o' a combination o' thin s, $ersons, an& i&eas* or instance, inthe state a$$aratus, !e ha e a s$eci'ic a$$aratus o' thin s, a s$eci'ic hierarch), a certain s$eci'ic

s)stem o' i&eas 4$roce&ure, la!s, or&inances, etc* , etc* In the case o' the arm), !hich is a $ortion o'the state, !e ha e a s$ecial "technolo )" 4cannons, ri'les, machine. uns, commissar) su$$lies , its








s$eci'ic arran ement o' men, "&istribute&" in a certain !a), an& its o!n "i&eas", !hich ha e beeninsinuate& into the min&s o' all the members o' the arm) b) means o' a com$licate& militar) &rillan& a s$ecial e&ucational a$$aratus 4s$irit o' subor&ination, &isci$line, etc* * ie!e& 'rom this an le,the $icture o' the arm) !ill su est the 'ollo!in in'erences* +he technolo ) o' the arm) is&etermine& b) the eneral technolo ) o' $ro&ucti e labor in the i en societ)8 cannons cannot be

manu'acture& be'ore the castin o' steel has been learnt, i.e., be'ore the necessar) means o' $ro&uction ha e been obtaine&* +he &istribution o' $ersons, the structure o' the arm), &e$en&s on themilitar) science an& also the class ali nment o' societ)* 3n the e istence o' !ea$ons, an& on thenature o' these !ea$ons, &e$en&s the &i ision o' the arm) into artiller), in'antr), en ineers, ca alr),sa$$ers, etc*8 on this !ill &e$en& !hat t)$es o' sol&iers, su$eriors, $ersons !ith s$ecial 'unctions4'or e am$le, tele$hone o$erators are $resent in the arm)* 3n the other han&, the class ali nment o'societ) !ill &etermine 'rom !hat social la)er the sta'' o' o''icers is recruite&8 b) the re$resentati eso' !hat class the actions o' the arm) are controlle&, etc*8 'inall), the s$eci'ic mental attitu&es !ith!hich the arm) is imbue& are con&itione&, on the one han&, b) the arm) structure 4memori(inre ulations, cada5re obe&ience, etc* , an& on the other han& b) the class structure o' societ)* In the+sar#s arm) the slo an !as "3be) the +sar", " or 7o&, m$eror an& atherlan&"8 in the %e& <rm)the slo an is "Preser e &isci$line in or&er to $rotect the !orkers a ainst the im$erialists*" +hesee am$les are su''icient to sho! that the social an& $olitical su$erstructure is a com$licate& thin ,consistin o' &i''erent elements, !hich are interrelate&* 3n the !hole, this structure is &etermine& b)the class outline o' societ), a structure !hich in turn &e$en&s on the $ro&ucti e 'orces, i.e., on thesocial technolo )* 0ertain o' these elements are &irectl) &e$en&ent on technolo ) 4"the art o' !ar" 8others &e$en& on the class character o' societ) 4its* econom) , as !ell as on the technolo ) o' thesu$erstructure itsel' 4"arm) mana ement" * <ll the elements o' the su$erstructure are there'ore&irectl) or in&irectl) base& on the sta e that has been reache& b) the social $ro&ucti e 'orces*

< s$ecial $lace amon human or ani(ations is hel& b) the or ani(ation o' the 'amil), i*e*, the li in to ether o' men,!omen, an& chil&ren* +his clan or ani(ation, !hich !as constantl) chan in , !as base& on certain economic con&itions*"+he 'amil), also, is not onl) a social, but $reeminentl) an economic 'ormation, base& on the &i ision o' labor bet!eenman an& !oman, on se ual &i''erentiation# " Primiti e marria e is nothin else than the e $ression o' this economicunion*" 4M]ller.;)er, ibi&*, $*15C8cf. Mar : Ca ital , ol* i, 0hica o, 1915, $*FD : "Within a sin le 'amil) " there arises a

$rimiti e &istribution o' labor base& on &i''erences o' se an& a e * * * *" +he 'amil) thus arises as a 'irm unit b) reasono' the alterations in the economic or&er o' the clan, !hich !as a $rimiti e state o' communism 4the ori inal 'orm o'relation bet!een the se es !as $romiscuit), i*e*, unre ulate& se ual relations bet!een men an& !omen * M* N*Pokro sk) characteri(es the $rimiti e Sla ic 'amil) as 'ollo!s: "+he members o' this 'amil), !orkers in the sameeconom), sol&iers o' the same &etachment, an& 'inall), !orshi$ers o' the same o&, $artici$ants in the same rite"4 Mistory of ;ussia, Mosco!, 192C, $$*1 , 1D, in %ussian * But the economic basis o' such a 'amil) is 'urther clari'ie& b)the 'ollo!in 'act* "It !oul& be erroneous," "to assi n a &ominant im$ortance to these sa)s M* N* Pokro sk), bloo& ties:the) are customar), but not ine itable* Such collecti e establishments !ere con&ucte& in the North 4o' %ussia b)

$ersons !ho !ere stran ers to each other, on the basis o' contracts8 the) 'oun&e& such communities, not 'or all time, but'or a &e'inite $erio&, 'or instance, 'or ten )ears " Here also, the economic connection ante&ates the ties o' bloo&, the

relation# in our sense o' the term" 4ibi&*, $*1 * +he chan e& 'orms o' 'amil) relations, in accor&ance !ith the economiccon&itions, ma) be trace& e en in mo&ern times: !e nee& onl) to com$are the $easant 'amil), the !orkers# 'amil), an&the mo&ern bour eois 'amil)* +he $easant 'amil) is a 'irm unit, 'or it is base& &irectl) on $ro&uction* "+here must be a!oman in the house," 'or !ho else !oul& milk the co!s, 'ee& the $i s, cook the 'oo&, ti&) the rooms, !ash, take care o'the chil&ren, etc*= +he economic si ni'icance o' the 'amil) is so reat that marria es are &ictate& b) s$eci'ic economiccalculation: "there is no !oman in the house"* conomicall) consi&ere&, the members o' the 'amil) are "!orkers" an&"eaters"* Built u$ on this com$arati el) ri i& basis, the $easant 'amil) is itsel' characteri(e& b) $atriarchal ri i&it), !henuntouche& b) the "corru$tin " in'luence o' the cit)* +he !orkers# 'amil) is &i''erent* +he !orker has no econom) o' hiso!n* His "househol&" is a consum$tion econom) onl)8 it consumes its !a es* Simultaneousl), the cit), !ith its saloons,restaurants, laun&ries, etc*, makes the househol& lar el) su$er'luous* inall), lar e.scale in&ustr) &isinte rates the'amil), 'orcin the $roletarian !oman to !ork in a 'actor)* More mobile, less stable 'orms o' 'amil) relations arise 'romthese circumstances* In the u$$er mi&&le class, $ri ate $ro$ert) re>uires the $reser ation o' the 'amil)* But theincreasin $arasitism o' the bour eoisie, an& the ro!th o' entire strata !ho li e b) cuttin cou$ons, trans'orm the !i'einto a thin , into a be&i(ene& but er) stu$i& $la)thin , a bou&oir a$$urtenance* +he arious 'orms o' marria e4mono am), $ol) am), $ol)an&r), etc* are like!ise &e$en&ent on the con&itions o' economic e olution* urthermore, it



must not be 'or otten that se ual intercourse has $racticall) ne er been limite& to the 'amil)* +he 'orms o' $rostitution,an& their &istribution, are a ain connecte& !ith the econom) o' societ)8 !e nee& onl) to $oint out the r 1e o' $rostitutionin the ca$italist s)stem* It seems reasonable to assume that communist societ), !hich !ill &e'initel) abolish $ri ate

$ro$ert) an& the ensla ement o' !omen, !ill !itness the &isa$$earance both o' $rostitution an& the 'amil)*

+he other $hases o' the "su$erstructure" are a result o' man#s li in in societ), or in in&i i&ualsections o' societ), in a con&ition either o' outri ht con'lict or o' incom$lete harmon)* +hee $ression o' this con&ition is the social necessit) o' social norms, inclu&in customs, morals, la!,an& a reat number o' other stan&ar&s 4"rules o' &ecent beha ior", "eti>uette", ceremonial, etc*8 alsothe constitutions o' the arious societies, or ani(ations, brotherhoo&s, etc* , all o' !hich are

$ro&uce& b) the accumulation o' contra&ictions in a mature an& com$licate& societ)* +he moststrikin o' these contra&ictions is the class contra&iction, !hich there'ore "&eman&s" a mi ht)re ulator 'or the $ur$ose o' su$$ressin this contra&iction at certain times8 the state $o!er !ith itsle al &ecisions, its stan&ar&s o' la!, constitutes such a re ulator* +here are also subsi&iar)contra&ictions bet!een the classes, !ithin the classes, also !ithin tra&es, rou$s, or ani(ations, an&in all human cate ories in eneral* %e ar&less o' his class $osition, each in&i i&ual comes in contact

!ith all kin&s o' $eo$le, is sub-ect to arious in'luences !hich interact at man) $oints8 he 'in&shimsel' $lace& in s!i'tl) chan in circumstances, !hich ma) &isa$$ear an& later a ain assertthemsel es* 0ontra&ictions are here 'oun& at e er) ste$, an& )et societ) an& certain rou$s !ithin itcontinue their relati el) $ermanent e istence* +he ca$italists, o!ners o' enter$rises, tra&ers,merchants, com$ete in the market8 )et the) rarel) resort to arme& con'lict !ith each other !ithin thesame state, an& their class &oes not colla$se because o' the com$etiti e stru le bet!een itsmembers* While bu)ers an& sellers ha e &istinctl) o$$ose& interests, the) &o not belabor each other

$h)sicall)* +here are unem$lo)e& $ersons amon the !orkers, !hom the ca$italists attem$t to !ino er &urin a strike8 but not e er) such $erson can be utili(e&8 the class bon& amon the !orkers istoo stron * +his con&ition is a result o' a reat ariet) o' stan&ar&s e istin b) the si&e o' the le alstan&ar&s* +hese su$$lementar) norms im$ress themsel es on the min&s o' men, a$$arentl) 'rom

some inner source, an& a$$ear sacre& to them, bein oluntaril) a&here& o* 3' such nature, 'ore am$le, are the rules o' moralit), !hich are re$resente& in a commercial societ) as eternal an&immutabl) sacre& la!s, ra&iatin their o!n li ht an& bin&in on all &ecent eo$le8 similar is the case!ith customs, "&uties to the reat &e$arte&", "rules o' &ecenc)", "courtes)", etc*

In s$ite o' the alle e& "su$ernatural" character o' these la!s, their earthl) roots ma) easil) be trace&,re ar&less o' the $ious a!e o' all their submissi e a&herents* < closer obser ation 'orces us toreco ni(e t!o 'un&amental con&itions: 'irst, that these la!s are sub-ect to chan e8 secon&, that the)are connecte& !ith class, rou$, occu$ation, etc* It is also ob ious that "in the last anal)sis" the) arelike!ise con&itione& b) the le el attaine& b) the $ro&ucti e 'orces* In eneral, these rules in&icatethe line o' con&uct con&uci e to a $reser ation o' the societ), class, or rou$ in >uestion, an&re>uirin a subor&ination o' the in&i i&ual to the interests o' the rou$* +hese norms are there'oreconditions of equili"rium'or hol&in to ether the internal contra&ictions o' human social s)stems,!hence it results that the) must more or less coinci&e !ith the economic structure o' societ)* It isim$ossible, 'or instance, in an) societ), 'or the s)stem o' its dominantmanners an& customs to be in

$ermanent contra&iction !ith its 'un&amental economic structure* Such an o$$osition !oul& meanthe com$lete absence o' the 'un&amental con&ition 'or social e>uilibrium* It is on the basis o' theeconomic con&itions that la!, customs an& morals are e ol e& in an) societ)8 the) chan e an&&isa$$ear !ith the economic s)stem* +hus, in ca$italist societ), the ca$italist controls thin s4instruments o' $ro&uction , a con&ition !hich is re'lecte& in the la!s o' the ca$italist state, in the socalle& ri ht to $ri ate $ro$ert), !hich is $rotecte& b) the entire a$$aratus o' the state $o!er* +he

$ro&uction con&itions o' ca$italist societ) are -uri&icall) terme& ro erty relations8 these relationsare su$$orte& b) man) la!s* < con&ition un&er !hich the la!s o' ca$italist societ) !oul& not $rotectthe $ro$ert) relations o' this societ), but &estro) them, is inconcei able* Similarl), the "moral



consciousness" o' ca$italist societ) re'lects an& e $resses its material bein * +hus, in the 'iel& o' $ri ate $ro$ert), moralit) teaches that the't is to be con&emne&8 honest) an& the in iolabilit) o' the $ro$ert) o' others are inculcate&* <n& >uite naturall), 'or !ithout this moral la! !hich hasimbe&&e& itsel' in the min&s o' men, ca$italist societ) !oul& at once &isinte rate*

<$$arent contra&ictions to the abo e can be easil) &is$ose& o'* While communists &o not belie e inthe sacre&ness o' $ri ate $ro$ert), the) &o not a$$ro e o' stealin * It ma) be ur e& that this in&icatesthe $resence o' somethin that is sacre& 'or all men, that cannot be e $laine& b) earthl) causes* +he'acts o' the case are >uite &i''erent: it is true that communists b) no means reco ni(e the in iolabilit)o' $ri ate $ro$ert)8 the nationali(ation o' 'actories is an e $ro$riation o' the bour eoisie8 the!orkin class a$$ro$riates "the $ro$ert) o' others", trans resses the ri ht o' $ri ate $ro$ert),un&ertakes a "&es$otic inter ention in the ri ht o' $ro$ert)" 4?arl Mar : 4he Communist <anifesto *But communists con&emn stealin , 'or the reason that in&i i&ual the'ts b) each !orker 'rom theca$italists, 'or his o!n a& anta e, !oul& not result in a common stru le, but !oul& make the!orker a $ett) bour eois* Horse.thie es an& s!in&lers !ill not 'i ht in the class stru le, e enthou h the) ma) be o''s$rin o' the $roletariat* I' man) members o' the $roletariat shoul& becomethie es, the class !oul& break &o!n an& be con&emne& to im$otence8 there'ore, communistscon&emn stealin , not in or&er to $rotect $ri ate $ro$ert), but in or&er to maintain the inte rit) o'their class, to $rotect it 'rom "&emorali(ation" an& "&isinte ration", !ithout !hich $rotection the

$roletariat can ne er be trans'orme& into the ne t 'ollo!in sta e* We are there'ore &ealin !ith aclass standard in the con&uct o' the $roletariat* It is ob ious that the rules !e ha e consi&ere& are&etermine& b) the economic con&itions o' societ)*

+he $roletarian stan&ar&s, o' course, are in contra&iction !ith the economic con&itions o' ca$italist societ)* But !e ha e been s$eakin o' dominant standards8 as soon as the $roletarian stan&ar&s become &ominant, ca$italism !ill be a thino' the $ast 4see ne t cha$ter *

< number o' e am$les !ill be i en to e $lain the abo e statements* In the se ual 'iel&, at a certain sta e o'&e elo$ment, !hen the clan !as still base& on blan& relationshi$ an& members o' other clans !ere consi&ere& enemies,marria es bet!een close relations !ere not ob-ectionable8 $articularl) sacre& !as a marria e !ith one#s mother or&au hter 4in the ancient Iranian reli ion *

When the $ro&ucti e 'orces !ere at a lo! le el, an& the social econom) coul& not a''or& an) su$er'luous ballast,manners an& morals re>uire& the slayin! of old men, as is re$orte& b) the ancient historians Hero&otus, Strabo, etc* +his!as the cause 'or the oluntar) sel'.$oisonin s 4re$orte& b) Strabo o' ol& men* 3n the other han&, !here these ol& menha& a 'unction in $ro&uction or a&ministration, moralit) re>uire& that the) be honore& 4cf. &uar& Me)er: Elemente der Anthro olo!ie, $$*F1.FF,et seq* * +he close.knit nature o' the clan, its soli&arit) !hen combatin enemies, assume& the'orm o' bloo& re en e, in !hich !omen also $artici$ate&* +hus, !e rea& in the Nibelun enlie&:

"0hriemhil&a &i& re en e her !ron s, in !a) that !ill a''ri ht8She slau htere&, !ithout 'ear or shame, the kin , an& lo)al kni htA+he) both !ere sin l) manacle&, in 'ast an& &rear) $lace8So that those kni hts ne#er sa! a ain each other, 'ace to 'ace,Sa e !hen she took her brother#s hea& to Ha en, !ith o!n han&,0hriemhil&a en e'ul !rath !as such, as ba''les ail comman&*"

4 8as 2i"elun!enlied, or ?ay of the ?ast 2i"elun!ers, n lish transl* b) Eonathan Birch, Berlin, 1DKD*

&uar& Me)er correctl) sa)s: "In content, the la!s o' moralit), o' customs, an& o' -ustice, &e$en& on the social or&er an&the communal ie!s o' the communit), $re ailin at the time " +he) ma) there'ore be &iametricall) o$$ose& in content,i' the) re$resent &i''erent societies an& &i''erent $erio&s" 4 i"id *, $*KK * In ancient 0hina, a $eculiarl) constructe& 'eu&alstate authorit) !ith a reat stratum o' o''icials o' arious &e ree, !as o' reat im$ortance* +he rule o' this 'eu&al.

bureaucratic stratum !as i&eolo icall) base& on the teachin o' 0on'ucius, a s)stem o' rules o' con&uct* 3ne o' the mostim$ortant $oints in this moral teachin !as the &octrine o' res$ect an& submission to those in authorit) 4 Miao 8



"0alumnies must be borne, e en thou h the) &ri e us into &eath, i' the honor o' the master re>uire it8 one can 4an&shoul& al!a)s make oo& all the master#s errors b) faithfulser ice8 such !as Miao04Ma Weber: Gesammelte AufsBt e ur ;eli!ions hiloso hie,+]bin en, 192C, ol* i, $*K19 * iolation o' Miao!as the onl) sin* 3ne !ho &i& not un&erstan&this, !ho there'ore ha& no ras$ o' "$ro$riet)" 4a 'un&amental conce$tion in the 0on'ucian &octrine !as a barbarian*"%es$ect 4 Miao to!ar& one#s 'eu&al lor& !as enumerate& to ether !ith that to!ar& $arents, teachers, su$eriors in theo''icial hierarch), an& o''icehol&ers in eneral" 4 i"id., $*KK * /isci$line, like res$ect, is a !orth) irtue*

"Insubor&ination is !orse than baseness" 4$*KK * +he case ma) be enerall) state&: "Better be a &o in $eace, than aman li in in anarch)," as 0hen ?i +on sa)s 4$*K5 * ";ike an) co&e 'or o''icials, the 0on'ucian co&e o' course alsocon&emne& an) $artici$ation b) o''icials in business, &irectl) or in&irectl), as ethicall) ob-ectionable an& not in accor&!ith their rank" 4$*KK * rien&s must be chosen onl) 'rom one#s o!n rank, 'or the) can 'ul'il all the ceremonies8 the

$o$ulation consists o' "stu$i& men" 4 yun min , as contraste& !ith the man o' $rincel) station* 0haracteristicall) enou h,this entire s)stem o' stan&ar&s su$$ortin the 'eu&al noble re ime !as calle& the " reat $lan", hun! fan, 4$* K5K * It isob ious that this teachin is closel) relate& !ith the s)stem o' societ)* +he numerous "0hinese ceremonies" !ere inrealit) base& on the &ominant currents o' thou ht, an& ser e& as a com$licate& silken tissue enmeshin the socialstructure an& uar&in the e istin or&er*

3r, let us consi&er the me&ie al kni hts o' Northern rance, in the +!el'th an& +hirteenth 0enturies, !ho san o' their'air la&ies an& 'ou ht tournaments "'or them"8 their "i&eal" ie!s o' "honor an& lo e" bore all the earmarks o' a castehonor 4cf. H* Helmolt, :elt!eschichte, ;ei$(i an& ienna, ol* * +he chie' role $la)e& b) kni hthoo& in societ) !asthat o' !ar an& strate )* +he "stan&ar&s" there'ore ha& to ser e the $ur$ose o' trainin a militar) t)$e o' man, se re ate&in a s$ecial class* "< kni ht, !ho " ha& sho!n himsel' to be a co!ar&, !as cast out, $ublicl) outla!e& b) the heral&,curse& b) the 0hurch8 his escutcheon an& arms !ere &estro)e& b) the han man, his shiel& tie& to the tail o' a horse an&smashe& b) the animal in his s!i't course "" " or trainin! in the rofession ofarms, there !ere tournaments,in a&&itionto militar) cam$ai ns an& 'eu&s" 4$*K9 *

"<s the ca$italist relations ro!, the &ominant customs, morals, etc*, chan e* 7enerous !aste'ulness is re$lace& b) a&esire 'or accumulation an& the corres$on&in irtues*" "< &ecent man is not honore& b) his lor&l) manner, but b) hiskee$in or&er in his establishment" 4W* Sombart, 8er 3our!eois , $*1KC * "3ne must re'rain 'rom re elr), must a$$earonl) in &ecent com$an)8 must not be a&&icte& to &rinkin , amblin , !omen8 one must be a oo& citi(en# e en in one#se ternal con&uct, 'or reasons o' business interest* or, such a moral con&uct o' li'e raises oneKs credit04i"id *, $$*1 2,1 F * 3' course, this $ious Protestant moralit) !as succee&e& b) a &i''erent moralit) !hen the situation o' the

bour eoisie chan e&, the business o' the 'irm no lon er &e$en&in on the con&uct o' its o!ner*

It is an e en easier matter to sho! ho! la! chan es !ith the economic structure, 'or here the class character o' la! ismani'est e er)!here* But e en such intan ible stan&ar&s as those o' fashion&e$en& . as ma) be easil) $ro e& . on socialcon&itions* or a bour eois it is "in&ecent" not to &ress in accor&ance !ith his stan&in 8 'or this class trait o' clothinin&icates "$ersons o' >ualit)"* en re olutionists are sub-ect to the ca$rices o' 'ashion8 a $art) 'ashion in the re olutiono' 19C5 !as the !earin o' black blouses b) the Social./emocrats 4a si n o' the $roletariat , !hile the Social.%e olutionists $re'erre& re& ones 4re olutionar) $easantr) 8 )ou coul& har&l) 'in& a &o(en intellectuals in an) bi cit),!ho ha& $artici$ate& in the re olution an& )et i nore& these $assi el) acce$te& $art) 'ashions*

In a&&ition to a class moralit), !e also ha e sub&i isions o' this moralit), 'or e am$le, $ro'essional ethics, the ocationalmorals o' $h)sicians, la!)ers, etc* +here is also a thie' moralit) 4"there is honor amon thie es" , !hich is rather strictl)com$lie& !ith* <ll the stan&ar&s abo e mentione& constitute 'irm bon&s em$hasi(in the unit) o' a societ), a class, a

ocational rou$, etc*

Science and Philoso hyare also a cate or) o' social $henomena* We shall see that the latter is base&on all the accom$lishments o' the 'ormer* <n) 'airl) a& ance& science is a er) com$licate& thin ,,not limite& to s)stems o' i&eas alone* +he sciences ha e their techni>ue, their $h)sical a$$aratus,instruments, a$$liances, charts, books, laboratories, museums, etc*8 an) laborator) or an) scienti'ice $e&ition, to the North Pole or to 0entral <'rica, !ill ser e as an illustration8 the) also ha e their

$ersonal a$$aratus, sometimes hi hl) or ani(e& 4'or e am$le, scienti'ic con resses, con'erences,aca&emies an& other or ani(ations, !ith their $erio&ical an& other $ublications 8 an& 'inall), there isthe s)stem o' i&eas, o' thou hts in or&erl) arran ement, constitutin the science in the $ro$er senseo' the !or&*



+he 'ollo!in $rinci$le is o' 'un&amental im$ortance: e er) science is born 'rom $ractice, 'rom thecon&itions an& nee&s o' the stru le 'or li'e on the $art o' social man !ith nature, an& o' the arioussocial rou$s, !ith the elemental 'orces o' societ) or !ith other social rou$s* "+he sa a e has ha&the most arie& e $eriences8 he can &istin uish enomous an& e&ible $lants, $ursue the traces o'

ame an& $rotect himsel' 'rom beasts o' $re) an& enomous ser$ents* He can make use o' 'ire an&

!ater, select stones an& !oo& 'or his !ea$ons, smelt an& !ork metals* He can count an& calculate!ith his 'in ers, make measurements !ith his han&s an& 'eet like a chil&, he sees the 'irmament,obser es its motions an& the chan e& $ositions o' sun an& $lanets* <ll or most o' his obser ationsare ma&e casuall) or 'or the $ur$ose o' a use'ul a$$lication* +hese $rimiti e obser ations are the

erm o' the arious sciences* +he latter can onl) e ist !hen 'ree&om 'rom material cares hasresulte& in a su''icient >uantit) o' com'ort an& leisure, an& !hen the intellect has been su''icientl)stren thene& b) 're>uent use, to make o"ser5ations er se* * , a matter o' interest*"1F Sciencethere'ore can be in onl) !hen the ro!th of the $ro&ucti e 'orces has le't 'ree time 'or scienti'icobser ation* <lso, the ori inal material o' science is material taken 'rom the 'iel& o' $ro&uction* Itshoul& there'ore not sur$rise us that the imme&iate maintenance o' li'e b) $ro&uction, i*e*, theinterests of $ro&uction, a e the 'irst im$ulse to the ro!th o' science* Prac tice create& theor) an&im$elle& it on!ar&*

<stronom) arose 'rom the nee& o' 'in&in one#s bearin s b) the stars in &esert $lains, 'rom the si ni'icance o' theseasons in a riculture, the nee& o' a $recise &i ision o' time 4astronomical control o' clocks, 'or instance , etc* Ph)sics!as intimatel) connecte& !ith the techni>ue o' material $ro&uction an& !ar'are* 0hemistr) arose on the basis o' ane $an&in in&ustrial $ro&uction, $articularl) minin 8 the be innin s o' chemistr) are alrea&) 'oun& in )$t an& 0hina,in the manu'acture o' lass, &)ein , enamelin , the $ro&uction o' $aints, metallur ), etc*8 the !or& chemistry is&eri e&'rom chemi,"black", thus su estin its )$tian ori in* <lchem) is 'oun& amon the ancient )$tians, the out ro!tho' the &esire to 'in& the la! o' transmutation o' metals into ol&8 in the i'teenth 0entur), chemistr) !as much ai&e& b)me&icine* Mineralo ) arises 'rom the use o' metals in $ro&uction, an& their stu&) 'or $ur$oses o' $ro&uction* Botan)ori inall) consiste& o' a kno!le& e o' healin $lants, later o' use'ul $lants, still later, o' $lants in eneral* Uoolo )&e elo$e& 'rom the necessit) o' un&erstan&in the use'ul an& harm'ul >ualities o' animals* <natom), $h)siolo ),

$atholo ), starte& 'rom $ractical me&icine 4the 'irst "s$ecialists" in this 'iel& !ere )$tian, ast In&ian, 7reek an&%oman $h)sicians, such as the 7reek Hi$$ocrates, the %oman 0lau&ius 7alenus, etc* * 7eo ra$h) an& ethno ra$h) !ere&e elo$e& b) tra&e an& colonial !ar'are* +he ablest commercial $eo$les o' anti>uit) 4'or instance, the Ph!nicians,0artha inians, etc* , !ere also the best eo ra$hers* 7eo ra$h) !as ne lecte& in the Mi&&le < es, a reat rene!al o'interest in the sub-ect comin in mo&ern times, be innin !ith the i'teenth 0entur), in the era o' the colonial !ars!a e& b) the tra&e.ca$italist nations, an& the hal'.commercial, hal'.$re&ator), hal'.scienti'ic o)a es connecte& !iththese !ars* +he o)a es an& &isco eries !ere $er'orme& chie'l) b) the $re&ator) commercial nations: Portu al, S$ain,

n lan&, Hollan&* thnolo ) !as also encoura e& b) colonial $olic), the $ractical >uestion bein the learnin o' ametho& o' utili(in sa a es 'or labor 'or the a& anta e o' the "ci ili(e&" bour eoisie* Mathematics, the science that isa$$arentl) most remote 'rom $ractice, !as ne ertheless o' $ractical ori in8 its ori inal tools !ere those 'irst use& inmaterial $ro&uction: the 'in ers, han&s, 'eet 4countin on one#s 'in ers , the >uinar), &ecimal, icenar) s)stems8 theori inal &esi nations 'or the an les, etc*, a'ter the ben& in the knee8 units o' len th: the ell, 'oot, etc* 4c'* 0antor:Norlesun!en D"er die Geschichte der <athematik , ;ei$(i , 19C , ol* i * +he material basis o' mathematics !as the

nee&s o' $ro&uction: sur e)in 4" eometr)" means "earth.measurement" , the erection o' buil&in s, measurin thecontent o' essels, shi$buil&in 8 still earlier, the number o' cattle8 in the commercial $erio&, commercial arithmetic,in entor), balance.sheet, etc* +he )$tian an& 7reek eometers, the %oman a!rimensores, the <le an&rian en ineers4 'or instance, Hero o' <le an&ria, !ho in ente& a sort o' steam.en ine !ere simultaneousl) the 'irst mathematicians4%u&ol' isler:Geschichte der :issenschaften, ;ei$(i , 19C * +he case o' the social sciences 4as alrea&) &iscusse& inour Intro&uction is in no !a) &i''erent* Histor) arose 'rom the nee& o' kno!in the "&estinies o' nations", 'or $ur$oseso' $ractical $olitics* ;e al science be an !ith the collection an& co&i'ication o' the most im$ortant la!s, a ain 'or

$ractical $ur$oses* Political econom) arose !ith ca$italism, ori inall) as a science o' merchants, ser in the nee&s o'their class $olic)* +he $hilolo ical sciences arose in the 'orm o' " rammars" o' the arious lan ua es, as a result o'commercial relations an& the re>uirements o' intercourse* Statistics be an !ith merchants# "tables", each &ealin !ith as$eci'ic countr) 4like!ise, the 'irst be innin s o' $olitical econom)8 one o' the earliest economists, William Pett), callsone o' his !orks: 0Political Arithmetic0),etc*, etc* Ne! sciences are arisin 'rom $ro&uction be'ore our er) e)es, 'orinstance, the technical e $eriences ac>uire& in the a$$lication o' the +a)lor s)stem i e rise to so calle& sycho1

technxcs,the $s)cho$h)siolo ) o' labor, the theor) o' the or ani(ation o' $ro&uction, etc*







While the $roblems ha e been $ut chie'l) b) technolo ) an& econom), their solution in man)sciences &e$en&s on alterations in the scientific technique,!hose instruments are o' e traor&inar)im$ortance in !i&enin the hori(on* +he microsco$e, 'or e am$le, !as in ente& in the 'irst hal' o'the Se enteenth 0entur) an& o' course, ha& an immense in'luence on the e olution o' science b)'a orin the &e elo$ment o' botan), (oolo ), anatom), in creatin a ne! branch o' science,

bacteriolo ), etc* >uall) ob ious is the role o' techni>ue in astronom) 4e>ui$ment o' obser atories,arieties o' telesco$es, &e ices 'or $hoto ra$hin stars, etc* * , In its turn, scienti'ic techni>ue

&e$en&s on the material $ro&uction in eneral 4is a $ro&uct o' material labor * In scienti'ic !ork, !eusuall) 'in& a corres$on&in or!ani ation of this work , also in'luencin the state o' scienti'ickno!le& e* +he &i ision o' scienti'ic labor 4s$eciali(ation in science , the or ani(ation o' reatscienti'ic units 4e* *, laboratories , the establishment o' scienti'ic bo&ies an& scienti'ic intercourseare e tremel) im$ortant* <ll these $hases, a ain, are ultimatel) &etermine& b) the economic an&technical con&itions8 thus, mo&ern chemical laboratories ro! !ith the in&ustrial $lants to !hichthe) are attache&8 scienti'ic intercourse becomes more 're>uent !ith the reater 're>uenc) o'economic connections, etc* But technical an& economic con&itions also "con&ition" science inanother res$ect* With the ra$i& e $ansion o' technolo ), economic con&itions an& the entire stan&ar&o' li'e are constantl) chan in , resultin not onl) in a s!i't ro!th o' science, but in its acce$tanceo' the conce$t o' chan e as a ui&in 'actor 4use o' the dynamicmetho&, see cha$ter iii * 0on ersel),!here technolo ) is conser ati e an& o' slo! ro!th, the economic li'e !ill also a& ance butslo!l), an& the human $s)cholo ) in'ers that all thin s are $ermanent* Societ) then marks time an&is o erne& b) the $rinci$le o' $ermanence* +he class characteristics in the arious branches o'science also $resent themsel es, re'lectin either the mode of thou!htcharacteristic o' the s$eci'icclass, or the interests ofthe class* Mo&e o' thou ht, interests, etc*, are, in their turn, &etermine& b)the economic structure o' societ)*

;et us i e a 'e! o' these relations* In ancient times, technolo ) . as !e kno! . &e elo$e& slo!l), !ith a resultin slo!a& ance in technical kno!le& e* "+his ne lect o' technolo ) has se eral causes: in the 'irst $lace, anti>uit) !as "entirel)aristocratic in its attitu&e* en $rominent artists, such as Phi&ias, are classe& as artisans8 the) are inca$able o' burstinthrou h the stone !all " se$aratin the aristocratic circle " 'rom the artisans an& $easants* * * < secon& cause o' the sli ht

$ro ress o' technical &isco er) in anti>uit) is in its sla e.hol&in s)stem " We there'ore 'in& a lack o' an) im$ulse to&e elo$ the machine as a substitute 'or manual labor " Science " !as &ea& an& the interest in technical $roblems, e ce$t'or a 'e! curiosities, such as !ater.clocks an& !ater.or ans, ha& &ie& out" 4Hermann /iels: :issenschaft und 4echnik"ei den Mellenen,in Antike 4echnik,;ei$(i an& Berlin, 192C, $$*F1.FF * +hence the character o' the e istin science:"+he natural sciences $robabl) arose as a b).$ro&uct o' artisan !ork* But since such !ork, as !ell as an) manual !ork,!as &es$ise& in ancient societ), an& as the sla es !ho obser e& nature !ere shar$l) &istin uishe& 'rom the masters !hos$eculate& an& !orke& as amateurs at their leisure, o'ten kno!in nature onl) b) hearsa), it is eas) to e $lain much o'the nai e, a ue an& m)stical nature o' ancient natural science" 4 rnst Mach: Erkenntnis und Irrtum,;ei$(i , 19C5,

$*95, Mach#s italics * In the Mi&&le < es !e ha e a 'eeble an& $rimiti e technolo ), !ith 'eu&al relations in economicli'e, an entire s)stem o' su$eriors has been elaborate&, culminatin in the lan&lor& an& monarch* It shoul& not sur$rise usto learn that the &ominant thou ht !as not er) mobile, resistin all that !as ne! 4heres) !as $unishe& !ith burnin an&>uarterin , not occu$)in itsel' !ith the in esti ation o' nature, but &el in in theolo ical $roblems* +he im$ortant

$roblems o' &iscussion !ere: the bo&il) si(e o' <&am, !hether he ha& bro!n or re& hair, ho! man) an els coul& stan&on the $oint o' a nee&le, etc* +his immobile, conser ati e theolo ical 4'ormal, "scholastic" character o' the science o'the time, entirel) o$$ose& to e $erimental in esti ation, ma) be e $laine& b) the con&itions o' the social li'e, b) thetechnical an& economic relations, !hich ultimatel) reste& on the sta e o' social e olution* +he case became >uite&i''erent, !hen ca$italist relations be an to ro!* We no! are no lon er &ealin !ith a ri i& technolo ), but !ith onethat is ra$i&l) chan in , !ith ne! branches o' $ro&uction constantl) ro!in u$8 !e no! nee& mechanics, en ineers,chemists, an& not theolo ians or kni hts8 !ar'are also re>uires scienti'ic kno!le& e, as !ell as mathematics* It is naturalthat this shi't in the technical an& economic relations also necessaril) resulte& in a trans'ormation o' science:Scholasticism, ;atin, +heolo ), etc*, a e !a) to an e $erimental in esti ation o' nature, to the natural sciences, to the%ealist School* We ha e here i en an e am$le o' the eneral trans'ormation in the content o' science* We mi ht, !ithclose stu&), also trace this trans'ormation in the metho&s o' in esti ation, the tools o' scienti'ic thou ht, an& in man)other $hases o' science*



<n e am$le o' the in'luence o' the class $s)cholo ), an& conse>uentl) also o' the class structure o' societ), is a''or&e& b) the or anic theor) in sociolo ), alrea&) mentione& b) us* Pro'essor %* E* Wi$$er sa)s the 'ollo!in on this sub-ect:"+he com$arison o' societ) !ith an or anism, the e $ression, the or anic connection o' the in&i i&ual !ith societ)#, ascontraste& !ith the connection in a mechanical societ), all these com$arisons, 'ormulas, an& antitheses !ere launche& b)the reactionar) $ublicists o' the Nineteenth 0entur)* In settin u$ this or an as o$$ose& to a mechanism, these $ublicists!ere attem$tin to &istin uish their &eman&s shar$l) 'rom the &i&actic an& re olutionar) $rinci$les o' the $re ious

centur) 4the ra o' nli htenment * +he state is a mechanism#, !as the ol& terminolo ): e>ual ri hts 'or all men, !hosetotalit) constitutes the so erei n $eo$le8 the state is an or anism#, !as the ne! slo an: arran ement o' men in atra&itional social hierarch), sub-ection o' the in&i i&ual to a natural# rou$, *e*, his subor&ination to the ol& socialauthorit)* +ranslate& into concrete lan ua e, the #or anic# relations mean: ser'&om, the uil& s)stem, subor&ination o'!orkers to em$lo)ers, &e'ense o' the honor an& $ri ile es o' the nobilit), etc*" 4Wi$$er: A ew 9"ser5ations on the4heory of Mistorical nowled!e,in the collection 4wo Intelli!entsias,Mosco!, 1912, $$*K , KD, in %ussian*

We i e belo! a 'e! a&&itional &ata on the histor) o' mathematics, since it is commonl) assume& that mathematics, bein a $urel) contem$lati e science, has nothin in common !ith $ractical li'e* We take them 'rom the er) im$ortant!ork o' M* 0antor 4 Norlesun!en D"er die Geschichte der <athematik,;ei$(i , 19C , ol* i * Mathematical kno!le& earose amon the Bab)lonians, &e elo$in on the basis o' sur e)in , measurin the cubic contents o' essels, commercialarithmetic, an& the nee& o' a $recise &i ision o' time 4the calen&ar into )ears, &a)s, hours, etc* +he ori inalmathematical instruments !ere the 'in ers* ;ater, calculatin machines: a ro$e !ith little ro&s 4Sumerian: tim) in

eometr)8 later, an instrument recallin the astrolabe* Mathematical stu&) !as closel) connecte& !ith reli ion, thenumerals at 'irst in&icatin the o&s, their celestial $rece&ence, etc* Mathematics attaine& a hi h state o' &e elo$mentamon the )$tians8 the ancient mathematical 0Calculation 3ook of Ahmes04its $recise title is: "%ules 'or obtainin akno!le& e o' all obscure thin s " o' all secrets !hich are containe& in ob-ects" contains such hea&in s as: "%ule 'or0alculatin a %oun& 7ranar)", "%ule 'or 0alculatin iel&s", "%ule 'or Makin an <&ornment", etc* 4 i"id., $$*5D, 59 *<rithmetical an& occasionall) al ebraic o$erations are illustrate& b) means o' $roblems clearl) in&icatin the con&itionso' $ractice* +his $ractice in ol es: &istribution o' rain, &istribution o' r)e, calculation o' recei$ts, etc* " 4$* 9 et seq. * +he conclu&in statement o' this mathematical $rimer clearl) sho!s its connection !ith a riculture8 !e rea&: "0atch

ermin, mice, ather 'resh !ee&s, numerous s$i&ers, be 4the o& %a 'or !armth, !in&, hi h !ater" 4$*D5 * +he 'in ers!ere ob iousl) the 'irst calculatin instruments, later a sort o' boar& 4!ith knotte& t!ine, as in the case o' the Peru ians *+he basis o' eometr) !as sur e)in 8 besi&es $roblems in the measurement o' 'iel&s, <hmes also has $roblems 'orcalculatin the olume o' ranaries an& the amount o' rain the) ma) hol& 4$* 9D * +he 7reek historian /io&orus !riteso' the. )$tians: "+he $riests teach their sons t!o kin&s o' !ritin , the so calle& sacre& !ritin an& a common !ritin *+he) &ili entl) stu&) eometr) an& arithmetic* or the ri er 4the Nile chan es the countr) consi&erabl) each )ear, thus

$ro&ucin much liti ation concernin boun&aries bet!een nei hbors8 such &i isions cannot be a&-uste& !ithout &irectmeasurements ma&e b) a eometer* <rithmetic ser es them in their household affairs" 4$*FCF, m) italics, N* B* * +heastronomical, eometrical an& al ebraic rules !ere 'irst connecte& !ith reli ious rites8 the) !ere sacre& m)steries in!hich onl) a select 'e! !ere initiate&* +he so calle& "har$e&ona$ts" 4ro$e.!ea ers, or literall), ro$e.knotters $ossesse&the tra&e secret o' settin the ro$e, o' $lacin it at the $ro$er an le !ith the meri&ian, etc* 4In 'act, in eneral, the an lesan& si&es o' $)rami&s, the arran ement o' their $arts, ha& a certain sacre& astronomical.scienti'ic meanin , !hich !as

$robabl) im$arte& to the "sons o' the $riests"*

<mon the %omans, eometr) a& ance& !ith the nee&s o' lan&e& $ro$ert), !hich !as so hol) that e en the o&s $ossesse& it* Mathematics attaine& its hi hest &e elo$ment 4"e ce$tional $erio&," accor&in to 0antor * +his e ce$tionalcon&ition o' &e elo$ment !as &ue to the $resence o' t!o $ractical $roblems: the construction o' the calen&ar 4the so

calle& Eulian 0alen&ar8 Eulius 0aesar himsel' !rote a book on the stars, 8e astris , an& the reat sur e) o' the %omanm$ire* +he latter $roblem !as sol e& un&er <u ustus, the reat 7reek en ineer an& mathematician, Hero o'<le an&ria, bein in ite& to con&uct the !ork8 'or the 'irst time a com$lete ma$ o' the entire em$ire !as com$ile&* Welater 'in&, in 0olumella, a consi&eration o' mathematics in its relations !ith a riculture8 in Se tius Eulius rontinus, atreatment o' mathematics as a$$lie& to the calculation o' a>ue&uct tubes 4the im$ortant mathematical s)mbol $, tore$resent the ratio bet!een circum'erence an& &iameter o' the circle * In the so calle& Codex Arcerianus4a le al.scienti'ic re'erence !ork 'or a&ministrati e o''icials o' the %oman m$ire, in the Si th an& Se enth 0enturies, <*/* , !e'in& a number o' articles on 'iel&.sur e)in 'or $ur$oses o' ta ation 40antor, i"id *, $*K5K *

+he &e elo$ment o' arithmetic !as &ue chie'l) to the &eman&s o' tra&e* Interest calculations, accor&in to Horace anaccom$lishment o' &ail) use, calculations o' inheritance be>uests, in accor&ance !ith the com$licate& %omanle islation, merchants# calculations . the) !ere the moti es un&erl)in the e olution o' arithmetic*

<mon the ancient ast In&ians, !e 'in& astronom), al ebra an& the be innin s o' tri onometr)* +he con&itions in thiscountr) resemble those 'oun& amon other ancient $eo$les* +he mathematical cha$ters o' a learne& collecte& !ork 4the



Arya"hattd) i e e i&ence, in the &esi nations an& content o' the $roblems, o' the li in basis o' In&ian mathematics* <mathematical metho&, 'or instance, is su este& in the 'ollo!in erse: "Multi$lications become &i isions, &i isions

become multi$lications8 !hat !as rofit becomes loss, !hat !as loss becomes rofit " 4$*1 * In another $assa e !e 'in&the $roblem: "< si teen.)ear.ol& 'emale sla e cost thirt).t!o nishkas ho! much !ill a t!ent).)ear.ol& sla e. irl cost="4$* 1D * Interest calculations 'ollo! 4at the rate o' 5C $er cent* $er monthA 8 also $roblems 'or calculatin all kin&s o'commercial transactions 4$* 19 , etc* +he unkno!n >uantities &esi nate& b) , ), , in $resent.&a) al ebra, !ere calle&

b) the In&ians "coin" 6ru aka),the $ositi e >uantities !ere "assets" 4 dhana or s5a 8 the ne ati e >uantities, "liabilities"4rina or kshaya 4$* 21 * <rchitecture an& its mathematical rules !ere here also en elo$e& in m)ster), ha in a s$eci'icastronomic an& &i ine si ni'icance* +he measurement o' 'iel&s, the construction o' $alaces an& tem$les, the calculationo' contents, !ere the mo in im$ulse in In&ian eometr)* <mon the ancient 0hinese, the e olution o' mathematics

$rocee&e& alon the same eneral lines, !ith the class character o' science, its mono$ol), more shar$l) e $resse& 4there!ere three sets o' numerals, one 'or state o''icials, one 'or science, one 'or ci ilian merchants* In a collection o' la!s44cheou ly , !e 'in& the 'ollo!in mathematical o''ices: the here&itar) &i nit) o' court astronomer 6fon! sian! ski)an&court astrolo er 6 ao tshan! shi) 'ollo!e& b) the hea&. eometer 6lion! >in),to !hom !as entruste& the la)in out o' the!alls an& $alaces o' cities, belo! him a s$ecial o''icial 'or the measurin a$$aratus 6tu fan! shi),!ho $er'orme&measurements !ith an instrument calle& to kDei,namel), a sha&o! in&icator, makin the necessar) calculations, etc*4$* *

It is eas) to conclu&e 'rom the abo e: 1* that the content o' science is i en b) the content o' technolo ) an& econom)82* that its &e elo$ment !as &etermine& amon other thin s b) the tools o' scienti'ic kno!le& e8 F* that the arious socialcon&itions no! encoura e&, no! retar&e& $ro ress8 K* that the metho& o' scienti'ic thou ht !as &etermine& b) theeconomic structure o' societ) 4the reli ious, &i inel) m)sterious character o' ancient mathematics, in !hich e en anum"er sometimes &esi nate& a &i init), is a re'lection o' the 'eu&al.sla ehol&in or&er o' societ) !ith its inaccessibleruler, its $riestl) o''icials, etc* 8 5* that the class structure o' societ) im$resse& its class stam$ on mathematics 4in $artmerel) on the mo&e o' thou ht, in $art on the 'orm o' material interest, e clu&in or&inar) mortals 'rom the sacre&m)steries * In mo&ern times !e 'in& the same causal relations, but the) are more com$licate& an&, o' course, &i''erent in'orm8 the technolo ) an& the economic con&itions ha e chan e& entirel)*

;eli!ion and Philoso hy. %eli ion an& $hiloso$h) are the ne t 'orms o' the su$erstructure to !hich!e shall &e ote our attention*

+he thou hts an& obser ations accumulate& b) human societ) i e rise to the nee& o' rou$in an&classi')in them8 science has resulte& 'rom this nee&* But science be an, at a er) earl) sta e, to besub&i i&e& into arious branches, an& !ithin these s$ecial sciences there $rocee&e& an "a&a$tationo' thou hts to thou hts", ie., a s)stemati(ation* But, in a&&ition, a nee& !as 'elt 'or some thin that!oul& hol& to ether all these "kno!le& es" an& "errors", that !oul& reali(e an e>uilibrium bet!eenthem* %eli ion an& eneral science ha& to $ro i&e this unitin $rinci$le8 it is that !hich ha& to'urnish the ans!ers to the most abstract an& eneral >uestions: as to the cause o' all e istence8 thenature o' the uni erse8 !hether the uni erse is as it seems, or other!ise8 the nature o' min& an&matter8 the $ossibilit) o' a kno!le& e o' the uni erse8 the nature o' truth8 the ultimate causes o' all

$henomena8 the nature o' truth8 ultimate causes o' all $henomena8 the e istence o' limits to humankno!le& e, the &e'inin o' these limits8 an& a host o' similar >uestions* 3' course, our ans!er tothese >uestions !ill in'luence our conce$tion o' an) s$eci'ic $henomenon* I', 'or instance, all&e$en&s on the !ill o' 7o&, !ho ui&es the !orl& accor&in to his &i ine $lan, all our kno!le& emust be arran e& in teleolo ical or theolo ical or&er, an& at certain e$ochs science actuall) assume&this 'orm* <ll $henomena then re>uire& us to seek the so calle& "han& o' 7o&", the &i ine $ur$ose*But i' the o&s are not in ol e&, i' a causal relation is the onl) element o' im$ortance, our attitu&eto!ar& the $henomena o' the uni erse becomes >uite &i''erent* I' $hiloso$h) an& reli ion, there'ore,are the s$ectacles throu h !hich all 'acts are ie!e& at a certain sta e in e olution, a stu&) o' thecon&itionsunderlyin! the construction o' these "s$ectacles" is er) im$ortant*

<s 'or reli ion, !e alrea&) kno! that its "essence" is a "'aith" in su$ernatural $o!ers, in miraculous

s$irits8 this "'aith" ma) be in one or more such 'orces, ma) be cru&e, or more intan ible an& ethereal*+his notion o' "s$irit", "soul", etc*, !as a re'lection o' the $articular economic structure o' societ) at







countless &i''erent names* +he $riests be an to maintain that the other reat o&s !ere merel) mani'estations o' Mar&uk*"Ninib is Mar&uk o' Stren th, Ner al is Mar&uk o' Battle, nlil is Mar&uk o' Mi ht an& /ominion" 4$*129 * Here is a'ra ment o' a h)mn o' $ra)er to the o& Sin, e cellentl) characteri(in the monarchic construction o' the celestial

$o!er: ";or&, ruler o' the o&s, sole reat lor& in hea en an& on earth * * +hou !ho hast create& the earth, 'oun&e& thetem$les an& i en them names, ather, be etter o' o&s an& men " mi ht) lea&er, !hose m)sterious &e$th has beensoun&e& b) no o& " ather, 0reator o' all bein s8 %uler, thou !ho &esirest the &estinies o' hea en an& earth, !hose

bi&&in is ine orable, !ho $ro i&est !armth an& col&, !ho rulest li in thin s, !hat o& is like unto thee= Who is reatin Hea en= +hou alone8 an& on earth !ho is reat= When th) !or& resoun&s in the hea ens, the ihihi 'all into the &ust,!hen it resoun&s on earth the anunaki kiss the &ust * * * %uler A In th) rule on hea en an& earth, none is like unto theeamon the o&s, th) brethren", etc* 4>uote& 'rom B* +ura)e ,i"id *, $*1KK * Sin is here &e$icte& almost as a celestialem$eror, be'ore !hom all a$$ro$riate ceremonies are carrie& out 4ben&in the knee, kissin the roun&, etc* * It is sel'.e i&ent that the o''icial reli ion al!a)s has e $resse& chie'l) the i&ea o' the rulin! class, as !e ma) note e en in littlethin s* or instance, in the 'eu&al $erio&, !hen !arlike irtues !ere esteeme& hi hest, an& the rulin class, re$resentin

