Nixon, Watergate, Ford, Carter, and

the Cold War

continues

The Election of 1968

Richard Nixon only narrowly won the 1968 election, but the combined total of popular votes for Nixon and Wallace indicated a shift to the right in American politics.

The 1960's began as an era of optimism and possibility but ended in disunity and distrust.

The Vietnam war and a series of assassinations and crises eroded public trust in government and produced a backlash against liberal movements and the Democratic party.

Nixon’s Vietnamization

policy entailed removing U.S. troops as South Vietnamese began to fight

1973 Paris Accords ended direct U.S. military involvement

North Vietnam took Saigon in 1975 and reunified Vietnam under a communist government

“Vietnamization” and Withdrawal

The Paris peace talks

A German word meaning “political realism”

Promoted by Henry Kissinger

U.S. should conduct foreign policy based on practicality, not ideology

Change in philosophy from communist containment

Realpolitik

Henry Kissinger

“Thawing” of Cold War tensions

during Nixon, Ford, and Carter, and Reagan Administrations

Included visits by Nixon to China and USSR – Presidential diplomacy

Opening of China to trade Recognition of Communist Chinese

Government Several arms limitation treaties

ratified during period (SALT I and II)

Détente

President and Mrs. Nixon at the Great Wall of China, 1972

In 1978, the USSR invaded Afghanistan and tried to set up a friendly government. It became the USSR’s Vietnam, a long war with no clear victory possible and many casualties and high costs.The US supported the Afghani rebels known as the mujahedin.Mujahedin – religious guerilla fighters in the Afghanistan mountain (similar to Viet Cong) In 1989 the Soviets finally withdrew. Islamic extremists used the opportunity to take over the country. The defeat weakened the Soviet’s economy and morale.Mujahedin became Taliban fighters!

6

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan Interrupts Thaw

Mujahedin celebrate the downing of a Soviet helicopter

Movie poster for Charlie Wilson’s War about US efforts to support the mujahedin

The Oil Crisis Begins

By the late 1950's, the demand for oil in the United States outstripped domestic production capabilities.

By 1970's, the US imported a third of its oil, making the American economy vulnerable to geopolitical upsets in the Middle East.

Stagflation Throughout 1970's, the

American economy was plagued by the unprecedented combination of soaring prices, the high unemployment, and low economic growth.

Economists dubbed the phenomena "Stagflation," a period of rising prices in a stagnant economy.

The high standard of living in the US following World War II suddenly began to lag behind that of Western Europe and Japan.

Americans found it increasingly difficult to sustain a middle class lifestyle.

Stagflation

GDP measures the total market value of all the goods and services produced within a region. Note the sharp decline in GDP beginning in 1973.

Stagflation

In 1975, unemployment reached almost 9%, the highest level since the Great Depression at that time.

Oil Embargo 1973

Oil Producing and Exporting Countries Saudi Arabia and others refused to sell oil to

U.S. due to its policies in Middle East Economic disaster, gas lines, riots Illustrated short-sighted policy based on non-

renewable energy controlled by foreign countries

OPEC = Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries - is a permanent, intergovernmental Organization, created at the Baghdad Conference on September 10–14, 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela.

The Oil Crisis Begins

Gas prices suddenly doubled and fueling stations frequently ran out of gas.

The oil crisis effected almost every sector of the economy .

The Oil Crisis Begins On October 6, 1973,

the Yom Kippur War began when Egypt and Syria attacked Israel from two sides.

The US airlifted supplies to Israel, prompting OPEC to levy an oil embargo against Israel's allies that lasted until March 18, 1974.

Fuel Shortages

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VCLRlVxOH-Q (1973 Newcast)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dpEVUqrNa5M

Coping with the Energy Crisis

The oil embargo led to dramatically increased prices for all types of fuel, including gasoline, home-heating fuel, and electricity.

Prices for virtually everything else rose in response to high energy costs, causing record inflation.

Long lines for gasoline became everyday occurrences.

Coping with the Energy Crisis

President Nixon appealed to the nation to make sacrifices in the name of conserving energy.

He warned that the country was "heading toward the most acute shortages of energy since World War II.”

The President asked Americans to reduce air travel, reduce work and school hours, turn down thermostats by 6 degrees, and reduce highway speed limits to conserve energy.

Coping with the Energy Crisis

Nixon also urged the use of coal and nuclear power rather than the limited commodity of oil.

Alternative Energy Options Needed!

He asked Congress to approve measures for increased exploration and extraction of domestic oil and to relax environmental standards that impeded energy requirements.

Paranoid Politics - Cold War since World War II

Nixon had “enemies list” – list of people who objected his policies of which he was “out to get”– Ordered tax audits on antiwar protestors and civil

rights activists– Fired people in appointed positions within the gov’t

approval Nixon a “Cold War Warrior” Time of suspicion and espionage Remember Alger Hiss, and the Rosenberg’s

Paranoid Politics

Before the Watergate scandals, Herb Block was pointing out excessive use of government power to wiretap or otherwise investigate the activities of citizens an administration felt were at odds with its policies.

