LSAT*

PrepTest 46June 2005

Test ID: LL3046

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Reading Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION I

Logical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION II

Logical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION III

Analytical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION IV

Writing Sample Materials

Economists have long defined prosperity in termsof monetary value, gauging a given nationsprosperity solely on the basis of the total monetaryvalue of the goods and services produced annually.However, critics point out that defining prosperitysolely as a function of monetary value is questionablesince it fails to recognize other kinds of values, suchas quality of life or environmental health, thatcontribute directly to prosperity in a broader sense.For example, as the earths ozone layer weakens andloses its ability to protect people from ultravioletradiation, sales of hats, sunglasses, and sunscreens arelikely to skyrocket, all adding to the nations totalexpenditures. In this way, troubling reductions inenvironmental health and quality of life may in factinitiate economic activity that, by the economistsmeasure, bolsters prosperity.

It can also happen that communities seeking toincrease their prosperity as measured strictly inmonetary terms may damage their quality of life andtheir environment. The situation of one ruralcommunity illustrates this point: residents of thecommunity value the local timber industry as aprimary source of income, and they vocally protestedproposed limitations on timber harvests as a threat totheir prosperity. Implicitly adopting the economistspoint of view, the residents argued that the harvestlimitations would lower their wages or even cause theloss of jobs.

But critics of the economists view argue that thisview of the situation overlooks a crucial consideration.Without the harvest limitations, they say, the land onwhich the community depends would be seriouslydamaged. Moreover, they point out that the residentsthemselves cite the abundance of natural beauty asone of the features that make their community ahighly desirable place to live. But it is also extremelypoor, and the critics point out that the residents coulddouble their incomes by moving only 150 kilometersaway. From their decision not to do so, the criticsconclude that their location has substantial monetaryvalue to them. The community will thus lose muchmoreeven understood in monetary termsif theproposed harvest limits are not implemented.

Economists respond by arguing that to be a usefulconcept, prosperity must be defined in easilyquantifiable terms, and that prosperity thus should notinclude difficult-to-measure values such as happinessor environmental health. But this position dodges theissueemphasizing ease of calculation causes one to

disregard substantive issues that directly influencereal prosperity. The economists stance is rather likethat of a literary critic who takes total sales to be thebest measure of a books valuetrue, the number ofcopies sold is a convenient and quantifiable measure,but it is a poor substitute for an accurate appraisal ofliterary merit.

1. Which one of the following most accurately states themain point of the passage?

(A) According to critics, communities that seek toincrease their prosperity recognize the needto gauge the value and ensure the long-termhealth of their local environment.

(B) Economists definition of prosperity strictly interms of monetary value is too narrow to trulycapture our ordinary conception of this notion.

(C) If economists were to alter and expand theirdefinition of prosperity, it is likely that theeconomic and environmental health of mostcommunities would appear worse under thenew definition than under the old definition.

(D) In contrast with the views of economists, somecritics believe that prosperity can be neitherscientifically measured nor accuratelydefined, and as a concept is therefore of littleuse for economists.

(E) While they are generally an accurate andpractical measure of current economicprosperity, figures for the total expenditures ofa nation do not aid in providing an indicationof that nations future economic prospects.

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1 -2- 11SECTION I

Time35 minutes

27 Questions

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated orimplied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However,you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blackenthe corresponding space on your answer sheet.

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2. The example in the passage of the timber industryand its effect on a poor rural community suggeststhat the critics would most likely agree with whichone of the following statements?

(A) Harvest limitations have little relationship tolower wages or fewer jobs in the community.

(B) Harvest limitations should be imposed onlywhen the limitations have wide publicsupport in the community.

(C) The advantages to the community that wouldbe created by harvest limitations are likely tooutweigh the disadvantages.

(D) Communities protest harvest limitationsprimarily because they do not understand thelong-term monetary impact of such regulation.

(E) It is the arguments of economists that oftencause residents of rural communities to viewharvest limitations more negatively.

3. Based on the information in the passage, the authorwould be most likely to agree with which one of thefollowing statements regarding the weakening of theearths ozone layer?

(A) Paradoxically, the weakening of the ozone layeractually contributes to environmental healthand quality of life.

(B) The environmental effects of this problem arelikely to occur more gradually than theeconomic effects.

(C) The appearance of prosperity that results fromthis problem has directed attention awayfrom solving it.

(D) This problem should be regarded primarily asthreatening rather than contributing to trueprosperity.

(E) This problem has resulted in part from thefailure of economists to recognize it in itsformative stages.