$articularl) the !arlike reat lan&lor&s, onl) those 'eel at home in the herea'ter !ho ha e 'allen in battle, !hile those"'or !hose i'ts in the herea'ter no one can ha e much concern", namel), the $oor, 'are but $oorl)*

Ma Weber 'urnishes us !ith a mass o' aluable material concernin the reli ion o' the ancient ast In&ians, in hisinterestin in esti ations on the economic moralit) o' the !orl& reli ions 4 i"id *, ol* ii, Minduismus and 3uddhismus*Here the economic an& ocational strati'ication o' societ) into classes &irectl) assumes the 'orm o' castes, latercon'irme& b) reli ion* <ccor&in to the ol& le al co&e o' Manu, the 'our chie' castes are . the Brahmans 4$riests,scholars, noble literati , ?shatr)as 4noble kni hts, !arriors , aiGias 4'armers, later also usurers an& merchants , an&Su&ras 4sla es, artisans, etc* * < caste is thus "al!a)s essentiall) a $urel) social, e entuall) a ocational sub&i ision o'the social communit)" 4$*FK * +he Brahmans an& ?shatr)as control e er)thin an& e er)bo&)* +he aiGias areconsi&ere& onl) as a "$ure" caste, !orth) o' han&in 'oo& or !ater to the Brahmans* +he Su&ras are &i i&e& into "$ure"an& "im$ure"8 a noble !ill acce$t no !ater 'rom the latter8 no barber ma) cut the nails o' their 'eet, etc* Belo! theim$ure Su&ras there are also other "im$ure" castes8 some ma) not enter an) tem$les8 others are so "im$ure" that e en totouch them is &e'ilin 8 in some cases a$$roachin !ithin si t) 'eet o' such a $erson is an "im$urit)" 'or a noble or other"$ure" $erson* oo& is ren&ere& "im$ure" b) the mere lance o' the "im$ure", etc* 4$*K 8 e en the e crement o' aBrahman ma) ha e reli ious si ni'icance 4$* 2 * +housan&s o' rulers an& reli ious ceremonies su$$ort the e istinor&er* ?in s an& rulers are &escen&e& 'rom the ?shatr)as8 the aristocratic nature o' the state e ten&s also to theeconomic li'e 4$rice.'i in , ta es in kin&, national storehouses , !ith a monstrous bureaucratic mechanism 4$* 9 * MaWeber consi&ers the 'ollo!in as the t!o 'un&amental reli ious i&eas ro!in out o' this soil 4$$*11 .121 : the i&ea o'transmi ration 4 samsara an& the &octrine o' re!ar& an& $unishment 4karma * <ll acts o' men are recor&e&8 each has hisaccount, his oo& an& e il actions bein balance&: a'ter &eath, he !ill be reincarnate& in the 'orm to !hich the balance.sheet o' his actions, at the moment o' his &eath, entitles him* He ma) come to li'e a ain as a kin , as a Brahman8 he ma)

be trans'orme& into a !orm in the entrails o' a &o * +he basis o' the most im$ortant irtues is the obser ance o' the casteor&er* +he sla es, the im$ure, must kno! their $lace* He !ho is un'ailin , !ho ne er 'or ets his "im$urit)", ma) $erha$sin the li'e a'ter &eath become a noble8 but on earth the caste s)stem is not to be tam$ere& !ith* "<cci&ents o' birth" &onot e ist8 the in&i i&ual is born into the caste !hich is his b) reason o' his con&uct in an earlier li'e 4$*12C * +his&octrine e $resses most &istinctl) the social or&er an& the interests o' the rulin classes, but !e 'in& this re'lection e enearlier* or instance, the o&s o' the e&as 4ancient sacre& h)mns "are 'unctional an& heroic o&s o' a t)$e e ternall)similar to those in Homer, an& the heroes o' the e&ic $erio& are !arlike kin s &!ellin in mountain 'astnesses an&'i htin in chariots, ha in retinues * * * an& !ith * * * a $re&ominantl) cattle.bree&in $easantr)" 4$*29 * +hecharacteristic o&s are "In&ra, o& o' thun&erstorms an& there'ore 4like @ah eh a !arlike an& heroic o& o' im$etuouscharacter * * an& aruna, the !ise, all.seein 'unctional o& o' the eternal or&er, $articularl) the le al or&er" * * * 4$*29 * Itshoul& be remembere& that the hea ens !ere ori inall) &estine& onl) 'or the Brahmans an& ?shatr)as.4 cf * $*119 *<lon si&e o' the o''icial reli ion o' the rulin classes, there !as also a reli ion o' the $eo$le, o'ten inclu&in , amonother thin s, se ual mani$ulations* +he e&as &esi nate one o' these cults as an "e il custom o' the su">ected ones"* We are, there'ore, &ealin !ith class reli ions* or instance, here is the &escri$tion o' the reli ious s$lit in Southern In&ia4remin&in one some!hat o' the schism in the %ussian 0hurch : a $ortion o' the lower castesan& theroyal artisans,comin 'rom other $arts, there o$$ose& re lementation b) the Brahmans, an& thus arose the still e istin schism o' the

alan. ai an& the I&en. ai, the castes "to the ri ht" an& "to the le't" 4$*F2K * <mon the ancient 7reeks, the 'eu&al or&er,an& later the sla e or&er, !ere re'lecte& in hea en, Ueus bein the chie' o' all the o&s, /emeter the o&&ess o'a riculture, Hermes, the o& o' tra&e an& intercourse, Hellos the o& o' the liberal $ro'essions 4arts *

+he class stru le $rocee&e& alon these lines* In <thens, in the i'th 0entur) 4$erio& o' hi hest culture an& inci$ient&eca) , reli ion !as one o' the chie' !ea$ons o' the rulin class o' the commercial "&emocrac)"* "In the o$inion o'

So$hocles 4one o' the "ortho&o " $oets o' the time, N* B* , the entire !orl& !ill $erish i' 'aith ceases, 'or all the moralan& state re ulations, accor&in to So$hocles, &e$en& on the !ill o' the o&s" 4 &uar& Me)er:Geschichte des Altertums,ol* i , $*1KC * +he o$$osition element o' the nobilit) an& the &eclasse& strata make use o' a criticism o' reli ion in or&er





Its reli ion -usti'ie& this con&ition an& secure& its acce$tance b) the masses, sometimes b) er)skil'ul means 4as in the case o' the Hin&oo &octrine o' reincarnation an& com$ensation, &iscusse&*abo e * But this conciliation &i& not al!a)s last8 the o$$resse& classes, unable to 'ree themsel esentirel) 'rom the reli ious mo&e o' thou ht, !oul& set u$ their o!n reli ion in o$$osition to theortho&o reli ion8 so calle& "heresies" arose in o$$osition to the ortho&o 0hurch &octrine8 !e no!

ha e an o''icial 0hurch an& also s$ecial reli ious rou$s o' "&issenters", sometimes or ani(e&ille all) an& cons$irati el), !ith $riests an& $ro$hets o' their o!n, !ho are also their $oliticallea&ers*

< short time a o, such a ie! o' reli ion an& the church !oul& ha e been consi&ere& as &o!nri ht blas$hem), but e en bour eois in esti ators !ho ha e ma&e a s$ecial stu&) o' the sub-ect no!acce$t this ie!* 3ne o' the best mo&ern stu&ents o' reli ion, Ma Weber, arri es at the 'ollo!inconclusion !ith re ar& to <siatic reli ions: "3n the !hole !e obser e e er)!here the same rou$ o' cults, schools, sects, or&ers o' all kin&s, !hich is also characteristic o' occi&ental anti>uit)* 3'course, the com$etin ten&encies !ere not looke& u$on !ith e>ual 'a or b) the tem$orar) ma-orit)in the rulin classes, or b) the $olitical $o!ers* +here !ere ortho&o an& hetero&o $ersons, the'ormer inclu&in a number o' more or less le itimate schools, or&ers, an& sects* Particularl)im$ortant 'or us is the obser ation that the) !ere &istin uishe& 'rom each other sociall)* In the 'irst

$lace, * * * accor&in to the strata o' societ) in !hich the) e iste&8 in the secon& $lace, ho!e er, * * * *accor&in to the s$ecies o' sal ation ministere& to the arious strata o' their a&herents* We 'in& the'ormer case, !here, 'or instance, an u$$er social class that ri i&l) con&emns the entire reli ion o're&em$tion is o$$ose& b) $o$ular soteriolo ists 1 amon the masses, as !as t)$ical o' 0hina* But!e also 'in& the arious social strata 'ollo!in &i''erent 'orms o' soteriolo )*" 1D <s an e am$le o'the class stru le !a e& un&er a reli ious 'la , !e ma) take the so calle& 4Protestant %e'ormation,the 'irst onslau ht o' certain classes on 'eu&al rule an& its e $ression in Western uro$e, the %oman0atholic 0hurch* +he rulin $rinces all si&e& !ith the Po$e8 the $ett) $ro incial nobilit) an& the

bour eoisie !ith the mo&erates, hea&e& b) ;uther8 the artisans, semi.$roletarians an& a $ortion o'the $easants -oine& the e treme sects 4<naba$tists, etc*, sometimes not !ithout an element o'communism * +he reli ious stru le, slo ans, rou$s o' a&herents, o' the arious ten&encies !ere a

$recise re'lection o' the stru le, the as$irations, an& the ali nments in the social$olitical 'iel&*

+he reli ious su$erstructure is thus &etermine& b) the material con&itions o' human e istence8 itsnucleus is the re'lection o' the social.$olitical or&er o' societ)* 3ther i&eas rou$ themsel es aboutthis nucleus, but their sim$le a is remains the social structure as trans'erre& to the in isible !orl&,an& 'urthermore, as ie!e& 'rom a s$eci'ic class stan&$oint* "Soul" is here also a 'unction o' social"matter"*

+he 'ollo!in ob-ection mi ht be raise& in the case o' ca$italist societ): !hile reli ion continues toe ist in that societ).throu hout uro$e in the 'orm o' monotheism . the ca$italist social or&er has&i''erent 'orms o' bour eois &omination in $olitics 4monarch), re$ublic *, an& !hile $ro&uctionrelations are base& on &omination an& submission, the) are not monarchic in character8 the ca$italistis a monarch in his o!n 'actor), but in societ) the class o' ca$italists usuall) &oes not o$eratethrou h a sin le $erson* +he Mar ian theor) a''or&s, ho!e er, the onl) $ossible e $lanation o' thereli ious 'orms o' our &a)8 the a$$arent contra&iction abo e mentione& is easil) &is$ose& o'*

In 'eu&al societ), the monarchs an& $rinces an& o''icials un&er them ha& control o' the semi.naturaleconom) 4econom) in kin& but un&er ca$italism !e ha e a $o!er'ul, ne!, im$ersonal re ulator, o'elemental nature: the market, !ith its incalculable ca$rices, e altin some an& &estro)in the li es o'

others, $la)in !ith men as a blin&, irrational inscrutable 'orce* "What is our li'e= < tri'le8 let theluckless &o bemoan his lot," sa)s the $oet8 &i init) no! &istributes the lots* +he 7reeks an&







%omans alrea&) ha& their Parcae, their Moira, their <nanke 4"necessit)" , a com$ulsor) 'orcesu$erior e en to the o&s8 this conce$tion !as associate& !ith the ro!th o' e chan e relations an&the conse>uent commercial !ars !hich en&an ere& the er) e istence o' 7reece* +he o&s 4thein&i i&ual 7o& also ha e not al!a)s been &isembo&ie& s$irits8 the) !ere 'on& o' eatin an&&rinkin , the) cohabite& !ith !omen, assumin the 'orm o' a &o e 'or the $ur$ose, in the case o' the

"Hol) 7host"* 4In 7reece, !here homose ual $ractices !ere #'re>uent, Ueus a&o$te& the sha$e o' anea le in his intercourse !ith the bo) 7an)me&e* But the economic e olution !hich brou ht aboutan econom) base& on e chan e an& un&ermine& the 'eu&al $olitical s)stem, not onl) $lucke& 'romthe o& his ea le#s an& &o e#s 'eathers, but &e$ri e& him o' his bear&, his mustaches, an& the otherattributes o' his $re ious incarnations* +he $ious bour eois no! belie es in 7o& as an unkno!n,unkno!able, &i ine $o!er on !hich all thin s &e$en&, but !ith no e ternal relation !ith man: the&i init) is a s$irit, not a cru&e abori inal 'orm* +he con&ition ma) be state& as 'ollo!s: econom) ischaracteri(e&, on the one han& b) a relation o' &omination an& submission, an& on the other han& b)unor ani(e& e chan e& relations8 the $reser ation o' reli ion at all is &ue to the 'ormercircumstance, !hile the latter e $lains the mea re an& 'leshless character o' 7o& to&a)*

But !e must not 'or et that !e are here consi&erin onl) the 'un damental i&eas o' reli ion* +he subsi&iar) notions mustal!a)s be e $laine& 'rom the $eculiar con&itions o' &e elo$ment*

In conclu&in our consi&eration o' reli ion, !e must not 'ail to $oint out that the $roletariat . hol&in our ie! o'reli ion . is 'ace& !ith the necessit) o' acti5ely com"atin! it.Hermann 7orter, in his book 8er historische <aterialismus, not onl) &e$arts 'rom $hiloso$hical materialism, but takes a $urel) $ett) bour eois an& o$$ortunistic

ie! o' the attitu&e !hich !oul& re ar& reli ion as e er) man#s $ri ate a''air* His ie! o' this attitu&e is that it ise>ui alent to our $a)in no attention to reli ion, !hich !ill &isa$$ear o' itsel'* But nothin "&isa$$ears o' itsel'" insociet)8 as earl) as in the &a)s o' Mar , !e 'in& the latter, in a brilliant essa) 4 Critique of the Goths Pro!ram,19 $okin'un at the 7orter ie! o' "reli ion a $ri ate matter"* Mar consi&ers this slo an to mean merel) that the !orkers must&eman& o' the bour eois state that it shall not $oke its $olice nose into thin s that &o not concern it8 but it b) no meanssi ni'ies that the !orkers are to be "tolerant" o' all the remnants o' the !retche& $ast, o' all the $o!ers o' reaction* Wema) not re ar& 7orter#s $oint o' ie! on this sub-ect as at all re olutionar) or communist8 it is a enuinel) Social./emocratic $oint o' ie!*

We no! turn our attention to Philoso hy,!hich is a me&itation on the most abstract >uestions, aenerali(ation o' all kno!le& e, a science o' sciences* When the sciences ha& not )et &e elo$e& or

been &i''erentiate& 'rom each other, $hiloso$h) an& reli ion 4'rom !hich it ha& not )et $arte&com$an) also embrace& $urel) scienti'ic >uestions, inclu&in that 'ra mentar) kno!le& e o' naturean& man that !as a ailable at the time* But e en a'ter the arious sciences be an to e istin&e$en&entl), $hiloso$h) still retaine& a 'iel& o' its o!n, namel), the common element o' all thesciences an& $articularl) the sub-ect o' man#s kno!le& e an& o' its relation to the !orl&, etc*Philoso$h) must coor&inate science in s$ite o' the tatter#s mani'ol& sub&i ision8 must 'urnish a

common 'rame!ork 'or all the thin s that are kno!n, ser in as a 'oun&ation to the total ie! o' li'e4:eltauffassun! * <t the be innin o' this book, !e &iscusse& the >uestion o' causalit) an&teleolo ), !hich is not s$eci'icall) a >uestion o' $h)sics, or $olitical econom), or $hilolo ), orstatistics, but a uni ersal concern o' all the sciences: a $hiloso$hical >uestion8 similar is the >uestiono' the relation bet!een "min&" an& "matter", in other !or&s, "thou ht" an& "bein "* +he in&i i&ualsciences &o not i e s$ecial attention to this >uestion, but it concerns them all, as &o also tech>uestions as: &o our senses correctl) re'lect the outer !orl&= &oes this !orl& e ist as such= !hat istruth= are there limits, or not, to our kno!le& e= etc* <s each science classi'ies an& s)stemati(es thei&eas connecte& !ith its &omain, so $hiloso$h) continues to assemble an& s)stemati(e our totalkno!le& e 'rom a sin le $oint o' ie!, thus creatin an or&erl) structure o' the !hole* Philoso$h)mi ht there'ore be sai& to occu$) the hi hest $lace in the human s$irit an& it is more &i''icult to

trace its earthl) an& material ori in than in the case o' other sub-ects* @et here a ain !e ma)ascertain the same basic la! o' nature: the 'inal &e$en&ence o' $hiloso$h) on the technical e olution







o' societ), the le el attaine& b) the $ro&ucti e 'orces* Ine itabl), !e here encounter a com$licate&'orm o' such &e$en&ence, 'or $hiloso$h) &oes not issue 'orth &irectl) 'rom technolo ), beinse$arate& 'rom the latter b) a number o' links* < 'e! e am$les !ill make this clear* We ha e state&that $hiloso$h) s)stemati(es kno!le& e, the eneral results o' the in&i i&ual sciences8 it there'ore is&irectl) con&itione& b) the sta e at !hich these sciences stan&8 i' 'or an) cause the social sciences

&e elo$, $hiloso$h) !ill sha&e o'' in that &irection8 but i', at the i en time, the natural sciencesen a e the eneral attention, the 'un&amental note o' $hiloso$h) !ill be >uite &i''erent* +heseresults are $ro&uce& b) the social $s)cholo ), the eneral mental attitu&e, $re ailin in the i entime an& $lace, !hich is in turn an e $ression o' the ali nment o' classes, the con&itions o' theire istence8 these "con&itions o' e istence in eneral" are o erne& b) the situation o' the classes inthe social econom), an& the latter is the result o' the i en le el o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces* We thus'in& a number o' links inter$ose& bet!een the $ro&ucti e 'orces 4technolo ) an& $hiloso$h)*

I' a certain $hiloso$hic &octrine is loom) in its nature 4a $essimistic $hiloso$h) , or asserts theim$ossibilit) o' all kno!le& e, or the anit) o' all thin s, their 'rail an& transitor) nature, !e mustlook 'or an e $lanation to the current $s)cholo ) 'rom !hich such a $hiloso$h) is born* /etaile&in esti ation !ill sho! that such loom) thou hts &o not arise in&e$en&entl), but that the) muste $ress a &e'eat o' some section or class o' societ), or o' all classes o' societ)8 there seems to be noesca$e, the lo e o' li'e has been lost8 a loom) $hiloso$h) is the $ro&uct o' this moo&* 3r, su$$ose acertain societ) is in ol e& in a $assionate stru le bet!een the classes an& their $arties8 thiscon&ition !ill be re'lecte& in the $hiloso$h) o' the $erio&, 'or man &oes not lea& a &ouble li'e: it isthe same man or the same class that is en a e& in the $olitical stru le an& co itatin on the "'inalcause" o' thin s* Such social stru les !ill $lace their stam$ on the $s)cholo ) an& be re'lecte& inthe "sublimest" constructions* 3r, i' !e assume a societ) !hose tem$o has become e cessi el) slo!:li'e cree$in alon monotonousl) &a) b) &a)8 to&a) another )ester&a), tomorro! another to&a), etc*8tra&ition, routine, time.honore& $rece&ent, control all thin s8 no chan es in technolo ), in social li'e,in science8 men &ie, other men are born, !ith thou hts $recisel) like those o' their $re&ecessors, etc*Such a ri i&it) o' a !hole societ) !ill necessaril) cause its $hiloso$h) to be base& in eneral on thenotion o' immutabilit), o' $ermanence* +he causal chain ma) be trace& back as 'ollo!s: a

$hiloso$h) o' inertia8 a science o' inertia8 a social $s)cholo ) o' inertia8 a technolo ) o' inertia*am$les mi ht be multi$lie&, but !e consi&er that the ultimate &e$en&ence o' $hiloso$h) on the

social econom) an& technolo ) has been $ro e&*

+he entire histor) o' $hiloso$hic thou ht !ill su$$ort the abo e*

In ancient 7reece, usuall) consi&ere& the classic home o' $hiloso$h), the earliest $hiloso$hical s)stems arose in theIonic commercial cities* +hese cities la) on the reat maritime routes bet!een <sia Minor an& uro$e8 the meshes o'economic relations !ith )$t also centere& here* More than an)!here else in the !orl& as then kno!n 4Si th an& i'th

0enturies, B*0* , tra&e, artisan !ork, an& sla e in&ustr) . $articularl) tra&e . !ere &e elo$e& here* +o ether !itheconomic intercourse !ith other countries, there !as an e chan e o' i&eas, in'luence o' Bab)lon, )$t8 "cultural li'e"'lourishe&* We ha e the be innin s o` the natural sciences, astronom), eometr), arithmetic, me&icine* 3n this basis, the'irst $hiloso$hical s)stems also re! u$: so calle& natural $hiloso$h), i*e*, a $hiloso$h) connecte& !ith the naturalsciences, its task bein to 'in& the natural basis o' all bein * +he Ionic school 4+hales, <na iman&er, <na imenes, an&their &isci$les sou ht the unit) o' matter no! in !ater, no! in air, no! in in'init), etc* In a&&ition to their obser ationson the "essence o' thin s", !e 'in& man) scienti'ic obser ations amon these $hiloso$hers8 <na iman&er, 'or e am$le,&e ise& a eo ra$hical ma$ that remaine& in use 'or some time* In the Ionic school, $hiloso$hical thou ht !as not )etse$arate& 'rom scienti'ic obser ations connecte& !ith $ractice* We then 'in& a ro!th o' !ealth, its accumulation, anincrease o' sla e labor, o' $arasitism in the hi her classes o' societ)8 simultaneousl), an increase& contem$t 'or labor, 'or the li'e o' the !orker, 'or $ro&uction, 'or a &irect en a in in tra&e 4not throu h em$lo)ees 8 all this retar&e& the&e elo$ment o' scienti'ic technical thou ht, trans'ormin $hiloso$h) into a thorou hl) un!orl&l) "s$eculation"* But it&oes not 'ollo! that $hiloso$h) there'ore "&e elo$e& out o' itsel'"8 it continue& to be sha$e& an& con&itione& b) thesocial li'e* or instance, let us consi&er the $hiloso$h) o' one o' the reatest 7reek $hiloso$hers, Heraclitus o' $hesus8he !as born in a rich commercial cit) !hich ha& $asse& throu h man) tribulations 4!ars, ci il !ars, etc* * "In the ra o'



+)rants, $hesus !as as much torn b) internal &issension as an) other Ionic cit)" 4 &!ar& Me)er, i"id., $*21 * +hecommercial aristocrac) ha& struck &ee$ roots here an& !as $oliticall) &ominant o er the a rarian aristocrac)* Heraclitus!as o' an ol& noble 'amil), !hich ha& retaine& 'eu&al.ro)al tra&itions, "an& he !as, i' not a $artisan o' the aristocrats,)et a 'anatical o$$onent o' the &emocrac), o' rule b) the blin& mob" 4$*21 * Bein a counter.re olutionar), he shunne&

$olitics himsel', an& he e en e $oun&e& his $hiloso$h) in a $articularl) obscure, semi.cons$irati e lan ua e* "3ne is!orth tens o' thousan&s 'or me, i' he is the best one," he !rote* "What manner o' sense an& reason ha e the) 4the $resent

rulers, 2. 3 * = +he) run a'ter minstrels an& $ermit the mob to teach them, since the) kno! not that most men are e il an&'e! oo&* %ather than all other thin s, the best choose a sin le thin , namel), eternal 'ame amon mortals8 but the mob'ee& themsel es like cattle" 4$*21D * It is to this $rinci$le o' the $ersecute& aristocrac) o' birth that !e must trace the

$hiloso$h) o' Heraclitus, born amon turbulent trans'ormations an& &issensions* Societ), torn b) man) con'licts,ne ertheless e ists as a !hole, !ith all its contrasts an& con'usions* Such is the uni erse also* +he essence o' each thinconsists in the 'act that it is a !hole an& not a !hole, concor&ant an& &iscor&ant, constructi e an& &estructi e, oneconsistin o' all an& all o' one * * * * It is $recisel) in these contrasts that !e ha e the unit), the "essence o' thin s"4$*22C * It is 'oll) to s$eak o' $eace !hen there is no $eace8 one cannot ha e $eace !hen the enem) $re ails* +here'ore:"War is ather an& ?in 4A o' all thin s, he has ma&e some men o&s, others men, some sla es, others 'ree men*""Homer, !ho !ishe& to see stru le 4 eris eliminate& 'rom amon o&s an& men, !as not a!are that he !as thusrenouncin all ne! birth" 4$*22C * It is absur& to s$eak o' $eace !hen all is in commotion an& chan e* <s a matter o''act, there is nothin ri i& an& immutable* "We cannot ste$ into the same ri er, 'or e er &i''erent !ater 'lo!s alon *" Wehear it sai& e er)!here that* the $resent or&er is oo&, but truth is relati e* "+he ocean is the $urest an& the im$urest

!ater, $otable an& bene'icent 'or 'ishes, non.$otable an& ruinous 'or men" 4$*22C * It matters not that merchants an&&emocratic u$starts no! rule the cit)8 !e must not re ar& onl) the sur'ace o' thin s, but must $enetrate belo! thesur'ace: "+he sense is &ecei e&8 e en the e)e, a better !itness than the ear" 4$*219 * 0han es are constantl) maturin inli'e8 !hat e ists must $erish* " ire li es throu h the &eath o' arth, <ir throu h the &eath o' ire8 Water li es throu h the&eath o' <ir, arth throu h the &eath o' Water*" Not onl) are the classes constantl) succee&in one another, but socialthin s also are constantl) chan in $lace* 0E5erythin! is exchan!ed a!ainst fire, and fire a!ainst e5erythin!, ascommodities a!ainst !old and !old a!ainst commodities" 4$*221 * +he essence o' societ) is this substance o' ol&, !hichcan $urchase e er)thin 8 the omni$resent an& im$enetrable $o!er o' ol&* +here'ore, ire, the incarnation o' this 'orce,is the essence o' thin s, the li'e. i in 'orce, 'rom !hich all else emanates* "+he li'e s$irit also, the soul, is ire an&!armth*" Market, com$etition, !ar, are elemental in nature8 the) are a com$ulsor) an& omni$otent 'ate* +here'ore 7o&also is not a human bein !ith curl) hair, but a 'leshless, ine itable uni ersal la!8 "the $re&estine& com$ulsion o' 'ate4eimarmeun auaukh , im$osin its eternal re ulations, its measures# on all thin s, !hich the) ma) not e cee& !ithout'allin 'or'eit to the r)nn)es, the han& mai&ens o' -ustice*" But &i init), reason, ;o os, 'ate, rulin the !orl&, !illultimatel) reestablish -ustice, !hich has been crushe& to earth8 the &a) o' -u& ment !ill come !hen " ire !ill 'all u$onall thin s an& sei(e an& -u& e them*" "/ike 4Eustice !ill take hol& o' the architects an& !itnesses o' 'alsehoo&" 4$*222 *

We can thus see the 'actors o' the social li'e o' his times $eerin throu h the $hiloso$h) o' Heraclitus, !o en in a $eculiar $attern: the nature o' the econom) &e elo$in un&er the banner o' ol&, the class stru le, the aristocrac) as ano$$osition $art), the ho$e 'or a better 'uture, !or&s o' encoura ement, 'aith in ictor), a su$$ort 'or this 'aith in the 'actthat all thin s are chan in , the assum$tion o' an im$ersonal &estin) an& a m)sterious %eason rulin the !orl& . thesere'lections o' the la!s o' a commercial !orl&, !ith com$etition an& !ar'are, re-ectin $ro&ucti e labor8 the aristocrats

b) birth, hatin the mob8 the tra&itions o' the nobilit) an& the 'eu&al !arrior caste, etc*, etc, +hese are the social roots o'Heraclitus# $hiloso$hical constructions* uite characteristicall), !hile Heraclitus, a member o' the o$$osition an&re$resentin the aristocrac), an& there'ore not intereste& in $reser in the e istin or&er o' thin s, !as &e'en&in the

$rinci$le o' chan e, o' contra&ictions, o' stru le, o' &)namics, the $hiloso$hers o' the other . the rulin .school . !ere!ith e>ual i or &e'en&in the $rinci$le o' immutabilit) an& $ermanence* +he reatest o' these $hiloso$hers !asParmeni&es* <na a oras, a close associate o' the lea&er o' the <thenian commercial &emocrac) in the i'th 0entur),Pericles, an& the o''icial state $hiloso$her o' <thens, so to s$eak, ma&e a er) in enious attem$t to shi't the center o'

ra it) o' this $assionate $hiloso$hical &is$ute* "+he Hellenes," he tau ht, "ha e no ri ht to s$eak o' risin an& $assina!a), 'or e istin thin s clearl) sho! that !hat is $resent no! is $ro&uce& b) mi ture an& elimination" 4 &uar& Me)er,i"id *, $*2F5 * In other !or&s, <iia a oras re$resents the $oint o' ie! o' ra&ual e olution8 !hich is $recisel) !hat !eshoul& e $ect 'rom the social $osition o' his class* <na a oras, b) the !a), amon his other i&eas, also &i& much toa& ance the atomic theor)*

We cannot &!ell in &etail here on 7reek $hiloso$h)* It !as mani'estl) inca$able o' 'in&in a solution b) makin it u$ o'!hole cloth an& elaboratin intan ible im$ressions o' social li'e, !hich !as mean!hile becomin more an& morecon'use&* +he e tremel) com$licate& stru le an& the er) restless con&ition o' the lea&in cities $ro&uce& numerouscurrents, &is$utes, an& criticisms8 the social ties, stan&ar&s, an& tra&itional morals !ere 'allin into &eca)* Men "!ere

becomin con'use&"* Parallel !ith this ten&enc), the !hole o' $hiloso$h) accom$lishe& a su&&en shi't in the &irection o' a so calle& $ractical $hiloso$h), i.e., consi&erations concernin the nature o' man, moralit), etc* Instea& o' in esti atinthe essence o' the uni erse, attention be an no! to be i en to the essence o' man, o' stan&ar&s o' con&uct, o' &ut), o'



" oo&" an& "e il"8 on the one han& !e ha e the so$hists, sub-ectin e er)thin to their criticism, on the other han&Socrates* We ha e alrea&) mentione&, at the be innin o' this book, the reatest $hiloso$her o' sla ehol&in anti>uit), aman o' outs$oken "Black Hun&re&" ten&encies, Plato, !ith his $er'ecte& s)stem o' $hiloso$hical i&ealism, incor$oratin ,at one an& the same time, $ure reason an& the 7oo& as !ell as the bi stick 'or the sla es* We ma) take another e am$le,'rom the $erio& o' the &eca) o' the %oman m$ire, simultaneousl) a $erio& o' &eca) o' the entire ancient Me&iterraneanci ili(ation* +he cities re! !ith tremen&ous ra$i&it)8 commo&ities !ere accumulate& b) $lun&erin colonies an&

e $loitin sla es8 the rulin class !as absolutel) $arasitic, as !ere also the reat numbers o' 'ree lum en roletariat,corru$te& b) state alms8 the sla es !ere o$$resse& as ne er be'ore8 such, in broa& outline, is the internal situation*Seneca, a $hiloso$her o' the Stoic school, a rich man, im$arts the $hiloso$h) o' li'e to his 'rien& ;ucilius: "What is therethat can tem$t )ou a!a) 'rom &eath= @ou ha e taste& all the en-o)ments that mi ht make )ou hesitate8 none o' them arestran e to )ou8 )ou ha e ha& )our 'ill o' all* @ou kno! the taste o' !ine an& o' hone)8 is it not a matter o' in&i''erence to)ou !hether one hun&re& or one thousan& bottles o' them $ass &o!n )our throat= <lso, )ou ha e taste& o)sters an&crabs* +hanks to )our s$len&i& li in , nothin remains untaste& 'or )ou in the )ears that are to come* <n& can )ou notse$arate )oursel' 'rom these thin s= What is it )ou ma) still ha e to re ret= rien&s= Home= /o )ou reall) alue themso hi hl) that )ou !oul& sacri'ice )oursel' 'or them to the e tent o' $ost$onin )our su$$er.hour= 3h, ha& it been in)our $o!er, )ou !oul& ha e e tin uishe& the sun itsel', 'or )ou ha e accom$lishe& nothin !orth) o' the li ht* 0on'essit: )ou are hesitatin to &ie, not because )ou !ill be sorr) to lea e the 0uria, the orum, or the beauties o' nature* @ouare merel) sorr) to lea e the 'lesh.market, an& )et )ou ha e alrea&) taste& all its su$$lies*" 4 SenecaJ ?etter to ?ucilius,here >uote& 'rom N* assil)e : 4he Luestion of the 8ecay of the :estern ;oman Em ire, 4ransactions of the @ni5ersity

of a an, ol* F1, in %ussian * +his is a $hiloso$h) o' absolute in&i i&ualism, o' $ersons reco ni(in no social ties8 a $essimism, an a& ocac) o' &eath, a 'ruitless criticism o' all social institutions, a !orshi$ o' abstract reason !hich&es$ises all thin s8 such is the $hiloso$h) o' the time* Is it not a 'aith'ul re'lection o' the $s)cholo ) o' an o er.sate&,&eca)in , $arasitic class, !hich has lost all taste 'or li'e= +his $s)cholo ) is an outcome o' the social.economiccon&itions $re ailin at the time*

In the Mi&&le < es, the &ominant s)stem in uro$e !as that o' 'eu&alism, !ith a hu e hierarch) o' sub-ection8 the0hurch also !as constructe& alon these lines* Stan&ar&s o' la!, manners, reli ion, all these 'orms o' the su$erstructure!ere e $ressi e o' this s)stem an& ser e& to consoli&ate it* It is ob ious ho! si ni'icant a role must here be $la)e& b)reli ion* or the 'oun&ation o' reli ion is a relation o' &omination an& sub-ection8 conse>uentl), $articularl) on the 'irm'oun&ations o' 'eu&alism, a s)stem o' reli ious, s$iritual ser'&om necessaril) an& ine itabl) 'lourishe&* +here'ore,

$hiloso$h) also is &istinctl) reli ious in tone8 it ser e& as the mai&ser ant o' &i init) 4ancilla theolo!iae *

+he t)$ical ortho&o $hiloso$her o' the Mi&&le < es, +homas <>uinas 41225.12 K8 his $rinci$al !ork is the Summa4heolo!iae, "+heolo ical nc)clo$e&ia" clearl) re'lects the 'eu&al con&itions in his $hiloso$h)* +he !orl& is &i i&e&into t!o $ortions: the e er)&a) isible !orl& an& the "'orms inhabitin it"* +he hi hest an& "$urest" 'orm is 7o&* Ina&&ition to 7o&, there are certain $articular, s$eci'ic "'orms" 4 formae se aratae , arran e& accor&in to certain &e reeso' &i nit) or rank: an els, the souls o' men, etc* +his entire $hiloso$hical s)stem is base& on the i&ea o' constanc), o'tra&ition, o' authorit)* "Ste$ b) ste$, as the bour eoisie &e elo$e&, there also &e elo$e& an immense a& ance o' science8astronom), mechanics, $h)sics, anatom), $h)siolo ), a ain recei e& attention* +he bour eoisie nee&e&, in or&er to&e elo$ its in&ustrial $ro&uction, a science that !oul& in esti ate the $ro$erties o' natural bo&ies an& the mo&e o'o$eration o' natural 'orces* Hitherto, ho!e er, science ha& been onl) the humble han&mai&en o' the church* * * No!science rebelle& a ainst the church8 the bour eoisie nee&e& science an& -oine& in the rebellion" 4 rie&rich n els:T"erhistorischen <aterialismus, 8ie 2eue =eit , 1D9F, ol* ii, $art i, $*K2 * +hese nee&s 'or 'urther ro!th !ere e en re'lecte&in cases !here an a rarian aristocrac) !as at the helm* +hus, in n lan&, the 'irst harbin er o' the reat u$hea al in the

entire conce$tion o' the uni erse, an& conse>uentl) in $hiloso$h) also, !as ;or& rancis Bacon 415 1.1 2 * Baconhel& that nature shoul& be stu&ie& in or&er to be controlle&* or this, !e nee& abo e all "the* art o' in ention" 4arsin5eniendi 8 the ol& scholastic nonsense, an& e en <ristotle, must be thro!n into the scra$.hea$* No!, "the ol& is &one'or8 reason is ictorious" 45etustas cessit, ratio 5icit * Mar consi&ere& Bacon as the 'oun&er o' n lish materialism* " or him, natural science !as true science an& the $h)sics o' the senses !as the most &istin uishe& $art o' naturalscience * * * * In his teachin , the sciences cannot &ecei e us8 the) are the source o' all kno!le& e* Science meanse $erimental science8 it consists o' the a$$lication o' a rational metho& to that !hich is $ercei e& b) the senses*In&uction, anal)sis, com$arison, obser ation, e $eriment, are the $rinci$al con&itions 'or a rational metho&* <mon the

$ro$erties inherent in matter, motion is the 'irst an& 'oremost" But Mar also &isco ers man) "theolo icalinconsistencies" in Bacon* 4?arl Mar an& rie&rich n els: 8ie heili!e amilie, 1DK5, $$*2C1et seq.,also >uote& b)

n els in T"er historischen <aterialismus, cite& abo e* In ie! o' the $erio& an& the $oint o' ie! o' Bacon#s class, !ecoul& not e $ect an) other con&ition*

rench materialism in the i hteenth 0entur) &eclare& !ar most em$haticall) on the 'eu&al conce$tion o' the uni erse,in the 'iel& o' $hiloso$h), -ust as the bour eoisie !as &eclarin !ar on 'eu&al societ) in the 'iel& o' $olitics an&econom)* +his materialism su$$orte& an& ener eticall) e $oun&e& the &octrine o' the n lish $hiloso$her ;ocke,





an& 0hina, he has been blin& to the $roletariat at home* While in "ancient times" the lo!er classes !ere onl) ca$abl) o' brin in about the "$hiloso$h)" o' 0hristianit), !e no! ha e Mar ian communism !hich cannot but ain stren th in theruins o' the "<ben&lan&" 4occi&ent * +his communism has itsown $hiloso$h), a $hiloso$h) o' action an& battle, o'scienti'ic kno!le& e an& re olutionar) $ractice*

We thus are a ain le& to conclu&e that $hiloso$h) also is not a thin that is in&e$en&ent o' social li'e, but that it is a>uantit) that chan es in accor&ance !ith the chan es in the arious $hases o' societ), i*e*, in the last anal)sis, !ith thechan es in econom) an& technolo )*

We shall no! take u$ another or&er o' social $henomena . art* <rt is as much a $ro&uct o' the socialli'e as is science or an) other out ro!th o' material $ro&uction8 the e $ression "ob-ects o' art" !illmake this a$$arent* But art is an out ro!th o' the social li'e in the 'urther sense that it is a 'orm o'mental acti it)* ;ike science, it can &e elo$ onl) at a certain le el o' $ro&ucti e labor, in &e'ault o'!hich it !ill !ither an& $erish* But the sub-ect o' art is su''icientl) com$licate& to -usti') anin esti ation o' the manner in !hich it is &etermine& b) the course o' social li'e8 the 'irst >uestionre>uirin an ans!er is: !hat is art8 !hat is its 'un&amental social 'unction=

Science classi'ies, arran es, clari'ies, eliminates the contra&ictions in the thou hts o' men8 itconstructs a com$lete raiment o' scienti'ic i&eas an& theories out o' 'ra mentar) kno!le& e* Butsocial man not onl) thinks, he also 'eels8 he su''ers, en-o)s, re rets, re-oices, * mourns, &es$airs, etc*8his thou hts ma) be o' in'inite com$le it) an& &elicac)8 his $s)chic e $eriences ma) be tune&accor&in to this note or that* <rt s)stemati(es these 'eelin s an& e $resses them in artistic 'orm, in!or&s, or in tones, in estures 4'or e am$le, the &ance , or b) other means, !hich sometimes are>uite material, as in architecture* We ma) 'ormulate this con&ition in other !or&s: !e ma) sa), 'ore am$le, that art is a means o' "sociali(in the 'eelin s"8 or, as ;eo +olstoi correctl) sa)s in his

book, art is a means o' emotionall) "in'ectin " men* +he hearers o' a musical !ork e $ressi e o' acertain moo& !ill be "in'ecte&", $ermeate&, !ith this moo&8 the 'eelin o' the in&i i&ual com$oser

becomes the 'eelin o' man) $ersons, has been trans'erre& to them, has "in'luence&" them8 a $s)chicstate has here been "sociali(e&"* +he same hol&s oo& in an) other art8 $aintin , architecture, $oetr),scul$ture, etc*

+he nature o' art is no! clear: it is a s)stemati(ation o' 'eelin s in 'orms8 the &irect 'unction o' art insociali(in , trans'errin , &isseminatin these 'eelin s, in societ), is no! also clear*

What con&itions the &e elo$ment o' art= What are the 'arms o' its &e$en&ence on the course o'social e olution= In or&er to ans!er these >uestions, !e must anal)(e an art . !e ha e selecte& <usic 'or this $ur$ose . into its com$onent $arts* 3ur in esti ation !ill sho! the 'ollo!inelements: 1* the element o' o">ecti5e material thin!s, the musical technolo ): musical instruments

an& rou$s o' musical instruments 4orchestra, >uartette, etc*8 the combinations o' instruments ma) belikene& to combinations o' machines an& tools in 'actories 8 also, $h)sical s)mbols an& tokens:s)stems o' notation, musical scores, etc*8 2* the humanor ani(ation8 these inclu&e man) 'orms o'human association in musical !ork 4&istribution o' $ersons in the orchestra, the chorus, in the

$rocess o' musical creation8 also, musical clubs an& societies o' all kin&s 8 F* the formalelements o'music, inclu&in rh)thm, harmon) 4corres$on&in to symmetryin the ra$hic an& $lastic arts , etc*8K* themethodso' unitin the arious 'orms, $rinci$les o' construction, !hat corres$on&s to st)le insome arts8 in a broa&er sense, the t)$e o' artistic form8 5* thecontento' the art !ork, or, i' !e are&ealin !ith an entire mo ement or ten&enc), the content o' all the !orks8 !e are chie'l) concerne&here not !ith the methodo' $er'ormance, but !ith its substance, let us sa) !ith the choice o'"sub-ect" o' $resentation8 * as a "su$erstructure o' the su$erstructure", !e ma) also inclu&e, in

music, the theory of musical technique4theor) o' counter$oint, etc* *



;et us no! consi&er the arious causal relations bet!een the e olution o' music an& social e olutionin eneral, !hich is ultimatel) base& on the economic an& technical e olution o' societ)*

irst. We shall not a ain em$hasi(e the 'act that art ma) not 'lourish be'ore a certain le el has beenattaine& in the $ro&ucti e 'orces o' societ)*

Second.3nl) in a certain social "atmos$here" ma) art 4an& s$eci'icall), music be sin le& out 'or&e elo$ment 'rom amon the innumerable 'orms o' the su$erstructure* or e am$le, in &iscussinthe >uestion o' technolo ) an& art amon the 7reeks in the i'th an& ourth 0enturies B*0*, !e'oun& that there !as no ro!th o' technical or natural sciences at all, but that $hiloso$hicals$eculation !as !i&es$rea&* +here is no &oubt that the "su$erstructure" in eneral rises at a 'ast $acei' social technolo ) is mo in at a 'ast $ace8 but there is also no &oubt that the su$erstructure &oesnot mo e 'or!ar& 4or back!ar& uniformly8 nor &oesmaterial $ro&uction a& ance uni'orml)8 'orinstance, the manu'acture o' sausa es ma) not kee$ abreast o' the e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orcesto the same e tent as the construction o' locomoti es or the $ro&uction o' castor oil* 0ertain 'orms o'

$ro&uction usuall) &e elo$ much 'aster than others8 in 'act some such 'orms ma) be entirel) absent,'or certain reasons* +he "su$erstructure" sho!s the same con&itions: in <thens, in the i'th 0entur)B*0*, technolo ) 'are& ba&l), !hile s$eculati e $hiloso$h) 'lourishe&* In <merica, in the +!entieth0entur), technolo ) is su$reme an& $hiloso$h) is ne lecte&* 0hurch h)mns 4a branch o' the eneral'iel& o' music !ere once uni ersal, but it !oul& be &i''icult to 'in& man) $ersons to&a) . e ce$t a'e! :mol&) ol& men an& $ious ol& !omen . !ho are 'on& o' the con entional h)mns* +he mental"shoots" o' societ) are the hi hest out ro!th o' the su$erstructure, an& !e naturall) e $ect thatshoot to bur eon that ha$$ens to recei e the most enerous su$$l) o' sa$* In ancient <thens it !asan "i noble" thin , !orth) onl) o' stu$i& artisans, to concern onesel' !ith an in esti ation o' nature

b) means o' e $eriment8 the &is'a or in !hich the natural sciences !ere hel& is eas) to un&erstan&8it !as a result o' the class ali nment, o' the social econom), !hich in its turn !as con&itione& b) thesocial technolo )* Similarl), in the case o' music, h)mns mi ht be >uite im$ortant at an e$och !henmusic still the "han&mai&en" . as !as also $hiloso$h) . o' reli ion* But such h)mns are asa$$ro$riate to a hi hl) &e elo$e& ca$italist societ) as 7eneral ;u&en&or''#s trousers to atherSer ius* +he 'unction o' music in societ) is there'ore &e$en&ent on the state o' the latter, on societ)#smoo&, means, ie!s, 'eelin s, etc* +he e $lanation o' the latter is 'oun& in the class ali nment an&the class $s)cholo ), !hich are ultimatel) base& on the social econom) an& the con&itions o' its

ro!th*

4hird. +he "techni>ue" o' music &e$en&s in the 'irst $lace on the techni>ue o' $ro&uction* Sa a escannot buil& $ianos8 this $re ents them 'rom $la)in the instrument or com$osin $ieces 'or it* It issu''icient to com$are the $rimiti e musical instruments 4asi&e 'rom the natural instrument, the

human oice , those &e elo$e& 'rom horn an& $i$e, 'rom the nee&s o` the chase,2C

!ith thecom$licate& construction o' the mo&ern $iano, to ras$ 'ull) the 'unction o' these instruments*"Music is not $ossible as an in&e$en&ent art until a$$ro$riate tools ha e taken sha$e an& &e elo$e&:the instruments an& their &e elo$ment*"21 "Music can e $ress the amut o' emotions onl) !ithinthe scale o' the a ailable instruments*" 22 +he $ro&uction o' such thin s as the telesco$e an& the

$iano are a $ortion o' the social material $ro&uction8 it is ob ious that musical "techni>ue" 4no!meanin the instruments &e$en&s on the techni>ue o' this material $ro&uction*

ourth. +he or ani(ation o' $ersons is also &irectl) connecte& !ith the bases o' the social e olution*or instance, the &istribution o' the members o' an orchestra is &etermine& $recisel) as in the

'actor), b) the instruments an& rou$s o' instruments8 in, other !or&s, the arran ement an&

or ani(ation o' these members is here con&itione& b) musical techni>ue 4in our restricte& sense o'the !or& an&, throu h it, base& on the sta e in social e olution, on the techni>ue o' material









$ro&uction as such* Similarl), the or ani(ation o' $ersons in another musical 'iel&, let us sa), amusical societ), is the result o' a number o' con&itions o' social li'e, $rinci$all), a lo e o' music4resultin 'rom the social $s)cholo ), as abo e &iscusse& , the o$$ortunities a''or&e& the ariousclasses to in&ul e this $re&ilection 4'or instance, the amount o' unoccu$ie& time a ailable to the

arious classes, i.e., the class ali nment an& the &e ree o' $ro&ucti it) o' social labor , !hich

elements o ern the number o' members, the e tent an& nature o' their acti it), the character o' themembershi$, etc* 3r, in the case o' the creati e $rocess, !e also 'in& a number o' 'orms 'or thehuman relations in ol e&, the ol&est o' !hich is the im$ersonal sta e 4in&i i&ual names are nothan&e& &o!n , the so calle& "'olk son s"* Here the art !ork is $ro&uce& in an elemental manner b)thousan&s o' nameless artists* uite &i''erent is the case !hen the in&i i&ual artist !orks "on or&er",

b) the comman& o' a $rince, kin or !ealth) man* +he case is a ain &i''erent !hen the artist !orksas an artisan 'or an unkno!n market, on !hose ca$rices he &e$en&s* <n artistic $ro&uction ma) alsoresult !hen the latter assumes the 'orm o' a social ser ice, etc* +hese 'orms o' human relations areob iousl) base& &irectl) on the economic structure* In the sla ehol&in s)stem, the musicians !eresla es8 not so lon a o, !e still ha& ser' musicians in %ussia, $er'ormin an& com$osin not tosatis') a market re>uirement, but at the comman& o' a 'eu&al ma nate* 3' course, these elements aree $resse& in the art !ork*

ifth.+he formal elements4rh)thm, harmon), etc* are also connecte& !ith the social li'e* Man) o'these elements are alrea&) $resent in $rehistoric times, e en in the animal kin &om* ?arl Buchersa)s 2F concernin rh)thm amon horses: "%h)thm s$rin s 'rom the or anic nature o' man* er)normal use o' his animal bo&) he seems to control, as a re ulatin element o' economic utili(ation o' ener )* +he trottin horse an& the la&en camel mo e as rh)thmicall) as the ro!in 'isherman an& thehammerin blacksmith* %h)thm a!akens a 'eelin o' !ell.bein 8 it there'ore not onl) ren&ers !orkeasier, but is a source o' esthetic $leasure an& the element o' art to !hich all $ersons res$on&,re ar&less o' their mental nature*" uite true8 but rh)thm has also &e elo$e& . as Bucher $oints outin his !ork . un&er the in'luence o' social relations an& $articularl) un&er the &irect in'luence o'material labor 4the "!orkers# son s", like the %ussian 8u"inushka, arose on the same basis8 rh)thmhere is an instrument o' labor or ani(ation * In other !or&s, !hile the 'ormal 4such as rh)thm ma)ha e arisen in $rehistoric times, became man, the) &o not e ol e 'rom !ithin them but un&er thein'luence o' social e olution*

< 'urther circumstance is !orth mentionin * <t a certain sta e o' &e elo$ment, onl) the sim$lest rh)thms are a ailableto man 4"as monotonous as the sin in o' cannibals" 8 he has no ear 'or the com$licate& rh)thm $ercei e& b) a man at adifferentsta e o' &e elo$ment* <* * ;unacharsk), in one o' his essa)s on art, sa)s: " rom all o' the abo e 4 i.e., the&eterminin role o' econom), 2. 3 * it b) no means 'ollo!s that * * * the 'orms o' creati e !ork ma) not ha e their o!nimmanent $s)cho.$h)siolo ical la!s8 the) ha e such la!s an& are entirely con&itione& b) them 4m) italics, 2. 3* intheir s$eci'ic form,!hile the content is i en b) the social en ironment*" We learn later on !hat is meant b) this: "+he

immanent $s)cholo ical la! o' e olution in art is the la! o' com$lication* Im$ressions o' similar ener ) an& intricac) be in, a'ter a number o' re$etitions, to e ert less an& less 'orce on the min&, an& to be ca$able o' su estin a lo!erintricac)* We e $erience a sense o' monoton), o' bore&om 4 it ets on m) ner es# 8 it 'ollo!s that e er) school o' art !illnaturall) seek to make more com$licate& an& to enhance the e''ect o' its !orks" 4<* * ;unacharsk): urther ;emarkson the 4heatre and Socialism, in the collection Nersl iny, $*19 et seq., in %ussian * We thus 'in& the "$s)cho.