In 1970, the Civil Service Commission admitted to having a Security Investigations Index with over 10 million entries, and the armed forces revealed surveillance of Americans involved in anti-Vietnam war activities. *See next slide – Political Cartoon - January 18, 1970

Watergate office complex where the Democratic National Committee headquarters

were located.

A security guard noticed an exit door had been taped to keep the latch open. He removed the tape but on his second round found

that it had been retaped and called the police.

The Watergate Break-in When initial polls showed

Nixon in the Election of 1972, the Plumbers turned their activities to political espionage.

On 17 June 1972, 5 men were arrested while attempting to bug the headquarters of the Democratic Party inside the Watergate building in Washington D.C.

One of the men arrested, James McCord, was the head of security for the Republican Party.

The Nixon campaign denied any involvement.

When police arrived, they

found five burglars who

were attempting to bug the offices of the Democratic

National Headquarters.

All five men worked for the Committee to Reelect the President,

President Richard Nixon's campaign

committee.

Seized wiretapping evidence

The Election of 1972

Despite the growing stain of Watergate, which had not yet reached the President, Nixon won by the largest margin in history to that point.

Woodward, Bernstein and the Washington Post

Watergate came to public attention largely through the work of Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, investigative reporters from the Washington Post.

Despite enormous political pressure, Post editor Ben Bradlee, publisher Katherine Graham, Woodward and Bernstein, aided by an enigmatic source nicknamed “Deepthroat” kept the story in the public consciousness until Nixon’s resignation.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IHnmriyXYeg (watergate explained)

Watergate Enters the Nixon Campaign

The break-in was eventually tied to the Nixon reelection campaign through a $25,000 check from a Republican donor that was laundered through a Mexican bank and deposited in the account of Watergate burglar Bernard Barker.

Later it was discovered that Former Attorney General John Mitchell, head of Nixon’s “Committee to Re-Elect the President,” (CREEP) controlled a secret fund for political espionage.

Mitchell would later go to prison for his role in the scandal

The Watergate Investigations: Judge John Sirica

Watergate came to be investigated by a Special Prosecutor, a Senate committee, and by the judge in the original break-in case.

Judge Sirica refused to believe that the burglars had acted alone.

In March 1973, defendant James W. McCord sent a letter to Sirica confirming that it was a conspiracy.

Sirica’s investigation transformed Watergate from the story of a “third-rate burglary” to a scandal reaching the highest points in government.

“Maximum John”

Senate Investigation and the Oval Office

Tapes The Senate began hearings into

Watergate in May 1973. The hearings were televised in their

entirety. They focused on when the President

knew of the break-in. In June 1973, former White House legal

counsel John Dean delivered devastating testimony that implicated Nixon from the earliest days of Watergate.

Sam Irvin

Howard Baker

U.S. v Nixon, July 1974During the investigation it was revealed that there were audio

tapes from the White House. Nixon claimed executive privilege in an attempt to keep the tapes secret, however the Supreme Court ruled that executive privilege did not apply in criminal cases and

ordered Nixon to surrender the subpoenaed White House tapes to John Sirica, U.S. District Court Chief Judge. The tapes revealed

widespread involvement, including by the President.

The Smoking Gun Tapes When the Supreme Court forced Nixon to

surrender the tapes. Nixon was implicated from the earliest

days of the cover-up: authorizing the payment of hush

money attempting to use the CIA to interfere

with the FBI investigation. One tape had an 18 ½ minute gap. Nixon’s secretary Rosemary Woods

demonstrated how she could have inadvertently erased the tape, but no one bought it.

“The smoking gun tapes,” were released in August 1974, just after the House Judiciary Committee approved Articles of Impeachment against Nixon.

The 22 month investigation involved the press, House of Representatives, Senate, special

prosecutors, and the Supreme Court; it uncovered covert action on the part of the president and his

advisers.

Pictured: Front Row: Donald Rumsfeld, Sec. of Transportation John Volpe, Sec. of Commerce Peter Peterson, Sec. of Defense Melvin Laird, Richard M. Nixon, Sec. of State William Rogers, Sec. of the

Interior Rogers C.B. Morton, Sec. of HEW Elliot Richardson, Director of OMB Casper Weinberger Back Row: Robert Finch, Sec. of HUD

George Romney, Sec. of Agriculture Earl Butz, Sec. of the Treasury George Shultz, Vice President Spiro Agnew, Attorney General Richard

Kleindienst, Sec. of Labor James Hodgson, Ambassador at large David Kennedy, Ambassador to the UN George Bush.

Halderman, Chief of Staff

Ehrlichman, Assistant to the

President for Domestic

Affairs

Dean, Counsel to the President

Ruckelshaus, Deputy Attorney

General

The Watergate break-in and cover-up led to the resignation of several members of the

government.