4. According to the passage, economists defend theirconcept of prosperity in which one of the followingways?

(A) by claiming that alternative definitions of theconcept would not be easily quantifiable

(B) by asserting that environmental preservationcan cause the loss of jobs

(C) by citing the relevance of nonmonetary valuessuch as environmental health

(D) by showing that the value of natural beautycan be understood in quantifiable terms

(E) by detailing the historical development of theirdefinition of the concept

5. The author compares the economists position to thatof a literary critic (lines 5257) primarily to

(A) introduce the idea that the assessment ofworth is basically subjective

(B) advocate an innovative method of measuringliterary merit

(C) suggest that quality of life is mainly anaesthetic issue

(D) provide additional evidence that prosperitycannot be quantified

(E) illustrate the limitations of the economistsposition

6. In the passage, the author cites which one of thefollowing claims?

(A) that hats, sunglasses, and sunscreens providean adequate substitute for the ozone layer

(B) that environmental protection measures areunpopular and often rejected by communities

(C) that the value of a locales environment can begauged by the incomes of its residents

(D) that timber harvest limits are needed to saveone area from environmental damage

(E) that most nations measure their own prosperityin terms broader than monetary value

7. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) argue that there is an inherent and potentiallydetrimental conflict between two schools ofthought concerning a certain concept

(B) summarize and illustrate the main points ofthe conflict between two schools of thoughtover the definition of a certain concept

(C) question one school of thoughts definition ofa certain concept and suggest several possiblealternative definitions

(D) criticize one school of thoughts definition of acertain concept by providing examples thatillustrate the implications of adhering to thisdefinition

(E) bring one school of thoughts perspective tobear on a concept traditionally considered tobe the exclusive territory of another school ofthought

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1 1-3-1

Joy Kogawas Obasan is an account of aJapanese-Canadian familys experiences during WorldWar II. The events are seen from the viewpoint of ayoung girl who watches her family disintegrate as itundergoes the relocation that occurred in both Canadaand the United States. Although the experiencedepicted in Obasan is mainly one of dislocation,Kogawa employs subtle techniques that serve toemphasize her major characters heroism and tocritique the majority culture. The former end isachieved through the novels form and the latterthrough the symbols it employs.

The form of the novel parallels the three-stagestructure noted by anthropologists in their studies ofrites of passage. According to these anthropologists, arite of passage begins with separation from a positionof security in a highly structured society; proceeds toalienation in a deathlike state where one is stripped ofstatus, property, and rank; and concludes withreintegration into society accompanied by aheightened status gained as a result of the secondstage. The process thus has the effect of transforminga societys victim into a hero. The first elevenchapters of Obasan situate the young protagonistNaomi Nakane in a close-knit, securely placed familywithin Vancouver society. Chapters 1232 chroniclethe fall into alienation, when Naomis family isdislodged from its structured social niche andremoved from the city into work camps or exile.Separated from her parents, Naomi follows her auntAya Obasan to the ghost town of Slocan, whereNaomi joins the surrogate family of her uncle andaunt. In chapters 3339 this surrogate family nurturesNaomi as she develops toward a final integration withthe larger society and with herself: as an adult, whenshe receives a bundle of family documents and lettersfrom her aunt, Naomi breaks through the personaland cultural screens of silence and secretiveness thathave enshrouded her past, and reconciles herself withher history.

Kogawas use of motifs drawn from Christianrituals and symbols forms a subtle critique of theprofessed ethics of the majority culture that hasshunned Naomi. In one example of such symbolism,Naomis reacquaintance with her past is comparedwith the biblical story of turning stone into bread.The bundle of documentswhich Kogawa refers toas stone-hard factsbrings Naomi to therecognition of her countrys abuse of her people. Butimplicit in these hard facts, Kogawa suggests, is alsothe bread of a spiritual sustenance that will allowNaomi to affirm the durability of her people andherself. Through the careful deployment of structureand symbol, Kogawa thus manages to turn Naomisexperienceand by extension the wartimeexperiences of many Japanese Canadiansinto ajourney of heroic transformation and a critique of themajority culture.

8. Which one of the following most accurately states themain idea of the passage?

(A) While telling a story of familial disruption,Obasan uses structure and symbolism tovalorize its protagonist and critique themajority culture.

(B) By means of its structure and symbolism,Obasan mounts a harsh critique of a societythat disrupts its citizens lives.

(C) Although intended primarily as socialcriticism, given its structure Obasan can alsobe read as a tale of heroic transformation.

(D) With its three-part structure that parallels ritesof passage, Obasan manages to valorize itsprotagonist in spite of her traumaticexperiences.

(E) Although intended primarily as a story ofheroic transformation, Obasan can also beread as a work of social criticism.

9. Item removed from scoring.

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10. Which one of the following most accurately describesthe organization of the passage?

(A) Two points are made about a novel, the firstsupported with a brief example, the secondreasserted without support.

(B) Two points are made about a novel, the firstsupported with an extended analogy, thesecond reasserted without support.

(C) Two points are made about a novel, the firstreasserted without support, the secondsupported with an extended analogy.

(D) Two points are made about a novel, the firstsupported with a brief example, the secondsupported with an extended analogy.

(E) Two points are made about a novel, the firstsupported with an extended analogy, thesecond supported with a brief example.