$h)siolo )" contraste& !ith the "econom)"8 the "content" is le't to econom), the "'orm" to $s)cho.$h)siolo )* +his $oint o' ie! seems to us to be at least insu''icient, i' not !ron * <s a matter o' 'act, i' !e consi&er the e olution o'those elements that !e re ar& as 'ormal, !e shall 'in& that this e olution has b) no means $rocee&e& at a uni'orm rate*+he music o' the sa a e, the number o' harmonious tones $ro&uce& b) him, !as er) $oor8 )et, the social e olutionitsel' !as not characteri(e& b) reat s$ee&8 mani'estl) the musical su$$l) laste& 'or a lon time, &i& not $ro&uce"bore&om" 'or a lon time* "<nti>uit) &i& not kno! our mo&ern harmon) an& ma&e use o' unison arran ements8 it tooka lon time 'or it to become accustome& to the octa e* * * We ha e reason to belie e that it is onl) recentl) that the 'ourthhas been reco ni(e& as a harmonic inter al" 4;* 3bolensk): 4he Scientific 3ases of the 3eautiful and of Art , $*9 , in

%ussian * +here'ore, the 'ormal elements become more com$licate& as a conse>uence o' the more com licated structureof life'or an increasin! intricacy of life alters the sycho1 hysiolo!ical 0nature0 of man.+he "cru&e" hearin o' thesa a e is as much a 'unction o' social e olution as is the "'ine" hearin o' the inhabitants o' the reat ca$italist cities





!ith their e tremel) &elicate ner ous or ani(ation* +he "immanent la!s" there'ore, are merel) another $hase o' thesocial e olution* <n& since the social e olution is con&itione& b) the e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, the) constitute"in the last anal)sis" a 'unction o' these $ro&ucti e 'orces* or, man alters his nature in accordance with his influence onthe external uni5erse*

Sixth.+he t)$e, the style, is also con&itione& b) the course o' social li'e* It embo&ies the current $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo )8 it e $resses those 'eelin s an& thou hts, those moo&s an& belie's, thoseim$ressions, those current 'orms o' thou ht, that "are in the air"* St)le is not onl) e ternal 'orm, butalso "embo&ie& content !ith its corres$on&in ob-ecti e s)mbols"8 the histor) o' the st)les is ane $ression o' the "histor) o' the s)stems o' li'e"* 2K "+he st)le o' 'orm is a re'le o' the social

italit)*" 25 +he reli ious music o' the ancient Hin&oo h)mns 4the Nedas ha e not the same "st)le"or construction as . let us sa) . a rench music.hall son or the battle.son o' the re olution, theMarseillaise* +hese $ro&uctions are the out ro!th o' &i''erent en ironments, &i''erent social soils,an& their 'orm is conse>uentl) &i''erent8 the reli ious h)mn, the battle.son , the au&e ille son ,cannot be com$ose& or constructe& in the same !a)8 e en their 'orm e $resses &i''erent 'eelin s,thou hts, an& ie!s* +his &i''erence is a result o' the &i''erence in the situation o' the societies or

classes in ol e&, an& this &i''erence is con&itione& b) the economic &e elo$ment an& conse>uentl), b) the state o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces* urthermore, the st)le &e$en&s also in hi h &e ree on thematerial con&itions o' the s$eci'ic !ork o' art 4'or instance, instrumental music is con&itione& b) thenature o' the instrument as !ell as b) the metho& o' artistic creation 4!e ha e alrea&) &iscusse& theor ani(ation o' $ersons in music , etc* <ll these $hases like!ise &e$en& on the 'un&amental causalrelation in social e olution*

Se5enth.+he content 4"sub-ect" , almost im$ossible to isolate 'rom the 'orm, is ob iousl)&etermine& b) the social en ironment, as ma) be rea&il) seen 'rom the histor) o' the arts* It isob ious that artistic 'orm !ill be i en to !hat is en a in the attention o' men in one !a) oranother at the i en moment* +he creati e s$irit is not stimulate& b) sub-ects that &o not hol& its

attention, but those thin s that constitute the central interest o' societ) or o' its arious classes arei en treatment, thus re'lectin this eneral interest in the 'orm o' "mental labor"* "+here is in&ee& acertain moral tem$erature o ernin the eneral con&ition o' manners an& min&s 4des es rits *"2 "+he artistic 'amil) 4+aine here means a s$eci'ic school# or ten&enc) in art* 2.3. is situate& !ithin alar er communit)8 namel), the surroun&in !orl&, !hose taste con'orms !ith that o' the school. orthe state o' morals an& o' mental li'e is the same 'or the $ublic as 'or the artists8 the latter are notisolate& men*"2 +hese statements b) +aine are entirel) correct, but +aine seems inca$able o'thinkin them out to their ultimate conclusions, !hich !oul& lea& him into the acce$tance o'im$ious materialistic in'erences* We ha e a ain an& a ain &iscusse&, in another sha$e, this >uestiono' the "moral o' the 0milieu0,o' !hich +aine s$eaks8 both "mental li'e" in eneral, 'eelin s an&moo&s, &o not &e elo$ out o' themsel es8 !e kno! that this social consciousness is the social bein ,

i.e., the con&itions o' e istence o' societ) an& its arious $arts 4classes, rou$s * +hese con&itionsalso i e birth to the arious "tastes"* <s a result, the content o' art is also &etermine&, in the lastanal)sis, b) the 'un&amental natural la! character o' social e olution8 its content is a 'unction o' thesocial econom), an& there'ore o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces*

Ei!hth. Musical theor) is ob iousl) &irectl) connecte& !ith all the 'ore oin , an& there'ore "sub-ect"to the mo ement o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces o' societ)*

We ha e outline& the 'un&amental chains o' causalit) that e ist in music8 the) &o not at all e haustthe sub-ect8 in the 'irst $lace, $robabl) not all o' these relations ha e been enumerate& abo e, an&, inthe secon& $lace, there is in a&&ition a mutual interaction o' all these elements, resultin in a muchmore com$licate& an& con'use& $attern, the eneral outlines o' !hich, ho!e er, 'ollo! the schemeabo e in&icate&* Nor &oes it 'ollo! that the other arts !ill sho! $recisel) the same $attern as !e











ha e trace& in the case o' music* ach art has certain s$ecial earmarks: 'or instance, the materialob-ects in ol e& in sin in are re&uce& to a minimum 4there are notes, but the "musical instrument"remains the human oice alone 8 in architecture the role o' the material, the tools, the $ur$ose o' the

buil&in s 4tem$le, resi&ence, $alace, museum, etc* , is o' immense im$ortance8 the stu&ent must notne lect such &istinctions, but !e shall al!a)s 'in& that the 'ollo!in hol&s, oo&: directly orindirectly, art is ultimately determined in 5ariousK ways "y the economic structure and the sta!e ofthe social technolo!y.

<t the earl) sta es in its e olution, !hen human societ) ha& barel) be un to turn out sur$lus $ro&ucts, art !as in &irectcontact !ith8 $ractical material li'e* +he earliest 'orms o' art are the &ance an&8 music, an& so much o' $oetr) as !asin ol e& in the combination**8 +he ori inal aim o' these arts !as to $ro&uce a moo& o' unit), as a $re$aration 'or acertain act 4a sort o' $ractice or re$etition o' the: act itsel' * <mon certain "sa a e" tribes, the "council.&ances", the"terri')in !ar.&ances", etc*, accom$anie& b) the cla$$in o' han&s, later also b) $rimiti e musical instruments, aree am$les o' such &ances* %h)thm &e elo$e& to ether !ith !ork, as a $rinci$le of or ani(ation, as is e cellentl) sho!n

b) ?arl B]cher* +he "challen in " &ance o' the Ne! Uealan&ers ma) be taken as an e am$le8 it is accom$anie& b)terrible rimaces an& the utterance o' threats 4in or&er to 'ri hten the o$$onent 8 also, the &ances an& son s re$resentinthe chase, 'ishin , etc* < $articularl) im$ortant $art is $la)e& b) the so calle& work1son!,constructe& on the rh)thm o'

the !ork $er'orme&, the te t bein &e elo$e& 'rom the soun& in oluntaril) e-aculate& in the course o' this !ork* +heson s o' the she$her&s, or o' the Be&ouins as the) &irect the ste$s o' the camels on their tra els throu h the &esert, etc* .these are directly connecte& !ith the &ail) labor o' the en ironment* <s societ) ro!s, an& ne! i&eolo ies arise, as"ci ili(ation", etc*, increases, art o' course absorbs all these elements an& ceases to be directly connecte& !ith thematerial li'e o' $ro&uction* or instance, as reli ion &e elo$s, music, the &ance, etc*, become a $art o' the cult* In )$t,the rulin classes ma&e a sort o' m)ster) o' music8 the $riests !ere scholars an& musicians8 reli ious music concerne&them chie'l)8 the ensla e& masses ha& their o!n music "at home, in the 'iel&s" 4?othe, i"id *, $*11 * We 'in& the samecon&ition amon the ast In&ians, !hose musicians 'orme& a $ri ile e& caste 4s$ecial 'amilies o' musicians an&sin ers : amon the <ss)ro.Bab)lonians, !hose con&itions re>uire& them to !a e !ar more 're>uentl) than othernations* +heir music is $rinci$all) militar) an& militar).reli ious in character 4as su este& b), the instruments: c)mbals,kettle.&rums, etc* * +he earliest musical !orks o' the 7reeks, o' !hich !e kno!, !ere the !ork.son s o' she$her&s, an&!ar son s 4"son s o' ictor)" 8 onl) later, son s o' social an& 'amil) t)$e 4laments on the &ea&, !e&&in .son s, etc* :<mon the %omans, there !ere chie'l) she$her& an& $easant son s 4their instrument !as the ree&, fistula an& !ar.

son s 4the lou& brass instruments !ere 'irst intro&uce& b) the %omans* the trum$et, tu"a cur e& horn,lituus a sort o'trombone, "uccina, etc* * Similarl), the other 'orms o' art also ha e their roots in $ractice* Primiti e $aintin , ornament,has its ori in in $oetr)8 'or e am$le: the8 ornaments in man) cases still su est the earlier combination o' $ot an& !o en

basket* urthermore, the be innin s o' $aintin simultaneousl) ser e as the be innin s o' !ritin * +he 'irst ste$ in the&e elo$ment o' scri$t !ere &ra!in s set &o!n to ai& the memor)* +he Bushmen, as !ell as the ast In&ians, attem$t torecor& certain isible ob-ects on stone* +he hiero l)$hic inscri$tions o' the )$tians, the Me ican s)mbols, are abo eall &e$ictions o' ob-ects* +attooin is closel) connecte& !ith this $ractice* "+he $ractice o' tattooin o' !or&s an&s)llables &e elo$e& 'rom more $rimiti e 'orms* +he earliest sta e !as that o' $ictorial re$resentations on the human

bo&) 4tattooin s , !ith the $ur$ose not onl) o' securin reli ious e''ects 4!ar&in o'' s$irits, etc* , but also o' makinkno!n the tribe, the rank, a e, etc*, o' those marke& in this manner" 4%* isler: AIl!emeine ultur!eschichte,F& e&*,;ei$(i , 19C5, $*K2 * Markin s 'or the $ur$ose o' $ro&ucin terror, an& a&ornments, must also be consi&ere& here* Sincesuch a&ornments ha& the $ur$ose o' causin a&miration an& $ro&ucin an im$ression, the) !ere use& chie'l) in !ar'are4c'* ;i$$ert: All!ermeine ultur!eschichte) the) inclu&e, 'or instance, the "!ar.masks" o' 7ermanic tribes, !hich !ere

use& in !ar, accor&in to +acitus 4here is the erm o' scul$ture * <rchitecture is chie'l) "technical" in character, as !ill be rea&il) un&erstoo&8 ori inall) it amounte& merel) to the construction o' 4materiall) use'ul e&i'ices* "+he 7reektem$le an& 7othic s$ire are both merel) the $ermanent re$resentations o' use'ul !oo&en constructions" 4Eohn %uskin: ?ectures on Art, Ne! @ork: Ma)nar&, Merrill 0o*, 1D9F, $*K2 * "+he lo el) 'orms o' these !ere 'irst &e elo$e& inci il an& &omestic buil&in , an& onl) a'ter their in ention, em$lo)e& ecclesiasticall) on the ran&est scale" 4i"id *, $*1K1 *3' course, the direct in'luence o' $ro&uction relations ma&e itsel' $articularl) noticeable here8 in )$t, the 'irmconstruction o' the houses !ith their rece&in !alls, !as &ue to the o er'lo!in o' the Nile, as such !alls !ere ca$ableo' o''erin more resistance to the rush o' !aters* 0olumns !ere use& as $ro$s be'ore the arch an& ault !ere kno!n*

In or&er to sho! the &e$en&ence o' 'orm, an& there'ore o' st)le, on the social en ironment, !e shall o''er a 'e!e am$les in this 'iel&, takin our material chie'l) 'rom the interestin in esti ations o' Wilhelm Hausenstein* In the

$rimiti e re$ro&ucti e arts, !e ma) &iscern t!o $erio&s: a $urel) naturalistic $erio& 4re$resentin thin s as the) !ereon the one han&, an& a con entionali(e& ornamentation an& s)mbolic &ra!in s, !ith little resemblance to realit), on theother* In the 'ormer case, !e ha e &ra!in s o' bisons, horses, mammoths, rein&eer, scenes o' the chase, etc*, 'oun& onthe !alls o' ca es, or &ra!n on the bones o' horses, the teeth o' mammoths, or rein&eer antlers, etc* In the secon& $erio&,



!e ha e chie'l) con entionali(e& i&ols an& human an& animal 'i ures* Ma er!orn e $lains this circumstance as'ollo!s: "+he $alaeolithic hunter o' the earlier $erio& &i& not )et $ossess, as 'ar as !e kno!, the notion o' the soul* " Helooke& 'or nothin behin& thin s 4i.e., !as not )et an animist, 2.3 * * He ha& no meta$h)sics8 he concerne& himsel' onl)!ith !hat he $ercei e&, 'ull) resemblin the Bushman in this res$ect*" 3n the other han&, "all tribes amon !hom theconce$tion o' the soul an& other reli ious conce$tions ha e aine& a control o er li'e, as amon ne roes, <mericanIn&ians, South Sea Islan&ers, !e 'in& e tremel) i&eo$lastic 4" i.e., s)mbolic not naturalistic#, or in er!orn#s !or&s,

$h)sio$lastie#, 2. 3. art*" 4Ma er!orn: =ur Psycholo!ie der rimiti5en unst, 2aturwissenschaftliche :ochenschrift, Ne! Series, ol* i, Eena, 19C 8 also >uote& b) Hausenstein,i"id *, $*FD * Hausenstein obser es that er!orn &oes not $ursue the thou ht to its conclusion8 Hausenstein 'in&s the nucleus o' the matter in the 'act that the hunter is more anin&i i&ualist, the $easant more o' a collecti ist* But the 'act o' the matter is that "i&eo$lastic art", like reli ion, ro!s!ith the ro!th o' $articular con&itions o' $ro&uction, namel), the relation o' &omination an& sub-ection In the 'eu&alera, this relation attains hu e &imensions in $ro&uction an& 8 the ul' bet!een the sla e an& the &es$ot ma) in&icate thee tent o' this relation* +his con&ition &etermines the s$eci'ic st)le o' all 'eu&al eras, has brilliantl) anal)(e& b)Hausenstein* +he $o!er an& &omination o' the &i ine &es$ots, o' mi ht) 'eu&al kin s, o' Pharaohs, their unattainablesublimit), alor, au&acit), etc*, as o$$ose& to common mortals . this is the essential $oint e $resse& in the 'eu&al st)leso' the )$tians, <ss)ro.Bab)lonians, o' the earliest 7reeks, 0hinese, Ea$anese, Me icans, Peru ians, ast In&ians, as!ell as in the %omanes>ue an& earl) 7othic art o' Western uro$e 4Hausenstein: Nersuch einer So iolo!ie der "ildenden unst, in Archi5 fDr So ialwissenschaft und So ial olitik,Ma), 191F, $$* D, 9 * ;iterar) e am$les 'rom the e$ochsmentione& !ill su$$ort this statement* rom the le al co&e o' the Bab)lonian kin Hammurabi, !hom !e ha e

mentione& be'ore, !e take the !or&s: "I am Hammurabi, the incom$arable kin * With the mi ht) !ea$on i en me b)Uamama an& Innanna, !ith the !is&om i en me b) a, !ith the reason besto!e& u$on me b) Mar&uk, I ha e &estro)e&the enemies to the North 4abo e an& to the South 4belo! , ha e terminate& &issension, ha e besto!e& $ros$erit) u$onthe lai& * * * *+he reat o&s calle& me * * * * I am the bene'icent she$her& * * * * I am Hammurabi, the ?in o' +ruth, u$on!hom Shamash besto!e& the >ualit) o' -ustice* M) !or&s are oo&, m) &ee&s incom$arable, sublime* * *+he) are a

$attern 'or the !ise, to attain 'ame" 4>uote& 'rom +ura)e , i"id *, $$*11K, 115 * +he 'ollo!in eulo ) o' a kin is 'oun&on an )$tian tomb: "Praise the kin in )our bo&ies, bear him in )our hearts* He is the o& o' uni ersal !is&om li inin hearts * * * * He is the ra&iant sun illuminatin both the earths more than the &isk o' the sun8 he makes more thin s

reen than the reat Nile8 he 'ills both the earths !ith $o!er, he is breath. i in li'e * * * *+he kin is sustenance*Multi$lication is his li$s, he is the be etter o' !hat is, he is Hnum, ori inal ather o' man * * * *Battle 'or his name," etc*4i"id *, $*F25 * Mean!hile, "in oo& societ)", the lo!er stations !ere &es$ise&* <n )$tian 'ather, i in $aternal a& iceto his son, !ants the latter to become a court scribe, an& s$eaks o' the lo!er tra&es as 'ollo!s: "I ha e ne er seen a smithser e as an en o), or a -e!eler as an ambassa&or8 but I ha e seen a smith !orkin at his 'or e8 his 'in ers !ere like thehi&e o' a croco&ile8 he s$rea& an o&or !orse than rotten 'ish.roe* * * +he $easant !ears an eternal arment 4 i.e., ne erchan es it, N* B* * His health ma) be com$are& !ith that o' a man l)in un&er a lion * * * * +he !ea er in his !orksho$ is!eaker than !oman8 his 'eet lie a ainst his stomach8 he has no!here to breathe* I' he &oes not com$lete his &ail) task,he is beaten like lotus on a s!am$," etc* 4 i"id *, $*2F1 * +he )$tian kin @akhmos sa)s o' himsel': "+he <siansa$$roach 'ull o' 'ear an& are -u& e& b) him8 his s!or& enters into Nubia, the 'ear o' him into the lan& enekha8 the 'earo' his s$len&or is like that o' the 7o& Min," 4 i"id *, $*2 2 * rit(* Bur er thus characteri(es the ancient )$tian,i.e.,'eu&al, art 6:eltanschaasun!s ro"leme und ?e"enssysteme iii der unst der Ner!an!enheit , $$*KF, KK : " )$tian art isan embo&iment o' the notion o' immortalit), not as mere s)mbol, ho!e er, but as a realit) 4the eternal# $)rami&s, o'unusual $ermanence, statues, etc*, 2. 3 * * * * < $o!er'ul su estion o' 'orce emanates 'rom them8 the) make us ben& theknee8 the) ha e the a!e.ins$irin >ualit) o' a hi her e istence incor$orate& !ithin them the) bear !itness to the&isci$line& stren th o' li'e in its &rea&'ul tension, to a su$er.$ersonal eternal $o!er, !hose $ri&e kee$s us at a &istance,to the soulless se erit) o' a bein that is in&i''erent to all mere matters o' &etail8 the) re'lect the brillianc) o' theirmaster#s li ht, as remote as the stars*" +here'ore: " er) 'eu&al ci ilisation carries on a !orshi$ o' >uantit)"4Hausenstein: 8ie unst und die Gesellschaft, $*K * +he hu e $)rami&s, the i antic monuments o' the Pharaohs or the<ss)rian.Bab)lonian kin s, are a 'orm o' reatness an& mi ht8 art is monumental an& 'rontal8 the "interior &ecoration" o' the $resent.&a) bour eoisie !oul& not ha e su''ice& 'or 'eu&al con&itions8 the bearin o' the 'i ures o' rulers is

$rescribe& e actl): u$ri ht stature, not human, but hal' &i ine, as o$$ose& to the sla es an& or&inar) mortals 4the ancient7reeks &esi nate& the bearin o' a sla e, etc*, b) the !or& roskynesis, i.e.,"&o .like cree$in " * 3ne o' the bests$ecialists on )$t, hrmann, maintains that the human bo&) is re$resente& in a number o' &i''erent 'orms in )$tian

$aintin , accor&in to the social rank: it is natural 'or or&inar) mortals, con entionali(e& 'or su$eriors8 irile $o!er isre$resente& b) a !i&e chest, not 'oreshortene& as $ers$ecti e !oul& re>uire8 amon the )$tians, the chest is al!a)s

i en its 'ull !i&th, e en i' the 'i ure stan&s in $ro'ile* +he same s$irit also $re aile& in archaic, 'eu&al, earl) 7reek art4the heroic "ener etic $o!er o' earl) <ttic art", "the se ere ener ) o' the /orians", the so calle& "/oric st)le"8 4 cf * B*Haen&cke: Entwicklun!s!eschichte der Stilarten,Biele'el&.;ei$(i , 191F, $*1C * <$$ro imatel) the same con&ition is'oun& amon the ast In&ians, Peru ians, Me icans, 0hinese an& Ea$anese* "When the Me ican <(tec succumbe& to the0on>uista&ors un&er Hernan&o 0orte(, the st)le o' this kin &om !as almost i&entical both sociall) an& aestheticall)!ith the st)le o' the 'eu&al &es$otism," 4Hausenstein, i"id *, $* * In literature !e 'in& in a&&ition to the eulo ies o'kin s, in inscri$tions an& else!here, also heroic !arlike e$ics, an& the heroic.kni htl) &rama8 amon the 7reeks, the



Ilia& an& the 3&)sse)8 amon the Ea$anese, the kni htl) &rama, lori')in the 'i&elit) o' the Samurai, !ho !ere the'eu&al masters8 amon the Incas, like!ise the heroic &rama, etc* < &i ine sublimit), a cru&e stren th, both inaccessible toor&inar) mortals, are e $resse& also in me&ie al uro$ean art, $articularl) in the architecture o' the cathe&rals, built inthe course o' man) )ears b) reat numbers o' unkno!n $ersons8 later, in the bour eois e$och, these loom) an& solemnstructures be an to be &esi nate& as "cita&els o' the s$irit"*

+he transition 'rom the 'eu&al st)le to the bour eois st)les be ins e er)!here !ith the ro!th o' tra&e, o' commercialca$ital, or tra&e* ca$italist relations, in the <thens o' the i'th 0entur), in the Italian commercial cit) re$ublics o' the%enaissance, later in the commercial cities o' all uro$e* +he $rocess !as 'inall) com$lete& !ith the &e'inite colla$se o''eu&alism, i.e., !ith the ictor) o' the rench re olution 41 D9.1 9F * In the $lace o' the masses, hel& &o!n b) the'eu&al s)stem, b) the scale o' hierarchic relations, !e ha e the bour !eois indi5idual!ith his commercial calculations,his thou hts o' $ro'it, "a man an& a citi(en"* In music the situation is as 'ollo!s to the Si teenth 0entur), the community

$rinci$le $re aile& 4i*e*, in the sense o' 'eu&al restrictions, ser'&om, but a'ter all a 'orm o' or ani(ation, 2. 3 * 8 thein&i i&ual !as rele ate& entirel) to the back roun&* He !as absorbe& in the 'amil), the communit), the 0hurch, the uil&or brotherhoo&, the state* <ccor&in l), choral music !as the $re alent 'orm o' the times* But no! the in&i i&ual also!ishe& to make himsel' 'elt 4 i.e., the ener etic, i orous bour eois in&i i&ual, then still ")oun " ea er 'or kno!le& e,ca$able o' $ractical calculations, 2. 3 * ,an& there'ore !e 'in& in&i i&ual sin in an& * * * the musical &rama ro!in u$

b) the si&e o' the chorus" 4?othe, i"id *, $*159 ). +he ne! musical st)le 4 stile ra resentati5o, i.e.,the st)le o' theatrical $er'ormances, o' o$era, o' &rama , $racticall) constitute& a transition to recitati e, i.e., hal' sin in , hal' con ersation8melo&), rh)thm, etc*8 all !ere subor&inate& to a 'aith'ul re$resentation o' the !or&s o' the te t* 4"It is e tremel)interestin to note the concomitants o' the circumstance that this ne! musical st)le arose simultaneousl) in three>uarters," !rites ?othe, i"id *, $*1 1, "so that it is &i''icult to &etermine the real in entor#*" +he rea&er shoul& recall, inthis connection, Bor&eau # remark concernin the similar con&ition in science, alrea&) mentione& in our &iscussion o'that "su$erstructure" * +he traine& merchant re$lace& the ro)al.'eu&al reli ious banner !ith a &esire 'or the earthl), 'orthe in&i i&ual human* ;eonar&o &a inci, one o' the reatest artists o' all times an& $eo$les, an& one o' the mostsi ni'icant o' all humans, ma ni'icentl) e $resse& the ne! ten&enc) o' thou ht in man) 'iel&s: as a $hiloso$her,in entor, natural scientist, mathematician, an incom$arable artist, an& e en as a $oet* ";eonar&o renounces allm)sticism* He re&uces the 'act o' human li'e to the la! o' circulation, !ell kno!n an& !ell &ra!n b) him* With col&c)nicism, he anal)(es the structural la!s o' the !orl& o' human 'orms, an& !ith an intellectual brutalit) that is abo e allsentimentalit), he ra$hicall) &e$icts the se ual act* * * He a$$roaches the $roblem o' li ht b) the $ath o' kno!le& e8 thein'luence o' li ht an& atmos$here on 'orm becomes the $roblem o' e $erimental o$tics* +he rh)thm o' ra$hiccom$osition is 'or him a eometrical secret8 the !on&er'ul $anel !ith Saint <nna, the Ma&onna, the Eesus chil&, an& the;amb, is &oubtless the outcome o' er) e hausti e mathematical combinations, o' $ain'ul thou ht concernin the theor)o' cur es" 4Hausenstein, i"id *, $$*1CC.1C2 * %ealism, rationalism, in&i i&ualism, these are the ".isms" o' the%enaissance* In $oetr), the $ath o' transition 'rom the Me&ie al.7othic st)le to the ne! st)le is successi el) marke& b)/ante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, etc* +he "content" o' this art is a criticism o' 'eu&al church&om, a re-ection o' the 'eu&alst)le in 'a or o' an ele ant st)le o' the !orl&8 realistic, but also $ersonal, in&i i&ual* +he connection !ith the social li'eis here clearl) e i&ent*

6n'ortunatel) !e cannot &!ell on all the art 'orms, 'or instance, on the Baro>ue, on !hich, b) the !a), !e ha e ane cellent Mar ian !ork b) Hausenstein, Nom Geist des 3arock4M]nchen, 192C * We shall $rocee& at once to themo&ern $erio&* Eust be'ore the rench %e olution, the so calle& %ococo st)le $re aile&, the social basis o' !hich !as therule o' the 'eu&al aristocrac) an& the 'inancial oli arch) 4haute 'inance , $ar enus !ho bou ht &ucal an& $rincel) titlesan& a&o$te& aristocratic manners* Positions o' ta .'armers !ere sol&, mani$ulations an& &ubious 'inancial o$erations

!ere carrie& on on the Stock e chan e8 commercial an& colonial $olic), &omination b) the nobilit), !hich nee&e&mone) an& sol& its titles, rich bur hers !ho bou ht these titles 4also $urchasin the )oun scions o' the nobilit) # ashusban&s 'or their &au hters , etc*, such !as the en ironment "u$ abo e"* +his en ironment &etermine& the manners

$eculiar to this allant "$erio&"* ;i'e !as &ominate& b) lo e, not as a $o!er'ul $assion, but in the 'orm o' $hilan&erin ,!hich ha& become the tra&e o' ele ant i&lers* +he i&eal t)$e !as that o' the s$ecialists in &e'lo!erin ir ins 4thede5er!inateur 8 the 'ri olous &octrine o' the "$ro$er moment" 'or this o$eration constitute& $racticall) the s$iritual a iso' the a e* %ococo art, !ith its &elicate an& absolutel) erotic cur es, is a $er'ect re'lection o' these traits in the social

$s)cholo ) 4 cf. Hausenstein: ;okoko ran sische und deutsche Illustratoren des NIII Qahrhunderts,M]nchen, 192D *With the ro!th o' the bour eoisie, !ith their battle an& ictor), a ne! st)le !as brou ht 'orth, the best re$resentati e o' !hich is, in rench $aintin , /a i&* +his st)le !as the embo&iment o' the bour eois irtues o' the re olutionar)

bour eoisie: the ancient "sim$licit)" o' its 'orms e $resse& its "content", concernin !hich /i&erot !rote that art mustha e the $ur$ose o' lori')in reat an& 'ine &ee&s, o' honorin unha$$) an& &e'ame& irtue, o' bran&in 'la rant icean& o' ins$irin t)rants !ith 'ear* /i&erot also a& ise& &ramatists "to et close to real li'e"8 he himsel' bla(e& the trail in

literature 'or the so calle& "bour eois &rama" 4Cf. r* Muekle: 8as ultur ro"lem der fran sischen ;e5olution, ol* i,Eena, 1921, $$*1 et. seq* 8 !hich !as calle& le !enre honnUte4Beaumarchais# ?e <aria!e de i!aro ma) be taken as as$ecimen * +he social roots o' this !enre honnUteare $er'ectl) mani'est* I', a'ter ha in ie!e& a $aintin b) Watteau, o'



the %ococo School, !e return to our room an& o$en E* E* %ousseau#s 2ou5elle M7loise,!e shall 'in& !e ha e entere& a&i''erent s$here 47eor e Bran&es: <ain Currents of the 2ineteenth Century ?iterature, Ne! @ork, ol* i, $*1 * +hischan e&artistic s$here corres$on&s closel) !ith the chan e& social s$here8 the bur her has become the hero in the $laceo' the ener ate& $arlor butter'lies o' the aristocrac), an& he be ins to create his !enre honnUte.

or $ur$oses o' contrast, it !oul& be er) interestin to consi&er the art o' the &)in bour eoisie* +his art has beene $resse& !ith $articular shar$ness in 7erman), !here, b) reason o' the militar) colla$se an& the Peace o' ersailles,on the one han&, an& the constant menace o' a $roletarian u$risin on the other han&, the eneral basic note in the li'e o'the bour eoisie has become $articularl) loom)8 !here the ca$italist mechanism is &eterioratin most ra$i&l), an&!here, there'ore, the $rocess o' "unclassin ", o' trans'ormin bour eois intellectuals into human "ri''.ra''", is ra$i&l)

$rocee&in , into in&i i&uals thro!n 'rom their course b) the $ressure o' reat e ents* +his con&ition o' ho$elessness ise $resse& in a stren thenin o' in&i i&ualism an& m)sticism* +here is a con ulsi e ras$in 'or a "ne! st)le", 'or ne!'orms o' enerali(ation, !ithout an) $ossibilit) o' 'in&in them8 each &a) brin s some ne! ".ism", !hich &oes not hol&the roun& 'or lon * Im$ressionism is 'ollo!e& b) Neo.Im$ressionism, then b) $ressionism, etc* < ast number o'ten&encies an& e $eriments, an accumulation o' $a$er theories, but no reasonabl) soli& s)nthesis* +his ma) be obser e&in $aintin as !ell as in music, $oetr), scul$ture, in short, all alon the line* Bour eois reactionaries, timi&l) recor&inthe ra&ual &isinte ration o' their culture, o' their:: class, 'ormulate this $rocess in some such !a) as this8 a 'aith in them)sterious is &e elo$in 8 a belie' in !itchcra't an& miracle.!orkers, in s$iritualism an& theoso$h)* "+he hea& o' a rou$o' so calle& occult &e otees !rites book a'ter book an& &eli ers lecture a'ter lecture " /ili ent s$iritualists, 0hristianScientists, or theoso$hists, ha e a lot to sa), but are neither mo e& b) the alle e& re elations, nor mo in b) theircommunication" 4Ma /essoir: 8ie neue <ystik und die neue unst,in 8ie unst der Ge!enwart, ;ei$(i , 192C, $*1FC * "3ur latest artists also maintain that !hat the) create is the e $ression o' the contents of 5isions4m) italics, 2. 3. ,an& that each art !ork consists o' ecstatic estures# o' the soul" 4$*1F2 * We are aske& to consi&er this as an e $ressiono' ma ic i&ealism8 "in $oetr), sacri'icin the sentence to the !or&, or e en /a&aism 4the &eri ation o' this name 'rom

&a.&a#, the earliest soun& $ro&uce& b) in'ants, is illustrati e o' the chil&ish attitu&e characteristic o' this ten&enc), N* B*8 in $aintin an& scul$ture, a cru&e chil&ish tri'lin " 0hristian Scientists, astrolo ers an& their ilk, &istort the a&mitte&'act that !is&om is not e hauste& b) the lo ic o' s)llo isms, into a lau&ation o' $renatal ne ro meta$h)sics" 4 i"id *,

$$*1FF, 1FK * ;ittle close& rou$s, cli>ues, lea ues, are $romul ate&, !ithin !hich the* artists surren&er themsel es to am)sterious contem$lation o' the herea'ter an& the -o)s o' this !on&rous creation* +o ether !ith this ten&enc), !e 'in& aninclination to!ar& "emotional communism", an in&ication o' the $ro'oun& 'all o' the bour eoisie as a class* M)sticism isthere'ore trium$hant* Eules %omains 4 <anuel de deification,>uote& b) /essoir, i"id., $*1F , re>uires "a state o'm)stical ra$ture as a con&ition 'or the con>uest o' the !orl& b) art", an& /essoir, ha in become su''icientl) tire& o' thisima e, e $resses the sin le ho$e that this unhealth) m)sticism ma) in some !a) be heale& b) a return to the $ath o''aith in the 7o& o' earlier &a)sA 4$*1FD * <n e $ressionist theorist, +heo&or /aubler 4 8er neue Stand unkt,;ei$(i ,1919, $*1DC , e cellentl) e $resses this essentiall) an& $ro'oun&l) in&i i&ualist $oint o' ie! o' the &isinte rate& socialatoms: "+he: center o' the !orl& is in e er) e o, e en in the e o.-usti'ie& !ork*" 3' course, this $oint o' ie! lea&s tom)sticism* "We hear e er)!here $ronounce& the cr): <!a) 'rom natureA# It is ob ious !hat this means, as 'ar ase $ressionist $oetr) an& ra$hic art are concerne&: a &e$arture 'rom !hat is su$$lie& us b) the senses, a transcen&in o'the limits o' sensuous e $erience, a ten&enc) to ele ate onesel' to that !hich lies behin& $henomena" 4 i"id *, $*1K2 * Inmusic !e are le& to su$er.music, to anti.music, !ithout harmon), !ith* out rh)thm, !ithout melo&), etc* 4<rnol&Scherin : 8ie ex ressionistishe 3ewe!un! in der <usik, in the !ork alrea&) >uote&, EinfDhrun! in die unst derGe!enwart, $$*1K2et seq* * < eneral social e aluation o' all this business 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' ca$italist culture is

i en b) Ma Marterstei 4 8as iiin!ste 8eutschland in ?iteratur and unst, i"id *, $*25 : "+he states o' ra$ture $ro&uce& b) the su''erin o' monstrous thin s must )iel& $lace to reason* No ariet) o' !ar $s)chosis or &isarmament $s)chosisma) an) lon er, ser e as an e cuse 'or 'ra mentar) an& anarchic !ork*" +he author in okes a s$irit o' "hi hestres$onsibilit)", but his in ocations !ill be o' no a ail, 'or it is im$ossible to 'in& a ne! sublime s)nthesis in the &eca)intem$le o' ca$italism8 &ebris an& ruins, an incoherent m)stical babblin an& the "ecstasies" o' theoso$hical sects, !illno! be ine itable* Such al!a)s has been the case in ci ili(ations &estine& to earl) e tinction*

We shall also sa) a 'e! !or&s on 'ashions, !hich ha e alrea&) been touche& u$on* In certain res$ects, 'ashions arerelate& to art 4in " style": e.!. , the arments an& costumes o' the %ococo $erio& corres$on&e& $er'ectl) !ith the %ococoart * In other traits, 'ashion is connecte& !ith stan&ar&s o' con&uct, !ith the rules o' &ecenc), customs, etc* ashionsthere'ore also &e elo$ in accor&ance !ith the social $s)cholo ), the succession o' its 'orms, the rate o' chan e,&e$en&in in turn on the character o' this social &e elo$ment* Here, 'or instance, !e 'in& the roots o' the inor&inatel)s!i't chan es o' 'ashions at the en& o' the ca$italist $erio&* "3ur inner rh)thmics 4corres$on&in to the hea&lon courseo' li'e, 2. 3 * re>uire shorter an& shorter $erio&s 'or each ne! im$ression" 47eor Simmel: 8ie <ode, ;ei$(i , 191D,

$*F5 * Wherein lies the social si ni'icance o' ions= What is their role in the current o' social li'e= Here is Simmel#s

brilliant ans!er: "+he) are * * * a $ro&uct o' the &i ision alon class lines, the case bein similar to that o' a number o'other social 'ormations, $articularl) !ith honor, ha in the &ouble 'unction o' hol&in a rou$ to ether an& at the sametime kee$in it se$arate in other rou$s * * * * +hus, 'ashions on the one han& e $ress one#s connection !ith those o' e>ual



rank, the unit) o' the circle &e'ine& b) these 'ashions, an& simultaneousl) the e clusi eness o' this rou$ as o$$ose& tothose 'urther &o!n in the scale" 4 i"id *, $$*2D, 29 *

?an!ua!e an&thou!ht, the most abstract i&eolo ical cate ories o f the su$erstructure, are also'unctions o' social e olution It has sometimes been 'ashionable amon Mar ists or $seu&o.Mar ists

to &eclare that the ori in o' these $henomena has no relation !ith historical materialism* ?autsk),'or e am$le, !ent so 'ar as to claim that the $o!ers o' human thou ht are almost unchan in * Suchis not the case, ho!e er8 these i&eolo ical 'orms, so e traor&inaril) im$ortant in the li'e o' societ),constitute no e ce$tion to the other i&eolo ical 'orms o' the su$erstructure in their o!n ori in an&e olution*

< $reliminar) >uestion must 'irst be &is$ose& o': namel), the &oubt that at once a$$ears in a&iscussion o' lan ua e an& thou ht* It is customar) to a&mit that lan ua e is a social relation, a toolin the intercourse bet!een men, an instrument o' cohesion8 an& that Mar is ri ht !hen he states thatit !oul& be absur& to s$eak o' an e olution o' lan ua e i' men &i& not s$eak to each other* But thecase !ith thou ht seems &i''erent, 'or each in&i i&ual thinks, has his o!n brain, an& onl) a m)stic

coul& attem$t to seek the roots o' this in&i i&ual human thou ht in societ)* +his ob-ection is base&on an incom$lete un&erstan&in o' the close relation bet!een thou ht an& lan ua e* +hou ht al!a)so$erates !ith the ai& o' !or&s, e en !hen the latter are not s$oken8 thou ht is s$eech minus soun&*+he $rocess o' thinkin is a $rocess o' combinin conce$ts, !hich are al!a)s &ealt !ith in the 'ormo' !or& s)mbols* < $erson !ho has ma&e e cellent $ro ress in a 'orei n lan ua e ma) be in tothink in that lan ua e* In 'act, it is eas) to 'in& illustrations, in the rea&er#s o!n e $erience, o' the'act that the $rocess o' thou ht, o' rumination, is accom$lishe& !ith the ai& o' !or&s* +his bein thecase, an& i' !e a&mit that s$eech is associate& !ith societ) in its ori in as !ell as in its ro!th, itresults lo icall) that the same must be true o' thou ht* <n& the 'acts sho! that the e olution o'thou ht has coinci&e& !ith that o' lan ua e* 3ne o' the most &istin uishe& $hilolo ists, ;u&!i

Noire, sa)s: "+he social acti it) &irecte& toward a common oal, the most ancient la"or o' the el&erso' the clan, is the source 'rom !hich lan ua e an& reasonin ori inate&*" 2D Human s$eech is asmuch an out ro!th o' the soun&s e-aculate& &urin labor as are music an& son * Philolo ) hassho!n that the ori inal basis o' the ocabular) is the so calle& action roots, the earliest !or&s beinsuch as &esi nate& chie'l) an action 4 erbs * In the later ro!th o' lan ua e, ob-ects also recei e&their &esi nations 4nouns , inso'ar as these ob-ects !ere $rominent in the labor e $erience o' man8such names !ere i en chie'l) to the tools use&, an& !ere &e elo$e& 'rom the erbal terms 'or theactions in ol e&* Parallel !ith this e olution $rocee&e& the consoli&ation o' more &e'inite conce tsout o' the mass o' material !hich . 'i urati el) s$eakin . 'ille& man#s hea&, echoe& in his ears,a$$eare& be'ore his e)es, etc* But the conce t isthe "e!innin! of thou!ht.

+he 'urther e olution o' thou ht an& lan ua e $rocee&s alon the lines 'ollo!e& b) the other 'ormso' the i&eolo ical su$erstructure8 namel), the) 'ollo! the e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces* In thecourse o' this e olution, the e ternal !orl& ceases to be a !orl& er se, becomes man#s !orl&8 ceasesto be mere matter, becomes material 'or human action8 instruments o' material labor, coarse at 'irst,later more an& more &elicate, as !ell as instruments o' scienti'ic kno!le& e, to ether !ith thecountless "'eelers", such as machines, telesco$es, acute reasonin , ai& societ) in its anne ation o'more an& more o' this e ternal !orl& to societ)#s s$here o' labor an& kno!le& e* < ast number o'ne! conce$ts, an& conse>uentl) o' ne! !or&s, is the result8 lan ua e his enriche& an& is ma&e toinclu&e the totalit) o' sub-ects that constitute the concern o' human thou ht an& s$eech, i.e., o'human communication*

+he "'ullness o' li'e" results in the "richness" o' lan ua e* <s some she$her& tribes 4"$ure cattle bree&ers" ha e no sub-ect o' con ersation but their cattle, o!in to the 'act that the lo! le el o'





their $ro&ucti e 'orces restricts their entire li'e to the s$here o' $ro&uction, an& their lan ua ethere'ore remains &irectl) connecte& !ith the $rocess o' $ro&uction* I', as a result o' enhance&

$ro&ucti e 'orces, a hu e an& com$licate& i&eolo ical su$erstructure has been erecte&, lan ua e !illo' course embrace this su$erstructure also, i.e., the connection o' lan ua e !ith the $rocess o'

$ro&uction is more an& more in&irect8 the &e$en&ence o' lan ua e on the techni>ue o' $ro&uction is

no! an in&irect &e$en&ence8 the causal chain no! runs throu!h the &e$en&ence o' the arioussu$erstructural 'orms on the $rocess o' $ro&uction, an& e en the latter &e$en&ence ma) no lon er bea &irect one* +he increase& :number o' !or&s borro!e& 'rom 'orei n lan ua es is a oo& e am$le o' the manner in !hich lan ua e ro!s* Such borro!in s result 'rom an econom) o' uni ersal&imensions an& the &e elo$ment o' a number o' $racticall) i&entical thin s in man) countries, or o'e ents ha in uni ersal si ni'icance 6tele hone, aero lane, radio, 3olshe5ism, Comintern, So5iet,etc* * It !oul& lea& us too 'ar a'iel& to $oint out in &etail that the character, the style o' a lan ua ealso chan es !ith the con&itions o' the social li'e8 but it is !orth !hile to mention that the &i isiono' societ) into classes, rou$s, an& occu$ations also im$resses its mark on a lan ua e8 the cit).&!eller has not the same lan ua e as the illa er8 the "literar) lan ua e" is &i''erent 'rom"common" s$eech* +his &i''erence ma) become so reat as to $re ent men 'rom un&erstan&in eachother8 in man) countries there are $o$ular "&ialects" that can har&l) be un&erstoo& b) the culture&an& !ealth) classes8 this is a strikin e am$le o' the class clea a e in lan ua e* <n& the ariousoccu$ations ha e their s$ecial lan ua es8 learne& $hiloso$hers, accustome& to &!ell in a !orl& o'subtle &istinctions, !rite . an& sometimes e en s$eak . a lan ua e that onl) their 'ello!s canun&erstan&* +he &esire to in&ul e in such 'orms o' e $ression is $artl) &ue to the same cause that

$ro&uces 'ashions in &ress8 namel), to &istin uish these $ersons 'rom "e er)&a) mortals"* +hus, a%ussian noble lan&o!ner !oul& sho! his "class" b) brin in back !ith him 'rom Paris, clothes o''orei n &esi n, an e $ensi e mistress, an& an accentuate& $ronunciation o' the letter r * Wun&t sho!sthat the $eculiar intonation o' the Puritans also ha& this social character8 the) not onl) took thenames o' $atriarchs an& $ro$hets, but e en imitate& in their s$eech the chantin tones in !hich theBible is still rea& alou& in the Ee!ish s)na o ues* Wun&t ri htl) obser es that the $hilolo ist cannota''or& to consi&er lan ua e as a $henomenon that is isolate& 'rom human societ)8 on the contrar),our con-ectures as to the e olution o' lin uistic 'orms must accor& !ith our ie! o' the ori in an&e olution o' man in eneral, the ro!th o' the 'orms o' social li'e, the ori in o' customs an& la!*

+hou ht has not al!a)s 'ollo!e& the same lines* 0ertain res$ectable scholars 'in& that scienceori inates in man#s m)sterious an& uni ersal inclination to!ar& causal e $lanations, but the) &o notconsi&er the >uestion o' the cause o' this e tremel) lau&able ten&enc)* But !e ma) no! consi&er themutabilit) o' the t)$es o' thou ht to ha e been &e'initel) establishe&* +hus, ;X ).Br]hl &e otes a!hole book 29 We are >uotin chie'l) 'rom Pro'essor <* Po o&in#s %ussian !ork, 3order1;e!ions"etween the Animal and Muman,in 2ew Ideas in Sociolo!y,0ollection No*Kto the mo&e o' thou ht

o' sa a es, !hich he consi&ers entirel) &i''erent 'rom the $resent "lo ical" thou ht, termin it $re.lo ical* In sa a e thou ht, &etails an& s$eci'ic thin s are o'ten not &istin uishe& 'rom the eneral ore en the !hole8 one thin is con'use& !ith another* +he entire !orl& is not a s)stem o' thin s, but as)stem o' mobile forces,man bein one o' these8 in&i i&ual man is not a $ersonalit): $ersonalit) isabsolutel) sociali(e&, bein absorbe& in societ) an& not &istinct 'rom the latter* +he "'un&amentalla!" o' sa a e thou ht is not the conce$t o' causal succession, but !hat ;X ).Br]hl terms the la! o' "$artici$ation" 4loi de la artici ation , i' it is $ossible to e ert an in'luence on an) ob-ect un&ercon&itions !hich.'rom our $oint o' ie!.$reclu&e such a $ossibilit)* "+he la! o' $artici$ation

$ermits him to shi't 'rom the in&i i&ual to the rou$ an& 'rom the rou$ to the in&i i&ual !ithout thesli htest &i''icult)* Bet!een a bison an& bisons in eneral, bet!een a bear an& bears in eneral,

bet!een a rein&eer an& rein&eers in eneral, this $s)cholo ) acce$ts a m)stical $artici$ation* FC







+his $s)cholo ) has no $lace 'or the s$ecies as an a re ate, or 'or the in&i i&ual e istence o' itsmembers, in our sense o' these !or&s*" ;X ).Br]hl himsel' 'in&s a connection bet!een this t)$e o'thou ht an& a certain t)$e o' social e istence, in !hich $ersonalit) ha& not )et been &i''erentiate&'rom societ), i*e*, he connects this sta e o' thou ht !ith $rimiti e communism*

0ausalit), as 'oun& amon sa a es, is not our causalit), but an animistic causalit), the result o' theinclination o' the sa a e to seek a s$iritual, &i ine, or &aemonic $rinci$le o$erati e in all situations*<ll thin s that come to $ass ha e been "or&aine&" b) someone: cause seems i&entical !ith acommandemanatin 'rom a su$erior s$irit* +he la! o' causal succession becomes the !him o' theSu$reme Bein , the s$iritual ruler 4or rulers o' the uni erse* +here'ore, !hile the ten&enc) to seekcauses seems to be $resent in man, sa a e man seeks causes o' a s$eci'ic kin&, causes emanatin'rom a certain hi her $o!er* 3' course, this t)$e o' thou ht is also relate& !ith a certain social or&er*It is t)$ical for a society that already shows the resence of a hierarchy in roduction and social olity.

+he 'urther course o' &e elo$ment $resents the same $rocess8 it has alrea&) been touche& u$on inour &iscussion o' $hiloso$h)* +he abo e e am$les su''ice to sho! that thou!ht and the forms ofthou!ht are a 5aryin! quantity, and that this 5aria"ility is "ased on the 5aria"ility in the e5olution of society, its or!ani ation of la"or, and its technical "ack"one.