By July 14, 1974, President Richard Nixon stood almost alone. His vice-president Spiro Agnew, pleaded nolo contendere to a charge of tax evasion, and was forced to resign. Many of Nixon's closest aides had been convicted of

illegal activities. Nixon himself was named an "un-indicted co-conspirator" by the Watergate

grand jury. A few days later, the House Judiciary Committee recommended

impeachment, and the Supreme Court required him to turn over all subpoenaed tapes. When

even his closest friends, reviewing these tapes, agreed that the evidence against him was

overwhelming, Nixon bowed to the inevitable, resigning on August 9.

Nixon Resigns On 27 July 1974, the House

Judiciary Committee approved Articles of Impeachment against Nixon.

The House was to vote on the matter soon.

Nixon conceded that impeachment in the House was likely, but he believed that the Senate vote to remove him would fail.

On 5 August 1974, when the “smoking gun tape” became public, a delegation from the Republican National Committee told Nixon that he would not survive the vote in the Senate.

On 9 August 1974, Richard Nixon became the first American president to resign.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZEOGJJ7UKFM

The Nixon’s left the White

House.

Nixon was forced to resign the presidency on August 9, 1974 because of the Watergate scandal. Gerald Ford was

appointed Vice President and later became president after the corrupt Spiro

Agnew resigned.

“The Ford and Carter Years”

1974 to 1981

Gerald R. Ford became 38th President, August 9, 1974

Ford immediately damaged his Presidency by granting Nixon a pardon.

Ford announced the pardon

Aftermath

More than 30 government officials went to prison for their role in Watergate.

Richard Nixon was not one of them. In September 1974, President Gerald Ford gave Nixon a full

pardon. Woodward and Bernstein won the Pulitzer Prize. They collaborated on 2 books, All the President’s Men and The

Final Days. In 1976 All the President’s Men was adapted into an Oscar

winning film. The identity of Deepthroat was kept secret until W. Mark Felt

unmasked himself in 2005.

Ford announcing the pardon

Section 1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death

or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. Section 2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President,

the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.

Section 3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of

the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.

25th Amendment Amendment XXV- deals with succession to the

Presidency and establishes procedures both for filling a vacancy in the office of the VP , as well as

responding to Presidential disabilities.

I.) Tough Road AheadA. President Ford faces:

1. Rough Economya. high inflationb. high unemploymentc. energy problemsd. public distrust of presidente. renewed faith in

constitutionOn the Watergate Scandal:“ Our long national nightmare is over”

After becoming vice president:“I’m a Ford, not a Lincoln”

II.) Ford’s Policy

A. September 8, 1974: President Ford pardon’s Nixon (Limits of executive privilege questioned)

B. Economy:1. “Whip Inflation Now” (WIN): Ford calls Americans to cut back use of oil and gas2. “Tight Money Policy”: cut govt. spending & higher interest rates

Outcome: worst economic recession in 40 years

1. Henry Kissinger remains secretary of state2. Détente: negotiates with China & Soviet Union3. Helsinki Accords: 35 nations agree to cooperation

Outcome: Ford’s greatest accomplishment4. 1975 - South Vietnam surrenders to Communism

- Congress sends no aide

C. Foreign Policy:

III.) Election of 1976

Republican Nominee:Gerald Ford

Democrat Nominee:Jimmy Carter

Election Day Results: Jimmy Carter wins with 40.8 million votes to Gerald Fords 39.1 million

“I will never lie to the American people”

IV.) Carter Faces Problems

A. Energy Crisis:1. reliance on foreign oil

Outcome: National Energy Act of 1979

B. Economic Crisis:1. violence in Middle East produces fuel shortage in U.S.2. inflation rises from 7.6% to 11.3% in 1979; 14% 19803. Standard of living goes from 1st to 5th place in world

3. Changing Economya. less manufacturing and more service jobsb. overseas competition

V.) Carter’s Policy

A. Civil Rights:1. administration include more African-Americans and women than any before 2. Regents of UC v. Bakke (pg 726)

B. Human Rights & Foreign Policy: 1. rejected “Realpolitik” 2. used moral principles as guide (Wilson) 3. commited to promoting human rights

C. Establishing Human Rights Foreign Policy:

1. 1977 U.S. & Panama Treaty (U.S. give up ownership of Panama Canal Dec. 31. 1999)

Outcome: improves U.S.-Latin American relations

2. Carters human rights policies end Détente & raise Cold War tensions a. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan b. SALT II signed by Carter/Brezhnev but not ratified by Senate

V.) Carter’s Policy

D. Camp David Accords:1. 1977: peace negotiations begin between Israel

(Menachem Begin) and Egypt (Anwar el-Sadat)

2. 1978: Carter, Sadat, & Begin meet at Camp David & agree to agreement

- Israel withdraws from Sinai- & Egypt recognizes Israel

V.) Carter’s Policy

1. Jan. 1979: revolution in Iran overthrows the shah of Iran with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini2. Nov. 4, 1979: 66 Americans taken hostage from U.S. embassy in Tehran3. 13 released (women and A-A)4. Outcome: negotiations for 444 days result in release Jan. 20, 1981 on Reagan’s first day as president

E. Iran Hostage Crisis:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8w4Ku6l7OEI (Iran Revolution History)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A8bC1DEYbI4 (abc news report)