11. It can be inferred that the heroism Naomi gains inthe course of Obasan is manifested in her

(A) reconciliation with her past(B) careful deployment of structure and symbol(C) relationship with her surrogate family(D) renewal of her religious beliefs(E) denunciation of the majority culture

12. According to the anthropologists cited by the author,rites of passage are best described by which one ofthe following sequences of stages?

(A) alienation, dislocation, integration(B) separation, alienation, reintegration(C) integration, alienation, disintegration(D) dislocation, reconciliation, reintegration(E) disintegration, transformation, reintegration

13. According to the passage, the agent of Naomisreconciliation with her past is

(A) her reunion with her parents(B) the exile of her parents(C) her critique of the majority society(D) her separation from her aunt and uncle(E) her receipt of documents and letters

14. The passage suggests that Joy Kogawa believes whichone of the following about the society that shunsNaomi?

(A) It discouraged its citizens from seeking outtheir heritage.

(B) It endeavored to thwart its citizens attempts atheroic transformation.

(C) It violated its own supposed religious ethics bydoing so.

(D) It prohibited its citizens from participating inrites of passage.

(E) It demanded that loyalty to the governmentreplace loyalty to the family.

15. Based on the passage, which one of the followingaspects of Kogawas work does the author of thepassage appear to value most highly?

(A) her willingness to make political statements(B) her imaginative development of characters(C) her subtle use of literary techniques(D) her knowledge of Christian rituals and

symbols(E) her objectivity in describing Naomis tragic life

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1 1-5-1

The pronghorn, an antelope-like mammal thatlives on the western plains of North America, is thecontinents fastest land animal, capable of running 90kilometers per hour and of doing so for severalkilometers. Because no North American predator isnearly fast enough to chase it down, biologists havehad difficulty explaining why the pronghorndeveloped its running prowess. One biologist,however, has recently claimed that pronghorns run asfast as they do because of adaptation to predatorsknown from fossil records to have been extinct for10,000 years, such as American cheetahs and long-legged hyenas, either of which, it is believed, werefast enough to run down the pronghorn.

Like all explanations that posit what is called arelict behaviora behavior that persists though its onlyevolutionary impetus comes from long-extinct environmentalconditionsthis one is likely to meet with skepticism.Most biologists distrust explanations positing relictbehaviors, in part because testing these hypotheses is sodifficult due to the extinction of a principal component.They typically consider such historical explanationsonly when a lack of alternatives forces them to do so.But present-day observations sometimes yieldevidence that supports relict behavior hypotheses.

In the case of the pronghorn, researchers haveidentified much supporting evidence, as severalaspects of pronghorn behavior appear to have beenshaped by enemies that no longer exist. For example,pronghornslike many other grazing animalsroamin herds, which allows more eyes to watch for predatorsand diminishes the chances of any particular animalbeing attacked but can also result in overcrowdingand increased competition for food. But, sincepronghorns have nothing to fear from present-daycarnivores and thus have nothing to gain from herding,their herding behavior appears to be another adaptationto extinct threats. Similarly, if speed and endurancewere once essential to survival, researchers wouldexpect pronghorns to choose mates based on theseathletic abilities, which they dowith female pronghorns,for example, choosing the victor after male pronghornschallenge each other in sprints and chases.

Relict behaviors appear to occur in other animalsas well, increasing the general plausibility of such atheory. For example, one study reports relict behaviorin stickleback fish belonging to populations that havelong been free of a dangerous predator, the sculpin.In the study, when presented with sculpin, thesestickleback fish immediately engaged in stereotypicalantisculpin behavior, avoiding its mouth and swimmingbehind to bite it. Another study found that groundsquirrels from populations that have been free fromsnakes for 70,000 to 300,000 years still clearly recognizerattlesnakes, displaying stereotypical antirattlesnakebehavior in the presence of the snake. Such fear,however, apparently does not persist interminably.Arctic ground squirrels, free of snakes for about3 million years, appear to be unable to recognize thethreat of a rattlesnake, exhibiting only disorganizedcaution even after being bitten repeatedly.

16. Which one of the following most accurately states themain point of the passage?

(A) Evidence from present-day animal behaviors,together with the fossil record, supports thehypothesis that the pronghorns ability to faroutrun any predator currently on the NorthAmerican continent is an adaptation topredators long extinct.

(B) Although some biologists believe that certainanimal characteristics, such as the speed of thepronghorn, are explained by environmentalconditions that have not existed for many years,recent data concerning arctic ground squirrelsmake this hypothesis doubtful.

(C) Research into animal behavior, particularly intothat of the pronghorn, provides strongevidence that most present-day characteristicsof animals are explained by environmentalconditions that have not existed for many years.

(D) Even in those cases in which an animal speciesdisplays characteristics clearly explained bylong-vanished environmental conditions,evidence concerning arctic ground squirrelssuggests that those characteristics willeventually disappear.