<n e cellent reca$itulation o' this sub-ect is the ma ni'icent 'ormulation ma&e b) ?arl Mar in his A Contri"ution to a Critique of Political EconomyJ

"In the social $ro&uction o' their li es, men enter into s$eci'ic, necessar) relations, in&e$en&ent o'their !ills, $ro&uction relations, !hich corres$on& to a certain s$eci'ic sta e in the e olution o' theirmaterial $ro&ucti e 'orces* +he totalit) o' these $ro&uction relations constitutes the economicstructure o' societ), the real basis, o er !hich there rises a le al an& $olitical su$erstructure, an& to!hich there corres$on& s$eci'ic social 'orms o' consciousness* +he mo&e o' $ro&uction o' materialli'e con&itions the social, $olitical, an& mental li'e.$rocess in eneral* It is not the consciousness o'men that &etermines their bein , but, on the contrar), their social bein &etermines theirconsciousness" 4 =ur ritik der olitischen 9konomie,Stutt art 1915, $*I * *

+he hu e "su$erstructure" that rises o er the economic basis o' societ) is o' rather intricate internal"structure"* It inclu&es material thin s 4tools, instruments, etc* , the most arious humanor ani(ations, 'urthermore, strictl) coor&inate& s)stems o' i&eas an& 'orms8 'urthermore, a ue, non.coor&inate& thou hts an& 'eelin s8 'inall), an i&eolo ) "o' the secon& &e ree", sciences o' sciences,sciences o' arts, etc* We are there'ore obli e&, in Dt $recise anal)sis, to resort to a certain &e'inition

o' terms*

We shall inter$ret the !or& "su$erstructure" as meanin an) t)$e o' social $henomenon erecte& onthe economic basis: this !ill inclu&e, 'or instance, social $s)cholo ), the social.$olitical or&er, !ithall its material $arts 4'or e am$le, cannons , the or ani(ation o' $ersons 4o''icial hierarch) , as !ellas such $he* nomena as lan ua e an& thou ht* +he conce$tion o' the su$erstructure is there'ore the!i&est $ossible conce$tion*

+he term "social i&eolo )" !ill mean 'or us the s)stem o' thou hts, 'eelin s, or rules o' con&uct4norms , an& !ill there'ore inclu&e such $henomena as the content o' science 4not a telesco$e, or the

$ersonal sta'' o' a chemical laborator) an& art, the totalit) o' norms, customs, morals, etc,



Social $s)cholo ) !ill mean 'or us the non.s)stemati(e& or but little s)stemati(e& 'eelin s, thou htsan& moo&s 'oun& in the i en societ), class, rou$, $ro'ession, etc*

e. Social Psychology and Social +deology

In our treatment o' science an& art, la! an& moralit), etc*, !e !ere &ealin !ith certain uni'ie& systemso' 'orms, thou hts, rules o' con&uct, etc* Science is a uni'ie&, coor&inate& s)stem o'thou hts, embracin an) sub-ect o' kno!le& e in its harmon)* <rt is a s)stem o' 'eelin s, sensations,'orms* Moralit) is a more or less ri i& coor&ination o' rules o' con&uct i in inner satis'action tothe in&i i&ual* Man) other i&eolo ies ma) be similarl) &e'ine&* But social li'e also inclu&es a reatmass o' incoherent, non.coor&inate& material, b) no means $resentin an a$$earance o' harmon),'or instance, "or&inar), e er)&a) thou ht" on an) sub-ect, as &istin uishe& 'rom "scienti'ic thou ht"*+he 'ormer is base& on 'ra ments o' kno!le& e, on &isor&erl), scattere& thou hts8 it is a mass o'contra&ictions, or incom$letel) &i este& notions, 'reakish conce$tions* 3nl) !hen this material has

been sub-ecte& to the shar$ test o' criticism, an& stri$$e& o' its contra&ictions, &o !e be in toa$$roach science* But, alas, !e li e in "e er).&a)" li'eA <mon the countless mutual interactions

bet!een men, out o' !hich social li'e is built u$, there are man) such non.coor&inate& elements:shre&s o' i&eas 4)et e $ressin a certain kno!le& e , 'eelin s an& !ishes, tastes, mo&es o' thou ht,un&i este&, "semi.conscious", " a ue conce$tions o' 7o&" an& "e il", "-ust" an& "un-ust","beauti'ul" an& "u l)", habits an& ie!s o' &ail) li'e8 im$ressions an& conce$tions as to the courseo' social li'e8 'eelin s o' $leasure or $ain, &issatis'action an& an er, lo e o' con'lict or boun&less&es$air, man) a ue e $ectations an& i&eals8 a shar$ critical attitu&e to!ar& the e istin or&er o'thin s, or a &eli hte& acce$tance o' this "best o' all !orl&s"8 a sense o' 'ailure an& &isa$$ointment,cares as to the 'uture, a bol& burnin one#s bri& es behin& one, illusions, ho$es o' the 'uture, etc*,etc., ad infinitum.+hese $henomena, !hen of social&imensions, are the social $s)cholo )* +he&i''erence bet!een the social 4or "collecti e" $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo ) is merel) in their &e ree o'

s)stemati(ation* +he social $s)cholo ) has o'ten been a$$arent in bour eois societ) in them)sterious en elo$e o' the so calle& "$o$ular s$irit" or Ueit eist, 're>uentl) concei e& as a $eculiarsin le social soul, in the literal sense o' the !or&* But, o' course, a folk1soul,in this sense, &oes note ist, an) more than there can e ist a societ) !hich is an or anism !ith a sin le center o'consciousness* Societ) then becomes a hu e monster l)in in the mi&st o' nature

In the absence o' such an or anism, !e can har&l) s$eak o' a m)sterious 'olk.soul or a "$o$ulars$irit", in this m)stical sense* @et !e &o s$eak o' the social $s)cholo ), to &istin uish it 'rom thein&i i&ual $s)cholo )* +his a$$arent contra&iction ma) be ans!ere& as 'ollo!s: the mutualinteraction bet!een men $ro&uces a certain $s)cholo ) in the indi5idual.+he "social" element e istsnot bet!een men but in the brains o' men8 the contents o' these brains are a $ro&uct o' the arious

con'lictin in'luences, the arious intersectin interactions* No mental li'e e ists e ce$t that !hich is'oun& in the in&i i&ual "sociali(e&" human bein , !ho is sub-ect to all such interactions8 societ) isan a re ate o' sociali(e& humans an& not a hu e beast o' !hom the in&i i&ual humans are the

arious or ans*

7* Simmel e cellentl) &escribes this: "When a cro!& o' $eo$le &estro) a house, $ronounce a -u& ment, utter a cr), !ehere ha e a summation o' the actions o' the in&i i&ual $ersons, constitutin a sin le e ent reco ni(e& as a reali(ation o'a sin!le conce$tion* < 're>uent con'usion takes $lace here: the sin!le $h)sical result of many,sub-ecti e mental

$rocesses is inter$rete& as the result o' a sin le mental rocess, namely, a rocess in the collecti5e soul047* Simmel:So iolo!ie @ntersuchun!en D"er die ormen der Ner!esellschaftun!,;ei$(i , 19CD, $$*559 5 C * 3r . to use anothere am$le . !hen some ne! an& reater thin than their in&i i&ual as$irations or actions arises 'rom the mutual interactiono' men, "!hen e amine& closel) " !e 'in& that such cases also in ol e the con&uct o' indi5iduals,!ho are in'luence& b)

the 'act that each is surroun&e& b) other in&i i&uals8 this results in ner ous, intellectual, su esti e, moraltrans'ormations o' man#s mental constitution as com$are& !ith its o$eration !ith re ar& to &i''erent situations, in !hichsuch in'luences are absent* I' these in'luences, mutuall) interactin , $ro&uce an internal mo&i'ication in all the members



o' the rou$, in a like &irection, their total action willno &oubt ha e a &i''erent as$ect 'rom that o' each in&i i&ual, i'each ha& been $lace& in a &i''erent, isolate& situation"6i"id *, $*5 C *

@et such !or&s as =eit!eist, o ular mood , etc*, are not !ithout meanin : the) in&icate the e istenceo' t!o con&itions that ma) be note& e er)!here: the) in&icate the real e istence, 'irst, o' a certain

$re&ominant current o' thou hts, 'eelin s, moo&s, a $re ailin $s)cholo ), at an) i en time, i incolor to the entire social li'e8 secon&, the alteration o' this $re ailin $s)cholo ) accor&in to the"character o' the e$och", i*e*, accor&in to the con&itions o' social e olution*

+he $re ailin social $s)cholo ) in ol es t!o $rinci$al elements: 'irst, !eneral sycholo!icaltraits, $erha$s 'oun& in all classes o' societ), 'or the situations o' the arious classes ma) ha ecertain common elements in s$ite o' class &i''erences8 secon&, the $s)cholo ) o' the rulin class,!hich en-o)s such $rominence in societ) as to set the $ace 'or the entire social li'e an& sub-ect theother classes to its in'luence* +he 'ormer case is illustrate& in the 'eu&al eras, in !hich the 'eu&allor& an& the $easant $resent certain common $s)cholo ical traits: lo e o' tra&itional $ractices,routine, submission to authorit), 'ear o' 7o&, enerall) back!ar& i&eas, sus$icion o' inno ation, etc*

+his results 'rom the 'act that both classes li e in a sta nant an& almost inert societ)8 the moremobile $s)cholo ) is later &e elo$e& in the cities* <nother cause o' this con&ition is the unlimite&authorit) en-o)e& b) the 'eu&al lor& on his estate an& b) the $easant in his 'amil)* +he 'amil) then!as an or ani(e& labor unit8 in 'act, the labor bon& remains an im$ortant element in the $easant'amil) to this &a)* +he authorit) o' the 'eu&al lor& is there'ore 'oun& $arallele& in the $atriarchalor&er o' labor relations in the 'amil), as e $resse& in the com$lete submission to the "hea& o' the'amil)": "the ol& man kno!sA" <t a certain sta e o' social e olution, the =eit!eist !as aconser atism o' 'eu&al nobilit) an& $easant ser'* In a&&ition, o' course, the $re ailin social

$s)cholo ) also $resents 'actors characteristic o' the 'eu&al lor&s alone, !hich !ere &isseminate&onl) b) irtue o' the &ominant $osition o' the 'eu&al nobilit)*

Much o'tener, ho!e er, !e encounter cases in !hich the social #$s)cholo ), i*e*, the $re ailinsocial $s)cholo ), is that o' the rulin class* In the secon& cha$ter o' the Communist <anifesto,Mar sa)s: "+he $re ailin i&eas o' a $erio& ha e al!a)s been sim$l) the i&eas o' the rulin class*"+he same mi ht be sai& o' the social $s)cholo ) $re alent at a i en time* 3ur &iscussion o'i&eolo ies has alrea&) sho!n a number o' e am$les o' 'eelin s, thou hts, moo&s, $re&ominant insociet)* ;et us e amine a s$eci'ic case: the $s)cholo ) o' the %enaissance, !ith its hi hl) &e elo$e&

$ursuit o' $leasure, its $ara&in o' ;atin an& 7reek !or&s, its in enious eru&ition, its lo e o'&istin uishin one#s o!n e o 'rom the "mob"8 its ele ant contem$t 'or me&ie al su$erstition, etc*8this $s)cholo ) ob iousl) has nothin in common !ith that o' the Italian easantryo' the samee$och8 but !as a $ro&uct o' the commercial cities, an& o' the financialcities, o' the financial1commercial aristocracyin those cities* <t $recisel) this $erio&, the cit) be an to control the

$ro inces8 the cities !ere rule& b) bankers, !ho marrie& into the 'amilies o' the $rominent nobilit)*+he $s)cholo ) o' this class !as the rulin $s)cholo )8 it is e $resse& in man) monuments . literar)an& other monuments . o' the e$och* +he &e elo$ment o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces amon the rulinclass causes mi ht) le ers to be 'ashione& 'or mol&in the $s)cholo ) o' the other classes* "+hethree or 'our metro$olitan sheets !ill, in our 'uture, &etermine the o$inion o' the $ro incial $a$ersan& there'ore the o ular will ", is the 'rank statement o' 3s!al& S$en ler, F1 the $hiloso$her o' the7erman bour eoisie o' the $resent &a)*

@et, it is ob ious that no ermanent,uni'orm, inte ral "social $s)cholo )" ma) e ist in a classsociet)8 at most there are certain common traits, !hose im$ortance shoul& not be e a erate&*

+he same a$$lies to so calle& "national characteristics", "race $s)cholo )", etc* It oes !ithout sa)in that Mar ists &onot "in $rinci$le" &en) the $ossibilit) o' certain common traits in all the classes o' one an& the same nation* In one








Se enteenth 0entur), !hich ha& taken the 'orm o' reli ious &issent, "$rotest assume& man) arie&'orms un&er the in'luence o' &e'eat an& &es$air": retirement to the !il&erness, sel'.incineration*"Hun&re&s, e en thousan&s, seek their &eath in the 'lames **** ecstatic &reamers clothe themsel es in

$ure 'unereal raiment an& lie &o!n in the co''ins that ha e alrea&) been $re$are&, to !ait 'or thecrack o' &oom*" FK +his $s)cholo ) also 'in&s e $ression in the t!o contem$orar) $oems >uote& b)

Mel uno

/ear Mother /esert,%elease me 'rom earth#s su''erin s,%ecei e me in )our arms,/ear Mother /esert,?in& Mother, kee$ me*

an&:

0o''in o' $ine.!oo&,+here !ill I lie,

Waitin 'or the last trum$*

It is ob ious that the $henomenon o' class $s)cholo ) is o' er) com$licate& nature, not ca$able o'&irect inter$retation as interestonl), but always to "e ex lained "y the concrete en5ironment inwhich the s ecific class has "een laced.

In the $s)cholo ical structure o' societ), i.e., amon the arious 'orms o' the social $s)cholo ), !emust not omit to mention the $s)cholo ies o' rou$s, occu$ations, etc* +here ma) be se eral rou$s!ithin one class8 thus, the bour eoisie inclu&es a bour eoisie o' hi h 'inance, a tra&in bour eoisiean& an in&ustrial bour eoisie8 the !orkin class inclu&es the aristocrac) o' skille& labor, to ether!ith sli htl) skille& labor an& !holl) unskille& labor* ach o' these rou$s has s$ecial interests an&s$ecial characteristics8 thus, the hi hl) skille& !orker likes his !ork an& is e en $rou& o' beinsu$erior, as a !orker, to the others8 on the other han&, he is ambitious, an& assumes certain bour eoisinclinations, to ether !ith his hi h collar* ach occu$ation bears its mark8 !hen !e berate the

bureaucrats, !e mean a certain $ro'essional $s)cholo ) o' ne ati e irtue: routine, re&.ta$e &ela)s, $rece&ence o' 'orm o er substance, etc* ocational t)$es o' $s)cholo ) arise, their mental traits a&irect result o' the character o' their acti it), !hence 'ollo!s also a corres$on&in tin e in theiri&eolo )* rie&rich n els sa)s: "<mon the $ractical $oliticians an& the theorists in -uris$ru&ence,an& amon the -urists in $articular, this 'act is 'irst com$letel) lost si ht o'* Since in each sin leinstance the economic 'acts must take the 'orm o' -uristic moti es so as to be sanctione& in the 'ormo' la!, an& since, there'ore, a back!ar& ie! must be taken o er the !hole e istin s)stem o' la!, it'ollo!s there'rom 4in the o$inion o' these $ersons, N* B* that the -uristic 'orm a$$ears to be the!hole an& the economic content nothin at all*" F5 His tra&e $s)cholo ) !ill >uickl) betra) a man8 aminute#s con ersation !ill tell )ou !hether )ou are &ealin !ith a clerk, a butcher, a re$orter, etc* Itis a characteristic 'act that all these traits are international8 )ou 'in& them e er)!here* B) the si&e o'the class $s)cholo ), !hich is the $lainest, most $re nant an& most si ni'icant 'orm o' the social

$s)cholo ), !e 'in& a rou$ $s)cholo ), a ocational $s)cholo ), etc*8 bein &eterminesconsciousness* In this sense !e ma) sa) that each rou$in o' men.e en in an amateur chess club orchorus.im$arts a certain.sometimes almost im$erce$tible .stam$ on its members* 3ut since theexistence of a certain !rou in! of ersons is ne5ertheless always associated with the economic structure of society, "ein! ultimately de endent on the latter, it follows that all the 5arieties of the social sycholo!y are quantities to "e ex lained "y the social mode of roduction, the economic

structure of society.







What is the relation bet!een the social $s)cholo ) an& the social i&eolo )= +he social $s)cholo ) isa sort o' su$$l).chamber 'or i&eolo )8 or, it ma) be com$are& !ith a salt solution out o' !hich thei&eolo ) is cr)stalli(e&* <t the be innin o' this section, !e state& that the i&eolo ) is &istin uishe&

b) the reat coordination o' its elements, i.e., the arious 'eelin s, thou hts, sensations, 'orms, o'!hich it is com$ose&* +he i&eolo ) s)stemati(es that !hich has hitherto been not s)stemati(e&, i.e.,the social $s)cholo )* +he ideolo!ies are a coa!ulated social sycholo!y* or e am$le, earl) in thehistor) o' the !orkers# mo ement, there !as a certain cru&e &iscontent amon the !orkin class, asense o' the "in-ustice" o' the ca$italist or&er, a a ue &esire to re$lace this s)stem b) some others)stem8 !e coul& not call this an i&eolo )* ;ater, ho!e er, this a ue ten&enc) !as &e'initel)'ormulate&* +hin s !ere coor&inate&, a set o' &eman&s 4a $ro ram, $lat'orm arose, a s$eci'ic"i&eal" be an to a$$ear, i&ealism, etc*8 here !e ha e an ideolo!y. 3r, !e ma) 'in& that the&iscom'orts o' a situation, an& the as$iration to cast it o'', 'in& e $ression in a !ork o' art8 here also!e ha e an i&eolo )* It is sometimes &i''icult to &ra! the line shar$l)8 the actual $rocess is a slo!soli&i'ication, consoli&ation, cr)stalli(ation o' the social i&eolo ) out o' the social $s)cholo )* <chan e in the social $s)cholo ) !ill o' course result in a corres$on&in chan e in the sociali&eolo ), as !e ha e $ointe& out abo e* +he social $s)cholo ) is constantl) chan in ,simultaneousl) !ith the alterations in the economic con&itions 'rom !hich the) ro!, 'or the latter

brin about a constant re rou$in o' these social 'orces, a ro!th o' ne! relations, base& on thesuccessi el) altere& le els o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces as has been alrea&) $oint out*

Ha in i en a number o' e am$les in our &iscussion o' i&eolo ), !e nee& not &!ell u$on the alterations in social $s)cholo ) as connecte& !ith the alterations in i&eolo )8 !e shall merel) $oint out that the latest books are no!&e otin consi&erable attention to the >uestion o' the so calle& "s$irit o' ca$italism", i *, the $s)cholo ) o' theentre$reneurs* or instance, the !orks o' Werner Sombart 68er 3our!eois, etc* , Ma Weber, an& more recentl)Pro'essor /r* Hermann ;e ) 6So iolo!ische Studien D"er das en!lische Nolk , Eena 192C * Mar !rote, in the irst

olume o' Ca italJ"Protestanism, b) chan in almost all the tra&itional holi&a)s into !ork&a)s, $la)s an im$ortant $artin the enesis o' ca$ital" 40hica o, 1915, $*FCF, 'ootnote Mar re$eate&l) $oints out that the bi ote&, 'ru al,

$arsimonious, an& at the same time ener etic an& $ersistent mentalit) o' Protestanism, abhorrin the $om$ an& lu ur) o'%ome, is i&entical !ith the mentalit) o' the risin bour eoisie* Peo$le $oke& 'un at this statement8 but no! $rominent

bour eois scholars are &e elo$in this er) theor) o' Mar , o' course !ithout i in cre&it to its ori inator* Sombart $ro es that the most arie& traits 4a arice 'or ol&, untirin lust 'or a& enture, in enti e s$irit, combine& !ithcalculation, reason, sobriet) a e rise to the so calle& ca$italist s$irit" b) reason o' their unite& $resence* It oes !ithoutsa)in that this s$irit coul& not ha e &e elo$e& out o' itsel', but !as sha$e& b) an alteration in the social relations8

$arallel !ith the ro!th o' the ca$italist "bo&)" $rocee&e& a ro!th o' the ca$italist "s$irit"* <ll the 'un&amental traits o' the economic $s)cholo ) are re erse&: in the $re.ca$italist era, the basic economic notion o' the nobilit) !as that o' a"&ecent" li'e, "accor&in to station"* "Mone) e ists in or&er to be s$ent," !rote +homas <>uinas8 thin s !ere mana e&

$oorl), irrationall), !ithout $ro$er bookkee$in 8 tra&ition an& routine $re&ominate&8 the tem$o o' li'e !as slo! 4almoste er) other &a) a holi&a) initiati e an& ener ) !ere lackin * 3n the other han&, the ca$italist $s)cholo ), !hichre$lace& the 'eu&al.chi alrous $s)cholo ), is base& on initiati e, ener ), briskness, re-ection o' routine, rationalcalculation an& re'lection, lo e o' accumulatin riches, etc* +he com$lete u$hea al in men#s min&s $rocee&e&simultaneousl) !ith the com$lete u$hea al in the $ro&uction relations*

f. The +deological Processes considered as differentiated labour

+he >uestion o' i&eolo ies an& o' the su$erstructure in eneral must also be consi&ere& 'rom another stan&$oint* We ha e alrea&) seen that the arious 'orms o' the su$erstructure are a com$osite>uantit), b) the nature o' their construction, an& inclu&e thin s as !ell as $ersons8 the i&eolo iesthemsel es are a sort o' mental $ro&uct* +his bein the case, !e necessaril) consi&er the 'orms o' thesu$erstructure in their e olution 4an& conse>uentl) also the i&eolo ical $rocess as a s$ecial form of social la"or 6"ut not of material roductionthe t!o must not be con'use& In the be innin s o'"human histor)", i*e*, at the time !hen sur$lus labor &i& not e ist, !e 'in& $racticall) no i&eolo )*

3nl) later as sur$lus labor arises, "a class !hich is relie e& o' &irectl) $ro&ucti e labor is 'orme& b)the si&e o' the reat rna-orit) !hich &oes nothin but toil8 this ne! class takes care o' the common



concerns o' societ): su$er ision o' labor, a''airs o' state, -ustice, sciences, arts, etc* +here'ore, !e'in& at the basis o' the &i ision into classes: the la! o' the &i ision o' labor" 4 rie&rich n els: 8ie Entwicklun! der So ialismus 5on der @to ie ur :issenschaft,Berlin, 192C, $*K9 In one $assa e,Mar &esi nates $riests, la!)ers, the rulin classes, etc*, as the "i&eolo ical classes"* In other !or&s,the i&eolo ical $rocesses ma) be consi&ere& as a s$eci'ic 'orm o' labor !ithin the eneral labor

s)stem* +his labor is not material $ro&uction, nor &oes it constitute a $ortion o' this material $ro&uction, but results 'rom the latter, as our stu&) o' i&eolo ies has sho!n, an& sets u$ anin&e$en&ent &omain o' social acti it)* +he increasin &i ision o' labor is an e $ression o' theincreasin $ro &ucti e 'orces o' societ), !here'ore the ro!th o' the $ro &ucti e 'orces con&itionsalso a &i ision o' labor in the 'iel& o' $ro&uction, accom$anie& b) an isolation o' the i&eolo icallabor ha in its o!n &i ision o' labor* "+he &i ision o' labor is not a characteristic o' the economic!orl&8 its ro!in in'luence ma) be obser e& in the most arie& 'iel&s o' societ), in the increasins$eciali(ation o' $olitical, a&ministrati e, le al 'unctions* +he same thin ma) be obser e& in art an&science*"F We ma) no! ie! the !hole o' societ) as a hu e !orkin mechanism, !ith man)sub&i isions o' the &i i&e& social labor* +his reat labor a re ate ma) be &i i&e& into t!o reatcate ories, 'irst, material labor, "$ro&uction" as such8 secon&, the arious 'orms o' labor in thesu$erstructure, the !ork o' su$er ision, etc*, as !ell as ideolo!ical labor as such, +he or ani(ationo' this labor oes han& in han& !ith the or ani(ation o' material labor, an& is alon the same enerallines8 it inclu&es a class hierarch), those hol&in the means o' $ro&uction bein at the to$, an& those!ithout such means at the bottom* In the $rocess o' material $ro&uction 41 those in char e ha e as$ecial role in this $rocess, !hich is 42 &etermine& b) the 'act that the means o' $ro&uction are intheir han&s, an& 4F the) also ha e control o' &istribution b) irtue o' this circumstance8 such also isthe case in almost all the branches o' "su$erstructural" labor* +he arm) has alrea&) ser e& as anillustration8 the same mi ht be note& in science an& art* < reat technical laborator), un&er ca$italistsociet), has an internal or ani(ation similar to that in the 'actor)* +he theatre, un&er ca$italism, hasits o!ner, its mana er, its actors, its "su$es"8 its technical em$lo)ees, its clerks, !orkers, -ust as in a'actor)* We conse>uentl) 'in& here, 4 i.e., in a class societ) arious 'unctions socially connected!iththese ersons the hi her 'unction in ol es, so to sa), a $ossession o' the "means o' mental

$ro&uction", constitutin a class mono$ol)8 in the &istribution o' the $ro&ucts o' material $ro&uction4men li e, o' course, b) consumin material commo&ities , the $ossessors o' these "instruments o'mental $ro&uction" obtain a reater share o' the social $ro&uct than their subor&inates*

We kno! ho! 'irml) the rulin classes ha e clun to the mono$ol) o' kno!le& e* In anti>uit), the $riests !ho hel& thismono$ol) barre& the "tem$les o' science", to !hich the) a&mitte& but a 'e! chosen ones8 kno!le& e itsel' !asen elo$e& in the shrou& o' a &i inel) a!'ul m)ster), accessible to onl) a 'e! o' the !ise an& -ust* +he store set b) thismono$ol) b) the rulin classes is a$$arent, 'or e am$le, 'rom the 'ollo!in !or&s o' the !ell.kno!n 7erman i&ealist

$hiloso$her, * Paulsen: "<n)one !hose social con&itions 'orce him to remain a manual !orker b) tra&e an& status,!oul& not 'in& it a ain to ha e recei e& the schoolin o' a scholar8 such trainin !oul& not enhance, but &arken his li'e"4 rie&rich Paulsen: 8as moderne 3ildun!swesen, in ultur der Ge!enwart, $art i, section i, $*2K8 !e ma) obser e in

$assin that this i antic !ork, the ultur der Ge!enwart 1a $ro&uct o' the 'inest brains amon the 7erman $ro'essors .is &e&icate& to m$eror William IIA * <$$arentl) the honore& $hiloso$her an& i&ealist re ar&s a man as boun& &o!n tothe com$ulsor) labor o' ca$italism, e en in his mother#s !omb, an& &e$ri es him o' e&ucation e en be'ore he has seenthe li ht o' the sun*

+he mono$ol) character o' e&ucation !as the $rinci$al reason 'or the o$$osition o' the %ussianintellectuals to the re olution o' the $roletariat8 con ersel), one o' the $rinci$al achie ements o' the

$roletarian re olution !as the abolition o' this mono$ol)*

: <n ins$ection o' material $ro&uction !ill sho! that it is &i i&e& into a number o' branches8 in the'irst $lace, into manu'acturin an& a riculture, both o' !hich are 'urther sub&i i&e& into a reatnumber o' sections, 'rom minin o$erations an& rain. ro!in to the manu'acture o' $ins an& theraisin o' lettuce* Here, as in the "su$erstructure", there are lar e sub&i isions 4such as those





$re iousl) consi&ere&, i*e*, a&ministration, the settin o' stan&ar&s, o' science, o' art, o' reli ion, o' $hiloso$h), etc* 8 'urthermore, each o' these sub&i isions is 'urther rami'ie& 4'or instance, scienceno! consists o' man) branches8 so &oes art * In material $ro&uction, as !e ha e seen, a certain rou h

$ro$ortion must e ist . i' societ) is to o on . bet!een the arious branches o' $ro&uction* en in a blin&, ca$italist social or&er, !ith no social $lan o' $ro&uction at all, but rather !ith anarch) in

$ro&uction, i*e*, a &is$ro$ortion bet!een the arious branches o' $ro&uction, e en here !e 'in& aconstant a&-ustment !ithin this anarch)8 iolent &isturbances o' this $ro$ortion meet !ith theirreaction, o' course, not !ithout much $ain, an& not 'or lon $erio&s, but there is a certain tem$orar)e>uilibrium, 'or other!ise ca$italist societ) !oul& o to $ieces as the result o' a sin le in&ustrialcrisis* While it is $ossible 'or a societ) to e ist in s$ite o' the 'act that there is no harmon) bet!eenits material $ro&uction an& the other 'orms o' its labor, the non.material 'orms, such a societ) !illnot ro! but &ecline* or instance, !here too much labor is allotte& to the maintenance o' theaters,the o ernment mechanism, or the church, or art, the $ro&ucti e 'orces themsel es !ill &ecline* It isob ious that this !oul& be the case, 'or instance, in a communit) in !hich there !as one !orker an&se en men su$er isin an& calculatin his $ro&uct, !ith t!o others encoura in him b) sin in , an&another man o ernin the !hole $rocess* Since all must eat, it is ob ious that such a labor s)stem!oul& not en&ure 'or lon * But it is also >uite ob ious that . in s$ite o' all the e''ort the !orkersmi ht $ut in . a !orkin communit) !oul& 'are er) ba&l) unless its arious members 'orme& acoor&inate& s)stem, in !hich their $ro&uct !as &ul) tabulate&, an& in !hich certain in&i i&uals tookcare o' relations !ith the outsi&e !orl&* +here'ore, i' societ) as a !hole is to en&ure, there must e ist!ithin it a certain con&ition o' e>uilibrium 4thou h it be unstable bet!een the material !ork as a!hole an& the su$erstructural !ork as a !hole* ;et us assume 'or a moment that all the scholars4mathematicians, en ineers, chemists, $h)sicists, etc* in the 6nite& States o' <merica shoul&&isa$$ear o erni ht8 the hu e $ro&uction o' that countr) coul& not o on, base& as it is, on scienti'iccalculation, but !oul& &ecline* ;et us assume, on the other han&, that 99 $er cent* o' the $resent!orkers shoul& su&&enl) be miraculousl) trans'orme& into learne& mathematicians, not $artici$atinin $ro&uction* +he resultin bankru$tc) !oul& be com$lete8 societ) !oul& $erish* Not onl) is acertain $ro$ortion 4e en thou h its limits be in&e'inite necessar) in an) societ) bet!een the totalmaterial labor an& the total su$erstructural labor, but the &istribution o' labor !ithin thesu$erstructure, i*e*, amon the arious 'orms o' the "mental" su$er isin an& other acti it), is also o' im$ortance* <s there is a certain e>uilibrium bet!een the arious 'orms o' material labor 4these

arious 'orms ten& to e>uilibrium, as Mar $uts it , so there must be a certain mo&icum o' suche>uilibrium bet!een the branches o' i&eolo ical !ork, in 'act, o' the "su$erstructural" !ork in

eneral* +he coor&ination o' these i&eolo ical "branches o' $ro&uction" is ultimatel) &etermine& b)the economic structure o' societ)* Wh), 'or instance, !as so ast a >uantit) o' national labor inancient )$t &e ote& to the construction o' the hu e $)rami&s, reat Pharaonic statues, an& othermonuments o' 'eu&al art= or the sim$le reason that )$tian societ) coul& not ha e maintaine&

itsel' !ithout constantl) im$ressin u$on the sla es an& $easants the sublimit) an& the &i ine $o!ero' their rulers* In the absence o' ne!s$a$ers an& tele ra$h a encies, art ser e& as the i&eolo ical bon&8 it !as there'ore a sine qua non'or this societ) an& took an enormous share o' the countr)#slabor bu& et* Similarl), "ethics", the establishment o' moral stan&ar&s, assume& a er) im$ortant

$lace in 7reece at the en& o' the i'th 0entur) B*0, because the >uestion o' the relations bet!eenmen an& o' the re ulation o' these relations, ha& become $articularl) acute, e en 'or the rulinclasses, !ho !ere im$elle& b) the reat ul's that ha& o$ene& u$, to seek to conciliate &i er entten&encies* <rt is but 'eebl) &e elo$e& in the 6nite& States o' <merica o' our &a), !hile the samecountr) is a $ioneer in the stu&) an& a$$lication o' the science o' or ani(e& $ro&uction as a !hole4the +a)lor s)stem, ocational $s)cholo ), $s)cho.$h)siolo ) o' labor, etc* , because <mericanca$italism &oes not nee& to resort to art in or&er to moul& the min&s o' the $eo$le8 this task is

e cellentl) $er'orme& b) a ca$italist ne!s$a$er $ress that has been $er'ecte& to the $oint o'



irtuosit)8 the >uestion o' a national $ro&uction, a "scienti'ic mana ement", is o' immenseim$ortance in the li'e o' such a s)stem*

< certain $ro$ortion bet!een the $arts is there'ore necessar) in the 'iel& o' "su$erstructural" 4an&conse>uentl) o' an) i&eolo ical labor, so lon as societ) is in a state o' e>uilibrium, this $ro$ortion

bet!een the arious branches o' mental !ork, an& their &istribution, bein &etermine& b) theeconomic structure o' societ) an& the re>uirements o' its technolo )*

<n interestin a$$lication o' these obser ations ma) be ma&e to the school, !hich is one o' the'iel&s o' i&eolo ical labor* In&ee&, schools 4uni ersities, hi h schools, elementar) schools are thes$here o' common social labor in !hich instruction is i en, in !hich the labor 'orces are en&o!e&!ith a certain skill, a s$eci'ic "trainin ", sim$le human labor $o!er bein thus trans'orme& into s ecificlabor $o!er* 3ne $erson stu&ies me&icine, another law, militar) science, en ineerin , etc*+he same con&ition o' a''airs is 'oun& throu hout the 'iel& o' instruction, i.e., all those s$ecial

$rocesses in !hich s$eci'ic abilities are im$arte& to men, !hich are re>uire& 'or the $er'ormance o'more or less s$eciali(e& 'unctions8 essentiall) there is no &i''erence bet!een the tra&e school thatturns out locksmiths, an& the e&ucational institution that turns out the eniuses o' the $ul$it, or the+sarist ca&et school, $ro&ucin its crack o''icers* It 'ollo!s that: the school s)stem, its &i ision into

arious branches 4commercial schools, tra&e schools, ca&et schools, schools o' en ineerin ,uni ersities, etc.) are an ex ression of societyKs need for 5arious kinds of skilled 1 material andmental1la"or.

< 'e! e am$les !ill clari') our thou ht*

In the Mi&&le < es, the school stoo& in the si n o' the $riesthoo&* eu&al societ) coul& not e ist !ithout a tremen&ous&e elo$ment o' reli ion* +here'ore: "+he monastic an& cathe&ral schools an& the o er!helmin number o' chancelloruni ersities, the li'e in the bursae, an& the instruction in the artistic 'acult) . all these ha& a monastic $riestl) tin e,

e er)thin ha in been &e ise& an& arran e& accor&in to the ecclesiastical theolo ical s$irit" 4+heobal& Uie ler:Geschichte der PBda!o!ik,in Mand"uch der Er iehun!s1 und @nterrichtslehre fDr h here SchDler, 5ol.i, Miinchen 1D95,P* FF * " ce$t the 'e! me&ical an& le al $ro'essional schools, the uni ersities as !ell as the lo!er schools !ereconcerne& abo e all !ith the trainin! of clerics04ibi&* * In a&&ition, there !ere schools 'or trainin kni hts8 in these,"e&ucation" no lon er ser e& to &e elo$ $riestl) "labor $o!er", but bri htl) "labor $o!er"* +he bo)s !ere instructe&chie'l) in se en irtues 6 ro"itates) these!ere "the se en ro"itateso' the kni ht, si o' them bein $urel) $h)sicalarts 6equitare, natare, sa!ittare, cesti"us certare, aucu ari, scacis ludereJri&in , s!immin , archer), 'encin , huntin ,chess.$la)in an& the remainin one, 5ersificare, $oetr) an& music" 4i"id * * 3b iousl), this must ha e $ro&uce& a&i''erent t)$e o' man, necessar) 'or 'eu&al societ)*

But no! !e ha e the ro!th o' cities, the commercial bour eoisie, etc*8 the result o' this con&ition is !ell &escribe& b)Pro'essor Uie ler, !hom !e ha e alrea&) >uote&: "But 4$*FK ne! e&ucational nee&s arise in another 'iel&* In the

blossomin cities, the merchant an& theartisan 4m) italics* N*B* re>uire& a &i''erent $ractical e&ucation than !as i en

to the scholar or -u& e8 the erection o' schools b) the cit) !as resorte& to, 'or the $ur$ose o' $ro i&in these circles !iththe necessar) im$ortant instruction*"

With the &e elo$ment o' in&ustrial ca$italism an& the increasin &eman& 'or skille& labor, the so calle& tra&e school is born in the 'iel& o' material labor* "In or&er to su$$ort the national in&ustr), o ernments an& $ri ate $ersons be an toestablish tra&e an& artisan schools, &estine& to $ro i&e such ocational instruction to the $u$ils as the) ha& 'ormerl)obtaine& in the master#s sho$" 4N* ?ru$ska)a: Po ular Education and 8emocracy, Mosco!, 1921, $*9K*, in %ussian *+his school un&er oes certain chan es !ith the ro!th o' lar!e1scale in&ustr), an& the increasin &eman& 'or masters,su$er isors, 'oremen, etc* 4i"id *, $*9 * Simultaneousl), the interme&iate schools an& hi her tra&e schools, i in more

$rominence to natural science an& mathematics, no! 'lourish on a er) lar e scale, also commercial uni ersities,a ricultural schools, etc

+he abo e cite& 7erman i&ealist $hiloso$her, * Paulsen, e $oun&s the si ni'icance o' ca$italist e&ucation !ith 'rank brutalit)* +hese $assa es in his !ork are so instructi e an& i e so $recise a $icture, that !e must $resent themunabri& e& 4Paulsen#s 'rankness ma) be e $laine& b) the 'act that he is contributin to a thick an& hea ) olume !hich



!ill not 'all into the han&s o' the !orkers8 he there'ore !rites 'or the ca$italist ban&its onl), an& can a''or& to tell talesout o' school

"+he actual outline o' the e&ucational s)stem is &etermine& e er)!here, in the main, b) the outline o' societ) an& itsstrati'ication* * * +he 'orm o' the $ublic e&ucational s)stem !ill al!a)s re'lect the con&ition o' the societ) $ro&ucin it*Societ) sho!s e er)!here a &ouble strati'ication: a rou$in accor&in to the 'orm o' the social $er'ormance o' labor,an& a rou$in b) $ro$ert) relations* +he 'irst rou$in 'urnishes the &i ision into ocational stations8 the &i''erence in

$ro$ert) i es rise to the &i ision into social classes* Both ha e an in'luence on the e&ucational s)stem8 the mainoutlines o' the social $er'ormance o' labor, the ocational social station, &etermine on the !hole the arieties o'instructional t)$e8 the class mem"ershi or the ro erty standin! of their families to a !reat extent determines thedistri"ution of youn! men to the 5arious courses. .* It 4societ) nee&s an& has motor, e ecuti e, an& mentall) o$eratinan& ui&in 'unctions an& or ans* +he 'irst rou$ inclu&es all those !hose labor achie ement is essentiall) that o' bo&il)stren th an& manual &e terit)8 here !e shoul& $lace the in&ustrial !orkers an& artisans o' all kin&s, rural !orkers an&small $easants, an&, lastl), those em$lo)e& in tra&e an& trans$ortation as the lo!est e ecuti e instruments* +he secon&,

rou$ inclu&es those !hose ocational task essentiall) is that o' controllin the social labor $rocess an& i ininstructions an& ui&ance to manual laborers8 here belon the 'actor) o!ners an& technical s$ecialists, mana ers o' reat'arms, merchants an& bankers, hi her em$lo)ees in tra&e an& trans$ortation, also subaltern o''icials in the ser ice o'nation an& communit)* +he thir& rou$, 'inall), inclu&es those $ro'essions customaril) classe& as "learne&"8 their

$ractice re>uires an in&e$en&ent ras$in an& e ten&in o' scienti'ic kno!le& e: here belon research !orkers an&in entors, also the incumbents o' the hi her $laces in the ci il an& militar) ser ice, in church an& school, $h)sicians,en ineers in hi h $osition, etc*" 4Paulsen, in ultur der Ge!enwart, $art i, section i, $$* K, 5 * +he ra&in o' theschools corres$on&s to these three rou$s* Paulsen#s statements are an e cellent in&ication o' the school mechanism: onthe one han&, it $ro i&e the necessar) number o' labor 'orces 'or each material an& mental task8 on the other han&, thehi her i&eolo ical 'unctions al!a)s remain 'i e& to a certain class, the e&ucational mono$ol), an& !ith it the ca$italistor&er o' societ), bein thus maintaine&* But Paulsen is !ron in $lacin himsel' an& his ilk o5er the manu'acturers an&

bankers !hose boots the learne& entlemen lick on all necessar) an& unnecessar), occasions*

+hus the school illustrates the $ractical roots o' all i&eolo ies* I' an) mathematician shoul& bein&i nant at our su estin that his "$ure science" has an) earthl) im$ort, !e shall merel) ask himto in'orm us !h) mathematics is stu&ie& b) the merchants# sons in the commercial hi h schools, the!oul&.be a ronomists in the a ricultural schools, the !oul&.be en ineers in the en ineerin schools,etc* He ma) re$l) that onl) the ri''.ra'' o' the $ro'ession !oul& consent to i e them instruction8 !eshoul& then ask him !h) $ure mathematicians . !ho reall) seem >uite i norant o' $ractical li'e .shoul& &eli er lectures be'ore $ersons $re$arin 'or the $ro'essions o' en ineerin or a riculture*3ur mathematician ma) o so 'ar as to sa) that there are some scholars that i e no instruction,&eli er no lectures* But surel) . as !e shoul& then assert . these men !rite books !hich are rea& b)

$ro'essors !ho i e instruction to 'uture en ineers !ho make use o' !hat kno!le& e the) ac>uire inor&er to calculate $roblems in the construction o' bri& es, steam.boilers, electrical $o!er stations,etc*

urthermore, the case o' the school in&icates the relati e nee& o' the s$eci'ic societ) 'or arious

t)$es o' skille& labor, inclu&in the "hi hest"*+he arious sciences are there'ore as much interconnecte& b) the bon& o' labor as are the arious

branches o' material labor* ;ike!ise, the other branches o' i&eolo ical labor are connecte& !ith thesciences, all "ein! "ased ultimately and constantly on material la"or.

g. The Significance of the Su erstructure

We ma) no! take u$ a more &etaile& stu&) o' the si ni'icance o' all the arieties o' thesu$erstructure, inclu&in the i&eolo ies, !hich ma) best be &one in a critical e amination o' theob-ections commonl) raise& b) the o$$onents o' the theor) o' historical materialism*



irst, there are the ob-ections to the $ractical roots o' i&eolo ), to the claim that the 'orms o' the"su$erstructure", inclu&in those o' i&eolo ), ha e an) si ni'icance as ser ices* We are tol& thatscholars or artists er) o'ten are not concerne& at all !ith the $ractical role $la)e& b) their thou htsor constructions* 3n the contrar), the scholar, in his search 'or "$ure truth", is merel) e $ressin hislo e o' this o&&ess8 his marria e to her is a lo e.match, base& on no $ractical consi&erations o' an)

kin&* Similarl), !e are tol& that the true artist lo es art 'or art#s sake* <rt is his hi hest oal8 art alonei es li'e meanin 'or him* <s a* -urist ma) &eclare that he !oul& !ish to see the !orl& &estro)e&8

rather than that -ustice be not &one 4 fiat >ustitia, ereat mundusA , so the true musician !oul& i ee er)thin else in the !orl& 'or a sin le lorious s)m$hon)* +he true artist li es 'or his art, the,scholar 'or science, the -urist 'or the state 4He el, 'or instance, consi&ers the Prussian -unkerca$italist state to be the hi hest mani'estation o' the !orl&.s$irit in human histor), an& there'ore!orth) o' recei in sel'.sacri'ice , etc*

No!, is it true that scholars an& artists ha e this attitu&e, or are the) $ullin the !ool o er the e)eso' the $ublic= While the latter ma) sometimes occur, !e ha e not the ri ht to a$$roach the sub-ect'rom this an le* +housan&s o' e am$les $ro e that a true scholar, or artist, or theoretical -urist, lo eshis ocation as he lo es himsel', !ithout re ar& to its $ractical $hases* But it !oul& be !ron toha e the matter en& there, for the su">ect of the sycholo!y of the ideolo!ists isnot to be con'use&!ith their o">ecti5e roleman#s ie! o' his labor is not i&entical !ith the role, the si ni'icance, o' hislabor 'or society.;et us e amine the ro!th o' an i&eolo )* Mathematics, 'or instance . arose on the

basis o' $ractical nee&s . became s$eciali(e& an& &i i&e& o'' into a number o' branches* +hes$ecialist is not a!are o' the $ractical nee&s satis'ie& b) his science* He is intereste& in his "o!n!ork"8 the more he lo es it, the more $ro&ucti e !ill it be* 3ther $ersons, !orkin in other 'iel&s,!ill a$$l) his theor)* Be'ore the &a)s o' s$eciali(ation, the $ractical si ni'icance o' science !asa$$arent to e er)one8 no! it has been lost* ?no!le& e 'ormerl) ser e& $ractice, e en in men#smin&s8 it still ser es $ractice, but the min&s o' the closete& s$ecialists re$resent kno!le& e asentirel) &i orce& 'rom $ractice* +he causes are not 'ar to seek8 man#s thinkin is in'luence& b) his

bein * +o a man !orkin in one i&eolo ical 'iel& onl), this 'iel& must a$$ear as the na el o' theearth, about !hich all else re ol es* +his man li es in the atmos$here o' his s$ecialt), 'or . as n elshas e cellentl) $ut it . i&eolo ) is sim$l) the "occu$)in onesel' !ith thou hts as !ith in&e$en&ententities &e elo$in in&e$en&entl), sub-ect onl) to their o!n la!s*" F Be'ore the &a)s o's$eciali(ation, a man mi ht ha e thou ht: "I uess I#ll take u$ some eometr), in or&er to measurethe 'iel&s &o!n b) the shore ne t )ear*" But the mathematical s$ecialist !oul& $robabl) sa): "I ha e

ot to sol e this $roblem8 it is m) li'e.!ork*" Some!hat &i''erent in e $ression, but i&entical insense, is rnst Mach#s 'ormulation o' the case: " or the artisan, an& more still 'or the scientist, the>uickest, sim$lest mental ac>uisition . !ith the sli htest mental outla) . o' a certain 'iel& o' natural

$henomena is itselfan economic ob-ect, in !hich, althou!h it was ori!inally a means to an end,

there is now no lon!er a thou!ht of hysical need,once the corres$on&in mental im$ulses ha e&e elo$e& an& &eman& e ercise*"FD +hus, the s)stem o' the su$erstructure, 'rom the social.$oliticalto the $hiloso$hical $hase inclusi e, is connecte& !ith the 0mnomic basis an& the technical s)stemo' the s$eci'ic societ), bein a necessar) link in the chain o' social $henomena*

In this connection, n els sa)s in a letter a&&resse& to ran( Mehrin , &ate& Eul) 1K, 1D9F: "I&eolo ) is a $rocessaccom$lishe&, to be sure, b) so calle& thou ht, but !ith a 'alse consciousness* +his mess &oes not kno! the actualmoti e 'orces behin& it, other!ise it !oul& not be an i&eolo ical $rocess* Bein a $rocess o' thou ht, it &eri es itscontent as !ell as its 'orm 'rom $ure thou ht, either on its o!n $art or on that o' its $re&ecessors* It !orks !ith meremental material, !hich it assumes an& acce$ts as the $ro&uct o' thou ht, an& 'or !hich it &oes not seek an) more remote

$rocess, that ma) be in&e$en&ent o' thou ht, an& all this is sel'.e i&ent to this $rocess, 'or it re ar&s all action, since it!orks throu h thou ht, as also in the last instance base& on thou ht " +his illusion o' an in&e$en&ent histor)8 o' national

constitutions, le al s)stems, i&eolo ical conce$tions, in each s$ecial 'iel& o' kno!le& e, is the element that lea&s most $ersons astra) mentall)" 4Mehrin : Geschichte der deutsehen So ialdemokratie, Note to Book i, Stutt art 1919, $*FD *







<nother 're>uent ob-ection to our theor) results 'rom $reten&in that it &eclares econom) to be theonl) true element in li'e, all other elements bein chil&ish 'oll), illusions, a ue mists* +hisconce$tion re$resents historical materialism as statin the e istence o' arious 'actors in histor):econom), $olitics, art, etc*, some o' !hich are er) im$ortant, others unim$ortant, !ith theeconomic "'actor" as the onl) real "'actor", all the others bein a sort o' 'i'th !heel o' the !a on*

+his re$resentation o' the Mar ian conce$tion is then &ili entl) bombar&e& !ith re'utations8 it is $ointe& out that man) other thin s are im$ortant besi&es econom)8 but it !oul& be erroneous tointer$ret our ie! o' i&eolo ) in this !a)8 the su$erstructure is not "chil&#s $la)"* We ha e sho!nthat a &estruction o' the ca$italist state !oul& make ca$italist $ro&uction im$ossible, that a&estruction o' mo&ern science !oul& in ol e also that o' lar e.scale $ro&uction an& technolo )8 thatan elimination o' the means o' human intercourse, lan ua e an& literature, !oul& cause societ) to&isinte rate* +he theor) o' historical materialism &oes not &en) the im$ortance o' the su$erstructurein eneral an& o' the i&eolo ies, in $articular, but e $lains them* <s !e ha e sho!n in our cha$teron /eterminism an& In&eterminism this is >uite a &i''erent attitu&e*

It !oul& be e>uall) incorrect to consi&er the arious "'actors" 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' their une>ualalue8 to a&mit the im$ortance o' econom), but to belittle that o' $olitics or science* Man)

misun&erstan&in s result 'rom such an inter$retation* Wh) attem$t to set u$ a scale o' the relati eim$ortance, o' these "'actors" !hen !e recall that ca$italist econom) coul& not e ist !ithoutca$italist $olitics= It !oul& be &i''icult to &eci&e !hether . in a ri'le . the barrel or the tri er !as themore im$ortant8 or . in the human bo&) . the le't han& or the ri ht 'oot8 or . in a !atch . the s$rin or the co .!heel* Some thin s are more im$ortant than others8 econom) is more im$ortant than&ancin 8 but in man) cases it is absur& to make such a statement < s)stem ma) contain sections thatare o' e>ual im$ortance 'or the e istence o' the !hole* +he tri er is as im$ortant in a ri'le as the

barrel8 a sin le scre! in a $iece o' mechanism ma) be as im$ortant as an) other $art, 'or !ithout itthe mechanism mi ht cease to be a mechanism* Similarl), in a consi&eration o' the "su$erstructural"labor, as a $ortion o' the total social labor, it !oul& be e>uall) absur& to ask either o' the 'ollo!in>uestions: Which is more im$ortant 'or mo&ern in&ustr), metallur ) or minin = Which is moreim$ortant, &irect material labor, or labor in economic a&ministration= <t certain sta es in e olution,the t!o ma) be inse$arable* "+his theor) 4the theor) o' these 'actors, N* B* $la)e& the same role inthe e olution o' social science* +he $ro ress o' natural science has sho!n us the unit) o' these'orces, the mo&ern &octrine o' ener )* ;ike!ise, the $ro ress o' social science has necessaril) le& toa &is$lacement o' the theor) o' 'actors . this $ro&uct o' social anal)sis . b) a synthetic conce tion of social life.0F9 We there'ore re-ect the theor) o' 'actors* But there remains a basis 'or the &istinction bet!een material $ro&uction an& the su$erstructure, an& 'or a stu&) o' their mutual relations*

+he true &i''erence is in the &i''erent character o' their 'unctions* +he a&ministration o' $ro&uction

&oes not $la) the same $art as &oes $ro&uction itsel'* +he 'ormer eliminates, 'riction, s)stemati(esan& coor&inates the arious elements o' !ork, or to $ut it &i''erentl) . institutes a certain a&-ustmento' !ork* We ha e also seen, 'or instance, that moralit), customs, an& other stan&ar&s, coor&inatemen#s actions an& kee$ them !ithin certain boun&s, thus $re entin societ) 'rom &isinte ratin *Science like!ise 4let us su$$ose !e are s$eakin o' the natural sciences ultimatel) ser es as a ui&e'or the $rocess o' $ro&uction, increases its e''ecti eness an& re ulates its o$eration* We ha e &e'ine&the similar 'unction o' $hiloso$h), !hich coor&inates an& re ulates 4or seeks to &o so thecontra&ictions bet!een the arious sciences, &ue to their &i ision o' labor*

Philoso$h) arises 'rom the sciences, as the a&ministration o' $ro&uction arises 'rom $ro&uction8neither is "$rimar)"8 both are "secon&ar)", neither "ori inal", both "&eri ati e"8 )et, $hiloso$h)

controls the sciences, to a certain &e ree, 'or it im$arts to them their "common $oint o' ie!", their"metho&", etc*






<nother e am$le that has alrea&) been treate& is that o' lan ua e8 the latter ro!s out o' $ro&uction,&e elo$s un&er the in'luence o' the social e olution, i.e., its e olution is &etermine& b) the naturalla! o' social e olution* +he 'unction o' lan ua e is to coor&inate man#s actions, 'or mutualun&erstan&in is the sim$lest 'orm o' a&a$tation, coor&ination, in relations, actions, e en . to acertain e tent . in 'eelin s, etc* +he 'un&amental im$ort o' the &istinction bet!een material

$ro&uction an& i&eolo ical labor . or an) other "su$erstructural" labor . shoul& no! be clear: +heirmutual relation is in the 'act that i&eolo ical labor is a &eri e& >uantit), also constitutin a re ulatin

$rinci$le* With re ar& to the !hole o' social li'e, the &istinction lies in their difference of functions.

We ha e no! $racticall) ans!ere& also the >uestion as to the re erse relation, "the in'luence o' thesu$erstructure on the economic basis an& on the $ro&ucti e 'orces o' societ)"* +he su$erstructure,

ro!in out o' the economic con&itions an& the $ro&ucti e 'orces &eterminin these con&itions, inits turn, e erts an in'luence on the latter, 'a orin or retar&in their ro!th* But, in either case, thereis no &oubt o' this re erse $rocess* In other !or&s: a constant rocess of mutual cause and affect isin o eration "etween the 5arious cate!ories of social henomena.0ause an& e''ect chan e $lace*

But i' !e reco ni(e this mutual in'luence, !hat becomes o' the bases o' Mar ian theor)= or most bour eois scholars a&mit a mutual interaction* Ma) !e still sa) that the $ro&ucti e 'orces an& the $ro&uction con&itions are the basis o' our anal)sis= <re not our o!n han&s &estro)in !hat the)ha e built u$= +hese &oubts are >uickl) &is$ose& o'* Ho!e er numerous these mutual, in'luences,the basic 'act remains: at any !i5en moment the inner structure of society is determined "y themutual relation "etween this society and external nature,i*e*,"y the condition of thematerial roducti5e forces of society the chan!e in form, howe5er, is determined "y the mo5ement of the roducti5e forces. :e o8 'urther than merel) to a&mit the e istence o' a set o' mutual relations, 'or!e un&erstan& that all the countless $rocesses at !ork !ithin societ), all their intersectin , colli&in ,accumulatin 'orces an& elements are o$eratin !ithin a common 'rame, $ro i&e& b) the mutualrelation bet!een societ) an& nature* Perha$s our o$$onents !ill attem$t to contro ert this $rinci$le,alrea&) kno!n to 7oethe in its eneral outlines, an& e $resse& b) him in his $oem, "+heMetamor$hosis o' <nimals", a $oem not so !ell kno!n as his "Metamor$hosis o' Plants"*

<lle 7lie&er bil&en sich aus nach e!# en 7eset(en,6n& &ie seltenste orm be!ahrt im 7eheimen &as 6rbil&*<lso bestimmt &ie 7estalt &ie ;ebens!eise &es +ieres*6n& &ie Weise (u leben, sie !irkt au' alle 7estaltenMZchti (ur]ck* So (ei et sich 'est &ie eor&nete Bil&un:elche um :echsel sich nei!t durch dDsserlich wirkende :esen.

d +he 'ollo!in ina&e>uate n lish translation o' these lines is submitte&, e istin collections o'

7oethe#s $oems in n lish ha in ne lecte& this $oem:

<ll the limbs take sha$e accor&in to la!s immortal,en unusual 'orms al!a)s remainin close to ori inal t)$e

*** +hus the animal#s mo&e o' li'e &etermines its 'i ure<s !ell as its habits8 it has a mi ht) re erse in'luence3n all t)$es* +hus the or&erl) 'ormation is 'irml) sho!n,4endin! to fluctuate as influenced "y "ein!s workin! from without.

+%<NS;<+3%*

+his thesis is irre'utable8 it 'ollo!s that our anal)sis must be in !ith the $ro&ucti e 'orces, that thecountless mutual &e$en&ences bet!een the arious $arts o' societ) &o not eliminate the basic,



ultimate &e$en&ence o' all social $henomena on the e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces8 that the&i ersit) o' the causes o$eratin in societ) &oes not contra&ict the e istence o' a sin!le unifiedcausal relation in social e5olution.

We cannot take u$ here the in&i i&ual ob-ections o' the arious bour eois scholars8 their number is le ion* ssentiall),

the) are all che!in the same ol& insi$i& cu&* ;et us take one o' the latest "critical" essa)s as an e am$le8 Pro'essor *M* ?h osto e $oun&s Mar #s theor) as 'ollo!s, "It consists on the !hole 4A in assi nin , amon the historical 'actors4A , the chie' $lace to the economic 'actor 4A * * * all other $henomena bein sha$e& un&er the one.si&e& 41 in'luence o'the economic con&itions" 4?h osto : 4heory of the Mistorical Process,in %ussian, $*F15 * <'ter our recent remarks inlar e t)$e, !e nee& har&l) to in'orm the rea&er !hether ?h osto #s conce$tion o' Mar ian theor) is a correct one* But,to &o him -ustice, Mr* ?h osto constitutes no e ce$tion8 on the contrar), the reater the eru&ition &is$la)e& in there'utation o' Mar , the reater the #i norance &is$la)e& in e $oun&in his &octrine*

We shall take one more s$ecimen o' "re'utation" 4'rom the same $ro'essor : "I belie e4A that man is characteri(e& b) themost arie& as$irations* In the 'irst $lace, he is concerne& !ith $reser in his $h)sical e istence, 'or !hich heun&ertakes certain actions* In the secon& $lace, he makes an e''ort to e aluate the uni erse in himsel', an& this is a

$eculiar human ten&enc), in&e$en&ent o' an) material calculations* In the thir& $lace, man also $ossesses such &esiresas, 'or e am$le, the lo e o' &omination, the lo e o' 'ree&om8 men also ha e reli ious, esthetic, nee&s, a nee& 'or the

s)m$ath) o' their surroun&in s, etc," 6i"id *, $$* F1 .F2C * Ha in ser e& us this cho!&er o' human nee&s, ?h osto&ra!s the conclusion that a "monistic e $lanation * * * is im$ossible"* But ?h osto #s e am$le, >uote& abo e, !ill ser eto in&icate the 'ull absur&it) o' his ie! 4>uite current amon "scholars" all o er the !orl& , as !ell as the necessit) 'or amonistic e $lanation* In 'act, is it not a $aro&) o' scienti'ic thou ht8 to consi&er the ten&enc) to reli ion, to &omination,etc*, as eternal cate ories= ?h osto ne er e en thinks o' askin 'or an ex lanationo' them* %eli ion e ists8 ho! shall!e e $lain it= Well, b) means o' man#s nee& o' reli ion* /omination e ists8 !h)= Sim$l) because: man has a &esire 'or&omination* Is this not similar to "e $lainin " slee$ as &ue to a 'orce that "$uts to slee$"= 0an an)thin be e $laine& inthis !a)= B) the use o' this metho&, e er)thin in the !orl& can be "e $laine&" !ithout turnin an e)eli&: the state ise $laine& b) the &esire 'or the state8 art, b) the &esire 'or art8 the circus b) the &esire 'or the circus8 ?h osto #se $lanations, b) the nee& 'elt 'or ?h osto #s# e $lanations8 !alkin , b) the &esire 'or !alkin 8 an& so on, ad infinitum*Such a "theor)" o' the historical $rocess is not !orth a $enn)* "+he lo e o' libert) is an inherent ten&enc) in man*"

Nothin coul& be 'arther 'rom the truthA Was the "lo e o' libert)" an inherent ten&enc) in Nicholas II, &urin his rei n,or in his class= 3' course not* In s$ite o' ?h osto , this noble im$ulse is not, there'ore, $resent in all men* When !eha e un&erstoo& this, !e are 'ace& !ith the ne t >uestion: "Wh) &o certain men ha e this ten&enc)8 !hile others &onot=" <n& then . oh, horrorA . !e must o back to the con&itions o' their e istence, etc* +he same a$$lies to all the rest o' ?h osto #s "&i''erent nee&s"* +he scholars o' the bour eoisie, in kickin a ainst the traces o' a monistic inter$retation,are in realit) 'i htin a ainst an) 'orm o' e $lanation at all*

h. The 'ormati2e Princi les of Social /ife

We are no! $re$are& to &iscuss the eneral >uestion o' the $ossibilit) o' &istin uishin a &e'inite"characteristic" o' each s$eci'ic "era"* Shall !e $erha$s 'in& that the connection e istin bet!een allthe social $henomena !ill e $ress itsel' in the e istence o' some element common to all= We ha eseen that the) are all &etermine& "in the last anal)sis" b) the $ro&ucti e 'orces an& the $ro&uction

relations* Ho! ma) this connection be reca$itulate& in a 'e! !or&s= Ho! shall this $roblem bea$$roache&= ;et us consi&er art, one o' the "'inest", "most com$licate&" $henomena o' mental li'e*In each e$och, as !e ha e seen, art has its o!n "st)le", e $ressin itsel' in s$eci'ic 'orms, in&icati eo' the s$eci'ic content 4let us recall the e am$le o' the )$tian art , !hich . in turn . is in&icati e o' a s$eci'ic i&eolo )8 the i&eolo ) is the out ro!th o' a s$eci'ic $s)cholo )8 the $s)cholo ) o' as$eci'ic econom)8 the econom) o' a s$eci'ic sta e o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces*

No!, i' !e obser e a certain &e'initeness o' 'orms in all the 'iel&s o' social li'e, ma) !e assert thatall these 'iel&s ha e their st)le= We ma)8 it is as reasonable to s$eak o' the "st)le" o' science", as o'the st)le o' "art"* We ma) s$eak o' a "st)le o' li'e", i*e*, o' t)$ical, s$eci'ic 'orms o' li'e* KC We ma)in a certain sense s$eak o' the st)le o' the social econom), meanin $recisel) !hat Mar terms the"$ro&uction relations", the "mo&e o' $ro&uction", the "economic structure o' societ)"* <s the st)le o' a certain buil&in is &etermine& b) the s$eci'ic combination o' its elements, so the "st)le" o' social





econom) e $resses itsel' in the $eculiarities o' the $ro&uction relations, the s$eci'ic manner in!hich the elements o' the social !hole are connecte& !ith each other* "+he $eculiar sha$e an&manner in !hich this union is reali(e& &istin uishes the arious e$ochs o' the social structure*" K1 Butin a&&ition to the "mo&e o' $ro&uction", there is also a "mo&e o' conce$tion", as Mar $uts it* Suchis the "st)le" o' the i&eolo ) o' the i en $erio& in eneral, i*e*, that s$ecial combination o' i&eas,

thou hts, 'eelin s, 'orms, characteristic o' the s$eci'ic e$och, "the uni'ormit) o' scienti'ic thinkin ,o' conce$tions o' the !orl& an& o' li'e", to use the !or&s o' Pro'essor Marbe* K2

Is it $ossible thus to &istin uish the "mo&e o' $ro&uction" an& the "mo&e o' conce$tion"= Is it $ossible to &istin uish bet!een the economic "st)le" o' a s$eci'ic societ) an& the i&eolo ical"st)le"= rom !hat has been sai& concernin the su$erstructures in eneral an& the i&eolo ies in

$articular, it is certain that !e ha e the ri ht to &o this*

We ma) sho! this b) means o' an e am$le: 'eu&al societ)8 the economicst)le o' 'eu&al societ) ise $resse& in the $rinci$les o' a 'i e& hierarch), the i&ea o' rank* Mar characteri(es the 'eu&al e$ochas 'ollo!s: "Here, instea& o' the in&e$en&ent man, !e 'in& e er)one &e$en&ent, ser's an& lor&s,

assals an& su(erains, la)men an& cler )* Personal &e$en&ence here characteri(es the social relationso' $ro&uction -ust as much as it &oes the other s$heres o' li'e or ani(e& on the basis o' that

$ro&uction":KF +his character o' the econom) an& the other s$heres o' li'e is $recisel) the "st)le" o'the e$och, the hierarchical arran ement b) rank, in econom)8 the hierarchical &e$en&ence in theother s$heres o' li'e8 the hierarchical "st)le" o' the entire i&eolo )* In&ee&, the entire $hiloso$h) o'man !as then reli ious, an& reli ion is a $hiloso$h) that e $lains e er)thin in a hierarchicalmanner8 accordin! to rank * Science is $ermeate& !ith this i&ea o' rank8 so is art8 an& !e 'in& thiscon&ition e $resse& in the "st)le", In the Mi&&le < es, rankis the "st)le" o' all o' li'e* <n& theuni'ormit) o' this st)le $ro es the &e$en&ence o' the "mo&e o' conce$tion" on the "mo&e o'

$ro&uction", o' the s)stem o' i&eas on the s)stem o' $ersons, the latter in turn bein con&itione& b)the s)stem o' ob-ects, i*e*, b) the social material $ro&ucti e 'orces* Such a basic stratum o' st)le as ishere a''or&e& b) hierarch) or rank, ma) be terme& the "'ormati e $rinci$le of social li'e", base&, as!e ha e seen, on the $ro&uction relations*

+his unit) in the st)le o' li'e is so ob ious that e en man) bour eois scholars come er) close to acce$tin this ie!*?arl ;am$recht, 'or e am$le, sets u$ the &octrine o' the "&ominant o' $ersonalit)," i*e*, the $re ailin t)$e o'

$s)cholo ), chan in !ith the con&itions o' the e$och, in !hich the ol& &ominant is &estro)e& an& a ne! one arises, ane! "st)le o' li'e" bein create& 4?* ;am$recht: <oderne Geschichts. wissenschaft,Berlin 192C, $$* et se>* * In thesolution o' the >uestion o' 'ormati e $rinci$les, !e also ha e a 'airl) sim$le solution o' the >uestion raise& b)Hammacher* +he latter mobili(es the 'ollo!in chie' ob-ection to the theor) o' historical materialism: "It remains aconstant $roblem !h) onl) the economic relations coul& obtain a&mission into the historical soul" 4 mil Hammacher: 8as hiloso hisch1okonomische System des <arxismus,;ei$(i , 19C9, $*1 D * +his eni ma is easil) sol e&* Men arein'luence& not onl) b) economic stimuli, but b) e er)thin that lies !ithin the s$here o' their e $erience8 the eneral formati5e $rinci$les are &etermine&, ho!e er, b) the $ro&uction relations, !hich are there'ore "re'lecte&" also in thei&eolo ical 'iel&s* +his ma) be best obser e& in the case o' reli ion* No &oubt sunli ht, thun&er, &eath, slee$, all 'oun&"a&mission to the historical soul*" But the conce$tion o' o&hoo&, o' a "sublime $o!er", o' "rank" in creation, &i& notarise until rank ha& alrea&) been establishe& in social li'e, Into this 'rame, all "a$$ro$riate" $henomena !ere -amme& in,inclu&in slee$ an& &eath* <$$roachin the sub-ect 'rom another an le: in bloo&) &es$otisms, the o& o' !ar !as're>uentl) the chie' o' all the o&s* Bein the o& o' !ar, he naturall) also became o& o' thun&er an& li htnin , !hich!ere the most a!'ul "belli erent" 'orces o' nature* +hun&erstorms ma&e an im$ression on the "historical soul", but thismaterial !as sha$e& b) the 'rame o' the social relations* We mi ht ask !h) the social relations i e sha$e to thismaterial8 !here is the inner relation= +he reason is er) sim$le: the social en ironment has the 'oun&ations o' its li'e inthe $ro&uction relations " "We kno! that the uni'ormit) o' $s)chical $henomena ma) be trace& back to the uni'ormit) inthe con&itions o' these $henomena" 4Marbe, ibi&*, $*52 * Man) 'acts taken 'rom this 'iel& are "to a certain e tent cultural

$ro&ucts8 Huber 4in =eitschrift fiir Psycholo!ie, ol* 59, 1911, $$*2K1,et seq.)has sho!n that in e $eriments in $s)cholo ical association, the >ualit) o' the reaction !or&s &e$en&s, amon other thin s, on the ocation an& the habitso' li'e o' the $ersons e $erimente& on" 4Marbe, i"id * * In other !or&s, &i''erent ans!ers !ill be i en to the same>uestion 4'or instance, a re>uest 'or a certain !or& , &e$en&in on the "habits o' li'e" o' the $ersons e $erimente& on* It











certain t)$e o' $ro&uction relations is dominant,an& there is also there'ore a certain $re alent " ie!o' li'e"* Werner Sombart is ri ht !hen he sa)s: "I &istin uish a certain e$och in the economic li'e b)the redominanceo' a s$eci'ic s$irit in a s$eci'ic $erio&* K5 Mar , s$eakin o' ca$italism, like!iseterms it "the 'orm o' societ) in !hich ca$italist $ro&uction is $re&ominant"* K <s !e ma) &istin uish

bet!een a$e an& man in the animal kin &om, in s$ite o' their man) common traits, so !e ma)

&istin uish also bet!een the arious 'orms o' societ) in s$ite o' their common traits8 in s$ite o' the'act that the "hi her" 'orms 're>uentl) $resent >uite useless remnants o' ol&er 'orms 4so calle&"ru&iments" , !hich are incom$rehensible at 'irst si ht*

In cha$ter iii, !e ha e alrea&) s$oken o' the necessit) o' &istin uishin , in an) treatment o' societ), the social 'orm!hich is roote& in the $eculiarities o' the economic structure* +his conce$tion has been i orousl) an& re$eate&l)o$$ose& b) o''icial bour eois science, !hich is hostile to the notion o' a ra&ical trans'ormation o' social relations*Bour eois scholars themsel es no! a&mit that the cru o' the matter is in the abo e 'act* +hus, /r* Bernhar& 3&enbreit!rites: "Mar , as is onl) natural in the case o' a re olutionar)#, has a $articularl) shar$ e)e 'or the historical, transitor)nature o' all social institutions* +his eneral social un&erstan&in is -oine& !ith a consciousl) critical re'lection on thenarro!er 'iel& o' $olitical econom)" 4Plen e: Staatswissenschaftliche 3eitrB!e, 2o. V 3.3&enbreit: 8ie 5er!leichende:irtschaftstheorie "ei arl <arx, ssen.on.%uhr 1919, $*15 * Precisel) soA +he "shar$ e)e" 'or that !hich is chan in

!ill be 'oun& onl) in the re olutionar)* +his is, o' course, one o' the $rinci$al reasons 'or the su$eriorit) o' the socialsciences o' the re olutionar) $roletariat o er the social sciences o' the counter.re olutionar) bour eoisie*

In so calle& $rimiti e communism, the ol&est 'orm o' societ) kno!n to us, the t)$e o' $ro&uctionrelations in !hich the economic "$ersonalit)" is not )et isolate& 'rom the "hor&e", We also 'in& thecorres$on&in 'orms o' consciousness: absence o' reli ion, o' i&eas o' rank, e en o' the notion o'

$ersonalit), o' the in&i i&ual er se.Similarl), a consi&eration o' so calle& 'eu&al societ) sho!s thatits "essential traits consist on the one han& in the s$littin u$ o' the lan& into a number o'in&e$en&ent estates, $rinci$alities, an& $ri ile e& hol&in s, an& on the other han& in the or ani(ationo' these hol&in s b) means o' contractual assal relations*" K +he st)le o' econom) is herehierarchic8 like!ise, the st)le o' $olitics, o' the i&eolo )* <s !e ha e alrea&) seen, the notion o'

rank is e er)!here $re alent* +he basis is the lar e lan&e& estate 4 nulle terre sans sei!neur, "no lan&!ithout its master" , inert an& une ent'ul* +he economic bon&s are bon&s bet!een 'eu&allan&o!ners an& ser's8 these relations are stable immobile, an& . 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' themembers o' 'eu&al societ) . immutable8 e er)thin is "'i e&" in its $lace in the hierarchic or&er* ;etthe shoemaker stick to his lastA +he same8 con&ition !as re'lecte& in the $olitical su$erstructure that!as e $ressi e o' these $ro&uction con&itions*

"+he hierarchic ten&enc) o' 'eu&al li'e !as ele ate& b) the learne& -urists o' the +hirteenth 0entur)into a theor) an& a s)stem " KD +he $reachers ha e a clear ision o' the hori(ontal &istribution o'societ) as a !hole, e en thou h it be &i i&e& into masters an& ser ants* +he latter are a&monishe& to'ollo! the !or&s o' the a$ostle comman&in sla es to obe) their masters, since 7o& has installe&kin s an& &ukes on earth, an& other men in or&er that the latter mi ht obe) the 'ormer* 7o& so&is$ose& thin s as to enable the !eak to &e$en& on the stron *" K9 +he entire conce$tion o' li'e isreli ious, i.e., $ermeate& !ith the notion o' rank, or, to use another term, it is authoritarian* Itsri i&it), its 'i&elit) to tra&ition, are a natural result* Science consists chie'l) in inter$retin tra&itionan& the Sacre& Scri$tures8 art is "&i ine", ma ni')in in its 'orm an& content the "hi her" celestialan& terrestrial $o!ers8 the &ominant moralit) an& the &ominant manners an& morals are thoseinculcate& b) 'eu&al 'i&elit), noble arro ance, $ious a!e o' the comman&ments o' ancestors, res$ect'or " entle bearin " an& " entle linea e"*Luod licet Qo5i, non licet "o5i.In other !or&s, !e are here&ealin !ith a s$eci'ic social 0s ecies0,a s$eci'ic 'orm o' societ), "e!innin! with its material "asis,and risin! to the 0hi!hest0 forms of social consciousness.

;et us no! consi&er ca$italist societ), !hose economic basis is an entirel) &i''erent t)$e o' relations*"+he contrast bet!een the $o!er, base& on the $ersonal relations o' &ominion an& ser itu&e, that is

















bour eois scholars, artists, $hiloso$hers, etc*, are irritate& b) &iscussions concernin the social rootso' science, art, or $hiloso$h)* +he) are out an& out 'etishists, 'or the) &isre ar& the socialconnections, bein unable to concei e o' their ins$ire&, &i ine labor as merel) a $ortion o' the total social la"or *

+he 'etishism o' the ca$italist !orl& is er) ra$hicall) in&icate& in the 'iel& o' the so calle& moral stan&ar&s, o' "ethics,"a 'a orite to$ic !ith the learne& $ro'essors* We ha e alrea&) ascertaine& that the ethical norms are the rules o' con&uct'or the $reser ation o' the societ), or o' the class, or o' the ocational rou$, etc* +he) ha e a necessar), social, ser icesi ni'icance* @et, in 'etishistic societ), this human an& social si ni'icance o' stan&ar&s is not reco ni(e&* 3n the contrar),these stan&ar&s, i*e*, the technical rules o' con&uct, a$$ear as a "&ut)", &!ellin 'ar abo e men, like an) other e ternal&i ine com$ulsion* +his ine itable 'etishism o' ethics is e cellentl) e $resse& b) the bour eois hiloso hic !enius,Immanuel ?ant, in his &octrine o' the "cate orical im$erati e"*

+he $roletariat must a$$roach the >uestion 'rom a &i''erent an le* +he $roletariat must not $reach a ca$italistic 'etishism*or the $roletariat, the stan&ar&s o' its con&uct are technical rules in $recisel) the sense o' the rules accor&in to !hich a

-oiner constructs an arm chair* +he latter, !ishin to construct an armchair, !ill $lane, sa!, lue, etc*, !hich acts arein ol e& in the labor $rocess itsel'* He !ill not inter$ret the rules o' !oo&!orkin as somethin 'orei n to him, o'su$ernatural ori in, !hose ictim he is* +he attitu&e o' the $roletariat in its social stru le is $recisel) the same* I' it!oul& attain communism, it must &o this an& that, as the -oiner at !ork on his armchair* <n& e er)thin re>uire&, 'romthis $oint o' ie!, must be &one* " thics" !ill ultimatel), in the case o' the $roletariat, be trans'orme& into sim$le an&easil) un&erstoo& technical rules o' con&uct, such as are re>uire& 'or communism, an& thus it !ill reall) cease to beethics at all. or the essence o' ethics is in the 'act that it in ol es norms en elo$e& in a 'etishistic raiment* etishism isthe essence o' ethics8 !here 'etishism &isa$$ears, ethics also !ill &isa$$ear* or instance, no one !oul& think o'&esi natin the constitution o' a consumer#s store or o' a $art) as "ethical" or "moral", 'or an)one can see the humansi ni'icance o' these thin s* thics, on the other han&, $resu$$oses a 'etishistic mist, !hich turns the hea&s o' man)

$ersons* +he $roletariat nee&s rules o' con&uct, an& it nee&s to ha e them er) clear, but it has no nee& o' "ethics", i*e*, a'etishistic sauce to 'la or the meal* 3' course, it is ob ious that the $roletariat !ill not at once succee& in liberatin itsel''rom the 'etishism o' the commo&ities societ) in !hich it li es8 but that is another >uestion*

+he 'etishism o' the i&eolo ) o' ca$italism an& commo&ities is mer e& !ith the $rinci$le o' "rank",

an& these t!o 'un&amental 'ormati e $rinci$les constitute the nucleus o' the ca$italist mo&e o'thou ht, the 'rame!ork 'or the i&eolo ical material* 0a$italist societ) is thus a s$ecial t)$e o'societ), !ith s$ecial characteristic traits in all the "le els" o' social li'e, u$ to the hi hest i&eolo icalsu$erstructure* 4he ty e of economic structure,there'ore, also &etermines the t)$e o' the social.

$olitical structure an& o' the i&eolo ical structure* Societ) has a basic "st)le" in all the &ominant $henomena o' its li'e*

*. The Contradictory Character of -2olution, - ternal and +nternal -9uilibriumof Society

We ha e e amine& abo e the $henomena o' social e>uilibrium8 but !e must not lose si ht o' the 'actthat !e are &ealin !ith a mobile e>uilibrium, i.e., a situation in !hich e>uilibrium is beinconstantl) &isturbe&, then reestablishe& on an altere& basis, then a ain &isturbe&* We are &ealin , inother !or&s, !ith a $rocess o' contra&ictions, not o' rest8 !e are not &iscussin a con&ition o'absolute a&-ustment, but a stru le bet!een o$$osites, a &ialectic $rocess o' motion* In consi&erinthe structure o' societ), ie* the mutual relation bet!een its $arts, !e ma) not concei e o' this relationas a $er'ect harmon) bet!een these $arts* er) structure in ol es internal contra&ictions8 in e er)social class 'orm, these contra&ictions are er) shar$* Bour eois sociolo ists, !hile reco ni(in themutual relation o' the arious social $henomena, &o not un&erstan& the internal o$$ositions o' thesocial 'orms* In this res$ect, the entire school 'oun&e& b) the ori inator o' bour eois sociolo ),<u uste 0omte, is er) interestin * 0omte reco ni(es the relation bet!een all the social $henomena

4the so calle& "consensus" in !hich its "or&er" is e $resse&* But the contra&ictions !ithin this"or&er", $articularl) such as lea& to its ine itable &estruction, &o not recei e his attention* 3n the



other han&, 'or the a& ocates o' &ialectic materialism, this $hase is one o' the most essential, $erha$sthe most essential $hase* or, as !e ha e seen, the contra&ictions in an) i en s)stem are $recisel)the "mo in " element, lea&in to an alteration o' 'orms, to a characteristic trans'ormation o' s$eciesin the $rocess o' social e olution or social &ecline*

In our consi&eration o' the social structure, !e ha e seen that its alterations are closel) connecte&!ith the alterations in the relation bet!een societ) an& nature* +he latter e>uilibrium !e ha e&esi nate& as anexternale>uilibrium, !hile the e>uilibrium bet!een the arious series o' social

$henomena has been calle& the internal e>uilibrium o' societ)* I' !e no! re ar& all o' societ) 'romthe $oint o' ie! o' a contra&ictor) e olution, !e are at once 'ace& !ith a number o' >uestions: inthe 'irst $lace, !e shall 'in& the e istence o' contra&ictions !ithin each series o' social $henomena4'or e am$le, in econom), the contra&ictions bet!een the arious labor 'unctions8 in the social.

$olitical structure, the contra&ictions bet!een classes8 in i&eolo ), contra&ictions bet!een thei&eolo ical s)stems o' the classes, etc*, not to mention man) other contra&ictions 8 !e shall 'in&also, !ithout &i''icult), the contra&ictions bet!een econom) an& $olitics 4'or instance, !hen le alstan&ar&s ha e been out&istance& b) the economic e olution, an& a "re'orm" becomes mature 8

bet!een econom) an& i&eolo )8 an& bet!een $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo ) 4'or instance, the nee& o'somethin ne! is 'elt, but the ne! has not )et been e $resse& in i&eolo ical 'orm 8 bet!een sciencean& $hiloso$h), etc* +hese are contra&ictions "etween the series of the 5arious social henomena.

Both elements are a necessar) $art o' the internal e>uilibrium8 but there is a contra&iction bet!eensociet) an& nature, a &isturbance o' e>uilibrium bet!een societ) an& its en ironment, !hich 'in&s itse $ression in the mo ement o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces* +his is the 'iel& o' e ternal e>uilibrium* 3'course, there is another e tremel) im$ortant case o' contra&iction, namel), that "etween themo5ement of the roducti5e forces and the social1economic structure of society4an& all the rest o'the social structure *

In this case, the relation obtainin bet!een societ) an& nature comes in con'lict !ith the relations&e elo$e& !ithin societ)* 3b iousl), this con'lict, this contra&iction, must $la) a er) im$ortant rolein the li'e o' societ), 'or it concerns the bases o' the e istin "or&er", the "$illars" on !hich the i enor&er rests*

We ha e here sketche& onl) the $rinci$al >uestions in ol e& in the social contra&ictions, thein esti ation o' !hich is to be the sub-ect o' the ne t cha$ter, !hich !ill &eal !ith societ) in motion*+hus 'ar, !e ha e consi&ere& chie'l) the structure of society, ofthe i en social 'orm* We shall no!un&ertake a treatment o' the transitions 'rom one structure to another* < ain !e em$hasi(e that thela! o' social e>uilibrium is a la! o' mobile e>uilibrium, that inclu&es anta onisms, contra&ictions,

incom$atibilities, con'licts, stru les, an& . this is $articularl) im$ortant . that it cannot &is$ense,un&er certain circumstances, !ith catastro$hes an& re olutions, !hich are absolutel) ine itable* 3urMar ian theor) is the re olutionar) theor)*

B+B/+)$0APH1

?arl Mar : Ca ital, $articularl) ol* i* ?autsk): Intro&uction 4in 7erman to Sal ioli#s ?eCa italisme dans le monde antique.;enin: State and ;e5olution. rie&rich n els:4he 9ri!in of the amily, Pri5ate Pro erty, and the State. <le an&ro :State, 3ureaucracy, A"solutism4in %ussian *?orsak: 4he Society of ?aw and the Society of ?a"or,in 9utlines of the ;ealistic :orld1Conce tion4in %ussian * ?autsk): Ethics and the <aterialistic Conce tion of Mistory. ?autsk): oundations ofChristianity 4Ne! @ork, International Publishers, 1925 * Ste$ano #s essa)s on reli ion 4in %ussian *Pokro sk): Geschichte den russischen ultur. rie&rich n els:T"er den historischen


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<aterialismus. Plekhano #s essa)s on art8 the stu&ies 4in %ussian o' <* * ;unacharsk), P* S* ?ohan,* M* ritsche* ?* Bucher: Ar"eit und ;hythmus* B* 3&enbreit: /ie 5er!leichende :irtschaftstheorie

"ei arl <arx 4a oo& com$ilation* o' >uotations 'rom Mar on the t)$es o' societies * <*Bo &ano :Short 9utline of Ideolo!ical Science4in %ussian * 0uno!: @rs run! den ;eli!ion.0uno!: 8ie <arxsche Geschichts1, Gesellschafts1 and Staatstheorie4 ol* i an& ii *

%)T-S

1 8ie 4echnik des Altertums, oi tlan&ers erla , ;ei$(i , 1919, $*2C *

2 8er a italismus im Altertum, $*1C1*

F Gusta5e Glot J ?e tra5ail dans la GrOce ancienne, Paris, eli <lcan, 192C, $$*2 5.2 8 Paul;ouis: ?e tra5ail duns le monde romain, Paris, 1912, $$*2FK.2KK*

K7lot(, o . cit *, $*2 5*

5 Sal ioli, o . cit *, $*1F1*

%u&ol' Meer!arth: Einleitun! in die :irtschaftsstatistik, Eena, 7usta ischer, 192C, $$*KF. KK*

<rtisans !orkin !ith iron*

D 8ie 2eue =eit , ol* F9, $art i, $*K2C*

9 %ea&ers !ho are &is$lease& !ith the "theor) o' e>uilibrium" shoul& note this terminolo )*

1C 7* Plekhano : 3n the <aterialistic Inter retation of Mistory, in A Criticism of 9ur Critics4in%ussian , $*F2K*

11 <n abbre iation for 9r!anisation scherich . +%<NS;<+3%*

12 +he names o' lea&ers in %ussian 0ossack an& $easant re olutions a ainst the Musco ite +sars inthe Se enteenth an& i hteenth 0enturies, res$ecti el)* +he name o' Stenka 4&iminuti e o' Ste$an%a(in is $articularl) $o$ular in %ussian 'olk $oetr) as that o' a national liberator or robber chie'* .+%<NS;<+3%*

1F rnst Mach: Erkenntnis und Irrtum4"?no!le& e an& rror" , ;ei$(i , 1915, $*D2*1KSee ?arl ?autsk): oundations of Christianity4Ne! @ork International Publishers, 1925 , $$*1 9.1D1, 'or a &etaile& $arallel in the later %oman societ)* . +%<NS;<+3%*

15 Wi$$er: 9"ser5ations on the 4heory of Mistorical nowled!e4in %ussian , $*K *

1 +ura)e , o . cit *, $*112*

1 rom 7reek Soter, "%e&eemer*" Ma Weberis s$eakin o' the cases in !hich !e 'in& a com$letereli ious an& $olitical s)stem o' i&eas base& on "!orl&.re&em$tion" or "!orl&.sal ation", theelimination o' all social e ils, the kin &om o' 7o& on earth* +hese as$irations o' the o$$resse&





































classes assume& the 'orm o' "soteriolo )", i.e., the &octrine o' re&em$tion an& the "$romise& lan&"* 2. 3.

1DMa Weber, o . cit., 8ie asiatische Sekte and Meilandsreli!iasitBt , $*F K*

19 +his mono ra$h is a criticism o' the $ro ram a&o$te& at the 0on ress o' the 7erman Social./emocrac) at 7oths in 1D 5* . +%<NS;<+3%*

2C ?othe.Proha(ka: A"riss der all!emeinen <usik!eschichte, ;ei$(i , 1919, $*K*

21 Uu MZrten: Mistorisch1materialistisches D"er :esen and NerBnderun! der Dnste, $ublishe& b)Eu en&.Internahonale, Berlin, $*1D*

22 I"id *, $*1D*

2F Ar"eit and ;hythmus, ;ei$(i , 1919, $*K5K*

2K rit( Bur er: :eltanschauun!s ro"leme und ?e"enssysteme in der unst der Ner!an!enheit , $*2F*

25 Wilhelm Hausenstein, 8ie unst and die Gesellschaft,M]nchen, erla Pi er , $*F2*

2 H* +aine: Philoso hie de lKart,Paris, 19C9, ol* i, $*55

2 I"id *, $*K*

2D@rs run! der S rache,Main(, 1D , $*F1* +he italics are ours* 2.3.

29 ?es fonctions mentales dans les soci7t7s inf7rieures,Paris, 191C*

FC<* Po o&in correctl) $oints out that "m)stical" is har&l) the $ro$er !or&*

F1 o . cit *, $*K9*

F2 +his romantic lo e o' &eath &urin the &eca) o' %oman societ) !ill be 'oun& e hausti el) treate&in ?autsk): oundations of Christianity, d Study in Christian 9ri!ins, Ne! @ork, InternationalPublishers, 1925, $$*11K.12D* +%<NS;<+3%*

FF

?autsk), i"id *, $$*12D.1K18 1 .1 8 FDF.FD : +%<NS;<+3%*FKS* Mel uno : ;ussian ;eli!ious1Social <o5ements in the Se5enteenth Century,in the Source13ook for <odern. Mistory, ol* i, $* 19 4in %ussian *

F5 rie&rich n els: euer"ach, translate& b) <ustin ;e!is, 0hica o, 19C , $*11 *

F mil /urkheim: 8e la di5ision du tra5ail social , Paris, 1D9F, $*2*

F ?udwi! euer"ach translate& b) <ustin ;e!is, 0hica o, 19C , $*119*

FD rnst Mach: 8ie <echanik in ihrer Entwicklun!, ;ei$(i , 1921, Dth e&*, $* 8 italics are ours* . N*B*













































F9 N* Belto : 3n the <aterialistic Conce tion of Mistory, in Criticismo' our 0ritics 4in %ussian , $*F1F*

KCSee !hat Simmel has to sa) on ?e"ensstil in his Philoso hie des Geldes, $*KDC*

K1Mar : Ca ital , ol* ii, $$*12, 1F*K2?arl Marbe: 8ie Gleichf rmi!keit in der :elt, @ntersuchun!en sur Philoso hie und ositi5en:issenschaft, M]nchen, 191 , $*D *

KFCa ital , ol* i, 0hica o, 1915, $$*DD, D9*

KKMar : Ca ital , ol* i, $*KC5*

K5Sombart: 8er 3our!eois , $* *

K Mar : 4heorien D"er den <ehrwert,Stutt art, 191C, ol* i, $*K2K*

K N* P* Sil ansk): eudalism in Ancient ;ussia,St* Petersbur , 19C 4in %ussian , $*K5*

KD+he author is s$eakin o' 'eu&alism in Western uro$e* N* B*

K9;* P* ?arsa in: 4he Ci5ili ation of the <iddle A!es,Petro ra&, 191D 4in %ussian , $*99*

5C Mar , Ca ital , ol* i, 0hica o, 1915, $*1 F, 'ootnote*

51

Ca ital , ol* i, $$*1KD, 1K9*52 Ca ital, 5ol. i, .HXY.

5F Ca ital, 5ol. i, .ZH.

































+: Distur ance and ,ead-ustment of Social &'uili rium

a.The Process of Social Changes and the Producti2e 'orces

+he $rocess o' social chan es is closel) connecte& !ith chan es in the con&ition o' the $ro&ucti e'orces* +his mo ement o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, an& the mo ement an& re rou$in o' all socialelements, in ol e& in it, is nothin more nor less than a $rocess o' constant &isturbance o' sociale>uilibrium, 'ollo!e& b) reestablishments o' e>uilibrium* In&ee&, a $ro ressi e mo ement o' the

$ro&ucti e 'orces im$lies abo e all that a contra&iction has arisen bet!een the social techni>ue an&the social econom): the s)stem loses its e>uilibrium* +he $ro&ucti e 'orces ha e increase& to certaine tent8 a certain re rou$in o' $ersons must be un&ertaken, 'or other!ise there is no e>uilibrium,i.e., the s)stem cannot $ermanentl) en&ure in its $resent 'orm* +his contra&iction#* eliminate& b)means o' the 'ollo!in re rou$in o' men: econom) "a&a$ts itsel'" to the con&ition o' the

$ro&ucti e 'orces, to the social technolo )* But the re rou$in o' $ersons in the economic a$$aratusalso im$lies a necessar) re rou$in o' $ersons in the social.$olitical structure o' societ) 4a &i''erentcombination $arties, a &i''erent ali nment o' the 'orces o' the $arties, etc* urthermore, the samecon&ition necessaril) &eman&s a chan e in le al, moral, an& all other stan&ar&s* or thecontra&iction can be sol e& onl) in this !a), or, !hat amounts to the same thin , the e>uilibrium

bet!een the s)stem o' $ersons an& the s)stem o' stan&ar&s cannot be reestablishe& in an) other !a)*+he same true also o' the entire $s)cholo ) o' societ), as !ell as o' its i&eolo )* 7* * Plekhanohas brilliantl) state& this: "+he ori in, chan e, an& &estruction o' the association o' i&eas, un&erin'luence o' the ori in, chan e an& &estruction o' certain combina nations o' social 'orces, to a

$re&ominant e tent e $lain the histor) o' i&eolo )*" 1 +he ne! "combination", i.e., the ne! relation bet!een $ersons, comes in con'lict !ith the ol& combination 4the ol& associations o' i&eas * +hismeans a &estruction o' the internal e>uilibrium, !hich is reestablishe& on a ne! basis, a ne!"combination" o' i&eas ori inates, i.e., !here there is an a&a$tation on the $art o' the social

$s)cholo ) an& the social i&eolo ), !hich e>uilibrium is a ain &isturbe&, etc*, etc*We no! encounter a $roblem that is o' immense theoretical an& $ractical si ni'icance*

We ma) concei e o' the restoration o' social e>uilibrium as $rocee&in in either o' t!o !a)s: that o' a ra&ual a&a$tation o' the arious elements in the social !hole 4e olution , an& that o' iolentu$hea al 4re olution * We ha e seen 'rom histor) that re olutions &o sometimes occur8 the) arehistorical 'acts* It !ill be interestin to learn un&er !hat circumstances the a&a$tation o' the ariouselements o' societ) $rocee&s b) e olution, an& un&er !hat circumstances b) re olution*

+his !ill in ol e a &iscussion o' a number o' other >uestions concernin the &)namics o' societ)*

We kno!, 'or instance, that an) i en societ) is constantl) un&er oin chan e, e $eriencin internalre rou$in s, alterations o' 'orm an& content, etc* We kno! that this $rocess is connecte& !ith thee olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces* But !e sometimes !itness chan es !ithin the limits o' thei&entical social.economic structure8 an&, at other times, a transition 'rom one "s$ecies" o' societ) toanother, the substitution o' one "mo&e o' $ro&uction" 'or another "mo&e o' $ro&uction"* When !illthe one result, an& !hen the other=

< eneral &escri$tion o' the $rocess o' social e olution is i en b) Mar in his < Contri"ution to theCritique of Political Economy:

"<t a certain sta e o' their &e elo$ment, the material 'orces o' $ro&uction in societ) come in con'lict!ith the e istin relations $ro&uction, or . !hat is but a le al e $ression 'or the same thin . !ith the

$ro$ert) relations !ithin !hich the) ha& been at !ork be'ore* rom 'orms o' &e elo$ment o' the






'orces o' $ro&uction these relations turn into their 'etters* +hen comes the $erio& o' social re olution*With the chan e o' the economic 'oun&ation the entire immense su$erstructure is more or lessra$i&l) trans'orme&* In consi&erin such trans'ormations, the &istinction shoul& al!a)s be ma&e

bet!een the material trans'ormation o' the economic con&itions o' $ro&uction !hich can be&etermine& !ith the $recision o' natural science, an& the le al, $olitical, reli ious, aesthetic or

$hiloso$hic . in short, i&eolo ical 'orms in !hich men become conscious o' this con'lict an& 'i ht itout* Eust as our o$inion o' an in&i i&ual is not base& on !hat he thinks o' himsel', so can !e not

-u& e o' such a $erio& o' trans'ormation b) its o!n consciousness8 on the contrar), thisconsciousness must rather be e $laine& 'rom the contra&ictions o' material li'e, 'rom the e istincon'lict bet!een the social 'orces o' $ro&uction an& the relations o' $ro&uction" 6A Contri"ution tothe Critique of Political Economy, Ne! @ork, 19CK, $*12 *

Mar there'ore concei es o' re olution as inter enin !hen the e>uilibrium bet!een the $ro&ucti e'orces o' societ) an& the 'oun&ations o' its economic structure is &isturbe&8 such is the content o' thecon'lict sol e& b) re olution8 this8 o' course, means the transition 'rom one 'orm to another* But solon as the economic structure still $ermits the $ro&ucti e 'orces to e ol e the social chan es !illnot take the 'orm o' re olution8 !e shall here 'in& e olution instea&*

+his >uestion !ill be taken u$ in &etail later, but !e shall no! em$hasi(e the 'ollo!in $oint* Accordin! to <arx, the cause of re5olution is not at all to "e sou!ht in a collision "etween economyKand law, as many critics of <arxism maintain, "ut in a collision "etween the roducti5e forces andeconomy,!hich is >uite a &i''erent matter, as !ill be sho!n in the se>uel*

b.The Producti2e 'orces and the Social:-conomic Structure.