(E) Although biologists are suspicious ofhypotheses that are difficult to test, there isnow widespread agreement among biologiststhat many types of animal characteristics arebest explained as adaptations to long-extinctpredators.

17. Based on the passage, the term principalcomponent (line 21) most clearly refers to whichone of the following?

(A) behavior that persists even though theconditions that provided its evolutionaryimpetus are extinct

(B) the original organism whose descendantsbehavior is being investigated as relict behavior

(C) the pronghorns ability to run 90 kilometersper hour over long distances

(D) the environmental conditions in response towhich relict behaviors are thought to havedeveloped

(E) an original behavior of an animal of whichcertain present-day behaviors are thought tobe modifications

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1 -6- 11

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18. The last paragraph most strongly supports which oneof the following statements?

(A) An absence of predators in an animalsenvironment can constitute just as much of athreat to the well-being of that animal as thepresence of predators.

(B) Relict behaviors are found in most wildanimals living today.

(C) If a behavior is an adaptation to environmentalconditions, it may eventually disappear in theabsence of those or similar conditions.

(D) Behavior patterns that originated as a way ofprotecting an organism against predators willpersist interminably if they are periodicallyreinforced.

(E) Behavior patterns invariably take longer todevelop than they do to disappear.

19. Which one of the following describes a benefitmentioned in the passage that grazing animals derivefrom roaming in herds?

(A) The greater density of animals tends tointimidate potential predators.

(B) The larger number of adults in a herd makesprotection of the younger animals frompredators much easier.

(C) With many animals searching it is easier forthe herd to find food and water.

(D) The likelihood that any given individual willbe attacked by a predator decreases.

(E) The most defenseless animals can achievegreater safety by remaining in the center ofthe herd.

20. The passage mentions each of the following as supportfor the explanation of the pronghorns speed proposedby the biologist referred to in line 8 EXCEPT:

(A) fossils of extinct animals believed to have beenable to run down a pronghorn

(B) the absence of carnivores in the pronghornspresent-day environment

(C) the present-day preference of pronghorns forathletic mates

(D) the apparent need for a similar explanation toaccount for the herding behavior pronghornsnow display

(E) the occurrence of relict behavior in other species

21. The third paragraph of the passage provides the mostsupport for which one of the following inferences?

(A) Predators do not attack grazing animals thatare assembled into herds.

(B) Pronghorns tend to graze in herds only whenthey sense a threat from predators close by.

(C) If animals do not graze for their food, they donot roam in herds.

(D) Female pronghorns mate only with the fastestmale pronghorn in the herd.

(E) If pronghorns did not herd, they would notface significantly greater danger from present-day carnivores.

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1 1-7-1

Many legal theorists have argued that the onlymorally legitimate goal in imposing criminal penaltiesagainst certain behaviors is to prevent people fromharming others. Clearly, such theorists would opposelaws that force people to act purely for their owngood or to refrain from certain harmless acts purelyto ensure conformity to some social norm. But thegoal of preventing harm to others would also justifylegal sanctions against some forms of nonconformingbehavior to which this goal might at first seem not toapply.

In many situations it is in the interest of eachmember of a group to agree to behave in a certainway on the condition that the others similarly agree.In the simplest cases, a mere coordination ofactivities is itself the good that results. For example,it is in no ones interest to lack a convention aboutwhich side of the road to drive on, and each personcan agree to drive on one side assuming the others dotoo. Any fair rule, then, would be better than no ruleat all. On the assumption that all people wouldvoluntarily agree to be subject to a coordination rulebacked by criminal sanctions, if people could beassured that others would also agree, it is argued tobe legitimate for a legislature to impose such a rule.This is because prevention of harm underlies therationale for the rule, though it applies to the problemof coordination less directly than to other problems,for the act that is forbidden (driving on the other sideof the road) is not inherently harm-producing, as areburglary and assault; instead, it is the lack of acoordinating rule that would be harmful.

In some other situations involving a need forlegally enforced coordination, the harm to be avertedgoes beyond the simple lack of coordination itself.This can be illustrated by an example of acoordination ruleinstituted by a private athleticorganizationwhich has analogies in criminal law. Atissue is whether the use of anabolic steroids, whichbuild muscular strength but have serious negative sideeffects, should be prohibited. Each athlete has at stakeboth an interest in having a fair opportunity to winand an interest in good health. If some competitorsuse steroids, others have the option of eitherendangering their health or losing their fairopportunity to win. Thus they would be harmed eitherway. A compulsory rule could prevent that harm andthus would be in the interest of all competitors. Ifthey understand its function and trust the techniquesfor its enforcement, they will gladly consent to it. Sowhile it might appear that such a rule merely forcespeople to act for their own good, the deeper rationalefor coercion hereas in the above exampleis asomewhat complex appeal to the legitimacy ofenforcing a rule with the goal of preventing harm.