We ha e state& that the cause o' re olution, o' a iolent transition 'rom one t)$e to another, must be

sou ht in a con'lict $rocee&in bet!een the $ro&ucti e 'orces, an& their ro!th, on the one han&,an& the economic structure o' societ), i.e., the $ro&uction relations, on the other han&* +he 'ollo!inob-ection mi ht be raise&: since the e olution o' the $ro&uction relations is con&itione& b) themo ement o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, is not the constant alteration o' the $ro&uction relations in itsel'a result o' the con'lict bet!een the $ro&ucti e 'orces an& the anti>uate& $ro&uction relations= I' !etake the e am$le o' the ro!th o' $ro&ucti e 'orces in ca$italistic societ), !e shall 'in& that this

ro!th has in ol e& e tensi e re rou$in o' $ersons in the economic $rocess* +he ol& mi&&le classmelte& a!a), the artisan class &isa$$eare&, the $roletariat increase&, reat enter$rises re! u$* +hehuman net!ork o' $ro&uction !as constantl) chan in * urther more, &i& not one 'orm o' ca$italismlea& into another8 'or instance, !as not in&ustrial ca$italism 'ollo!e& b) 'inancial ca$italism,entirel) !ithout re olution= @et, all these chan es !ere the e $ression o' a constant &isturbance o'

e>uilibrium 4a con'lict bet!een the $ro&ucti e 'orces an& the $ro&uction relations* While the $ro&ucti e 'orces !ere ro!in , the) colli&e& !ith the $ett) artisan con&itions8 this !as a&isturbance o' e>uilibrium8 the econom) o' the artisan !as no lon er com$atible !ith the increasintechni>ue* +he lost e>uilibrium !as a ain an& a ain restore&, alrea&) on a ne! basis, 'or the ne!econom) !as also increase&, corres$on&in to the ne! techni>ue* It there'ore ob iousl) 'ollo!s thatnot e5ery conflict "etween the roducti5e forces and the roduction relations results in re5olution,that the case is much more com$licate& than that* +o &etermine !hich kin&s o' con'lict $ro&uce are olutionar) crisis !e must take u$ an anal)sis o' the arious kin&s o' $ro&uction relations*

Pro&uction relations are, o' course, all kin&s o' relations bet!een $ersons, arisin in the $rocess o'the social economic li'e, i.e*, in the $ro&uction $rocess, !hich also inclu&es the &istribution o' meanso' $ro&uction, as !ell as in the $rocess o' the &istribution o' $ro&ucts* 3' course, these $ro&uctionrelations are o' man) kin&s: a broker in Paris, !ho bu)s shares o' a Ne! @ork trust, is thus assumin



a certain $ro&uction relation to the !orkers an& o!ners, the su$erinten&ents an& en ineers, o' the'actories belon in to this trust* +he banker !ho em$lo)s bookkee$ers stan&s in a certain $ro&uctionrelation !ith them* ;ike!ise, the -oiner has certain $ro&uction relations !ith the lathe.!orkers in thesame 'actor), or !ith the 'ish.!i'e 'rom !hom he bu)s a herrin , or !ith the 'oreman abo e him*But the same -oiner also has certain relations !ith the 'isherman !ho catches the herrin , !ith the

!ea er !ho is one o' the man) $ersons concerne& in the manu'acture o' his trousers, etc*, etc* Inshort, !e ha e a trul) en&less >uantit) o' &i''erent an& arie& $ro&uction relations, &istinct 'romeach other accor&in to the t)$e o' relation* 3ur task there'ore !ill be to &i''erentiate bet!een the

arious s$ecies o' these relations, an& to &etermine what is the s ecieso' $ro&uction relations in!hich a con'lict !oul& lea& to re olution*

In or&er to ha e a soun& actual basis 'or our ans!er, !e must learn ho! re olutions ha e actuall)o$erate&, i*e*, in !hat manner the) ha e sol e& the contra&iction bet!een the e olution o' the

$ro&ucti e 'orces an& the economic basis o' societ)* +o be sure, this con'lict has al!a)s been !a e& b) men8 the class stru le has been a har& one* What has been the outcome o' the ictoriousre olution= irst a different olitical ower * Secon& a &i''erent $lace o' classes in the $rocess o'

$ro&uction, a &i''erent distri"ution of instruments of roduction,!hich, as !e kno!, are &irectl)connecte& !ith the situation o' the classes* In other !or&s, the stru le &urin a re olution is !a e&'or the control o' the most im$ortant instruments o' $ro&uction, !hich in a class societ) in the han&so' a class !hich consoli&ates its rule o er thin s, an& throu h them, o er $ersons, b) the a&&itional

$o!er o' its state or ani(ation* +his lea&s us to the &ecisi e $oint in our search 'or those $ro&uctionrelations that re>uire a re olution 'or their &estruction, in or&er that societ) ma) continue to &e elo$its $ro&ucti e 'orces* In the +hir& olume o' Ca ital,Mar cate oricall) states the $roblem o' the'orm o' societ) an& $oints out the fundamental,s$eci'ic element in the total $henomenon o' the

$ro&ucti e relations: "+he s ecificeconomic 'orm, in !hich un$ai& sur$lus labor is $um$e& out o'the &irect $ro&ucers, &etermines the relations o' rulers an& rule&, as it ro!s imme&iatel) out o'

$ro&uction itsel' an& reacts u$on it as a &eterminin element 6$on this is 'oun&e& the entire'ormation o' the economic communit) !hich ro!s u$ out o' the con&itions o' $ro&uction itsel', an&this also &etermines its s$eci'ic $olitical sha$e* It is always the direct relation of the owners of theconditions of roduction to the direct roducers,!hich re eals the innermost secret, the hi&&en'oun&ation o' the entire social construction, and with it of the olitical formo' the relations bet!eenso erei nt) an& &e$en&ence, in short, o' the corres ondin! form of the state." 2 +he matter there'orestan&s as 'ollo!s: amon all the arie& $ro&uction relations, one t)$e o' such relations stan&s'oremost, namel) the t)$e that is e $ressi e o' the relations bet!een the classes !hich hol& the

$rinci$al means o' $ro&uction in their han&s, an& the other classes !hich hol& either subsi&iar)means or no such means at all* +he class that is &ominant in econom) !ill also be &ominant in

$olitics an&will olitically fortifythe s$eci'ic t)$e o' $ro&uction relations !hich !ill i e securit) to

the $rocess o' e $loitation o$eratin in 'a or o' this class* "Politics," to use8 the e $ression 'oun& inone o' the resolutions o' the Ninth 0on ress o' the %ussian 0ommunist Part), "is the concentrate&e $ression o' econom)*"

+he same thin ma) be state& in some!hat &i''erent !or&s* We ha e obser e& that not all the $ro&uction relations are here concerne&, but onl) o' the economic &omination su$$orte& b) as$eci'ic relation to thin s, to instruments o' $ro&uction* In the lan ua e o' the -urists, !e areconcerne& here !ith 'un&amental "$ro$ert) relations", !ith relations o' class ro erty in theinstruments of roduction.+hese $ro$ert) relations are i&entical !ith the 'un&amental $ro&uctionrelations8 the) are merel) another !a) o' sa)in the same thin , le all) this time, instea& o'economicall)* <n& these relations are no! associate& also !ith the $olitical &omination o' the

s$eci'ic class8 the) are maintaine& b) this &omination, 'orti'ie& an& e ten&e& at an) $rice*





Within this 'rame, all $ossible ariations o' "e olutionar) nature" ma) take $lace8 but !e ma) $ass be)on& the 'rame onl) !ith the ai& o' a re olutionar) u$hea al* or e am$le: !ithin the limits o'ca$italist $ro$ert) relations, artisan tra&es ma) $erish, ne! 'orms o' ca$italist enter$rises ma)ori inate, ca$italist or ani(ations o' unhear&.o' arieties ma) s$rin into bein 8 in&i i&ual memberso' the bour eois classes ma) become bankru$t8 in&i i&ual members o' the !orkin class ma)

become $ett) or e en lar e.scale in&ustrialists8 ne! social strata 4'or instance, the so calle& "ne!mi&&le class",i.e., "the technical mental !orkers" ma) ro! u$* But the !orkin class cannot

become the o!ner o' the means o' $ro&uction, nor can it 4or its re$resentati es secure comman& o' $ro&uction, or &is$ose o' the most im$ortant instruments o' $ro&uction* In other !or&s: ho!e ermuch the $ro&uction relations ma) shi't un&er the in'luence o' the increasin $ro&ucti e 'orces,their fundamental character remains the same.I' this 'un&amental character shoul& come in con'lict!ith the $ro&ucti e 'orces, it !ill break u$* +his is re olution, !hich a''or&s a transition to another'orm o' societ)* "+o the e tent that the labor $rocess is a sim$le $rocess bet!een man an& nature, itssim$le elements remain the same in all social 'orms o' &e elo$ment* But e er) &e'inite historical'orm o' this $rocess &e elo$s more an& more its material 'oun&ations an& social 'orms* Whene er acertain maturit) is reache&, one &e'inite social 'orm is &iscar&e& an& &is$lace& b) a hi her one* +hetime 'or the comin o' such a crisis is announce& b) the &e$th an& brea&th o' the contra&ictions an&anta onisms !hich se$arate the con&itions o' &istribution, an& !ith them the &e'inite historical 'ormo' the corres$on&in con&itions o' $ro&uction, 'rom the $ro&ucti e 'orces, the $ro&ucti it), an&&e elo$ment o' their a encies* < con'lict then arises bet!een the material &e elo$ment o'

$ro&uction, an& its social 'orm*"F

%e olution there'ore occurs !hen there is an outri ht con'lict bet!een the increase& $ro&ucti e'orces, !hich can no lon er be house& !ithin the en elo$e o' the $ro&uction relations, an& !hichconstitutes the 'un&amental !eb o' these $ro&uction relations, i.e* $ro$ert) relations, o!nershi$ inthe instruments o' $ro&uction* +his en elo$e is then burst asun&er*

It is eas) to see !h) this shoul& be the case, !h) $recisel) these $ro&uction relations shoul&constitute the most immutable, the most conser ati e 'orm: 'or the) are the e $ression o' theeconomic mono$ol) rule o' a class, as a''irme& an& e $resse& in its $olitical &omination* <n&, o'course, it is onl) natural that such an "en elo$e" as !oul& e $ress the 'un&amental interests o' theclass !oul& be hel& to ether b) this class to the bitter en&, !hile alterations within the en5elo e,not&isturbin the essential bases o' the e istin societ), ma) an& &o $rocee& rather $ainlessl)* It'ollo!s, amon other thin s, that there are no "$urel) $olitical" re olutions: e er) re olution is asocial 4class.&is$lacin re olution8 an& e er) social re olution is a $olitical re olution* or the

$ro&uction relations cannot be o erturne& !ithout also u$settin the $olitical con elation o' theserelations8 on the other han&, i' the $olitical $o!er is broken, this also means the &estruction o' the

&omination o' this class in econom), 'or "$olitics is the concentrate& e $ression o' econom)"* Some $ersons consi&er that the rench %e olution &i''ers 'rom the %ussian %e olution in the sense that the'ormer !as a $olitical re olution an& the latter a social re olution* or, in the Bolshe ik %e olution,

$olitics an& $olitical chan es &i& not $la) a reater role than in the rench %e olution, !hile thealterations in the $ro&uction relations !ere incom$arabl) reater*

+his "ob-ection" is merel) a con'irmation o' the statements !e ha e ma&e abo e* ;et us consi&erthis >uestion o' the $olitical $hase* We all kno! that &urin the rench %e olution the $o!er $asse&'rom the han&s o' one set o' o!ners into the han&s o' another set* +he bour eoisie &estro)e& the'eu&al commercial state an& or ani(e& the state o' the bour eoisie* In %ussia, on the other han&, theor ani(ation o' all o!ners !as s!e$t a!a)* +he $olitical u$hea al !ent 'ar &ee$er, corres$on&in to

the &ee$er $enetration o' the &is$lacement o' the $ro&uction relations 4nationali(ation o' in&ustr),abolition o' lan&e& estates, be innin s o' the socialist or&er o' societ), etc* *







2achlass , ol* iii, Stutt art 192C, $$*211, 212 * In the $erio& o' bour eois re olution, the chie' obstacles to &e elo$ment!ere the 'ollo!in $ro&uction relations: 'irst, 'eu&al o!nershi$ o' lan&8 secon&, the uil& s)stem in the risin in&ustr)8thir&, tra&e mono$ol), $er$etuatin the !hole b) means o' countless le al stan&ar&s* +he $ri ate o!nershi$ o' $ro$ert)

b) the lan&hol&ers le& to countless im$osts8 most $easants !ere obli e& to $a) a "hun er rent," an& the internal market'or in&ustr) !as e tremel) limite&* In or&er that in&ustr) mi ht &e elo$, the feudal ownershi laws had >ust to "e "roken"+he rents" sa)s +horol& %o ers 4in 4he Economic Inter retation of Mistory,;on&on, 1D91, isher 6n!in, $*1 K ,

s$eakin o' n lish rents in the Se enteenth 0entur), "be an as com$etiti e rents an& are ra$i&l) trans'orme& intohun er.rents, b) !hich I mean such rents as lea e the tenant a bare subsistence, !ith the result that he is enable& neitherto sa e nor to un&ertake im$ro ements" 4>uote& b) &uar& Bernstein, inSo ialismus und 8emokratie in der !rossenen!lischen ;e5olution, Stutt art 19CD, $*1C *

In rance, be'ore the %e olution, "the $eo$le lan uishe& un&er the bur&en o' ta es raise& b) the state, o' &uties $ai& tothe lan&o!ner, o' the tithes 'or the cler ), an& com$ulsor) ser ice 'or all three* In e er) $ro ince, )ou coul& obser ehosts o' 'i e thousan&, ten thousan&, o' t!ent) thousan& $ersons, men, !omen, chil&ren, !an&erin about on the roa&s*In 1 an o''icial estimate $lace& the number o' be ars at 1,1CC,CCC8 'amine !as chronic in the illa es, recurrin at're>uent inter als an& &e astatin entire $ro inces* Peasants &eserte& their illa es in reat numbers, etc*" 4P* ?ro$otkin:4he Great rench ;e5olution, ;on&on, 1921, $*1 * +a es an& tributes !ere o' in'inite number an& ariet) 4 i"id *, $*F et seq., also ;uchitski: 4he Condition of the A!ricultural Classes in rance on the E5e of the ;e5olution, and the A!rarian ;eform of V[Z\1V[\H, ?ie 1912, in %ussian * <ll o' these !ere &i''erent mani'estations an& e $ressions o' 'eu&allan&o!nershi$* Pro$ert) in lan&, !hich re&uce& the $easants to men&icants, simultaneousl) $re ente& the ro!th o'in&ustr), a e clear e i&ence o' its retar&in e''ect on the $ro&ucti e 'orces in %ussia also* 4Star ation rents,im$o erishment o' the $easantr), insi ni'icant &omestic markets, etc* . this combination !as also the main cause o' the%e olution o' 19C5* S* Maslo : 8ie A!rarfra!e in ;ussland, Stutt art 19C 8 also, ;enin#s essa)s: 9n the A!rarianLuestion in ;ussia, in %ussian*

+he 7uil& or ani(ation o' in&ustr) retar&e& the ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces at e er) ste$8 'or instance, in n lishhistor) there !as not onl) a se en.)ear a$$renticeshi$, but also a rule $ermittin merchants an& masters in man)

branches o' $ro&uction to em$lo) onl) the sons o' 'reemen, ha in a certain amount o' lan&, as a$$rentices* < s)stem o' $ett) re ulations $re aile&* Naturall), in ie! o' the eneral &is$ersion o' $ro&uction, there !as no $ossibilit) o' a $lan'ul econom)* 3n the other han&, this t)$e o' $ro&uction relations !as a 'ri ht'ul hin&rance to all $ersonal initiati e*+echnical $ro ress ha& no $ossibilities o' ro!th* +he machine !as consi&ere& a menace* +ra&e mono$ol) !as also ahea ) bur&en, like!ise the immense un$ro&ucti e national e $en&itures* +his s)stem as a !hole there'ore constitute& a

bur&en !hich ha& to be eliminate& un&er the slo an o' "libert)" 4$articularl) the economic libert) to bu), sell an&e $loit * 3' course, be'ore this s)stem o' $ro&uction relations 'inall) $erishe&, ne! $ro&uction relations, e $ressi e o'the ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, ha& un&ermine& this ro!th, but they could not ex and fast enou!h, they could notmaintain themsel5es as the dominant system of such relations.+his $erio& !as the $erio& o' the &)in 'eu&al societ), itssocial e $ression !as in "unsuccess'ul" u$risin s, insurrections, etc*8 such !ere, 'or instance, the $easant !ars an&rebellions* In n lan&, !e ha e Wat +)ler#s %ebellion, chie'l) a $rotest b) the n lish $easantr) a ainst the 'eu&al or&erin the social an& economic sense" 4/* Petrushe sk): :at 4ylerKs ;e"ellion , Mosco! 191K, in %ussian, Intro&uction *Pro'essor Petrushe sk) neatl) characteri(es this $erio& in the 'ollo!in enerali(ation: the &isinte ration o' n lish'eu&alism in its 'inal 'orm, achie e& in the +hirteenth 0entur), $rocee&e& si&e b) si&e !ith the &isinte ration o' theeconomic bases 'rom !hich it re!* +his &isinte ration resulte& 'rom the economic e olution o' n lish societ), its

ra&ual transition 'rom a close& s)stem o' econom) in kin& to a mone) econom), a $olitical.econom) or ani(ation"4i"id *, $*19 *

+urnin no! to the $roletarian re olution, i.e., the transition 'rom the ca$italist 'orm o' societ) to socialism 4ultimatel)e ol in into communism , !e shall a ain 'in& that the $rinci$al cause 'or this transition is the con'lict bet!een thee olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces an& the ca$italist $ro&uction relations: "+he mono$ol) o' ca$ital 4 i.e*, the $ri ile e&

$osition o' the ca$italist class !ith re ar& to the means o' $ro&uction* 2. 3.) becomes a 'etter u$on the means o' $ro&uction !hich has s$run u$ an& 'lourishe& alon !ith, an& un&er it* 0entrali(ation o' the means o' $ro&uction an&sociali(ation o' labor at last reach a $oint !here the) become incom$atible !ith their ca$italist inte ument* +hisinte ument bursts asun&er* +he knell o' ca$italist $ri ate $ro$ert) soun&s* +he e $ro$riators are e $ro$riate&*" 4?arlMar : Ca ital ol* i, $*DF * Mar #s remarks mean this: the ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces is abo e all an immenseincrease an& centrali(ation o' technical tools, machines, a$$aratus, instruments of $ro&uction in eneral* +his ro!thin ol es also a corres$on&in re rou$in o' men* In art,this occurs in the sense that the centrali(ation o' instruments o'

$ro&uction lea&s to a centrali(ation o' the labor 'orces, or, as Mar $uts it, to a sociali(ation o' labor* But this is notsu''icient to brin about an internal e>uilibrium o' societ)* +he e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces re>uires lanful

relations, i.e. consciously re!ulated $ro&uction relations* But herein lies the chie' obstacle in the ca$italist structure:le all) s$eakin , in the $ri ateA $ro$ert) o' ca$italists, or in a collecti e ca$italist $ro$ert), hel& b) national ca$italistrou$s* I' the $ro&ucti e 'orces are to &e elo$,*, the ca$italist inte ument must be"roken throu!h, namel), the $ro$ert)



relations o' ca$italism, those basic $ro&uction relations that are le all) e $resse& in ca$italist $ro$ert) an& $oliticall) $er$etuate& in the state or ani(ation o' ca$ital* +his 'un&amental contra&iction ma$ e $ress itsel' in arious !a)s* +hus,the Worl& War !as an e $ression o' this contra&iction* +he $ro&ucti e 'orces o' !orl& econom) "&eman&" a !orl&re ulation8 the "national.ca$italist inte ument" is too ti ht8 this lea&s to !ar8 !ar lea&s to a &isturbance o' the sociale>uilibrium, etc* +he trusti'ie& 'orm o' ca$italism, the arti'icial restriction o' $ro&uction in or&er to boost $ro'its, themono$ol) o' in entions 4le all) e $resse& in the $atent la!s , the restriction o' the &omestic market 4lo! !a es, etc* ,

immense un$ro&ucti e e $en&itures, the obstacles $lace& b) $ri ate $ro$ert) in the !a) of technical $ro ress 4'ore am$le, the ob-ections o' the real estate o!ner to ha in cables lai& on his lan&, thus $re entin a eneral s)stem o'electri'ication , etc*. all these are arious e $ressions an& 'unctions o' a sin le >uantit): the 'un&amental contra&iction

bet!een the ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces an& the inte ument o' ca$italist $ro&uction relations*

+he re olutionar) u$hea al accom$an)in the transition 'rom one 'orm o' class societ) to another isa clash bet!een the $ro&uction 'orces an& the $ro$ert) relations in a i en societ) is not a su&&en

ro!th, but becomes $erce$tible lon be'ore the re olution e5ol5es,&urin a lon $erio&,terminatin in a &estruction o' those $ro&uction relations that act as a hin&rance to the 'urthere olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces* +his "boilin $oint" is reache& !hen the ne! $ro&uction relationsha e alrea&) mature&, conceale& in the entrails o' the ol& $ro&uction relations 4Mar : A

Contri"ution to a Critique of Political Economy, Ne! @ork, 19CK, $*12 *;et us take a $resent.&a) e am$le o' this "hatchin " o' ne! relations in the !omb o' the ol&

$ro&uction relations* +he ca$italist structure inclu&es the totalit) of $ro&uction relations in ca$italistsociet), the 'un&amental 'eature o' !hich is the totalit) o' relations bet!een !orkers an& ca$italists,relations that ma) be e $resse&.as !e ha e seen.b) means o' thin s 4ca$ital * +he ca$italist structureo' societ) is there'ore &etermine& chie'l) b) the combination o' the relations bet!een the in&i i&ualca$italists, an& those bet!een the in&i i&ual !orkers* +he ca$italist structure o' societ) is b) nomeans 'ull) e $resse& in the relations !ithin the ca$italist class nor is its "essence" to be 'oun& inthe relations bet!een the !orkers* +his essence consists in the combination o' both 'orms o' the

$ro&uction relations o' ca$italism, the bon& connectin an& bin&in t!o basic classes, each o' !hich

constitutes in itsel' an a re ate o' $ro&uction relations, as state& abo e* +he 'ollo!in is the $ictureo' the manner in !hich a ne! mo&e o' $ro&uction matures !ithin a certain ol& mo&e o' $ro&uction*

Within the $ro&uction relations o' ca$italism, i*e*, !ithin the class combination, a $ortion o' these $ro&uction relations constitutes the basis 'or the ne! "socialist" or&er o' societ)* We ha e alrea&)seen !hat Mar consi&ers as the basis o' the socialist or&er8 namel), 'irst, the centrali(e& means o'

$ro&uction 4$ro&ucti e 'orces , secon& 4$articularl) in $ro&uction relations , "sociali(e& labor", i*e*, $rinci$all) the relations !ithin the !orkin class, the totalit) o' the $ro&uction relations !ithin the $roletariat 4$ro&uction bon& bet!een all !orkers * It is u$on this $ro&uction relation o' coo$eration,maturin in the !omb o' ca$italist $ro&uction relations in eneral, that the tem$le o' the 'uture !illrest*

We must also obtain clarit) on another $oint8 !e ha e seen that the cause o' re olution is the con'lict bet!een the $ro&ucti e 'orces an& the basic $ro&uction relations 4$ro$ert) relations * No! this'un&amental contra&iction is e $resse& in a contra&iction $ro&uction, $articularl) in a contra&iction

bet!een the one $hase o' ca$italist $ro&uction relations an& the other $hase* It is c1ear that thesocial centrali(e& labor !hich is embo&ie& in the $roletariat becomes more an& more irreconcilable!ith the economic 4an& there'ore !ith the $olitical &omination o' the ca$italists* +his "sociali(e&labor" &eman&s a $lan'ul econom), an& !ill not tolerate anarch) bet!een classes8 it is an e $ressiono' the or ani(e& nature o' societ), !hich cannot be 'ull) reali(e& in ca$italist societ), $articularl) notin the social 'iel&* or, class societ) is a contra&ictor), i.e., unor ani(e& societ)* Mani'estl), theca$italists# !ill not an& cannot relin>uish their class rule* It is conse>uentl), necessar) to eliminatethe rule o' the ca$italists, in or&er to achie e# the $ossibilit) o' or ani(ation all alon the line* We



there'ore encounter a con'lict bet!een the $ro&uction relations embo&ie& is the $roletariat an& thoseembo&ie& in the bour eoisie*

We are no! $re$are& to un&erstan& the 'ollo!in * make histor), the con'lict bet!een the $ro&ucti e'orces an& the $ro&uction relations !ill not 'in& its e $ression in an attack ma&e:, b) &ea& machines,

thin!s, on men, !hich !oul& be a monstrous an& ri&iculous assum$tion* 3b iousl), the e olution o'the $ro&ucti e 'orces $laces men in a $osition o' outri ht o$$ose& situations, an& the con'lict

bet!een the $ro&ucti e 'orces an& the $ro&uction relations !ill 'in& its e $ression in a con'lict"etween men, bet!een classes* or, the relations o' coo$eration bet!een !orkers 'in& e $ression inthe li in man, in the $roletariat, !ith its interests, as$irations, its social ener ) an& $o!er* +herestricti e, &ominant basis o' the $ro&uction relation o' ca$italism also 'in&s u its e $ression inli in men, in the ca$italist class* 4he entire conflict assumes the form of a shar stru!!le "etweenclasses the re5olutionary stru!!le "etween classes the re5olutionary stru!!le of the roletariata!ainst the ca italist class.

+he o$$ortunistic trouba&ours o' the Social./emocrac), such as H* 0uno!, lo e to em$hasi(e the "unrea&iness" o'

$resent con&itions, 'or !hich the) a ain seek su$$ort in Mar , !ho sai& that no 'orm o' $ro&uction is succee&e& b)another 'orm until it has create& a 'iel& 'or the 'urther ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces* +hese hoar) sa es $rocee&,there'ore, to 'inecomb the sur'ace o' the earth in their search 'or illa es . let us sa) in 0entral <'rica . !hich are stillun$ro i&e& !ith sa in s banks, an& !hich still contain nake& sa a es* We shoul& like to meet such e''orts !ith a>uotation 'rom one o' our o!n books: "+he Worl& War, the be innin o' the re olutionar) era etc, is recisely ane5idence of the o">ecti5e ]maturityhere s$oken o'* or here !e ha e a con'lict o' the reatest intensit), as a conse>uenceo' an anta onism that ha& &e elo$e& to enormous $ro$ortions an& !as constantl) bein re$ro&uce&, ha in ro!n u$ inthe !omb o' the ca$italist s)stem* Its &estructi e 'orce is a 'airl) $recise in&icator o' the le el attaine& b) ca$italiste olution, a tra ic e $ression o' the com$lete incom$atibilit) o' the 'urther ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces !ith theen elo$e o' the ca$italist $ro&uction relations* We are here &ealin !ith the colla$se so 're>uentl) $re&icte& b) thecreator o' scienti'ic communism" 4N* Bukharin : 9konomik der 4ransf ormations eriode,Hambur 1922, $* *

c.The 0e2olution and its PhasesWe ha e seen that the startin $oint o' re olution is the con'lict bet!een the $ro&ucti e 'orces an&the $ro&uction relations, !hich $laces the class that ser es as the bearer o' the ne! mo&e o'

$ro&uction in a $eculiar $osition, "&eterminin " its consciousness an& its !ill in a s$eci'ic &irection*+he necessar) con&ition 'or re olution is there'ore a re olutioni(in o' the consciousness o' the ne!class, an i&eolo ical re olution in the class that is to ser e as the ra e.&i er o' the ol& societ)*

It is !orth !hile to &!ell on this $oint, abo e all, to reco ni(e that this re olution has a material basis* urthermore, it is necessar) to make clear !h) !e are &ealin !ith a iolent alteration in theconsciousness o' a ne! class, namel), !ith a re5olutionary $rocess*

ach or&er o' societ) is base&, as !e ha e a ain an& a ain state&, not onl) on an economic basis, 'or all the i&eolo ies $re alent un&er a i en or&er o' thin s ser e as ri ets to hol& to ether the e istinor&er*

+hese i&eolo ies are not $la)thin s, but in man) !a)s ser e as ir&ers to maintain the e>uilibrium o' the entire social bo&)* It is ob ious that i' the $s)cholo ) an& the i&eolo ) o' the o$$resse& classes!ere absolutel) hostile to the e istin or&er, the latter coul& not maintain itsel'* <n) 'orm o' societ)!ill con ince us that its e istence is ren&ere& $ossible on the !hole b) the $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo )o' class harmon), !hich is $articularl) !ell illustrate& b) the e am$le o' ca$italism at the be innino' the Worl& War o' 191K.191D* While the !orkin class ha& e ol e& an i&eolo ) that !asin&e$en&ent o' that o' the bour eoisie, the !orkin class ne ertheless !as stron l) imbue& !ith a'aith in the $ermanence o' the ca$italist !orl& or&er, !ith an attachment to the ca$italist state8 the



mentalit) o' class harmon) ha& reat $o!er* No true u$risin o' one class a ainst the other !as $ossible be'ore the consummation o' the entire $s)cholo ical an& i&eolo ical re olution* Such amental re olution takes $lace !hen the ob-ecti e e olution $laces the o$$resse& class in an"intolerable situation": causin it to 'eel clearl) that no im$ro ement can be obtaine& un&er thee istin or&er* < class attains this reali(ation !hen the con'lict bet!een the ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e

'orces an& the $ro&uction relations has $ro&uce& a colla$se o' the social e>uilibrium, an& ma&e itim$ossible to restore it on the ol& basis* I' !e trace the course o' the $roletarian re olution, !e shall'in& that the !orkin class ha& alrea&) &e elo$e& a $s)cholo ) an& an i&eolo ) that !ere more orless hostile to the e istin or&er, &urin the ca$italist e olution o' humanit)* Mar ism e $resse& thisi&eolo ) in the clearest an& most $ro'oun& manner* But $recisel) 'or the reason that ca$italism stillcoul& an& &i& continue to &e elo$, e en $a)in hi her !a es to labor b) $lun&erin an& mercilessl)e $loitin the colonies, the ca$italists ha& b) no means become "intolerable" in the actualconsciousness o' the masses o' !orkers* In 'act, in the !orkin classes o' uro$e an& <merica, asort o' "common interest" !ith the ca$italist national state !as 'elt Simultaneousl), the <arxianMar ism, ori inatin in the %e olution o' 1DKD, ha& been re$lace& in the labor $arties b) a s$eci'ic"Secon& International Mar ism", !hich &istorte& the Mar ian theor) both !ith re ar& to the socialre olution, as !ell as !ith re ar& to the &octrine o' im$o erishment, o' colla$se, o' $roletarian&ictatorshi$, etc* +his con&ition resulte& in the betra)al b) the Social./emocratic $arties in 191K,an& in the $atriotic ten&encies in the !orkin class* 3nl) the !ar, an e $ression o' the contra&ictionin ca$italist &e elo$ment, an& its conse>uences, be an to make clear that "thin s coul& not o onthus"* +he $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo ) o' class harmon) !ere ra&uall) re$lace& b) the $s)cholo )an& i&eolo ) o' ci il !ar, an&, in the $urel) i&eolo ical 'iel&, "Secon& International Mar ism" be anto be re$lace& b) true Mar ism, i*e*, b) !hat ma) be $ro$erl) &esi nate& as scientific communism.

+here'ore: this mental re olution consists in a colla$se o' the ol& $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo ) 4the) are burst asun&er b) the ne! turbulent 'acts o' li'e an& the creation o' a ne! trul) re olutionar) $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo )*

+he Social./emocrats !ill ne er un&erstan& this8 in 'act, the) !oul& $re'er to belie e that no $roletarian re olution ma)ro! 'rom the soil o' miser) an& star ation, !here'ore no re olution ro!in 'rom this soil can be a " enuine"

re olution* Mar #s conce$tion o' this matter, as state& in an e&itorial in the Ne! @ork 4ri"une o' ebruar) 2, 1D5K,a''or&s an interestin contrast to this ie!: "@et, !e must not 'or et that a si th $o!er e ists in uro$e, maintainin atcertain moments its &omination o er all 'i e so calle& reat $o!ers#, an& causin them all to tremble* +his $o!er isre olution* <'ter ha in lon &!elt in >uiet retirement, it is no! a ain summone& to the 'iel& o' battle b) crises an&star ation"* +here is nee&e& onl) a si nal, an& the si th an& reatest uro$ean $o!er !ill ste$ 'orth in shinin armor,s!or& in han&, like Miner a 'rom the bro! o' the 3l)m$ian* +he im$en&in uro$ean !ar !ill i e the si nal" 4>uote&

b) 0uno!, ol* i, $*F22 * Mar there'ore &i& not en a e in i&iotic statements as to the im$ossibilit) o' a $roletarianre olution a'ter the !ar, that re olution coul& not be built u$ on star ation, etc* Mar ma) ha e been mistaken as to thetem oo' e olution, but he brilliantl) $re&icte& the main lan&marks o' the course o' e ents: crises, star ation, !ar, etc*

+he secon& $hase o' re olution is olitical re5olution, i.e.,the sei(in o' $o!er b) the ne! class*+he re olutionar) $s)cholo ) o' the ne! class becomes action* +he o$$resse& class, encounterinthe concentrate& $o!er o' the &ominant class, namel), its state a$$aratus, &isor ani(es, in the

$rocess o' stru le, the o$$onent#s state or ani(ation, in or&er to break &o!n the resistance it o''ers*+his state or ani(ation is to a certain e tent &estro)e& an& then rebuilt, $artl) 'rom elements o' theol& s)stem, $artl) 'rom ne! elements* We must here $oint out that the sei(ure o' $o!er b) the ne!class is not an& cannot be merel) a trans'er o' the same state or ani(ation 'rom one han& to another*

en socialist circles ha e been sub-ect to this nai e error* Mar an& n els s$eci'icall) s$eak o' the&estruction o' an ol& $o!er an& the creation o' a ne! $o!er, an& naturall) so, 'or the stateor ani(ation is the hi hest e $ression o' the $o!er o' the rulin class, its con elation, itsconcentrate& authorit), its $rinci$al 'i htin mechanism, its $rinci$al !ea$on o' sel'.&e'ense a ainstthe o$$resse& class* Ho! coul& the o$$resse& class break the resistance o' its o$$ressors !ithout





ra$i&l) as $ossible* 3' course, in the be innin , this cannot be e''ecte& e ce$t b) means o' &es$oticinroa&s on the ri hts o' $ro$ert), an& on the con&itions o' bour eois $ro&uction8 b) means o'measures, there'ore, !hich a$$ear economicall) insu''icient an& untenable, but !hich, in the courseo' the mo ement, outstri$ themsel es, necessitate 'urther inroa&s u$on the ol& social or&er, an& areuna oi&able as a means o' entirel) re olutioni(in the mo&e o' $ro&uction*" K

We are no! obli e& to consi&er an im$ortant an& 'un&amental >uestion: in the t)$ical case, ho!&oes this trans'ormation, this reor ani(ation o' $ro&uction relations, actuall) $rocee&, an& ho!shoul& it $rocee&=

+he ol& Social./emocratic ie! on this $oint !as >uite sim$le* +he ne! class . in the $roletarianre olution, the $roletariat . remo es the comman&in "hea&s", !hom it &ismisses more or less

entl), an& then assumes control o' the social a$$aratus o' $ro&uction, !hich has been &e elo$e& toa s$len&i& an& unin-ure& maturit) in the bo!els o' the ca$italist <braham* +he $roletariat installs itso!n "hea&s", an& the thin is &one* Pro&uction oes8 on !ithout interru$tion, the $rocess o'

$ro&uction su''ers no set back, the entire societ) sails on harmoniousl) on its course to!ar& a 'ull. blo!n socialist or&er* But a closer ins$ection o' the re olution in the $ro&uction relations !ill sho!us that these $ro&uction relations, as ie!e& 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' the labor $rocess, are nothinmore nor less than the total human labor mechanism, a s)stem o' interconnecte& $ersons, !ho, as !ekno!, are relate& b) a s$eci'ic t)$e o' bon&* urthermore . an e tremel) im$ortant $oint . the labor'unctions o' the arious rou$s o' $ersons in class societ) are connecte& !ith each other, "ound uwith their class function.+here'ore a shi'tin o' the class relations more or less &estro)s the ol&labor a$$aratus, causin the construction o' a ne! one, $recisel) as in the $olitical $hase o' there olution* It is certain that a tem orary&ecrease in the $ro&ucti e 'orces !ill result8 e er) chan ein societ) must be $ai& 'or b) &iscom'ort* It is also e i&ent that the &e ree to !hich the ol& a$$aratusis &estro)e&, the &e$th o' the !oun&, &e$en&s abo e all on the e tent o' the shi't in the classrelations* In bour eois re olutions the $o!er o' comman& in $ro&uction $asses 'rom one rou$ o'o!ners to another8 the $rinci$le o' $ro$ert) remains ali&8 the $roletariat retains its 'ormer $lace*0onse>uentl), the &estruction an& &isinte ration o' ol& institutions is 'ar smaller than in cases in!hich the lo!est la)er o' the $)rami&, the $roletariat, takes its $lace at the to$* In such a case, animmense u$hea al is ine itable* +he ol& or&er: bour eoisie, u$$er class intellectuals, mi&&le classintellectuals, $roletariat, is destroyed.+he $roletariat stan&s in s$len&i& isolation8 e er)one#s han& israise& a ainst it* +here results an ine itable tem$orar) &isor ani(ation o' $ro&uction, !hichcontinues until the $roletariat succee&s in rearran in the or&er o' $ersons, unitin them !ith a new

bon&, i*e*, until a ne! structural e>uilibrium o' societ) has become e''ecti e*

+his $rinci$le !as enunciate& b) the $resent !riter in his ^konomik der 4ransformations eriode4$articularl) cha$ter iiito !hich those intereste& are re'erre&* < 'e! su$$lementar) remarks ma) not be out o' $lace* irst, ma) this ie! beconsi&ere& ortho&o = We belie e Mar inter$rete& the matter thus8 at least, it is su esti e that Mar here uses $recisel)the same e $ression as that use& in his &iscussion o' the &estruction o' the state* He sa)s that the en elo$e 4inte umento' ca$italist $ro&uction relations is "burst asun&er" 4Ca ital, ol* 1, $*DF 8 In other $assa es he s$eaks o' a &issol in a"rebuil&in "* 3b iousl), a burstin asun&er" o' $ro&uction relations must interru$t the "re ularit) o' the $ro&uction

$rocess", thou h a &i''erent con&ition mi ht be more $leasant* er) $robabl) this is the thou ht that $eers throu h.thou h in ru&imentar) 'orm.!here Mark s$eaks o' the economic "untenabilit)", o' a "&es$otic inroa&" b) the $roletariat,!hich ne ertheless, so to sa), is $ro'itable in the lon run* Secon&, !e ha e hear& a number o' ob-ections !ith re ar& tothe Ne! conomic Polic) in %ussia* +he ob-ectors $oint out that in the ^konomik der 4ransfornaations eriode!e aretoo one.si&e& in our &e'ense o' the %ussian 0ommunist Part) in its blin& attack on e er)thin 8 'or the 'acts o' li'e no!sho! that the mechanism shoul& not ha e been &estro)e&8 no!, it !oul& a$$ear, !e ha e become as mil& an& entle asthe Schei&emanns* In other !or&s, the &estruction o' the ca$italist $ro&uction a$$aratus is re$resente& as a fact in the%ussian realit), but not as a eneral la! o' re olutionar) transition 'rom one 'orm o' societ) 4ca$italist to the other4socialist * +his "ob-ection" is a$$arentl) base& on a er) careless conce$tion o' the matter* +he %ussian !orkers coul&not rea&mit the ca$italists, etc*, be'ore the) ha& i en them a resoun&in thrashin an& aine& a 'irm 'oothol&themsel es, i.e., until the con&itions o' the ne! social e>uilibrium ha& been establishe& in their main outlines, but our









transcen& its o!n limits* +he limits im$ose& u$on the $olitical $o!er o' a ne! class that has sei(e&the $o!er are inherent in the e istin state o' economic con&itions an& there'ore o' the $ro&ucti e'orces* In other !or&s: the alteration in the economic conditions that may "e attained with the aid of the olitical le5er itself de endent on the re5ious state of the economic conditions* +his ma) be bestseen 'rom the %ussian $roletarian re olution* In No ember, 191 , the !orkin class sei(e& $o!er,

but it coul& not think o' centrali(in an& sociali(in the $ett) bour eois econom), $articularl) the $easant econom)* In 1921 it trans$ire& that the %ussian econom) !as e en stron er than ha& beensu$$ose&, an& that the 'orces o' the $roletarian state machiner) !ere merel) su''icient to maintain asociali(ation o' lar e.scale in&ustr), an& not e en all o' that* ;et us no! a$$roach another $hase o'the >uestion* ;et us attem$t to un&erstan& the nature o' the interru$tion o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces,intro&uce& b) the re olutionar) $rocess8 also, the tem$orar) reduction in the le el o' these

$ro&ucti e 'orces*

6nor ani(e& societ), o' !hich ca$italist commo&ities societ) is the most strikin e $ression, al!a)s&e elo$s b) lea$s an& boun&s* We are a!are that ca$italism in ol es !ars an& in&ustrial crises* Weall kno! that these !ars an& crises are an "essential $hase" o' the ca$italist or&er o' societ)* In other!or&s, the continue& e istence o' ca$italism necessaril) in ol es crises an& ca$italist !ars8 this is a"natural la!" o' ca$italist e olution* What is the meanin o' this la!, 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' the

$ro&ucti e 'orces o' societ)= irst, !hat is it that ha$$ens &urin a crisis= We ha e a cessation o''actor) !ork, an increase o' unem$lo)ment, a lo!er $ro&uction8 man) enter$rises, small ones

$articularl), &isa$$ear8 in other !or&s, there is a $artial destruction of the roducti5e forces* Parallel!ith this $rocess, there is an enhancement o' the or!ani ed formso' ca$italism8 a stren thenin o'the lar e.scale enter$rises, the 'ormation o' trusts an& other $o!er'ul mono$ol) or ani(ations* <'terthe crises, there is a ne! c)cle o' &e elo$ment, a ne! ro!th on a new basis, un&erhi!heror ani(ational 'orms, a''or&in reater o$$ortunities 'or the e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces* +he

$ossibilit) o' continue& e olution is there'ore bou ht at the $rice o' a crisis an& a !aste o' $ro&ucti e 'arces &urin the crisis* +o a certain e tent, the case in ca$italist !ars is the same* +hese!ars are an e $ression o' ca$italist com$etition8 the) result in a tem$orar) &ecrease in the

$ro&ucti e 'orces* <'ter !ars, bour eois states roun&e& out their boun&aries8 reat $o!ers becamereater8 small states !ere s!allo!e& u$8 ca$ital assume& !orl&.!i&e $ro$ortions, obtaine& a reater

'iel& o' e $loitation, the outlines !ithin !hich the $ro&ucti e 'orces coul& &e elo$ !ere e ten&e&, atem$orar) &ecline !as 'ollo!e& b) a s!i'ter $rocess o' accumulation* It ma) there'ore be sai& thatthe $ossibilit) o' an ex anded re roduction!as $urchase&, in this case also, at the $rice o' atem$orar) &ecline in the $ro&ucti e 'orces*

+he same la! ma) be obser e& 'rom the !i&er $oint o' ie!8 'rom !hich !e re ar& the e olution o' societ)* +he si ni'icance, o' re olution is in its elimination o' an o"stacle to the &e elo$ment o' the

$ro&ucti e 'orces* Stran e as it ma) seem, in &estro)in this hin&rance, re olution tem$oraril)&estro)s a $ortion o' its $ro&ucti e 'orces* +his is as ine itable as the crises un&er ca$italism*

+he &estructi e e''ects o' re olution 4"&ebit si&e o' re olution" ma) be consi&ere& un&er the 'ollo!in hea&s:

1* Physical destruction of the elements of roduction./estruction o' thin s an& $ersons, in an) 'orm, &urin the ci il !ar $rocess, ma) be inclu&e& here* I' barrica&es are constructe& o' railroa& cars, an& men are kille& 4ci il !ar an& class !arin ol e such sacri'ices , this is e>ui alent to a &estruction o' $ro&ucti e 'orces* +he annihilation o' machines, 'actories,railroa&s, cattle, etc*8 the in-ur) an& ruin o' instruments o' $ro&uction b) sabota e, 'ailure to re$air or re$lace .absent

$arts, etc*, absence o' !orkers &ue to !ar, &e$arture o' mental !orkers, etc*8 these are $hases o' the $h)sical &estructiono' the $ro&ucti e 'orces*

2* 8eterioration of the elements of roduction.Here belon s: &eterioration o' machiner) 'or lack o` re$air an&re$lacement8 $h)sical e haustion o' !orkers, intellectuals, etc, resortin to in'erior substitutes 4$oorer metal,re$lacement o' male labor b) 'emale an& chil& labor8 $ett) bour eois elements in the 'actories, etc* *





7reece an& %ome ma) be taken as e am$les o' social &eca), later S$ain an& Portu al* +he rulin classes, maintaine& b)the sla es con>uere& in countless !ars, became $arasites, also a $ortion o' the 'ree bur hers* +heir technolo ) $ermitte&them to !a e !ars, thus con&itionin a corres$on&in econom), !hich $ro&uce& a s$eci'ic state or&er8 but the materialcon&ition o' the classes also &etermine& their: bein , their social $s)cholo ) 4a mentalit) o' $arasitic &e eneration8,amon the rulers8 o' &e eneration b) stu$e'action an& o$$ression amon the o$$resse& * Such a su$erstructure !as toohea ) 'or its basis, the $ro&ucti e 'orces, !hich cease& to ro!, ultimatel) becomin a ne ati e >uantit)* In $lace o' this

$er'ectl) sim$le e $lanation, most scholars $resent an uns$eakable con'usion, o' !hich an e cellent, s$ecimen isa''or&e& b) the latest book o' P* Bitsilli: 4he all of the ;oman Em ire. assil)e , a $ro'essor at the 6ni ersit) o'?a(an,*!ho enumerates . in a !ork alrea&) >uote& b) us . all the theories e $lainin the 'all o' the ancient !orl&,

$articularl) em$hasi(es the theor) o' biolo ical &e eneration* +his &e eneration, in the case o' , : the rulers, accor&into Pro'essor assil)e , is a necessar) conse>uence an& the natural en& o' an) ci ili(ation 4!ith certain reser ations : 'or,

bra!n is re$lace& b) brain, the ner ous s)stem &e elo$s its !ants, a biolo ical &eterioration results* Mr* assil)ethere'ore belie es that the materialist Mar ian conce$tion o' histor) shoul& be re$lace& b) the materialist Nassilye5conce$tion, !hich is much "$ro'oun&er"* Mr* assil)e $oints out that the $ro ress o' the social sciences has taken the'ollo!in $ath: 'irst, there !as an anal)sis o' i&eolo )8 then, o' $olic)8 then, o' the social or&er8 then, o' econom)4Mar * We are tol& that !e must no! $enetrate still more $ro'oun&l), &escen&in to the material nature o' man, his

$h)siolo ical constitution, the chan es in !hich constitute the "essence" o' the historical $rocess* +here is no &oubt thatthe material nature o' man chan es8 but, i' !e $rocee& be)on& the limits o' social la!s, !e must a& ance 'rom biolo )to $h)sics an& chemistr), an& then !e shall become 'ull) a!are o' Mr* assil)e #s error* +he 'act o' the matter is that the

la! o' cause an& e''ect in social sciencemust be a social la!* I' !e !ish to e $lain the social $ro$erties o' man#smaterial nature, !e must &etermine !hat are the social causes !hose in'luence has altere& the $h)siolo ) 4an& also the

$s)cholo ) o' man* We shall then 'in& that this $hase is &etermine& abo e all b) the con&itions o' material bein , i.e., b) the situation o' the i en rou$s in $ro&uction* Mr* assil)e is there'ore not &i in &ee$er, but !alkin back!ar&s8his theor) is actuall) the time.honore& theor) o' the ine itable a in o' the human race* Besi&es bein useless because itis base& on a mere analo ) !ith $h)sical or anisms, it is not ca$able o' e $lainin the sim$lest $henomena* Wh), 'orinstance, has the in'initel) more com$licate& uro$ean ci ili(ation not $asse& a!a), !hereas %ome &e enerate&= Wh)&i& S$ain "'all" an& not n lan&= 0ommon$laces about &e eneration !ill e $lain nothin , 'or the sim$le reason that this&e eneration is a $ro&uct o' social con&itions* 3nl) an anal)sis o' these con&itions can result in a $ro$er ie! o' thesub-ect*

<n anal)sis o' the causalit) o' the transition $erio& an& the $erio&s o' &eca) !ill also thro! li ht on the >uestion o' !hat&etermines the e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, an& !hat is the in'luence un&er !hich the) are chan in * 3b iousl),the) are chan in under the re5ersed influence of the "asis, and of all the su erstructural forms.Mar himsel'reco ni(es this* +hus, he in'orms us in Ca ital40hica o, 19C9, ol* iii, $*9D : "Such a &e elo$ment o' the $ro&ucti e

$o!er is traceable in the last instance to the social nature o' the labor en a e& in $ro&uction8 to the &i ision o' labor insociet)8 to the &e elo$ment o' intellectual labor, es$eciall) o' the natural sciences*" Strictl) s$eakin , the matter &oes noten& here : Mar em$hasi(es onl) the most im$ortant 'actors in'luencin the $ro&ucti e 'orces in in&ustr)* "But," ouro$$onents ma) ob-ect, "!h) &o )ou be in at -ust this $oint=" 3ur ans!er is: " or the sim$le reason that, no matter !hatinteractions ma) be takin $lace !ithin societ), the internal social relations at an) i en moment !ill.inso'ar as !e areconsi&erin societ) in its con&ition o' e>uilibrium.corres$on& !ith the relation e istin bet!een societ) an& nature*"

e.The -2olution of the Producti2e 'orces and the Materiali3ation of SocialPhenomena 4Accumulation of Ci2ili3ation5

< consi&eration o' the $rocess o' $ro&uction an& re$ro&uction, !here the $ro&ucti e 'orces are !rowin!, will $resent us !ith a eneral la!8 namel), as the $ro&ucti e 'orces ro!, more an& morelabor is a$$lie& in the $ro&uction o' instruments o' $ro&uction* With the ai& o' these constantl)increasin instruments o' $ro&uction, !hich are a $art o' the social technique,a much smaller $art o' the !ork than 'ormerl) !ill $ro&uce a much reater >uantit) o' use'ul $ro&ucts o' all kin&s* Whenmanual labor !as use&, com$arati el) little time !as &e ote& to the manu'acture o' instruments o'

$ro&uction* Men !orke& in the s!eat o' their bro!s !ith their insi ni'icant, !retche& tools, an&their !ork !as not er) $ro&ucti e* But in a hi hl) e ol e& societ) a reat $ortion o' their labor is&e ote& to the $ro&uction o' immense labor tools . machines, mechanisms . in or&er to $ro&uce'urther immense instruments o' $ro&uction, such as hu e 'actories, electrical $o!er stations, mines,

etc*, !hich consume a lar e $art o' the human 'orces a ailable* But the use o' these tremen&ous



instruments o' $ro&uction astl) increases the $ro&ucti it) o' li in labor8 the in estment )iel&smore than com$oun& interest*

In ca$italist societ), this la! is e $resse& in the relati e increase o' constant ca$ital as com$are&!ith ariable ca$ital* +hat $ortion o' ca$ital that has been &e ote& to the construction o' 'actor)

$lants, machines, etc*, ro!s more ra$i&l) than the $ortion $ut into !a es* In other !or&s, in thee olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces in ca$italist societ), the constantca$ital ro!s more ra$i&l) thanthe 5aria"le ca$ital* We ma) state this in another manner, as the $ro&ucti e 'orces o' societ) ro!,the) are bein constantl) reali ne&, !ith the result that an increasin l) reater share o' these 'orces

oes into the branches $ro&ucin instruments o' $ro&uction*

+he ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, the accumulation o' man#s $o!er o er nature, is e $resse& inthe hi her an& hi her "s$eci'ic" !ei ht assi ne& to thin!s, to &ea& labor, to the social techni>ue*

It is reasonable to in>uire !hether similar $henomena are $resente& b) other 'iel&s o' social li'e, 'or!e ha e seen that the su$erstructural labor is also labor, &i''erentiate& labor, !hich has beense re ate& 'rom material labor* <n& !e ha e seen that the outline o' the su$erstructure inclu&es bothmaterial elements an& $ersonal elements, as !ell as i&eolo ical elements $ro$er* Where is there herean accumulation, an a re ation o' "mental" culture= /o !e here encounter an)thin resemblin thematerial $rocess o' $ro&uction=

;et us antici$ate: @es, there is such a similarit), e $resse& in the 'act that the social i&eolo ) iscr)stalli(e& or con eale& in thin s !hich are >uite material* ;et us remember that !e are enable& tore$ro&uce the ancient "mental cultures" out o' the so calle& "monuments" o' earlier e$ochs8 theremnants o' ol& libraries, the books, inscri$tions, cla) tablets, statues, $aintin s, tem$les, ol& musicalinstruments, an& thousan&s o' other thin s* In a !a), !e ma) re ar& these thin s as a con eale&,materiali(e& i&eolo ) o' a es lon one b), enablin us to -u& e the $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo )8 o'their contem$oraries !ith $recision, as the remnants o' !orkin tools enable us to -u& e o' the sta ereache& in the e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces, an& e en o' the econom) o' these e$ochs*

urthermore, in the su$erstructural !ork, in i&eolo ical labor, instruments o' consum tion're>uentl)ser e also as instruments 'or 'urther $ro&uction* < $icture aller) contains instruments o' en-o)ment8'or the $ublic !hich oes to ie! them, it consists o' consum$tion $ro&ucts* But the) are alsoinstruments o' $ro&uction, not in the same sense . o' course . as brushes an& can as, 'or the comin

enerations learn art, a ne! "ten&enc)" in $aintin , 'rom them* < ne! school o' &oes not &escen&'rom hea en, but ro!s out o' an earlier sta e, e en thou h it ma) renounce an& &enounce the ol&i&eolo ical s)stem* Nothin is ma&e o' nothin * <s, in the $olitical 'iel&, the ol& state is &estro)e&&urin a re olution, !hile the ne! state !ill contain man) ol& elements in a newarran ement, so, in

the i&eolo ical 'iel&, e en the reatest interru$tions &o not !i$e out a certain succession an&connection !ith the $ast: the ne! buil&in is not constructe& on the "bare roun&"* Paintin s, 'or the $ainter, are an instrument o' $ro&uction, an accumulate& artistic e $erience, a con eale& i&eolo ),'rom !hich an) 'urther mo ement in this 'iel& must take its start*

Perha$s the 'ollo!in ob-ection mi ht be ma&e: "<ll this ma) be er) 'ine, but !hat has the sublime&octrine o' 0hristianit) in common !ith the material s)mbols that ha e been trace& on $archment or

$a$er, or !ith the $i skin in !hich the 7os$els are boun&= What is the connection bet!een thescienti'ic i&eolo ) as such an& the masses o' $a$er that ha e been $ile& u$ in the libraries= Surel)there is a &i''erence bet!een the i&eolo ies, the most &elicate $ro&uct o' the collecti e human min&,an& such ross material thin s as books, consi&ere& asthin!s_0But this ar ument ma) be &ue to a

misun&erstan&in * +o be sure, $a$er er se,or colorin matter, or $i skin, !oul& in these cases ha eno meanin 'or us i' the) !ere !ithout a social "ein!. We ha e sho!n in cha$ter 5i 4". 4hin!s, <en,



Ideas that a machine . consi&ere& outsi&e o' its social connection . is merel) a $iece o' metal, !oo&,etc* But it has also a social bein , in that men inter$ret it as a machine in the labor $rocess* Similarl),the book, in a&&ition to its $h)sical bein , as a $iece o' $a$er, also has a social bein 8 it is consi&ere&as a book in the $rocess o' rea&in * Here, the book is a con eale& i&eolo ), an instrument o'i&eolo ical $ro&uction*

I' !e a$$roach the >uestion o' the accumulation o' mental culture 'rom this an le, it !ill be eas) toa&mit that this accumulation takes the 'orm o' an accumulation o' thin s, o' cr)stalli(e&, materialsha$es* +he "richer" a 'iel& o' mental culture is, the more im$osin , the broa&er the 'iel& o' these"materiali(e& social $henomena"* i urati el) s$eakin 4an& not 'or ettin its character as ani&eolo ) , the material skeleton o' mental culture is the "'un&amental ca$ital" o' this culture, !hichincreases !ith the "richness" o' this culture, an& is &e$en&ent "in the last anal)sis" on the sta ereache& in the material $ro&ucti e 'orces* +he chil&ish inscri$tions, masks, ru&e ima es o' i&ols,&ra!in s on stones, art monuments, rolls o' $a$)rus, other manuscri$ts, $archment books, tem$lesan& obser atories, cla) tablets, !ith their cunei'orm !ritin s8 later, the alleries, museums, botanicalan& (oolo ical ar&ens, hu e libraries, in&e$en&ent scienti'ic e hibitions, laboratories, sketches,

$rinte& books, etc*, etc*, are an accumulate& cr)stalli(e& e $erience o' humanit)* +he ne! librar)stacks, !ith their ne! books, consi&ere& to ether !ith the ol&s stacks an& books, are an interestin

$h)sical mani'estation o' collaboration o' man) enerations in their uninterru$te& succession*

We ha e become so accustome& to man) $henomena in this 'iel& as to lose si ht o' the historical boun&aries* 3ur $resent.&a) $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo ), 'or instance, 'in&s its cr)stalli(ation in the &ail) ne!s$a$er* @et, the ne!s$a$eritsel' is a mo&ern $henomenon, be innin a$$ro imatel) in the Se enteenth 0entur)* No &oubt im$ortant o''icial ne!s!as alrea&) $oste& on !alls 4"$ublishe&" in ancient %ome an& amon the 0hinese 4 i hth 0entur) <*/* , but this !as

barel) a be innin 4cf. . B]cher: 8as =eitatn!swesen in ultur der Ge!enwart , Berlin an& ;ei$(i , 19C , $art i, sectioni* * Books, in our sense, are also not 'oun& be'ore the in ention o' $rintin , !hen there !ere onl) rolls o' $a$)rus an&

$archment co&ices, then the most $er'ect metho& o' $reser in the accumulate& "!is&om o' centuries", cla) tablets:4Bab)lon $reser e& in i antic libraries* or e am$le, <shurbani$al#s 'amous librar) 4cf * Pietschmann: 8as 3uch, in

ultur der Ge!enwart). ;ibraries 4calle& b) ;eibnit( "treasuries o' all the riches o' the human s$irit" ma) there'ore be'oun& in er) ancient times, an& it is to the remnants o' such libraries that !e o!e most o' our in'ormation on man)secrets o' times lon $ast 4a short stu&) on libraries is 'oun& in 8ie 3i"liotheken, b) rit( Milkau, in ultur derGe!enwart). Im$ortant e am$les are: the abo e mentione& librar) o' <shurbani$al 4Se enth 0entur) B*0* , also thelibraries o' the most ancient ecclesiastical schools 4+hir& 0entur) B*0* * Hermann /iels 4 8ie 9r!anisation der:issenschaft, in ultur der Ge!enwart , $* F9 ri htl) obser es: "<mon all institutions o' learnin , libraries ha e e er

been the most im$ortant an& most essential means o' $reser in , &isseminatin an& transmittin learnin an& o'su$$lementin the e anescent 5i5a 5oxo' li in teachers*" <rt ob-ects, o' course, $la) the same r le, as $reser e& incollections, alleries, museums, cathe&rals, etc*

+he accumulation o' mental culture is there'ore not onl) an accumulation o' $s)cholo ical an&i&eolo ical elements in the min&s o' men, but also an accumulation o' thin s*

f. The Process of 0e roduction of Social /ife as a Whole

We are no! in a $osition to reca$itulate this sub-ect:

< constant "metabolism" is takin $lace bet!een nature an& societ), a $rocess o' socialre$ro&uction, a labor $rocess o$eratin in c)cles, constantl) re$lacin !hat is consume&, e ten&inits basis as the $ro&ucti e 'orces &e elo$, an& enablin mankin& to !i&en the boun&aries o' itse istence*

But the $rocess o' $ro&uction o' material $ro&ucts is simultaneousl) a $rocess o' $ro&uction o'i en economic relations* Mar sa)s: 0a$italist $ro&uction, there'ore un&er its as$ect o' a

continuous connecte& $rocess, o' a $rocess o' re$ro&uction, $ro&uces not onl) commo&ities, not





e>uilibrium, !hereu$on societ) enters u$on a ne! uni ersal c)cle in its e olution, b) e ten&in itstechnical basis an& accumulatin its e $erience 4as con eale& in ob-ects , !hich ser es as the $ointo' &e$arture in an) ne! 'or!ar& ste$*

B+B/+)$0APH1

Plekhano : <rticles attackin Stru e in the collection, Criticism of 9ur Critics4the best !ork on theanal)sis o' the $ro&uction relations 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' re olution * %osa ;u embur :So ialreform und ;e5olution. ?arl ?autsk): 8ie so iale ;e5olution. ?arl ?autsk): Anti13ernstein.Heinrich 0uno!: 8ie <arxsche Geschichts1, Gesellschafts1und Staatstlaeorie, 5ol.i* WernerSombart: So ialismus and so iale 3ewe!un!. 2.;enin: State and ;e5olution. N* ;enin: 4he Proletarian ;e5olution and the ;ene!ade autsky . N* Bukharin: 9ekonomik der4ransformations eriode.Hermann Beck 4e&itor ::e!e und =iele der So ialisierun!. E* /ele sk)4Social.%e olutionar) :Social Anta!onisms and the Class Stru!!le in Mistory* ?arl Mar :

$articularl), A Contri"ution to the Critique of Political Economyalso, Mar #s historical !ritin s*

%)T-S

1 N* Belto 4Plekhano : 0oncernin the <aterialistic Inter retation Mistory,in Criticism of 9urCritics, $*FFF* +he italics are mine* 2. 3.