22. Which one of the following most accurately states themain point of the passage?

(A) In order to be morally justifiable, lawsprohibiting activities that are not inherentlyharm-producing must apply equitably toeveryone.

(B) It is justifiable to require social conformitywhere noncompliance would be harmful toeither the nonconforming individual or thelarger group.

(C) Achieving coordination can be argued to be amorally legitimate justification for rules thatprevent directly harmful actions and othersthat prevent indirectly harmful actions.

(D) It is reasonable to hold that restrictingindividual liberty is always justified on thebasis of mutually agreed-upon communitystandards.

(E) The principle of preventing harm to others canbe used to justify laws that do not at first glanceappear to be designed to prevent such harm.

23. It can be most reasonably inferred from the passagethat the author considers which one of the followingfactors to be generally necessary for the justification ofrules compelling coordination of peoples activities?

(A) evidence that such rules do not forceindividuals to act for their own good

(B) enactment of such rules by a duly elected orappointed government lawmakingorganization

(C) the assurance that criminal penalties areprovided as a means of securing compliancewith such rules

(D) some form of consent on the part of rationalpeople who are subject to such rules

(E) a sense of community and cultural uniformityamong those who are required to abide bysuch rules

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1 -8- 11

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24. It can be most reasonably inferred from the passagethat the author would agree with which one of thefollowing statements?

(A) In all situations in which compulsory rules areneeded for the coordination of humanactivities, any uniformly enforced rule is asacceptable as any other.

(B) No private organizational rules designed tocoordinate the activities of members have ascomplex a relation to the goal of preventingharm as have some criminal statutes.

(C) Every fair rule that could be effectively used toprescribe which side of the road to drive on isa rule whose implementation would likelycause less harm than it would prevent.

(D) There would be little need for formalregulation and enforcement of conventionaldriving patterns if all drivers understood andaccepted the rationale behind such regulationand enforcement.

(E) Unlike rules forbidding such acts as burglaryand assault, those that are designed primarilyto prevent the inconvenience and chaos ofuncoordinated activities should not involvecriminal penalties.

25. The author distinguishes between two examples ofcoordinating rules on the basis of whether or notsuch rules

(A) prevent some harm beyond that which consistssimply in a lack of coordination

(B) are intended to ensure conformity to a set ofagreed-upon standards

(C) are voluntarily agreed upon by all thoseaffected by such rules

(D) could be considered justifiable by the legaltheorists discussed in the passage

(E) apply less directly to the problem ofpreventing harm than do rules againstburglary and assault

26. Which one of the following is a rule that primarilyaddresses a problem of coordination most similar tothat discussed in the second paragraph?

(A) a rule requiring that those who wish to dig forancient artifacts secure the permission ofrelevant authorities and the owners of theproposed site before proceeding with theiractivities

(B) a rule requiring that pharmacists dispensecertain kinds of medications only whendirected to do so by physicians prescriptions,rather than simply selling medicines at thecustomers request

(C) a rule requiring that advertisers be able tosubstantiate the claims they make inadvertisements, rather than simply sayingwhatever they think will help to attractcustomers

(D) a rule requiring that employees of a certainrestaurant all wear identical uniforms duringtheir hours of employment, rather thanwearing whatever clothes they choose

(E) a rule requiring different aircraft to fly atdifferent altitudes rather than flying at anyaltitude their pilots wish

27. In line 54, the author uses the expression somewhatcomplex primarily to describe reasoning that

(A) involves two layers of law, one governing theprivate sector and the other governing thepublic sector

(B) requires that those affected by the ruleunderstand the motivation behind itsimposition

(C) involves a case in which a harm to beprevented is indirectly related to the kind ofact that is to be prohibited

(D) can convince athletes that their health is asimportant as their competitive success

(E) illustrates how appeals to the need forcoordination can be used to justify manyrules that do not involve coordination

1 1-9-1

S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

2 -10- 2

1. Cox: The consumer council did not provide sufficientjustification for its action when it required thatDerma-35 be recalled from the market.

Crockett: I disagree. Derma-35 in fact causesinflammation, but in citing only the side effectof blemishes as the justification for itsdecision, the council rightly acknowledged thatblemishes are a legitimate health concern.

Cox and Crockett disagree over whether

(A) Derma-35 should remain on the market(B) blemishes are sometimes caused by

inflammation(C) the council based its decision on the threat of

inflammation or on the threat of blemishes(D) the council gave an adequate reason for its

decision to recall Derma-35(E) inflammation is a serious health threat

2. Literary historian: William Shakespeare, a humbleactor, could have written the love poetryattributed to him. But the dramas attributed tohim evince such insight into the minds ofpowerful rulers that they could only have beenwritten by one who had spent much timeamong them; Francis Bacon associated withrulers, but Shakespeare did not.

Which one of the following logically follows from theliterary historians claims?

(A) Bacon wrote the dramas attributed toShakespeare, but could not have written thelove poetry.

(B) Bacon wrote both the love poetry and thedramas attributed to Shakespeare.

(C) Shakespeare wrote neither the love poetry northe dramas attributed to him.

(D) One person could not have written both thelove poetry and the dramas attributed toShakespeare.

(E) Shakespeare may have written the love poetrybut did not write the dramas attributed to him.

3. Philosopher: Effective tests have recently beendeveloped to predict fatal diseases having alargely genetic basis. Now, for the first time, aperson can be warned well in advance of thepossibility of such life-threatening conditions.However, medicine is not yet able to preventmost such conditions. Simply being informedthat one will get a disease that is both fatal andincurable can itself be quite harmful to somepeople. This raises the question of whethersuch early warning tests should be madeavailable at all.

Which one of the following statements is bestillustrated by the state of affairs described by thephilosopher?

(A) The advance of medicine fails to providesolutions to every problem.

(B) The advance of medicine creates new contextsin which ethical dilemmas can arise.

(C) Medical technologies continue to advance,increasing our knowledge and understandingof disease.

(D) The more we come to learn, the more werealize how little we know.

(E) The advance of technology is of questionablevalue.

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22SECTION II

Time35 minutes

25 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are bycommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

2-11-24. Chapin: Commentators have noted with concern

the recent electoral success by extremist partiesin several democratic countries. But thesesuccesses pose no threat to democracy in thosecountries. The extremists have won pluralities,not majorities. Furthermore, they have wononly when the moderate parties werepreoccupied with arguing among themselves.

Which one of the following, if assumed, enablesChapins conclusion to be properly drawn?

(A) Parties that win pluralities but not majoritiesnever directly or indirectly effect changes intheir countrys political arrangements.

(B) Multiparty political systems are always moredemocratic than two-party political systemsare.

(C) Countries in which extremist parties winpluralities sometimes have democraticgovernments as strong as those in countriesthat lack extremist parties.

(D) Members of moderate parties who considerextremist parties to be a serious threat todemocracy will sometimes put aside theirdifferences with each other to oppose them.

(E) People are not always supporting a movetoward an extremist government when theyvote for extremist parties in democraticelections.

5. Futurist: Artists in the next century will besupported largely by private patrons. Becausethese patrons will almost invariably besupporters of the social orderwhatever ithappens to be at the timeart in the nextcentury will rarely express social and politicaldoctrines that are perceived to be subversive ofthat social order.

Which one of the following principles, if valid,provides the most support for the futurists inference?

(A) Art patrons tend not to support artists whoseart expresses social and political views thatare in opposition to their own.

(B) Art patrons tend to be more interested informal artistic problems than in the socialand political issues of their time.

(C) Artists are as prone to attack thecontemporary social and political order intheir work as they are to defend it.

(D) Artists tend to become more critical ofcontemporary social and politicalarrangements after they are freed of theirdependency on private patrons.

(E) Art patrons tend to oppose all social changeexcept that initiated by artists.

6. University budget committee: Athletes experiencefewer injuries on artificial-turf athletic fieldsthan on natural-grass fields. Additionally,natural-grass fields are more expensive tomaintain than fields made of artificial turf.Nevertheless, this committee recommendsreplacing the universitys current artificial-turffield with a natural-grass field.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps toresolve the apparent discrepancy in the committeesposition?

(A) The universitys current artificial-turf athleticfield has required extensive maintenance sinceits original installation.

(B) Most injuries sustained on artificial-turf fieldstake longer to heal and require moreexpensive physical therapy than do injuriessustained on natural-grass fields.

(C) It is difficult for spectators at athletic events todetermine whether an athletic field isartificial turf or natural grass.

(D) Maintaining artificial-turf fields involves theoccasional replacement of damaged sectionsof turf, whereas natural-grass fields requiredaily watering and periodic fertilization.

(E) Athletes who have spent most of their playingtime on natural-grass fields generally prefernot to play on artificial-turf fields.

7. Although instinct enables organisms to makecomplex responses to stimuli, instinctual behaviorinvolves no reasoning and requires far fewer nervecells than does noninstinctual (also called flexible)behavior. A brain mechanism capable of flexiblebehavior must have a large number of neurons, andno insect brain has yet reached a size capable ofproviding a sufficiently large number of neurons.

Which one of the following can be properly inferredfrom the statements above?

(A) The behavior of organisms with elaboratebrain mechanisms is usually not instinctual.

(B) Insect behavior is exclusively instinctual.(C) All organisms with brains larger than insects

brains are capable of some measure of flexiblebehavior.

(D) All organisms with large brains are biologicallyequipped for flexible behavior.

(E) Only organisms with brains of insect size orsmaller engage in purely instinctual behavior.

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2 -12- 28. The laboratory experiment, the most effective

method for teaching science, is disappearing frommost secondary school curricula, and students arenow simulating experiments with computers. Thistrend should be stopped. It results in many studentscompleting secondary school and going on to auniversity without knowing how to work withlaboratory equipment.