2 ?arl Mar : Ca ital, ol* iii, 0hica o, 19C9, $*919* M) italics* 2.3.

F ?arl Mar : Ca ital , ol* iii, 0hica o, 19C9, $*1CFC*

KCommunist <anifesto,0hica o, 1912, $$*KC, K18 also >uote& b) 0uno!, i"id., ol* i, $*F21

5 uote& b) 0uno!, i"id *, $*1D2*

I"id., ol* 1, $$*F21, 222*

0a$ital, 0hica o, 1915, ol* i, $* FF

D I"id., ol* i, * 225*

9 Ca ital , ol* i, $*5FK, 5F5*

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http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1900/reform-revolution/index.htm

http://www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1902/socrev/index.htm
















.: The Classes and the Class

a. Class& Caste& "ocation

W ha e alrea&) seen the im$ortant 'unction o' the classes in the e olution o' human societ)* enthe social structure in a class societ) &e$en&s chie'l) on !hat classes e ist in this societ) !hat istheir mutual relation, etc* <n& !e ha e seen that e er) reat alteration in the social li'e is connecte&!ith a class stru le in one !a) or another* It is not unim$ortant to note that transition 'rom one'orm o' societ) to another is reali(e& throu h a 'urious class stru le* +his is !h) Mar an& n elso$ene& theCommunist <anifesto!ith the !or&s: "+he histor) o' societ) e istin u$ to the $resentis the histor) o' class stru les* " We ha e alrea&) &e'ine& the eneral nature o' a class. We no!

$re$are& to o into 'urther &etail*

< social class . !e ha e seen . is the a re ate o' $ersons $la)in the same $art in $ro&uction,stan&in in the same relation to!ar& other $ersons in the $ro&uction $rocess, these relations beinalso e $resse& in thin s 4instruments o' labor * It 'ollo!s that in the $rocess o' &istribution thecommon element o' each class is its uni'orm source o' income, 'or the con&itions in the &istributiono' $ro&ucts are &etermine& b) the con&itions in $ro&uction* +e tile !orkers an& metal !orkers arenot t!o se$arate classes8 but a sin le class, since the) bear the same relation to certain other ersons 4en ineers, ca$italists * Similarl), the $ro$rietors o' a mine, a brick.'iel&, a corset.'actor), are all o'one class8 'or re ar&less o' the $h)sical &i''erences bet!een the thin s the) manu'acture, the)occu$) a common 4"comman&in " $osition !ith re ar& to the $ersons en a e& in the $rocess o'

$ro&uction, !hich $osition is also e $resse& in thin s 4"ca$ital" *

4he roduction relationsare there'ore at the basis o' the class ali nment in societ)* 3ther &i isionsha e been ma&e, !hich must no! be &is$ose& o'* < 're>uent conce$tion is the &i ision into the

classes o' "$oor" an& "rich"* < man ha in t!ice as much mone) in his $ocket as another isconsi&ere& as belon in to a &i''erent class, the basis o' the &i ision bein in this case the amount $ossesse& o' the stan&ar& o' li in * <n n lish sociolo ist 4/# tt has one so 'ar as to &ra! a tableo' classes: the 'irst an& lo!est class 4$au$ers ha e a bu& et o' ei hteen shillin s $er !eek8 thesecon& class, t!ent).'i e shillin s8 the thir&, 'ort).'i e shillin s, etc* 1

+his conce$tion is not onl) er) sim$le, but also nai e an& erroneous* rom this $oint o' ie!, a!ell $ai& metal !orker in ca$italist societ) !oul& not be counte& !ith the $roletariat, !hile a $oor

$erson or artisan !oul& 'all into the !orkin class* +he lum$en$roletariat !oul& ha e to beconsi&ere& as the most re olutionar) class, as the $o!er ca$able o' reali(in the transition to ahi her 'orm o' societ)* 3n the other han&, t!o bankers, one o' !hom has t!ice as much mone) as

the other, !oul& ha e to be assi ne& to t!o se$arate classes* @et, e er)&a) e $erience sho!s us thatthe arious classes o' !orkers are 'ar more likel) to 'i ht si&e b) si&e than are the !orkers an&artisans, or !orkers an& $easants, etc* +he $easant is not much incline& to 'eel an) soli&arit) !iththe !orker* <t the other en& o' the scale, t!o bankers 'eel themsel es to be members o' the same'amil), thou h one be ten times as rich as the other* Mar alrea&) $ointe& out that the si(e o' one#s

$urse constitutes a merel) >uantitati e &i''erence, !hich ma), to be sure, thro! t!o in&i i&uals o'the same class into iolent o$$osition to each other* In other !ar&s, the &i''erence in "!ealth" ma)not be consi&ere& as su''icient basis 'or the &e'inition o' a class, e en thou h it ha e an in'luence!ithin the 'rame o' one class*

<nother !i&el) acce$te& theor) is that !hich makes the $rocess o' &istribution the basis o' the class&i ision o` societ), i.e*, the &istribution o' social income.+hus, in ca$italist societ), the &i ision o'income into three $rinci$al rou$s, $ro'its, roun& rent, !a es, i es rise to a &istinction bet!een





three classes: ca$italists, lan&lor&s, $roletarians 4!a e !orkers * +he share 'allin to each o' theseclasses ma) onl) ro! . 'or a i en >uantit) o' social income . at the cost o' the share 'allin toanother class* +he members o' one class are there'ore unite& not onl) b) common an& uni'orminterests, but also b) the o$$osition o' their interests to those o' other classes*

6nless !e &ebase this theor) to a mere consi&eration o' !ho is ettin more an& !ho less, !e atonce encounter the 'ollo!in >uestion: !h) are the $ersons !ho are unite& in a class re$ro&uce& as aclass= Ho! comes it that . let us sa) . in ca$italist societ) certain t)$es o' income e ist= What is thecause 'or the stabilit) o' these "t)$es o' income"= +he mere $uttin o' these >uestions sho!s the truestatement o' a''airs* +his stabilit) &e$en&s on the relation to the means of roduction,!hich, in turn,ex ress the relation "etween men in the rocess of roduction.+he 'unction o' men in $ro&uction,an& the o!nershi$ in the interests o' $ro&uction, i.e., the "&istribution o' $ersons" an& the"&istribution o' means o' $ro&uction" are 'i e& >uantities !ithin the limits o' the:e istin mo&e o'

$ro&uction* I' !e are &ealin !ith ca$italism, !e ha e there'ore a cate or) o' men !ho comman&the $ro&uction $rocess, !ho simultaneousl) control all sorts o' means o' $ro&uction, an& there isalso a cate or) o' men !orkin at the comman& o' the 'ormer, subor&inatin their labor $o!er tothem, an& $ro&ucin commo&it) alues* +his circumstance is res$onsible 'or the 'act that a certainnatural la! $rocess $re ails in the &istribution o' the $ro&ucts o' labor 4 i.e., in the &istribution o'income * We ha e there'ore come to the $oint o' consi&erin the most im$ortant $hases in

$ro&uction . the "&istribution o' $ersons" an& the "&istribution o' thin s" . as the basis o' classrelations*

Nor coul& it be other!ise, as !e ma) learn i' !e a$$roach >uestion in the most abstract terms* er)class is ob iousl) a certain "real a re ate", i.e., it sums u$ all the $ersons relate& in uninterru$te&mutual reactions, all the "li in $ersons" !hose roots are in $ro&uction, an& !hose thou hts ma)reach into the skies* ach class is a s$ecial, &e'inite human s)stem !ithin the reat s)stem kno!n ashuman societ)* 3ur a$$roach to the class must be similar, there'ore, to our a$$roach to societ)8 inother !or&s, the anal)sis o' classes must be in !ith $ro&uction* We must o' course not be sur$rise&to 'in& classes &i''erin 'rom each other alon arious lines: in $ro&uction as !ell as in &istribution,in $olitics, in $s)cholo ), in i&eolo )* or all these thin s are inter&e$en&ent8 )ou cannot cro!n a

$roletarian tree !ith bour eois t!i s8 this !oul& be !orse than $lacin a sa&&le on a co!* But thisconnection is &etermine&, in the last anal)sis, b) the $osition o' the classes in the $rocess o'

$ro&uction* +here'ore, !e must &e'ine the classes accor&in to a roduction criterion*

What is the &i''erence bet!een a social class an& a social caste= < class, as !e ha e seen, is acate or) o' $ersons unite& b) a common role in the $ro&uction $rocess, a totalit) in !hich eachmember has about the same relati e $osition !ith re ar& to the other 'unctions in the $ro&uction

$rocess* < social caste, on the other han&, is a rou$ o' $ersons unite& b) their common $osition inthe -uristic or le al or&er o' societ)* ;an&lor&s are a class8 the nobilit) are a caste8 the reat lan&lor&sare &e'ine& b) a common $ro&uction t)$e, not so the nobilit)* +he noble has certain le al ri hts an&

$ri ile es, &ue to his "noble station"* @et, economicall) s$eakin , this noble ma) be im$o erishe&8he ma) barel) e etate8 he ma) be a slum.&!eller8 but his station remains that o' a noble8 such is theBaron in 7orki#s ?ower 8e ths. Similarl), un&er the +sarist o ernment, !orkers# $ass$orts o'tencontaine& the !or&s: "Peasant 'rom such an& such a $ro ince, such an& such a &istrict, such an& sucha $arish", althou h this !orker ha& ne er been a $easant, ha& been born in a cit) an& !orke& 'or!a es since chil&hoo&* Such is the &i''erence bet!een class an&caste. < $erson !hose classcharacter is that o' a !orker ma) 4'rom the stan&$oint o' +sarist la!s be classi'ie& as a $easant* Butha e !e an) ri ht to &!ell on la!s !ithout &escen&in &ee$er, since !e kno! that $olitics

4inclu&in la! is "the concentrate& e $ressionof econom)"=



3' course, !e must o &ee$er8 !e ha e oursel es $ointe& out that it is metho&olo icall) er)im$ortant to a$$roach the social ali nments chie'l) 'rom the $ro&uction an le* We 'in& the >uestiono' caste e cellentl) $resente& b) Pro'essor Solntse , !ho has !ritten the authoritati e !ork onclasses: "Sociall) une>ual rou$s in the arious stations a$$ear as such an& &o not arise on the basiso' the relations o' the social labor $rocess, o' economic relations, but chie'l) on the basis o' le al

an& state relations* +he caste is a le!al1 oliticalcate or), !hich ma) e $ress itsel' in arious 'orms ** * * <s &istin uishe& 'romcaste, the class ali nment arose on the basis o' economic con&itions"4$*22 * Solntse &enies thatcaste is s)non)mous !ith class, or that it is merel) a le al.$oliticalraiment 'or class, !hile he a&mits that in ancient times, 'or instance, "the &i ision into estatesnecessaril) re'lecte& certain class &i''erences" 4$*25 , that "the class stru le assumes the $eculiar'orm o' a stru le bet!een stations 4estates " 4$*2 * +his some!hat a ue statement obli es us toseek a some!hat clearer 'ormulation* In the rench %e olution the tiers 7tat !as a mi ture o'

arious classes, then but sli htl) &i''erentiate& 'rom each other: it inclu&e& the bour eoisie, the!orkers an& the "interme&iate classes" 4artisans, $ett) tra&ers, etc* * <ll !ere members o' the tiers7tat 'or the reason o' their le al insi ni'icance as com$are& !ith the $ri ile e& 'eu&al lan&lor&s*+his tiers 7tat !as the -uristic e $ression 'or the class bloc o$$osin the &ominant lan&lor&s* It'ollo!s that class an& caste ma) not be taken as s)non)mous, !hile the shell o' the caste ma)inclu&e on the !hole a class kernel4a sin le estate corres$on&in to a number o' class !hich remainclasses, in s$ite o' the a ueness in Solntse #s min& * 3n the other han&, class an& caste ma) 'ail tocorres$on& in another !a), as alrea&) sho!n: one mi ht belon to a "lo!er class" but "hi her caste"4an im$o erishe& nobleman ma) become a -anitor or stoker , or the re erse: one ma) belon to alo!er caste an& hi her class 4a $easant ma) become a !ealth) merchant i&entl) the "classcontent un&er the economic en elo$e" is here non.e istent*

< correct theoretical statement o' the case ma) not be obtaine& b) a consi&eration o' in&i i&ualinstances, but onl) 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' t)$ical mutual reactions !ithin the 'rame o' a s$eci'iceconomic or&er* +he 'ollo!in 'un&amental circumstance is !orth) o' attention: the "estates" areabolishe& b) the bour eois re olutions, b) the e olution o' bour eois con&itions* 0a$italism !asincom$atible !ith the e istence o' "estates", 'or the 'ollo!in reason: in $re.ca$italist 'orms o'societ), all relations are 'ar more conser ati e8 the tem$o o' li'e is slo!er8 alterations are lesssi ni'icant than un&er ca$italism* +he &ominant class is the lan&e& aristocrac), almost a here&itar)class* +his strikin immo"ility in con&itions ma&e $ossible a consoli&ation o' class $ri ile es . as!ell as class &uties . b) means o' a series o' le al stan&ar&s8 this immobilit) enable& classes to been elo$e& in the arment o' the#* "estate"* 3n the !hole, there'ore, the "estates" 'ollo!e& the sameline as the classes or rou$s o' classes, in their o$$osition to a certain class* But this harmon) !as

brus>uel) &isturbe& b) the entrance o' the 'ar more mobile con&itions o' commo&ities ca$italism8the insi ni'icant man became im$ortant8 the nou5eaux.. richesarose, a er) 're>uent $henomenon

4some o' the reat lan&lor&s assume& ca$italist 'orms, others becomin im$o erishe&,: !hile stillothers maintaine& themsel es on the $re ious le el, etc* *, +hus the mobilit) o' ca$italist relationscom$letel) un&ermines the e istence o' the "estates"* +he transition $erio& o' the &isinte ration o''eu&al relations is also e $resse& in the ro!in &isharmon) bet!een the economic content o' theclasses an& the le al en elo$e o' the "estates"* +here no! ensue& the con'lict that le& ine itabl) tothe colla$se o' the entire s)stem o' "estates"* Its "caste" 'orm !as incom$atible !ith the ro!th o'ca$italist $ro&uction relations, as the class en elo$e o' the $ro&uction $rocess is no! becominincom$atible !ith the 'urther ro!th o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces* +hus, Mar !rote in his Po5erty of Philoso hyJ"+he con&ition 'or the liberation o' the !orkin class is the abolition o' all classes, asthe si ni'icance o' the liberation o' the tiers 7tat* * * !as the abolition o' all the estates0. n els,eluci&atin this $assa e, a&&s the 'ollo!in : " states here mean the estates o' the 'eu&al state in the

historical sense, estates !ith &e'inite, limite& $ri ile es* +he re olution o' the bour eoisie abolishe&



the estates an& their $ri ile es* +he bour eois societ) no! reco ni(es onl) classes* +o term the $roletariat the fourth estate!as there'ore to contra&ict histor)*#

+here'ore: in the $erio& o' the stable $reca$italist s)stems, the estates !ere the le al e $ression o'the classes8 the increasin incom$atibilit) o' these >uantities 4the &isturbance o' e>uilibrium bet!een

the class content an& the le al 'orm o' the estates !as calle& 'orth b) the ro!th o' ca$italistrelations an& the &isinte ration o' not onl) the hi her but also the lo!er o' the ol& 'eu&al classes*6n&er the 'eu&al s)stem, the $easantr) as a class coinci&e& in eneral !ith the $easantr) as anestate8 but the countr) bour eoisie an& the cit) $roletariat be an to &i''erentiate 'rom the $easantr),retainin , ho!e er, the arment o' their 'ormer "estate" 4caste , !hich, bein ill a&a$te& to the ne!con&itions, ha e ha& to be &iscar&e&*

We must no! e amine the thir& cate or) mentione& at the be innin o' this cha$ter* Mani'estl),5ocationis connecte& !ith the $rocess o' $ro&uction* <t 'irst lance, the &i''erence bet!een a

ocation an& class is base& on the 'act that the line bet!een ocations is not &ra!n as a line in therelations bet!een men, but as a line in their relations !ith thin!s, &e$en&in on !hat thin!s, !ith!hat thin!s one !orks, !hat thin!s are $ro&uce&* +he &i''erence bet!een metal turner an& -oineran& mason is not base& on a &i''erent relation to ca$italists, but sim$l) on the 'act that one !orksmetals, the other !oo&, the thir& stone*

@et the essence o` the matter is not in the thin!, 'or ocation is simultaneousl) a social relation8 inthe $rocess o' $ro&uction, !hich unites man) !orkers o' &i''erent t)$es, o!in to the stan&ar&s o'the $ro&uction $rocess, a &e'inite relation naturall) $re ails* Ho!e er &i''erent these relations ma)

be, the) are all subsi&iar) to the &i''erences that $re ail in the $rinci$al $hase: the differences"etween the work of those who command and those o"ey, the differences ex ressed in the ro ertyrelations.

+he classi'ication b) ocation, as a relation bet!een $erson as a relation base& on the relationto!ar& technical tools, metho&s, ob-ects o' labor, coinci&es neither !ith the &i ision o' labor intocomman&in an& obe)in elements, nor !ith the corres$on&in &istribution o' instruments o'

$ro&uction,i.e., !ith the $ro$er relations in these instruments o' $ro&uction*

Pro'essor Solntse is there'ore !ron in &eclarin that ocation "is a natural technical cate or) 4Solntse #s italics, N*B* , that it is $eculiar to human communities e en in the $rehistoric $erio&, as ! as in the 'ollo!in sta es that it is notan historical cate or) co) necte& !ith the social or&er" 4 i"id *, $*21 , in short, that it is a eternal cate or)* ocations

become ocations 'or the reason that certain kin& o' labor is usuall) $er'orme& throu hout the in&i i&ual#s li'e: let theshoemaker stick to his lastA But this &oes not si ni') that thin s ha e al!a)s been thus an& must al!a)s remain thus* +heincreasin l) automatic nature o' technolo ) !ill liberate men 'rom this necessit) an& !ill sho! to !hat e tent this

cate or) also been historical rather than $ermanent*

We are no! $re$are& to take u$ a &escri$tion o' the im$ortant classes.

1* 4he "asic classes of a !i5en social form4classes in the $ro$er sense o' the !or& are t!o innumber: on the one han&, the class !hich comman&s, mono$oli(in the instruments o' $ro&uction8onKthe other han&, the e ecutin class, !ith no means o' $ro&uction, !hich !orks 'or the 'ormer*+he s$eci'ic 'orm o' this relation o' economic e $loitation an& ser itu&e &etermines the 'orm o' the,

i en class societ)* or e am$le: i' the relation bet!een the comman&in an& e ecutin class isre$ro&uce& b) the $urchase o' labor $o!er in the market, !e ha e ca$italism* I' it is re$ro&uce&* b)the $urchase o' $ersons, b) $lun&er, or other!ise, but not b) the $urchase o' labor $o!er alone, an&

i' the comman&in class ains control o' not onl) the labor $o!er but also o' bo&) an& soul o' thee $loite& $ersons, !e ha e a sla ehol&in s)stem, etc



In connection !ith ca$italism, three classes are usuall) counte&, as con'irme& b) Mar in the !ell.kno!n $assa e at theen& o' olume iii o' Ca ital,!here the manuscri$t su&&enl) breaks o'' at the be innin o' an anal)sis o' the classes inca$italist societ)* "+he o!ners o' mere labor $o!er, the o!ners o' ca$ital, an& the lan&lor&s, !hose res$ecti e sources o' income are !a es, $ro'it an& roun&.rent, in other !or&s, !a e laborers, ca$italists an& lan&lor&s, 'orm the three reatclasses o' mo&ern societ) restin on the ca$italist mo&e o' $ro&uction*" 6Ca ital,0hica o, 19C9, ol* iii, $*1,CF1 Butthe circumstance that the lan&.o!nin rou$ constitutes a !reat "class" &oes not im$l) that it is one o' the essential

classes* +hus, !e 'in& the 'ollo!in $assa e in Mar , !hich Pro'essor Solntse erroneousl) >uotes in his o!n su$$ort:"3b-ecti'ie& an& li in labor are the t!o 'actors on the contrast bet!een !hich ca$italist $ro&uction is base&* 0a$italistan& !a e laborer are the sole 'unctionaries an& 'actors in $ro&uction, their relation an& o$$osition bein a result o' the

er) essence o' the ca$italist mo&e o' $ro&uction * * * * Pro&uction, as obser e& b) Eames Mill, mi ht there'ore continueuninterru$te&, i' the lan&lor& shoul& &isa$$ear an& be re$lace& b) the state* * * +his re&uction in the number o' classes&irectl) concerne& in $ro&uction, to ca$italists an& !a e laborers, eliminatin! the landlord,!ho onl) subse>uentl)enters into the relation, as a conse>uence not o' $ro$ert) relations $ro&uce& !ithin the limits o' the ca$italist mo&e o'

$ro&uction, but o' $ro$ert) relations handed downto ca$italism . a re&uction inherent in the nature o' the ca$italist mo&eo' $ro&uction, &istin uishin it 'rom 'eu&al an& ancient $ro&uction . makes it an a&e>uate theoretical e $ression o' theca$italist mo&e o' $ro&uction an& mani'ests its differentia s ecifica.04Mar :4heorien D"er den <ehrwert,Stutt art,1915, ol* ii, $art i, $$*292et seq* * Mar a ain makes the same statement in his treatment o' nationali(ation o' the soil*

+he basic classes ma) be sub&i i&e& into their arious elements* In ca$italist societ), thecomman&in bour eoisie !as $artl) in&ustrial, $artl) commercial, $artl) bankin , ere* +he !orkinclass inclu&es skille& an& unskille& !orkers*

2* Intermediate classesJthese inclu&e such social.economic rou$s as constitute a necessit) 'or thesociet) in !hich the) li e, without "ein! a remnant o' the ol& or&er* +he) occu$) a mi&&le $osition

bet!een the comman&in an& e $loitin classes* Such are, 'or instance, the technical mental !orkersin ca$italist societ)*

F* 4ransition classesJthese inclu&e such rou$s as ha e emer e& 'rom the $rece&in 'orm o' societ),an& as are no! &isinte ratin in their $resent 'orm, i in rise to arious classes !ith o$$osite roles

in $ro&uction* Such are, 'or e am$le, the artisans an& $easants in ca$italist societ), !ho constitute aherita e 'rom the 'eu&al s)stem, an& 'rom !hom both the bour eoisie an& the $roletariat arerecruite&*

+hus, the $easantr) is constantl) 'allin to $ieces un&er ca$italism8 economicall) s$eakin , it is&i''erentiate&8 the rich $easant ro!s out o' the me&ium $easantr), becomin a tra&er an&, one ste$'urther u$, a true bour eois* 3n the other han&, the $roletariat is also ro!in out o' the $easantr),

b) some such $rocess as this: the $easant has no horse8 he becomes a 'arm laborer or seasonal!orker8 he becomes a true $roletarian*

K* <ixed class ty esJthese inclu&e such rou$s as belon to o' class in one res$ect an& to another

class in another res$ect, 'or e am$le, the railroa& !orker !ho runs a 'arm o' his o!n, 'or !hich hehires a laborer8 he is a !orker 'rom the stan&$oint o' the railroa& com$an), but an "em$lo)er" 'romthe stan&$oint o' the hire& man*

5* inall) there are the so call &eclassX rou$s,i.e. o' $ersons outsi&e the outlines o' social labor:the lum en roletariat, be ars, a rants, etc*

In an anal)sis o' the "abstract t)$e" o' societ), i.e., an) 'orm in its $urest state, !e are &ealin almoste clusi el) !ith its basic classes8 but !hen !e take u$ the concrete realit), !e o' course 'in&oursel es 'ace& !ith the motle) $icture !ith all social.economic t)$es an& relations*

+he eneral cause o' the e istence o' classes is &e'ine& b) n els in his Anti18Dhrin!as 'ollo!s "" that all $re ioushistorical contra&ictions bet!een e $loitin an& e $loite&, rulin an& o$$resse& classes are e $laine& b) the same



com$arati el) un&e elo$e& $ro&ucti it) o' human labor* <s lon , as the trul) !orkin $o$ulation is so com$letel)occu$ie& b) its necessar) labor as to lea e it no time# 'or con&uctin the common a''airs o' societ) . &i ision o' labor,

business o' the state, le al matters, art, science, etc*. so lon &i& !e necessaril) ha e a s$ecial class !hich, 'ree& 'romactual labor, looke& a'ter these matters8 in !hich connection, it ne er 'aile& to $lace more an& more !ork u$on theshoul&ers o' the !orkin masses, 'or its o!n a& anta e" 4 rie&rich n els: Merrn Eu!en 8Dhrin!s @nwBl un! der:issenschaft, Stutt art, 19C1, $$*19C, 191 * In another $assa e 4$*19C , $racticall) the same remark is re$eate&, !ith the

a&&e& statement that societ) is &i i&e& into t!o classes* < reca$itulation o' the !hole matter is this: "+he la! o' the&i ision o' labor is there'ore the "asic factor in the di5ision into classes*"

Pro'essor Solntse critici(es 7* Schmoller, !ho 'in&s the cause o' the 'ormation o' the classes to be chie'l) the &i isiono' labor, an& attacks Schmoller#s re'erence to n els !ith the 'ollo!in !or&s: " n els actuall) sho!s the closeconnection bet!een the $rocess o' class 'ormation an& the $rocess o' the &i ision o' labor8 but " n els re ar&s the&i ision o' labor as onl) the necessar) natural.technical con&ition 'or the 'ormation o' social classes, not as their cause8the causal basis o' the 'ormation o' classes !as 'oun& b) n els, not in the &i ision o' labor, "ut in the relation bet!een

$ro&uction an& &istribution,i.e., in $rocesses o' $urel) economic nature" 4 i"id., $*FCF, m) italics, 2. 3 * * <s !e ha eobser e& abo e, !hen consi&erin the >uestion o' ocation, !e ma) not o$$ose the &i ision o' labor to the $ro&uctionrelations, 'or the &i ision o' labor is like!ise one o' the arieties o' the $ro&uction relations* Schmoller#s error 4in his

books, 8ie 4atsachen der Ar"eitsteilun!, Eahrb]cher, 1DD98 8as :esen der Ar"eitsteilun! und lassen"ildun! ,Eahrb]cher, 1D9C is in o erlookin the &i''erence bet!een the strati'ication o' ocations an& the strati'ication o' classes,thus reconcilin class o$$ositions in the s$irit o' the or anic school* +he theor) o' ;* 7um$lo!ic( an& * 3$$enheimer,!hich traces the ori in o' classes 'rom e tra.economic 'orce, o erlooks the &i''erence bet!een the abstract theor) o'societ) an& the concrete 'acts o' histor)* In actual histor), the role o' the e tra.economic use o' 'orce 4con>uest !as er)

reat, an& ha& an in'luence on the $rocess o' class 'ormation* But in a $urel) theoretical in esti ation, this con&ition ma)not be consi&ere&* <ssumin that !e are anal)(in societ) only, "abstract societ)", in its e olution, !e shoul& 'in&classes &e elo$in here also, b) reason o' the so calle& "internal" causes o' &e elo$ment mentione& b) n els*+here'ore, the role o' con>uests, etc*, is merel) a 4 er) im$ortant com licatin!'actor*

b. Class +nterest

We ha e seen that classes are s$eci'ic rou$s o' $ersons, "real a re ates", &istin uishe& b) theirrole in $ro&uction, !hich role 1s e $resse& in the ro erty relations.But these t!o $hases in the

$ro&uction $rocess also are accom$anie& b) a thir& $hase.the $rocess o' the &istribution o' $ro&uctsin one !a) or another* Pro&uction is $arallele& b) &istribution*

+he 'orms o' &istribution corres$on& to the 'orms o' $ro&uction* +he $osition o' the classes in $ro&uction &etermines their $osition in &istribution* +he anta onism bet!een a&ministrators an& thea&ministrate&, bet!een the class mono$oli(in the instruments o' $ro&uction an& the class

$ossessin no means o' $ro&uction, is e $resse& in an anta onism in income, in a contra&iction bet!een the shares hel& b) each class in the $ro&uct turne& out* +his &i''erent "bein " o' the classesalso &etermines their "consciousness"* +he contra&ictions o' the "bein ", o' the con&itions o'e istence, are &irectl) re'lecte& in the ro!th o' class interests.+he most $rimiti e an& eneral

e $ression o' class interest is the effort of the classes to increase their share in the distri"ution of thetotal mass of roducts*

In the s)stem o' class societ), the $rocess o' $ro&uction is at the same time a $rocess o' theeconomic e $loitation o' those !ho !ork $h)sicall)*

+he) $ro&uce more than the) recei e, not onl) because a $ortion o' the $ro&uct turne& out 4o'5alues, in ca$italist societ) oes 'or e ten&in $ro&uction 4"accumulation", in ca$italist societ) , butalso because the !orkin class is su$$ortin the o!ners o' the instruments o' $ro&uction, is !orkin'or them* +he most eneral interest o' the &ominant minorit) ma) there'ore be 'ormulate& as thee''ort to maintain and extend the o ortunities for economic ex loitation!hile the interest o' the

e $loite& ma-orit) is to li"erate itself from this ex loitation.+he 'irst o' these t!o e''orts has an e)eonl) to societ) as it e ists at $resent8 the secon& is challen e to the e istence o' this societ)*



But the economic structure o' societ) . as !e ha e seen . is 'orti'ie& in its state or ani(ation an&su$$orte& b) countless su$erstructural 'orms* It is there'ore not sur$risin to 'in& the economic classinterest clothe& also in the arment o' $olitical, reli ious, scienti'ic interests, etc* +he class intereststhus &e elo$ into an entire s)stem, em"racin! the most 5aried domains of social life* +hesecoor&inate& interests, maintaine& in $lace b) the eneral interest o' the class, con&ition the

construction o' the so calle& "social i&eal", !hich is al!a)s the >uintessence o' the class interests*

< 'e! a&&itional $oints re>uire our attention in a &iscussion o' class interests

irst: ermanent, !eneral interests must "e distin!uished from tem orary, momentary interests.+he"momentar)" interests ma) e en constitute an ob-ecti e contra&iction to the $ermanent interests* +he

n lish !orkers, 'or instance, !ere actin in accor&ance !ith their tem$orar) interests !hen the)acce$te& a class harmon) !ith the n lish bour eoisie, su$$ortin them in the im$erialist !ar8 the)acte& in the interest o' their !a es, !hich !ere increase& at the e $ense o' the colonial !orkers* But

because the) thus &estro)e& the soli&arit) o' all the !orkers, an& ma&e a com$act !ith theirem$lo)ers, the) !ere o$$osin the eneral an& $ermanent interests o' their class*

SecondJthe $ro'essional interests of a !rou must not be con'use& !ith the eneral interests of theclass. +hus, the &ominant bour eoisie ma), in ca$italist societ), !in o er the aristocrac) o' labor4skille& labor , !hose s$ecial interests then &o not coinci&e !ith those o' the entire !orkin class8the) are rou$ interests, not class interests* <nother e am$le: &urin an) !ar, the commercial

bour eoisie iolates the commercial la!s !ith all its mi ht, althou h the bour eois state itsel'establishe& these la!s, an& is !a in !ar in the interest o' the bour eoisie as a class* In other !or&s,the rou$ interests o' the commercial section o' the bour eoisie is in this case at ariance !ith theinterests o' the bour eoisie as a class*

4hird : alterations in rinci le and tendency in the momentar) interests o' the class, $rocee&insimultaneousl) !ith the alterations in $rinci$le o' its social situation, must not be le't out o' account*+he e am$le o' the $roletariat !ill ser e to illustrate this $oint* In ca$italist societ), its most

$ermanent an& eneral interest is the &estruction o' the ca$italist s)stem* Its $artial &eman&s al!a)sha e this eneral ten&enc): the con>uest o' strate ic $ositions, the un&erminin o' bour eois societ),the im$ro in o' the $roletariat#s material $osition, enhance its social stren th, $re$arin its 'orces'or the attack on the entire ca$italist or&er* No!, let us assume that the $roletariat has &ischar e& itshistorical* task* It has &estro)e& the ol& state machiner), built u$ a ne! machiner), $ro&uce& a ne!social e>uilibrium8 tem$oraril), the $roletariat assumes the $lace o' the comman&in class*3b iousl), the direction o' its interests has ra&icall) chan e&: all its $artial interests, taken 'rom the

$oint o' ie! o' the eneral interests, are no! subor&inate to the i&ea o' fortifyin! and de5elo in!

the ne! con&itions, or ani(in them, o''erin resistance to e er) attem$t at &estruction* +his&ialectic trans'ormation is an out ro!th o' the &ialectic e olution o' the $roletariat itsel', onice it has become a state $o!er*

+he common element behin& both these o$$ose& &irections o' interest is the construction o' a ne!'orm o' societ), !hose bearer is the $roletariat, a construction !hich $resu$$oses the &estruction o'the ol& en elo$e, !hich ha& become an obstacle to the e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces*

< ne! class, to be ca$able not onl) o' &estro)in the ol& s)stem o' social relations, but o' buil&inu$ a ne! one, must necessaril) turn its interests in the &irection o' roduction, i.e.,it must nota$$roach social >uestions 'rom the stan&$oint o' &i ision an& mere &istribution, but 'rom that o' a

&estruction o' ol& 'orms 'or the $ur$ose o' a constructiono' 'orms !ith more $er'ect roduction,!ith more $o!er'ul roducti5e forces.



c. Class Psychology and Class +deology

+he &i''erence in the material con&itions o' e istence that lie at the basis o' the class strati'ication o'societ) im$resses its mark on the entire consciousness o' the classes, i*e*, on the class $s)cholo )an& i&eolo )* We alrea&) kno! that the $s)cholo ) o' a class is not al!a)s i&entical !ith thematerial interests o' that class 4'or instance, the $s)cholo ) o' &es$air, esca$e 'rom the !orl&,lon in 'or &eath 8 but it al!a)s results 'rom the li'e con&itions o' this class, bein constantly&etermine& b) the latter* ;et* us consi&er a 'e! e am$les o' the manner in !hich the class

$s)cholo ) an& the class i&eolo ) are actuall) con&itione& b) the economic con&ition o' the class*

3ur 'irst e am$le !ill be taken 'rom the %ussian %e olution* It is a matter o' common kno!le& ethat %ussian Mar ists an& Social.%e olutionaries &isa ree& as to !hich class !oul& lea& societ) tosocialism* +he Mar ists maintaine& it !oul& be the !orkin class, the $roletariat8 the Social%e olutionaries, on the other han&, claime& that the $easantr) !oul& take the lea& in this 'iel&* +he'acts o' li'e ha e su$$orte& the Mar ists8 the $easantr) su$$orte& the $roletarians in their stru lea ainst the lan&lor&s an& ca$italists, because the $roletariat uar&s the $easants# o!nershi$ o' thesoil an& makes $ossible the &e elo$ment o' $easant econom)8 )et the $easants are but littlesusce$tible to communism an& a&here to the ol& 'orms o' tillin the soil, an& o' a riculture in

eneral* It !ill be interestin to &etermine the reasons 'or this $henomenon, the heroic stru le o'the $roletariat an& its incom$arabl), reater rece$ti it) 'or communist reconstruction an& communisti&eolo )* It is not su''icient to re$l) that the $easants are not >uite so $oor, 'or then !e mi ht ask!h) the lum en roletariat4be ars, &eclasse& $ersons &i& not 'urnish the chie' &etachments o''i hters*

It is im$ortant to learn !hat are the traits that must be $reset in a class in or&er to enable it toaccom$lish a trans'ormation o' societ), to shunt societ) 'rom the ca$italist track to the socialist

track*1* Such a class must be one that has been economically ex loited and olitically o ressedun&erca$italist societ)8 other!ise, the class !ill ha e no reason 'or resistin the ca$italist or&er8 it !ill notrebel un&er an) circumstances*

2* It 'ollo!s . to $ut the matter cru&el) . that it must be a oor class 'or other!ise it !ill ha e noo$$ortunit) to 'eel its $o ert) as com$are& !ith the !ealth o' other classes*

F* It must be a roducin! class8 'or, i' it is not, i.e., i' it has no imme&iate share in the $ro&uction o'alues, it ma) at best &estro), bein unable to $ro&uce, create, or ani(e*

K* It must be a class that is not "ound "y ri5ate ro erty,'or a class !hose material e istence is base& on $ri ate $ro$ert) !ill naturall) be incline& to increase its $ro$ert), not to abolish $ri ate $ro$ert), as is &eman&e& b) communism*

5* +his class must be one !hich has been welded to!ether b) the con&itions o' its e istence an& itscommon labor, its members !orkin si&e b) si&e* 3ther!ise, it !ill be inca$able o' &esirin . not tomention constructin . a societ) that is the embo&iment o' the social labor o' comra&es*

urthermore, such a class coul& not !a e an or!ani ed stru le or create a ne! state $o!er*

In the 'ollo!in table, the $resence or absence o' these characteristics in the arious classes an&rou$s is in&icate& b) a ^ or . si n*



Class Pro erties Peasantry ?um en1 roletariat Proletariat 1* conomic e $loitation ^ . ^2* Political o$$ression ^ ^ ^F* Po ert) ^ ^ ^K* Pro&ucti it) ^ . ^5* ree&om 'rom $ri ate $ro$ert) . ^ ^

* 0on&ition o' union in $ro&uction, an& common labor . . ^

In other !or&s, the $easantr).'or instance.lack se eral elements necessar) to make them acommunist class: the) are boun& &o!n b) ro erty,an& it !ill take man) )ears to train them to ane! ie!, !hich can onl) be &one b) ha in the state $o!er in the han&s o' the $roletariat8 also, the

$easantr) are not hel& to ether in $ro&uction, in social labor an& common action8 on the contrar),the $easant#s entire -o) is in his o!n bit o' lan&8 he is accustome& to indi5idualmana ement, not tocoo$eration !ith others* +he lum en roletariat,ho!e er, is barre& chie'l) b) the circumstance thatit $er'orms no $ro&ucti e !ork8 it can tear &o!n, but has no habit o' buil&in u$* Its i&eolo ) iso'ten re$resente& b) the anarchists, concernin !hom a !a once sai& that their !hole $ro ramconsists o' t!o $ara ra$hs* Para. 1* +here shall be no or&er at all8 Para. 2* No one shall be obli e&to com$l) !ith the $rece&in $ara ra$h*

We ha e thus seen ho! the con&itions o' material e istence &etermine the $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo )o' classes in rou$s8 the $roletariat sho!s: hatre& a ainst ca$ital an& its state $o!er, re olutionar)s$irit, the habit o' or ani(e& action, a $s)cholo ) o' comra&eshi$, a $ro&ucti e an& constructi econce$tion o' thin s, a re-ection o' the tra&itional, a ne ati e attitu&e on the "sacre&ness o' $ri ate

$ro$ert)", that $illar o' bour eois societ), etc*8 in the $easantr): lo e o' $ri ate $ro$ert), $re entinthem 'rom 'a orin inno ation8 in&i i&ualism, e clusi eness, sus$icion o' e er)thin l)in outsi&ethe illa e8 in thelu5n en roletariatJshi'tlessness , lack o' &isci$line hatre& o' the ol&, butim$otence to construct or or ani(e an)thin ne!, an in&i i&ualistic &eclasse& "$ersonalit)", !hoseactions are base& onl) on 'oolish ca$rices* In each o' the abo e classes, !e 'in& the i&eolo ) thatcorres$on&s to its $s)cholo ): in the $roletariat, re olutionar) communism8 in the $easantr), a

$ro$ert) i&eolo )8 in the lum en roletariat,a acillatin an& h)sterical anarchism* 3b iousl), oncesuch $s)cholo ical an& theolo ical nucleus is $resent, it !ill set the 'un&amental note 'or the entire

$s)cholo ) an& i&eolo ) o' the class or rou$ concerne&*

In the ol& &iscussions bet!een Mar ists an& Social.%e olutionaries, the latter usuall) 'ormulate& the >uestion 'rom the $oint o' ie! o' $hilanthro$), "ethics", "com$assion" 'or the "!eaker brother", an& similar rubbish o' a rulin classintellectual nature* or most o' these "i&eolo ists", the >uestion o' class !as an ethical >uestion o' the intellectual, !ith

his >ualms o' conscience, !ho, in his &esire to o erthro! absolutism, !hich !as an obstacle in his $ath, sou ht su$$ortin the $easant 4so lon as the latter &i& not set 'ire to the estates o' the intellectual#s aunties an& uncles , !hosecon'i&ence he !ishe& to ain, thus com$ensatin 'or his o!n uilt b) his noble.min&e& assistance* +he Mar ists,ho!e er, !ere not concerne& !ith lacrimose sentiments or $hilanthro$), but !ith a $recise stu&) o' class $eculiarities,!ith findin! out !hat class !oul& lea& in the im$en&in stru le 'or socialism*

< oo& stu&) 4althou h conser ati e an& a$olo etic, su$$ortin the Black Hun&re& o' the $s)cholo ) o' the $easant isto be 'oun& in the book o' the e an elical $astor <* ;#Houet 4 =ur Psycholo!ie des 3auerntums,2n& e&*, +]bin en,192C * +his learne& 0hristian &ominie esteems 7erman)#s $easantr) "abo e all as its su$$l) o' bo&il), mental, moral, an&reli ious health, as the %eich#s !ar.hoar&" 4$*K8 ;#Houet meanscannon1fodder * +he $astor, !ho 'in&s amon theearmarks o' the 'irml) roote& $easantr): its "homo eneous mass", its e clusi eness to the outsi&e !orl&, its 'i&elit) totra&ition, etc*, i es an e cellent &escri$tion o' the class $s)cholo ) o' the $easantr) but he is ins$ire& !ith 'eelin s o'ra$ture !ith those o' its >ualities that !e re ar& as the "i&iotism o' countr) li'e" 4Mar * or instance, ;#Houet $raisesthe inertia o' the $easantr), its a ersion to inno ation* "<s contraste& !ith this outs$oken $re'erence 'or e er)thin thatis ne!, the $easant unmistakabl) belon s to a !orl& that re eres the ol&, that retains the ancient themes o' li'e, continues



to s$in the ol& threa&, to roll the ol& stones* With the &isa& anta e that he remains behin& the times#, &oes not kee$abreast o' the times but !ith the reat a& anta e that all the achie ements o' his li'e, b) reason o' this one.si&e&ness, arecharacteri(e& b) reliabilit), soli&it) trie& an& true metho&s" 4$*1 * +his inertia is 'oun& e er)!here in the $reser ationo' the ori inal settlement, o' the ol& home, o' the ol& 'arm.names, ba$tismal names, costumes, the ol& &ialect, the ol&'olk $oetr), the ol& mechanism o' the soul, the ol& 'acesA In all, !e 'in& the same ol& conser ati e sense*" 4$*1 * Herr;#Houet is &eli hte& !ith the 'act that $easant &!ellin s in 1D 1 !ere $racticall) the same as in the Stone < e* He

re-oices in the here&itar) sim$licit) an& $o ert) o' the $s)che, in the 'act "that the number o' li'e $roblems 'ace& at an)moment, in a reli ious, moral, artistic sense or !hate er other sense . is not er) lar e, that each eneration han&s &o!nthe same su$$l) o' these thin s to the ne t" 4$*29 * He is $lease& to 'in& that these limitations, this "i&iotism" . not the'ault but the mis'ortune o' the $easantr) . is not &estro)e& b) steam an& electricit), 'or this "$rinci$le o' the $ast" is the

basis o' a sim$le ran&iose e istence in the ancient sense" 4AA *0Solidity0,thri't an& a arice, lust for ossession,etc*, areo' course also hi hl) esteeme& b) our &ominie 4as on $* , 'or instance * +hese e am$les 'ull) e $ress the character o'the class $s)cholo ) an& class i&eolo ) o' lan&lor&s an& their $riests, !ho cherish an& nurse $recisel) those >ualities o'the $easantr) that $re ent it 'rom "a& ancin !ith the times"*

+he class $s)cholo ) o' the country no"ility 6i.e.,the 'eu&al lan&hol&ers is characteri(e& b) the same outs$okenconser ati e an& reactionar) s$irit, !hich no other class $ossesses to the same &e ree* +his is not har& to un&erstan&8 the'eu&al lan&hol&ers, as !e kno!, are the re$resentati es o' 'eu&al societ), !hich has no! $asse& a!a) in almost allcountries* i&elit) to tra&ition, to the "establishe& 'orms o' !orshi$ o' the aristocratic 'amil) 4its e cellences, its 'ame, its!orth" , s)mbolicall) e $resse& in the "ancestral tree"8 "merit an& ser ice" the estate, the honor a$$ro$riate to "noblestation", contem$t 'or those o' lo!er station, the attem$t to limit se ual an& all other intercourse to those o' like stationonl)8 these are the characteristic traits o' this once rulin class 4 cf * 7* Simmel:So iolo!ie, $* F et seq* *

+he $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo ) in the classes o' bour eois societ), i*e*, the urban classes, are 'ar more mobile* +he bour eoisie, $articularl) !hen it !as a risin class, not &irectl) threatene& b) the $roletarian b) no means $resente& theconser atism o' the nobilit)* Its characteristic traits !ere: indi5idualism,a result o' the com$etiti e stru le, an&rationalism,a result o' economic calculation, these con&itions bein the basis o' the li'e o' this class* +he li"eral

$s)cholo ) 4 arious "liberties" , an& i&eolo ) !ere base& on the "initiati e o' the entre$reneur"* er) interestinobser ations are ma&e b) Werner Sombart an& Ma Weber, $articularl) on the economic $s)cholo ) o' the bour eoisiean& the arious sta es in its &e elo$ment* +hus Sombart traces the rise o' the entre$reneur $s)cholo ), !hich arosenecessaril) 'rom the 'usin o' three $s)cholo ical t)$es: that o' the con>ueror, o' the or ani(er, o' the tra&er8 'rom thecon>ueror, it takes the abilit) to make $lans, to carr) them out8 the con>ueror has "tou hness an& $ersistence * * *elasticit), mental ener ), hi h tension, an in&omitable !ill"8 the or ani(er must be able to "control men an& thin s insuch manner as to obtain the &esire& $ro'it !ithout an) re&uction"8 the tra&er, the merchant, is ca$able o' tra&in an&

$ro'itin b) tra&e 4Sombart: 8er 3our!eois, M]nchen an& ;ei$(i , 191F, $* C et seq* * +he bour eoisie !ascharacteri(e& at the $erio& o' its hi hest &e elo$ment b) a combination o' these three traits* We ha e alrea&) &iscusse&the $s)cholo ) o' the $roletariat, as our !hole book is concerne& !ith the $roletariat*

It is ob ious that the $s)cholo ) an& i&eolo ) o' the classes will chan!e, de endin! on thealterations in the 0]social "ein!0o' the corres$on&in classes, as has been re$eate&l) state& in the

$rece&in cha$ters* 3ne thin shoul& still be mentione&:the sycholo!y0 of the intermediate classesalso constitutes an intermediate sta!e, while that of the mixed !rou s is a mixed sycholo!y, etc.+his also e $lains the 'act that the bour eoisie an& the $easantr), 'or e am$le, are constantl)

" acillatin " bet!een $roletariat an& bour eoisie, 'or "t!o souls . alasA . &!ell in their breast", etc*<s Mar $uts the matter in his 8er Acht ehnte 3rumaire des ?ouis 3ona arte4Hambur 1DD5, $*FF : "3 er the arious 'orms o' $ro$ert), o er the social con&itions o' e istence, there rises anentire su$erstructure o' arious $eculiarl) constitute& 'eelin s, illusions, mo&es o' thou ht, an&

ie!s o' li'e* +he entire class creates these out o' its material 'oun&ations, as !ell as out o' thecorres$on&in social relations*"

d. The 6Class in +tself6& and the 6Class for +tself6

0lass $s)cholo ) an& class i&eolo ), the consciousness o' the class not onl) as to its momentar)interests, but also as to $ermanent an& uni ersal interests, are a result o' the $osition o' the class in

$ro&uction, !hich b) no means si ni'ies that this $osition o' the class !ill at once $ro&uce in it aconsciousness o' its eneral an& basic interests* 3n the contrar), it ma) be sai& that this is rarel) the



case* or, in the 'irst $lace, the $rocess o' $ro&uction itsel', in actual li'e, oes throu h a number o'sta es o' e olution, an& the contra&ictions in the economic structure &o not become a$$arent until alater $erio& o' e olution8 in the secon& $lace, a class &oes not &escen& 'ull. ro!n 'rom hea en, but

ro!s in a cru&e elemental manner 'rom a number o' other social rou$s 4transition classes,interme&iate an& other classes, strata, social combinations 8 in the thir& $lace, a certain time usuall)

$asses be'ore a class becomes conscious o' itsel' throu h e $erience in battle, o' its s$ecial an& $eculiar interests, as$irations, social "i&eals" an& &esires, !hich em$haticall) &istin uish it 'rom allthe other classes in the i en societ)8 in the 'ourth $lace, !e must not 'or et the s)stematic

$s)cholo ical an& i&eolo ical mani$ulation con&ucte& b) the rulin class !ith the ai& o' its statemachiner) 'or the $ur$ose o' &estro)in the inci$ient class consciousness o' the o$$resse& classes,an& to imbue them !ith the i&eolo ) o' the rulin class, or at least to in'luence them some!hat !iththis i&eolo )* +he result is that a class &ischar in a &e'inite 'unction in the $rocess o' $ro&uctionma) alrea&) e ist as an a re ate o' $ersons be'ore it e ists as a sel'.conscious class8 !e ha e aclass, but no class consciousness* It e ists as a 'actor in $ro&uction, as a s$eci'ic a re ate o'

$ro&uction relations8 it &oes not )et e ist as a social, in&e$en&ent force that kno!s !hat it !ants,that 'eels a mission, that is consciouso' its $eculiar $osition, o' the hostilit) o' its interests to thoseo' the other classes* <s &esi nations 'or these &i''erent sta es in the $rocess o' class e olution, Marmakes use o' t!o e $ressions: he calls class 0an sich04in itself , a class not )et conscious o' itsel' assuch8 he calls class 0fDr sich0 6for itself , a class alrea&) conscious o' its social role*

+his has been s$len&i&l) e $laine& b) Mar in 4he Po5erty of Philoso hy,in the case o' !orkin class e olution:

"It is un&er the 'orm o' these combinations that the 'irst attem$ts at association amon themsel es ha e al!a)s beenma&e b) the !orkers* +he reat in&ustr) masses to ether in a sin le $lace a cro!& o' $eo$le unkno!n to each other*0om$etition &i i&es their interests* But the maintenance o' their !a es, this common interest !hich the) ha e a ainsttheir em$lo)er, unites them in the same i&ea o' resistance 1 com"ination.4Com"inationhere means !orkers#combination, 2.3 * +hus combination has al!a)s a &ouble en&, that o' eliminatin com$etition amon themsel es !hileenablin them to make a eneral com$etition a ainst the ca$italist* I' the 'irst ob-ect o' resistance has been merel) tomaintain !a es, in $ro$ortion as the ca$italists in their turn ha e combine& !ith the i&ea o' re$ression, the combinations,at 'irst isolate&, ha e 'orme& in rou$s, an&, in 'ace o' constantl) unite& ca$ital, the maintenance o' the association

became more im$ortant an& necessar) 'or them than the maintenance o' !a es* +his is so true that the n lisheconomists are all astonishe& at seein the !orkers sacri'ice a oo& $art o' their !a es on behal' o' the associations!hich, in the e)es o' these economists, !ere onl) establishe& in su$$ort o' !a es* In this stru le . a eritable ci il !ar .are unite& an& establishe& all the elements necessar) 'or a 'uture battle* 3nce arri e& at that $oint, association takes on a

$olitical character*

"+he economic con&itions ha e in the 'irst $lace trans'orme& the mass o' the $eo$le o' the countr) into !a e !orkers*+he &omination o' ca$ital has create& 'or this mass o' $eo$le a common situation !ith common interests* +hus this massis alrea&) a class, as o$$ose& to ca ital, but not yet for itself.In the stru le, o' !hich !e ha e onl) note& some $hases,this mass unites, it is constitute& as a class for itself.+he interests !hich it &e'en&s are the interests of its class.044he

Po5erty of Philoso hy,0hica o, 192C, $$*1DD, 1D9 , m) italics, 2. 3.

e. 'orms of a 0elati2e Solidarity of +nterests

rom !hat has been sai& abo e, it is clear that un&er certain circumstances a relati5e class soli&arit) becomes $ossible8 t!o $rinci$al 'orms ma) be &istin uishe&*

In the 'irst $lace, !e ha e the 'orm o' soli&arit) in !hich the $ermanent interest o' one classcoinci&es !ith the tem$orar) interest o' another class, !hile this tem$orar) interest ma) contra&ictthe eneral class interest*





concerne& !ith $ro&uction, the) are o' eneral utilit)* Since the &etecti e bureaus in <merica not onlyt!ist the arms o're olutionar) $roletarians, 0"ut also0catch thie es, all classes ha e an interest to them, etc* It is !ith stu'' o' this kin&that Herr 0uno! 'ills the t!o olumes o' his stu&) on Mar ian sociolo )A

0uno!, ho!e er, e cels all the &istorters o' Mar ism !ith c)nical im$u&ence:

"<ccor&in to the Mar ian theor) o' societ)," !e rea& 4 ol* ii, $* et seq.,o' 0uno!#s !ork , "an) such eneral !ill asso e cellentl) ser e& the $ur$oses o' the ol&er social $hiloso$h), &oes not e ist8 'or societ) is not a uni'ie& thin !ith

$er'ectl) uni'orm interests 4=A societ)A , but it is &i i&e& into classes 4not so ba&8 but !hat is 0uno! oin to &o !ith thestate= Whose !ill is e $resse& b) the state= 2.3 * * +o be sure, there are also eneral social interests, 'or, since a li inan& !orkin to ether in societ) is im$ossible !ithout a certain or&er, all the members o' societ) . !ith the e ce$tion o'those !ho >uestion the e istence o' societ) at all . are intereste& in maintainin this or&er8 but, since the) ha e &i''erentideals of order,&e$en&in on their &i''erent $ositions !ithin the social or&er, the) ha e not the same interest in the

arious rules o' this or&er, !hich the) re ar& 'rom arious $oints o' ie!, &e$en&in on the class an le o' their ision*"+o $ut the matter in $lain !or&s8 men ma) think that it is the bour eoisie that is intereste& in $reser in the ca$italistor&er, !hile the $roletariat is intereste& in o erthro!in this or&er8 but nothin coul& be 'urther 'rom the truth* +he !ise0uno! sets us ri ht on this sub-ect: since li'e is im$ossible !ithout or&er, all ha e an interest in maintainin ca$italism*But since the !orkers ha e a &i''erent "i&eal o' or&er", let them "critici(e the arious rules o' the or&er" . so much0uno! !ill $ermit* But &on#t &are o be)on& that, 'or then )ou !ill be one o' the $ersons !ho ">uestion the e istence o' societ) at all"* +his is Mar ism as re ise& an& su$$lemente& b) 0uno! A

We ma) also take as an e am$le that $erio& in the e olution o' the !orkin class !hen it li e& in aso calle& "$atriarchal" relation !ith the entre$reneurs in each s$eci'ic in&ustr)8 in ie! o' the

eneral !eakness o' social institutions, the !orkers ha& an interest in the success o' the enter$rise*+he !orkers an& their "bene'actors", their em$lo)ers, a''or& an e cellent illustration o' a relati esoli&arit) o' interests at the e $ense o' the eneral class interests*

< certain analo ) is a''or&e& b) the communit) o' interests bet!een sla5esan& sla5eholdersinanti>uit), so lon as there !ere still "sla es o' the sla es" 4the %oman 5icarii). +he sla es !ho hel&sla es !ere themsel es sla e.o!ners, their interests thus coinci&e&, to this e tent, !ith thesla ehol&ers o' the "'irst &e ree"* In the $resent.&a) a ricultural coo$erati es in Western uro$e !eo'ten 'in& the $easantr) !orkin han& in han& !ith the reat lan&lor&s an& the ca$italist estateo!ners* +he $easants unite !ith the others in or&er to &is$ose o' their a ricultural $ro&ucts8 bein sellers, the) are o$$ose& to the urban $o$ulation8 the) &esire hi h ricesas much as &oes the!ealth) estate.o!ner*

We are no! alrea&) lea in the outlines o' the 'irst 'orm o' soli&arit), since in this case a truea ricultural bour eoisie, recruite& 'rom the $easantr), &i''ers in no res$ect 'rom the here&itar)a ricultural bour eoisie*

+he best e am$les o' the second 'orm o' relati e class soli&arit), namel), !here this relati esoli&arit) is not in contra&iction !ith the $ermanent interests o' the classes in ol e&, are 'oun& incases o' class attacks a ainst the common enem), !hich are >uite $ossible at a certain sta e o'e olution* or e am$le, in the 'irst $hase o' the rench %e olution, the 'eu&al s)stem !as o$$ose&

b) differentclasses, both in econom) as !ell as in $olitics: the bour eoisie, the $ett) bour eoisie, the $roletariat, all these rou$s bein intereste& in o erthro!in 'eu&alism* 3' course, this eneral "loc later &isinte rate&, an& the $ett) bour eoisie, in s$ite o' its stru les a ainst the reat bour eoisie,!hich ha& become counter.re olutionar), simultaneousl) 'ou ht the inci$ient $roletarian mo ementruthlessl)* Here !e ha e a tem$orar) class soli&arit) at ariance !ith the eneral an& $ermanentinterests o' the classes*



f. Class Struggle and Class Peace

arious ra&ations o' interest i e rise to arious 'orms o' stru le* <s alrea&) sho!n, not e er)interest o' a section o' a main class is 'or that reason the class interest* I' the interest of the !orkerso' a sin le 'actor) contra&icts the interests o' the remainin sections o' the !orkin class, !e ha enot a class interest, but a rou$ interest* But e en !hen !e are &ealin !ith the interest o' a rou$ o' !orkers !hich &oes not colli&e !ith the interests o' other rou$s, the rou$s ma) )et 'ail to beunite&, class interest bein absent in the consciousness o' the classes8 strictl) s$eakin , there is )etno class stru le: the be innin s o' a class interest, the erms o' a class stru le, are $resent* < classinterest arises when. it laces one class in o osition to another. 4he class stru!!le arises when itthrows one class into acti5e conflict with the other.0lass stru le, there'ore, in the true sense,&e elo$s onl) at a s$eci'ic sta e in the e olution o' class societ)* In other $hases o' social e olutionit re eals itsel' as a !erm1form4in&i i&ual sections o' the class are 'i htin 8 the stru le has not )eta& ance& to embrace the class as a $rinci$le, unitin the entire class , or as a conceale&, "latent"'orm 4o$en con'lict &oes not ensue8 "stoli& resistance" is o''ere&8 the rulin class is 'orce& to $a)attention to this resistance * " reeman an& sla e, $atrician an& $lebeian, baron an& ser', uil&member an& a$$rentice, in short, o$$ressors an& o$$resse& all !ere o$$ose& in like manner to eachother, !a e& fA an uninterru$te&, no! hi&&en, no! o$en battle, a battle that al!a)s terminate& in are olutionar) trans'ormation o' the !hole societ) or !ith a common &estruction o' the stru linclasses" 64he Communist <anifesto).It !ill be use'ul to consi&er a 'e! more e am$les*

;et us su$$ose, in a sla ehol&in societ), that an insurrection is takin $lace in a lati'un&ium belon in to a reat lan&o!ner8 there is $lun&erin , &ama e to thin s an& $ersons, etc* We ma) lnot call this a class stru le in the $ro$er sense o' the !or&: it is the elemental 'ur) o' a small sectiono' the sla e class* +he class as a !hole is calm8 a small ban& !a es a bitter stru le, but remainsisolate&, inclu&es but 'e! in its numbers* +he class as such &oes not come into action8 one class is

here not o$$osin another* uite &i''erent is the case !hen the rebellious sla es, le& b) S$artacus,'ou ht a real ci il !ar 'or their liberation8 here the sla e masses!ere carrie& a!a): this is classstru le*

3r, let us consi&er the e am$le o' a mo ement 'or hi her !a es amon the !a e !orkers o' a'actor)* I' all the other !orkers in the countr) remain calm, !e ha e onl) the $romise o' a classstru le, 'or the class as )et is not kin&le&* ;et us consi&er, ho!e er, the case o' a "strike !a e"*+his is class stru le: one class stan&s o$$ose& to the other* We are no lon er &ealin !ith theinterests o' the rou$ im$ellin another rou$, but !ith the interests o' a class im$ellin anotherclass*

+he e am$le o' the $easant ser' is also interestin * <mon , these ser's, there !as a a ue, sullen&iscontent8 this 'eelin ma) break out, but since the class as a !hole continues to be hel& &o!n, it&oes not &o so8 the sla es, in terror, &o not 'i ht, but "mutter"*# +his is the "conceale&" 'orm o' thestru le, mentione& b) Mar * 0lass stru le there'ore means a stru le in !hich one class hasentered into action a!ainst the other class. rom this arises the e tremel) im$ortant $rinci$le that0e5ery class stru!!le is a olitical stru!!le04Mar * In&ee&, !hen the o$$resse& class rises as a class

$o!er to o$$ose the o$$ressin class, this si ni'ies that the o$$resse& class is un&erminin the baseso' the e istin or&er* <n& since the or ani(ation o' owero' the e istin or&er is the stateor ani(ation o' the comman&in class, it is ob ious that each action o' the o$$resse& class is &irectl)aime& a ainst the state mechanism, e en thou h the $artici$ants in the stru le o' the o$$resse&class ma) not at 'irst be 'ull) conscious o' their hostilit) to the state $o!er* ach such action isthere'ore necessaril) $olitical in character*



<n interestin error o' the I*W*W*, in the 6nite& States, an& o' re olutionar) s)n&icalists in eneral,ma) be &etecte& b) a$$l)in this $rinci$le* +he I*W*W* re-ect the $olitical stru le entirel), 'or the)nai el) un&erstan& it to be s)non)mous !ith the $arliamentar) stru le* But i' the I*W*W* shoul&or ani(e a eneral strike, or onl) a strike o' railroa& !orkers, miners an& metal !orkers, it is ob iousthat this strike !oul& ha e an immense olitical alue, because it !oul& ha e succee&e& in

or ani(in the most im$ortant armies o' the $roletariat, in terri')in the bour eoisie as a class, inthreatenin to cut a breach in the machiner) o' the or ani(e& bour eoisie8 an& there'ore, because thisstrike !oul& be &irecte&, in realit), a ainst the state $o!er o' the bour eoisie*

+his trans'ormation o' the in&i i&ual e$iso&es o' con'lict into the class stru le, in the case o' the $roletariat ise cellentl) sho!n b) Mar in the Communist <anifesto."No! an& then the !orkers are ictorious, but onl) 'or a time*+he real 'ruit o' their battles lies, not in the imme&iate result, but in the e $an&in unison o' the !orkers* +his unison ishel$e& on b) the im$ro e& means o' communication that are create& b) mo&ern in&ustr), an& that $lace the !orkers o'&i''erent localities in contact !ith one another* It !as -ust this contact that !as nee&e& to centrali(e the numerous localstru les, o' the same character, into one national stru!!le "etween classes, "ut e5ery class stru!!le is a olitical stru!!leJ0 4Communist <anifesto,*0hica o, 1912, $$*2K, 25* Mar &e'ines this trans'ormation o' the arious con'lictsinto a class, i.e., $olitical con'lict, as 'ollo!s: 02ota "ene ad $olitical mo ement: +he olitical mo5emento' the !orkin

class has o' course, the 'inal ob-ect o' con>uerin the olitical ower'or that class, !hich re>uires, o' course, a $re iousor ani(ation o' the workin! class to a certain $oint, !hich or ani(ation is con&itione& b) its o!n economic stru le* 3nthe other han&, an) mo ement in !hich the !orkin class is o$$ose& as a class to its rulers, seekin to com$el them b) ressure from without, isa olitical mo5ement0 3riefe an Sor!e, $*2KC, also >uote& b) 0uno!, i"id *, ol* ii, $*59 theitalici(e& $assa es are in n lish in Mar #s letter8 both Mar an& n els, o!in to their lon sta) in n lan&, interlar&e&their letters !ith n lish !or&s* 4ranslator * Herr 0uno!, in >uotin this $assa e, inter$rets it as 'ollo!s: "at a certainsta e in e olution, arious social classes &e elo$ out o' the economic $rocess as a !hole, !ith their s$ecial economicinterests, in accor&ance !ith their role in this $rocess, an& attem$t to $ut throu h these interests in the $olitical li'e"4i"id *, ol* ii, $*59 * +his commentar) is not >uite correct, 'or 0uno! su$$resses the most im$ortant $oint, the $oint to!hich Mar i es chie' em$hasis: the o$$osition o' one class to the other in $rinci$le, !hen each stru le is a $ortion o'the $rocess o' the eneral stru le 'or $o!er an& 'or &omination in societ)*

In an e ce$tionall) im$u&ent article: 8ie <arxKsclae Geschichtsauffassun!4 PreussicheQlahr"Dcher,192C, ol* 1D2, no*2, $*15 et seq* , Pro'essor Hans /elbr]ck "critici(es" the theor) o' the class stru le, simultaneousl) &is$la)in a trul)titanic i norance in matters o' Mar ism* 3n $*1 5 he maintains that Mar 'aile& to &istin uish classes 'rom castes8 on

$*15 he states that there !as no "&estruction" o' the t!o classes in ancient %ome, !hile he a&mits the &ecline o' the%oman m$ire to be an un&eniable 'act* irst there !ere ci il !ars, a'ter !hich neither the ictors nor the an>uishe&sla es !ere ca$able o' lea&in societ) on!ar&* 3n $*1 he sa)s that 'eu&alism ne er e iste& in n lan&A 3n $*1 9 he"re'utes" Mar !ith the 'act that the $easants sometimes -oin han&s !ith the Eunkers 4 cf. our o!n remarks in lar e t)$e ,etc* But the em o' his "ob-ections" is the 'ollo!in e am$le* /elbr]ck >uotes an ancient te t &isco ere& b) the !ell.kno!n )$tolo ist, hrmann, in !hich !e# rea& o' the ancient )$tian re olution, in !hich the sla es mana e& tosei(e $o!er* +his te t is interestin in that it mi ht ha e been !ritten b) Mere(hko sk) or an) other White 7uar&

entleman in his ra e a ainst the Bolshe iks8 It &e$icts the most 'ri ht'ul atrocities* Herr /elbr]ck calls our attention tothis horrible e am$le o' the class stru le= But this !orth) an& trul) 7erman $ro'essor 'alls >uite un!ittin l) into hiso!n tra$ !hen he a&&s the !or&s that this con&ition laste& 'or "three hun&re& )ears" 4$*1 1 * <n) 'ool !oul& kno! thatthere can be no $ossibilit) o' maintainin li'e 'or three hun&re& )ears in a state o' absolute anarch) an& !ithout

$ro&uction* +hin s, there'ore, cannot ha e been >uite so ba&, an& /elbr]ck#s ar ument, an a$$eal to the emotionso' theterri'ie& bour eois, is sim$l) ri&iculous*

<musin ob-ections to the Mar ian theor) are also raise& b) Mr* E* /ele sk) 4 4he Social Anta!onisms and the ClassStru!!le in Mistory,Petersbur , 191C, in %ussian 8 his chie' ob-ection is the 'ollo!in * <'ter >uotin this $assa e 'rom

n els: It !as Mar ,8 himsel' !ho ha& 'irst &isco ere& the com$lete la! o' motion o' histor) the la! accor&in to !hichall historical stru les, !hether $rocee&in on the $olitical, reli ious, $hiloso$hical, or an) other i&eolo ical roun&, arein 'act onl) the more or less &istinct e $ression o' the stru les bet!een social classes" 4Mar : 8er Acht ehnte 3rumairedes ?ouis 3ona arte, Hambur , 1DD5, n els# $re'ace to the 2n& e&* , Mr* /ele sk) states that he a rees !ith Sombart#so$inion that the $rinci$le o' the class stru le must be re$lace& b) the $rinci$le o' the stru!!le "etween nations. +heob-ection o' Plekhano , !ho sai& that nothin nee& be a&&e& here, since the class stru le is a conce$tion connecte& !iththe internal $rocesses o' societ) an& not !ith the relations bet!een societies, is consi&ere& insu''icient b) Mr* /ele sk)*" ither . or", !rites Mr* /ele sk), "either histor) is base& on t!o $rinci$les or on one* I' on t!o $rinci$les . that o' theclass stru le an& that o' the stru le bet!een nations . !hat is the la! !hich is 'ormulate& in the secon& $rinci$le= * *But i' " !e ha e onl) the $rinci$le o' the class stru le, !hat sense is there in &istin uishin the stru le !ithin societ)



'rom the stru le bet!een societies= " 3r, $erha$s the societies, nations, states, are like!ise classes=" 4$*92 , +hisstatement is trul) &eli ht'ul* ;et us look into the matter8 t!o 'un&amental situations are $ossible: either !e &ealin !ith asociet) 4 'or instance, the !orl&.!i&e econom) o' the $resent &a) &i i&e& into the state or ani(ations o' the "national"sections o' the bour eoisie, or !ith the rather loose, differentsocieties 4'or instance, i' !ar is !a e& bet!een &i''erent

$eo$les, one o' !hich . let us sa) . has su&&enl) intru&e& 'rom er) remote re ions, as has ha$$ene& re$eate&l) in thecourse o' histor): the con>uest o' Me ico b) the S$aniar&s is an e am$le * In this first case, the stru le bet!een the

bour eoisies is a s$ecial 'orm o' ca$italist com$etition* No one but /ele sk) coul& e en ima ine that the theor) o' theclass stru le !oul& e clu&e, 'or instance, ca$italist com$etition, !hich is a 'orm o' the anta onisms !ithin the class,!hich ha e ne er succee&e& in alterin the bases o' the i en structure o' $ro&uction* While the Mar ian theor)reco ni(es the $ossibilit) o' a relati e clarit) bet!een classes, it also reco ni(es the $ossibilit) o' a relati e anta onism!ithin the classes* It is har& to see ho! this re'utes the theor) o' the class stru le* Second case.+his is a metho&olo ical>uestion* +he theor) o' the e olution o' societ) is the theor) o' an e olution o' an a"stract societ), an& it is >uite truethat this theor) &oes not nee& to concern itsel' !ith the relations bet!een societies8 it anal)(es the nature o' societ) in !eneral, ascertainin the la!s o' e olution o' this "societ) in eneral"* But i' !e lea e these >uestions in 'a or o' moreconcrete >uestions, i*e*, amon others, the >uestion o' the relations bet!een the arious societies, !e shall a ain obtains$ecial la!s, !hich in their turn are also not in contra&iction !ith the Mar ian theor)8 not 'or the reason that the &i''erentsocieties are &i''erent classes 4this assum$tion o' Mr* /ele sk) is sim$l) !ron , but because "e $ansion" itsel' haseconomic causes, since . let us sa) . con>uest ine itabl) is trans'orme& into a re rou$in o' class 'orces8 because in suchcases the hi her mo&e o' $ro&uction "belo!" al!a)s carries o'' the ictor), etc* Nothin in this in ali&ates in an) !a)

the theor) o' the class stru le*

We ha e there'ore seen that the o$$resse& classes &o not al!a)s !a e a class stru le in the $ro$ersense o' the !or&, !hich b) no means si ni'ies . as !e ha e also seen . that such com$arati el)

$eace'ul e$ochs are 'ille& !ith nothin but $eace an& harmon)* It merel) si ni'ies that the classstru le is $rocee&in in a conceale& or inci$ient 'arm* It !ill later become a class stru le in thetrue sense o' the !or&* ;et us not 'or et that &ialectics concei es e er)thin as in course o' motion,e olution* en i' the class stru le be absent, it is e5ol5in!, it " ro!s"* Such is the case !ith theo$$resse& classes* <s 'or the rulin classes, the) are !a in the class stru le unceasin!ly. or thee istence o' the state or ani(ation $ro es that the rulin class has constitute& itsel' as a class foritself,as a state $o!er* +his im$lies a com$lete consciousness o' the 'un&amental interests o' thisclass, !hich !a es !ar !ith the classes !hose interests o$$ose it 4!ar a ainst the imme&iate &an er as !ell as a ainst $ossible &an ers , 'or !hich $ur$ose it makes use o' all the instruments o' thestate machiner)*

g. The Class Struggle and the State Po8er

We ha e alrea&) consi&ere& the $roblem o' the state as a su$erstructure &etermine& b) the economic basis 4see 'irst $art o' "+he Su$erstructure an& its 3utlines," cha$ter i, d, o' this !ork * We mustno! a$$roach this >uestion 'rom another an le, namel), that o' the class stru le* We must a ainem$haticall) $oint out that the state or ani(ation is exclusi5ely a class or!ani ation8 it is the class

!hich "has constitute& its state $o!er", it is the "concentrate&" an& or ani(e& social authorit) o' theclass 4Mar * +he o$$resse& class, the bearer o' the ne! mo&e o' $ro&uction, in the course o' thestru le, as !e ha e seen . becomes trans'orme& 'rom a class in itself into a class for itself in thisstru le, it creates its 'i htin or ani(ations, !hich to an increasin &e ree buil& u$ or ani(ationsthat carr) !ith them the entire mass o' the i en class* When re olution, ci il !ar, etc*, is at han&,these or ani(ations break throu h the enem)#s 'ront an& constitute the 'irst cells o' the ne! statemechanism in o$en or conceale& 'orm* or e am$le, in the rench %e olution: "+he $eo$le#s# orEacobin rou$s . the 'ormer Societies o' rien&s o' the 0onstitution, !ere at 'irst bour eois an& no!

became &emocratic, Monta nar&s, Sansculottes, a& ocates o' e>ualit) an& unit) * * * * +he) !ere'oun&e& 'or the $ur$ose o' $o$ular enli htenment, 'or $ro$a an&a rather than 'or action8 butcircumstances 'orce& them into $olitical action, to $artici$ate &irectl) in the a&ministration 4!hen

the $ett) bour eoisie came to the helm* 2.3 * * B) the /ecree o' 1Kth rimaire, the Eacobins in all o'rance became the electors an& the $uri'iers o' the o''icial&om*" 2 "+akin e er)thin into





consi&eration * * * it !as $recisel) the Eacobin clubs that no! maintaine& unit) an& sa e& thecountr)*"F In the n lish %e olution, the re olutionar) "<rm) 0ouncil" $ro i&e& the men 'or theState 0ouncil* /urin the %usslan re olution the 'i htin or ani(ations o' the !orkers an& sol&iers .the so iets . an& the e treme re olutionar) $art) . the communists . became the 'un&amentalor ani(ations o' the ne! state*

+!o t)$es o' ar uments are use& in ob-ectin to the class conce$tion o' the state authorit)*

+he 'irst t)$e is o' the 'ollo!in kin&: the $eculiarit) o' the tate is its centrali(e& a&ministration8there'ore, the anarchists tell us, an) centrali(e& a&ministration is a state authorit)* +here'ore, e enthe most a& ance& communist societ), i' it has a s)stematic econom), !ill also be a state* +hisreasonin is base& entirel) on the nai e bour eois error: bour eois science, instea& o' $ercei ins$ecial relations, $ercei es relations bet!een thin!s, or technical relations* But it is ob ious that the"essence" o' the state is not in the thin! but in the social relation8 not in the centrali(e&a&ministration as such, but in the class en5elo eo' the centrali(e& a&ministration* <s ca$ital is not athin 4as is, 'or instance, a machine , but a social relation bet!een !orkers an& em$lo)ers, a relatione $resse& b) means o' a thin , so centrali(ation er se b) no means necessaril) si ni'ies a stateor ani(ation8 it &oes not become a state or ani(ation until it e $resses a class relation*

+he secon& ob-ection to the class theor) o' the state has alrea&) been consi&ere&, in $art* +hisob-ection is still more ri&iculous, bein base& on the conce$tion that the state &ischar es a number o'

enerall) use'ul 'unctions 4'or e am$le, the mo&ern ca$italist state buil&s electrical $o!er stations,hos$itals, railroa&s, etc* * +his ar ument unites most $atheticall) in one rou$: the Social./emocrat0uno!, the %i ht Social.%e olutionar) E* /ele sk), the conser ati e /elbr]ck, an& e en theBab)lonian kin HammurabiA But this honorable com$an) is much mistaken* or the e istence o'

enerall) use'ul 'unctions on the $art o' the state &oes not alter the $ure class character o' the stateauthorit)* +he rulin class is obli e& to resort to all kin&s o' " enerall) use'ul" enter$rises in or&er tomaintain its abilit) to e $loit the masses, e ten& its 'iel& o' e $loitation, an& secure the "normal"!orkin o' this e $loitation* 0a$italism can o' course not &e elo$ $ro$erl) !ithout an e tensi erailroa& s)stem, !ithout tra&e schools 4i' there are no skille& laborers, no scienti'ic institutes, there!ill be no im$ro ement in ca$italist techni>ue, etc*, etc* * In all these measures, the state $o!er o'the ca$italists is ui&e& b) its class interests* We ha e alrea&) i en the trusts as an e am$le8 thetrust also ui&es $ro&uction, !ithout !hich societ)* cannot e ist, but it ui&es $ro&uction in the&irection o' its class a& anta e* 3r, to take the e am$le o' some ancient &es$otic state o' reatlan&lor&s, such as that o' the )$tian Pharaohs, !hose hu e constructions 'or re ulatin the courseo' ri ers !ere o' eneral utilit)* +he Pharaonic state &i& not, ho!e er, maintain these constructions'or the $ur$ose o' a ertin har&shi$ 'or the star in , or subser in the eneral !eal, but merel)

because the) !ere a necessar) con&ition 'or the $rocess o' $ro&uction, !hich !as simultaneousl) a rocess of ex loitation.0lass a& anta e !as the basic im$ulse in acti it)8 such measures ma) not betaken, there'ore, as a $roo' o' the incorrectness o' the class $oint o' ie!*

<nother rou$ o' enerall) use'ul measures is calle& 'orth b) the o$$ression o' the "lo!er classes",'or e am$le, the labor $rotection le islation in ca$italist countries* Man) hair.s$littin scholars 4likethe %ussian $seu&o.sociolo ist, +akhtare there'ore &o not consi&er the state as a $ure classor ani(ation, 'or it is base& ultimatel) on a com$romise* < moment#s thou ht !ill correct this ie!*/oes the ca$italist, 'or instance, cease to be "$ure ca$italist", because his 'ear o' strikes makes himsee a& anta eto himselfo' makin concessions= ;ike!ise, the state ma) make concessions to otherclasses, as the em$lo)er, in the abo e e am$le, makes concessions to the !orkers* But &oes not

si ni') that the state ceases to be a $ure class state, an or ani(ation o' a class bloc, i.e., becomin atrul) an& enerall) use'ul or ani(ation*





Naturall), Herr 0uno! &oes not un&erstan& this either* It is a $leasant si ht to behol& the im$u&ent Pro'essor Hans/elbr]ck, !hom !e ha e alrea&) mentione&, $okin 'un at these crack.braine& &istorters o' Mar ism: "+he &i''erence

bet!een us social.$oliticall) thinkin $ersons, an& )ou, is onl) a &i''erence o' &e ree* @ou ha e onl) to take a 'e! ste$smore on the $ath )ou ha e be un, entlemen, an& )our Mar ian nebula !ill soon be &issi$ate&" 4Hans /elbr]ck8 o . cit *,

$*1 2 *

h. Class& Party& /eaders

< class is a rou$ o' $ersons connecte& b) reason o' their common situation in $ro&uction, an&there'ore also b) their common situation in &istribution, in other !or&s, b) common interests l 4classinterests * But it !oul& be absur& to su$$ose that e er) class is a thorou hl) uni'ie& !hole, all $arts

bein o' e>ual im$ortance, !ith +om, /ick, an& Harr) all on the same le el* In the mo&ern !orkinclass, 'or instance, there is no &oubt much ine>ualit) in brain.$o!er an& abilit)* en the "bein " o'the arious $arts o' the !orkin class is une>ual* +his is &ue to the 'act that, 'irst, com$leteuni'ormit) o' the economic units is absent, an& secon&, the !orkin class &oes not ste$ &o!n 'ull.

ro!n 'rom hea en, but is bein constantl) recruite&, 'rom the $easantr), the artisan class, the urban

$ett) bour eoisie, i.e., 'rom other rou$s o' ca$italist societ)*< !orker in a hu e, s$len&i&l) e>ui$$e& $lant is a &i''erent $erson 'rom the !orker in a small sho$,the cause o' the &i''erence in this case bein the &i''erence in the establishments, as !ell as bet!eenthe entire resultin mo&es o' !ork* Proletarian "a e" must also be consi&ere& as an element, 'or a

$easant !ho has -ust taken a -ob in a 'actor) is &i''erent 'rom a !orker !ho has been in a 'actor)since chil&hoo&*

+he &i''erence in "bein " is also re'lecte& in consciousness* +he $roletariat is unequal in itsconsciousness as it is une>ual in its $osition* It is more or lessa unit as com$are& !ith the otherclasses, but not !ith re ar& to its o!n arious $arts*

+he !orkin class, there'ore, as to their class consciousness, i.e.,their $ermanent, eneral, not their $ersonal, not their uil& or rou$ interests, but as to the interests o' the class as a whole, is&i i&e&into a num"er of !rou s and su"1!rou s, as a sin!le chain consists of a num"er of links of 5aryin! stren!th*

+his inequality of the class isthe reason 'or the e istence o' the $art)* I' the !orkin class !ere $er'ectl) an& absolutel) uni'orm, it coul& at an) moment come out in its 'ull stren th8 its stru lesmi ht be le& b) $ersons chosen in rotation a $ermanent or ani(ation o' lea&ershi$ !oul& besu$er'luous an& unnecessar)* <s a matter o' actual 'act, the stru le o' the !orkin class isine itable8 this stru le must be ui&e&8 this ui&ance is the more necessar), since the o$$onent is

$o!er'ul an& cunnin , an& 'i htin him is a serious matter* We naturall) e $ect to 'in& the entireclass le& b) that section o' it that is most a& ance&, best schoole&, most unite&: the arty*

+he $art) is not the class8 in 'act, it ma) be but a small $art o' the class, as the hea& is but a small $art o' the bo&)* But it !oul& be absur& to attem$t to 'in& an o$$osition bet!een the $art) an& theclass* +he $art) is sim$l) the thin that best e $resses the interests o' the class* We ma) distin!uish

bet!een class an& $art), as !e &istin uish bet!een the hea& an& the entire bo&), but cannot &iscussthem as o osites, -ust as !e cannot cut o'' a man#s hea&, unless !e !ish to shorten his li'e*

3n !hat &oes the result o' the stru le &e$en& un&er these con&itions= It &e$en&s on a $ro$errelation bet!een the arious $arts o' the !orkin class, $articularl) on a $ro$er mutual relation

bet!een those in the $art) an& those outsi&e o' it* 3n the one han& ui&ance an& lea&ershi$ arenecessar)8 on the other, instruction an& con iction* No lea&ershi$ is $ossible !hich &oes not instruct





We ma) obser e this 'act e en in Herr 0uno!#s $art), the 7erman Social./emocrac)* <bsorbin more an& more non.!orkers, rece&in 'urther an& 'urther 'rom the !orkin class, b) su$$ortin chie'l) the aristocrac) o' skille& labor in thatclass, the 7erman Social./emocrac) has also chan e& the mental.$olitical thou ht.com$le o' its "$lat'orm", !hich has

become much more mo&erate in its &eman&s8 in its i&eolo ), it there'ore 'a ors the !ell . roome&.$ar&on the !or& .castrate& "Mar ism" o' Herr 0uno!, chooses Herr Bernstein an ol& betra)er o' Mar ism as inter$reter o' its $ro ram,an& makes Herr orlZn&er 4an i&ealist ?antian its o''icial $hiloso$her*

i. The Classes as an +nstrument of Social Transformation

I' !e consi&er societ) as a certain s)stem &e elo$in ob-ecti el), !e 'in& that transitions 'rom oneclass s)stem 4'rom one "social 'ormation o' classes" to another is accom$lishe& throu h a bitterclass stru le* In this ob-ecti e $rocess o' social chan es the classes constitute the basic a$$aratus o' transmission 'or resha$in the entire bo&) o' the li in con&itions o' societ)* +he structure o' societ)chan es throu!h men an& not outsi&e o' men8 the $ro&uction relations are as much a $ro&uct o'human stru le an& o' human acti it) as are 'la or linen 4Mar * But i' !e seek amon 8 thecountless in&i i&ual !ills runnin in all &irections, but ultimatel) )iel&in a certain social resultant,to 'in& the basic ten&enc), !e shall obtain certain uni'orm "bun&les o' !ills": "the class !ills"* +heseare most shar$l) &i''erentiate& in re olution, i.e., in an u$hea al o' societ) &urin a transition 'romone class 'orm to another*

But hi&&en behin& the la! o' cause an& e''ect in the e olution o' the class !ill an& the arious $ermutations an& combinations in the clash o' the o$$ose& class !ills . &i''erin 'rom each other . isthe $ro'oun&er causalit) o' the ob-ecti e e olution, a causalit) that &etermines the $henomena o' the!ill at e er) sta e in e olution*

urthermore, the $henomena o' the !ill are limited b) e ternal con&itions, i.e., each alteration inthese con&itions, $rocee&in un&er the re erse in'luence o' the human !ill, is limite& b) the

$rece&in sta e in these con&itions* +hus, the class stru le an& the class !ill constitute an acti etransmission a$$aratus in the transition 'rom one social structure to another*

+he ne! class, in this $rocess, ser es as the or ani(er an& bearer o' the ne! social an& economicor&er* < class !hich is not the bearer o' a ne! mo&e o' $ro&uction cannot "trans'orm" societ)* 3nthe contrar), the class $o!er !hich embo&ies the ro!in an& e er a& ancin con&itions o'

$ro&uction, is also the 'un&amental li in le er o' social trans'ormation* +hus, the bour eoisie, !henit !as the bearer o' ne! con&itions o' $ro&uction an& a ne! economic structure, shunte& societ)'rom its ol& 'eu&al track to that o' bour eois e olution8 similarl), the $roletariat, the bearer an&or ani(er o' the socialistic class 'ormulation !ill shi't societ) . no lon er ca$able o' li in on the

basis . 'rom the bour eois track to that o' socialism*

*. The Classless Society of the 'uture

Here !e encounter a >uestion that has been but little &iscusse& in Mar ian literature* We ha e seenthat the class rules throu h the $art), the $art) throu h its lea&ers8 each class an& each $art)there'ore ha in its sta'' o' o''icers* +his sta'' is technicall) necessar), 'or !e ha e seen that it is theresult o' the lack o' uni'ormit) !ithin the class an& the ine>ualit) o' the $art) members, ach classthere'ore has its or ani(ers* ie!in the e olution o' societ) 'rom this $oint o' ie!, !e ma)reasonabl) ask the 'ollo!in >uestion* Is . in eneral . the communist classless societ), o' !hichMar ists s$eak, a $ossibilit)=

It is* We kno! that the classes themsel es ha e risen or anicall) as n els &escribe&, 'rom the&i ision o' labor, 'rom the or ani(ational 'unctions that ha& become technicall) necessar) 'or the



'urther e olution o' societ)* 3b iousl), in the societ) o' the 'uture, such or ani(ational !ork !illalso be necessar)* 3ne mi ht ob-ect that the societ) o' the 'uture !ill not in ol e $ri ate $ro$ert), or the 'ormation o' such $ri ate $ro$ert), an& it is $recisel) this $ri ate $ro$ert) that constitutes this

basis o' the class*

But this ar ument nee& not remain unans!ere&* Pro'essor %obert Michels, in his er) interestin book, =ur So iolo!ie des Parteiwesens in der modernen 8emokratie4;ei$(i 191C, $*F C sa)s:"/oubts a ain arise on this $oint, ho!e er, !hose consistent a$$lication !oul& lea& to an outri ht&enial o' the $ossibilit) o' a classless state 4the author shoul& not ha e sai& state# but societ)# . 2.3 * +heir a&ministration o' boun&less ca$ital 4i.e., means o' $ro&uction . 2.3 * assi ns at least asmuch $o!er to the a&ministrators as !oul& $ossession o' their o!n $ri ate $ro$ert)* " ie!e& 'romthis $oint o' ie!, the entire e olution o' societ) seems to be nothin more than a substitution o' one

rou$ o' lea&ers 'or another* <ccor&in l), il're&o Pareto s$eaks o' a "theor) o' the circulation o'Xlites" 4th7orie de la circulation des 7lites* I' this ie! is a correct one, Michels must also be correctin his conclusion, i*e*, socialists ma) be ictorious, but not socialism* <n e am$le !ill sho!Michels# error* When the bour eoisie is in $o!er, it is b) reason o' the $o!er . as !e kno! . not o'all the members o' the class, but o' its lea&ers* @et it is e i&ent that this con&ition &oes not result in aclass strati'ication withinthe bour eoisie* +he lan&lor&s in %ussia rule& their hi h o''icials,constitutin an entire sta'', an entire stratum, but this stratum &i& not set itsel' u$ as a class a ainstthe other lan&lor&s* +he reason !as that these other lan&lor&s &i& not ha e a lo!er stan&ar& o' li inthan that o' the 'ormer8 'urthermore, their cultural le el !as about the same, on the !hole, an& therulers !ere constantl) recruite& 'rom this class*

n els !as there'ore ri ht !hen he sai& that the classes u$ to a certain moment are an out ro!th o'the insu''icient e olution o' the $ro&ucti e 'orces8 a&ministration is necessar), but there is notsu''icient brea& 'or all, so to s$eak* Parallel !ith the ro!th, o' the sociall) necessar) or ani(ational'unctions, !e there'ore ha e also a ro!th o' $ri ate $ro$ert)* But communist societ)# is a societ)!ith hi hl) &e elo$e&, increase& $ro&ucti e 'orces* 0onse>uentl), it can ha e no economic basis 'or the creation o' its $eculiar rulin class* or . e en assumin the $o!er o' the a&ministrators to bestable, as &oes Michels . this $o!er !ill be then $o!er o' s$ecialists o er machines, not o er men*Ho! coul& the), in 'act, reali(e this $o!er !ith re ar& to men= Michels ne lects the 'un&amental&ecisi e 'act that each a&ministrati el) &ominant $osition has hitherto been an en elo$e 'oreconomic e $loitation* +his economic e $loitation ma) not be sub&i i&e&* But there !ill not e ene ist a stable, close cor$oration, &ominatin the machines, 'or the 'un&amental basis 'or the'ormation o' mono$ol) rou$s !ill &isa$$ear8 !hat constitutes an eternal cate or) in Michels

$resentation, namel), the "incom$etence o' the masses" !ill &isa$$ear, 'or this incom$etence is b)no means a necessar) attribute o' e er) s)stem8 it like!ise is a $ro&uct o' the economic an&

technical con&itions, e $ressin themsel es in the eneral cultural bein an& in the e&ucationalcon&itions* We ma) state that in the societ) o' the 'uture there !ill be a colossal o er$ro&uction o'or ani(ers, !hich !ill nulli') the sta"ility o' the rulin rou$s*

But the >uestion o' the transition eriod'rom ca$italism to socialism, i*e*, the $erio& o' the $roletarian &ictatorshi$, is 'ar more &i''icult* +he !orkin class achie es ictor), althou h it is notan& cannot be a uni'ie& mass* It attains ictor) !hile the $ro&ucti e 'orces are oin &o!n an& the

reat masses are materiall) insecure* +here !ill ine itabl) result a tendencyto "&e eneration", i.e*,the e cretion o' a lea&in stratum in the 'orm o' a class. erm* +his ten&enc) !ill be retar&e& b) t!oo$$osin ten&encies8 'irst, b) the !rowth of the roducti5e forces8 secon&, b) the abolition o' theeducational mono oly* +he increasin $ro&uction o' technolo ists an& o' or ani(ers in eneral, out

o' the !orkin class itsel', !ill un&ermine this $ossible ne! class ali nment* +he outcome o' thestru le !ill &e$en& on !hich ten&encies turn out to be the stron er*



+he !orkin class, ha in in its $ossession so 'ine an instrument as the Mar ian theor), must bemin&'ul o' this 'act: b) its han&s an or&er o' societ) !ill be $ut throu h an& ultimatel) establishe&,&i''erin in $rinci$le 'rom all the $rece&in 'ormations8 namel), 'rom the $rimiti e communist hor&e

b) the 'act that it !ill be a societ) o' hi hl) culti ate& $ersons, conscious o' themsel es an& others8an& 'rom the class 'orms o' societ) b) the 'act that 'or he 'irst time the con&itions 'or a human

e istence !ill be reali(e&, not onl) 'or in&i i&ual rou$s, but 'or the entire a re ate o' humanit), amass !hich !ill ha e cease& to be a mass, an& !ill become a sin le, harmoniousl) constructe&human societ)*

BIB;I37%<PH@

<n e hausti e stu&) o' the classes !ill be 'oun& in Pro'essor Solntse #s book, 4he Social Classes4in%ussian 8 Mar an& n els:4he Communist <anifesto ?arl Mar : 4he Po5erty of Philoso hy8 ?arlMar : Ca ital 8?arl Mar : historical writin!s8 rie&rich n els: 4he Conditions of the :orkin!Class in En!land 8 rie&rich n els: euer"ach 4 n lish translation, 0hica o, 19C 8 rie&rich

n els: 9ri!in of the amily, Pri5ate Pro erty, and the State8 ?arl ?autsk): 8ie A!rarfra!e 8 ?arl?autsk): :iders rDche der lasseninteressen wBhrend der !rossen fran sischen ;e5olution 2.%oshko : arl <arx and the Class Stru!!le, in the 0ollection, 4o the <emory of <arx 4in %ussian 8<* Bo &ano : Em iriomonism4in %ussian , ol* iii8 ictor 0herno 4Social.%e olutionist :4he Peasant and the :orker as Economic Cate!ories 4in %ussian 8 E* /ele sk) ,*4Social.%e olutionist :Social Anta!onisms and the Class Stru!!le4in %ussian 8 H* 0uno!: 8ie <arxsche Geschichts1,

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Historical Materialism - A System of Sociology