Which one of the following, if true, most weakens theargument?

(A) Scientific knowledge is changing so rapidly it isdifficult for secondary schools to keep upwithout using computers.

(B) In some secondary schools, teachers conductlaboratory experiments while students observe.

(C) Computers have proven to be a valuable toolfor teaching secondary school studentsscientific terminology.

(D) Secondary schools and universities across thenation have put a great deal of money intopurchasing computers.

(E) University students can learn scienceeffectively without having had experience inworking with laboratory equipment.

9. Alice: In democracies, politicians garner support byemphasizing the differences between theiropponents and themselves. Because they mustrule in accord with their rhetoric, policies indemocracies fluctuate wildly as one partysucceeds another.

Elwell: But despite election rhetoric, to put togethermajority coalitions in democracies, politiciansusually end up softening their stands onindividual issues once they are elected.

The statements above provide the most support for theclaim that Alice and Elwell disagree about whether

(A) politicians heighten the differences betweenthemselves and their opponents duringelections

(B) basic policies change drastically when oneparty succeeds another in a democracy

(C) in a democracy the best way of ensuringcontinuity in policies is to form a coalitiongovernment

(D) most voters stay loyal to a particular politicalparty even as it changes its stand onparticular issues

(E) the desire of parties to build majority coalitionstends to support democratic systems

10. Air traffic controllers and nuclear power plantoperators are not allowed to work exceptionally longhours, because to do so would jeopardize lives. Yetphysicians in residency training are typically requiredto work 80-hour weeks. The aforementionedrestrictions on working exceptionally long hoursshould also be applied to resident physicians, sincethey too are engaged in work of a life-or-death nature.

Which one of the following is an assumption theargument depends on?

(A) There is no indispensable aspect of residencytraining that requires resident physicians towork exceptionally long hours.

(B) Resident physicians have a more direct effect onthe lives of others than do air traffic controllersand nuclear power plant operators.

(C) The more hours one works in a week, the lesssatisfactorily one performs ones work.

(D) Those who are not engaged in work that has life-or-death consequences should only sometimesbe allowed to work exceptionally long hours.

(E) Some resident physicians would like tocomplete their residency training withoutworking exceptionally long hours.

11. Career consultant: The most popular career advicesuggests emphasizing ones strengths toemployers and downplaying ones weaknesses.Research shows this advice to be incorrect. Astudy of 314 managers shows that those whouse self-deprecating humor in front of theiremployees are more likely to be seen by themas even-handed, thoughtful, and concernedthan are those who do not.

The career consultants reasoning is most vulnerableto criticism on the grounds that it

(A) bases a conclusion about how one group willrespond to self-deprecation on informationabout how a different group responds to it

(B) ignores the possibility that what was viewedpositively in the managers self-deprecatinghumor was the self-deprecation and not itshumor

(C) ignores the possibility that non-self-deprecatinghumor might have been viewed even morepositively than self-deprecating humor

(D) infers from the fact that self-deprecatinghumor was viewed positively thatnonhumorous self-deprecation would not beviewed positively

(E) bases a conclusion about certain popularcareer advice on a critique of only one part ofthat advice

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2-13-212. Researcher: We studied two groups of subjects over

a period of six months. Over this period, oneof the groups had a daily routine of afternoonexercise. The other group, the control group,engaged in little or no exercise during thestudy. It was found that those in the exercisegroup got 33 percent more deep-sleep at nightthan did the control group. Exercising in theafternoon tends to raise body temperatureslightly until after bedtime, and this extra heatinduces deeper sleep.

The researchers statements, if true, most stronglysupport which one of the following?

(A) Regular afternoon exercise is one of the thingsrequired for adequate deep-sleep.

(B) Exercise in the morning is almost as likely tohave as many beneficial effects on sleep as isexercise in the afternoon.

(C) The best way to get increased deep-sleep is toinduce a slight increase in body temperaturejust before bedtime.

(D) No one in the control group experienced a risein body temperature just before bedtime.

(E) Raising body temperature slightly by taking awarm bath just before bedtime will likelyresult in increased deep-sleep.

13. Companies wishing to boost sales of merchandiseshould use in-store displays to catch customersattention. According to a marketing study, todaysbusy shoppers have less time for coupon-clippingand pay little attention to direct-mail advertising;instead, they make two-thirds of their buyingdecisions on the spot at the store.

Which one of the following is an assumption that theargument requires?

(A) Companies are increasingly using in-storedisplays to catch customers attention.

(B) Coupons and direct-mail advertising were atone time more effective means of boostingsales of merchandise than they are now.

(C) In-store displays are more likely to influencebuying decisions made on the spot at thestore than to influence other buyingdecisions.

(D) In-store displays that catch customersattention increase the likelihood thatcustomers will decide on the spot to buy thecompanys merchandise.

(E) Many of todays shoppers are too busy to paycareful attention to in-store displays.

14. Roger Bacon, the thirteenth-century scientist, is said tohave made important discoveries in optics. He was anearly advocate of hands-on experimentation, and as ateacher warned his students against relying uncriticallyon the opinions of authorities. Nevertheless, this didnot stop Bacon himself from appealing to authoritywhen it was expedient for his own argumentation.Thus, Bacons work on optics should be generallydisregarded, in view of the contradiction between hisstatements and his own behavior.

The reasoning in the argument is flawed because theargument

(A) presumes, without providing justification, thatauthority opinion is often incorrect

(B) attacks Bacons uncritical reliance on authorityopinion

(C) uses Bacons remarks to his students asevidence of his opinions

(D) ignores the fact that thirteenth-century sciencemay not hold up well today

(E) criticizes Bacons character in order toquestion his scientific findings

15. Ones palate is to a great extent socially determined:that is, if we notice that a lot of people enjoyconsuming a certain type of food, we will eventuallycome to like the food as well, once we have becomeaccustomed to the food.

Which one of the following most closely conforms tothe principle above?

(A) Maxine spoke to her neighbor about the manydifferent ways he prepared pasta, and aftertrying some of his recipes found out that sheloves to eat pasta.

(B) Mike dislikes lima beans, due to his havingparents who dislike them and few familymembers who enjoy them.

(C) All of Georges Ukrainian relatives love to eatpierogis, and by staying with them for severalsummers, George has become very fond ofpierogis as well.

(D) Yolanda dislikes pickles because she hasobserved that many of her relatives wincewhen eating pickles.

(E) Sally found jalapeo peppers to be too hot whenshe first tried them, but now she can eat themwithout discomfort, because her familymembers use them frequently in their cooking.

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2 -14- 216. The ability to access information via computer is a

tremendous resource for visually impaired people.Only a limited amount of printed information isaccessible in braille, large type, or audiotape. But aperson with the right hardware and software canaccess a large quantity of information from librariesand museums around the world, and can have thecomputer read the information aloud, display it inlarge type, or produce a braille version. Thus, visuallyimpaired people can now access information fromcomputers more easily than they can from mosttraditional sources.

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthensthe argument?

(A) A computerized speech synthesizer is often lessexpensive than a complete library ofaudiotapes.

(B) Relatively easy-to-use computer systems thatcan read information aloud, display it in largetype, or produce a braille version of it arewidely available.

(C) Many visually impaired people prefer traditionalsources of information to computers that canread information aloud, display it in large type,or produce a braille version of it.

(D) Most visually impaired people who have accessto information via computer also have accessto this same information via more traditionalsources.

(E) The rate at which printed information isconverted into formats easily accessible tovisually impaired people will increase.

17. Legislator: The recently released crime statisticsclearly show that the new laws requiring stifferpunishments for violators have reduced thecrime rate. In the areas covered by those laws,the incidence of crime has decreased by one-fourth over the four years since the legislationwas enacted.

Analyst: The statistics are welcome news, but theydo not provide strong evidence that the newlaws caused the drop in crime. Manycomparable areas that lack such legislationhave reported a similar drop in the crime rateduring the same period.

Which one of the following most accurately describesthe strategy used by the analyst to call into questionthe legislators argument?

(A) pointing out that the legislator has providedno evidence of the reliability of the statisticson which the legislators conclusion is based

(B) arguing that the legislator has unreasonablyconcluded that one event has caused anotherwithout ruling out the possibility that bothevents are effects of a common cause

(C) objecting that the statistics on which thelegislator is basing his conclusion are drawnfrom a time period that is too short to yield ameaningful data sample

(D) claiming that the legislator has attempted toestablish a particular conclusion becausedoing so is in the legislators self-interestrather than because of any genuine concernfor the truth of the matter

(E) implying that the legislator has drawn aconclusion about cause and effect withoutconsidering how often the alleged effect hasoccurred in the absence of the alleged cause

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2-15-218. Many physicists claim that quantum mechanics may

ultimately be able to explain all fundamentalphenomena, and that, therefore, physical theory willsoon be complete. However, every theory in thehistory of physics that was thought to be finaleventually had to be rejected for failure to explainsome new observation. For this reason, we can expectthat quantum mechanics will not be the final theory.

Which one of the following arguments is mostsimilar in its reasoning to the argument above?

(A) Only a few species of plants now grow in verydry climates; therefore, few species of animalscan live in those climates.

(B) Four companies have marketed a new foodprocessing product; therefore, a fifth companywill not be able to market a similar product.

(C) Your sister is a very good chess player but shehas never won a chess tournament; therefore,she will not win this chess tournament.

(D) A rare virus infected a group of people adecade ago; therefore, it will not reinfect thesame population now.

(E) Each team member has failed to live up topeoples expectations; therefore, the team willnot live up to peoples expectations.

19. In an experiment, researchers played a series ofmusical intervalstwo-note sequencesto a large,diverse group of six-month-old babies. They foundthat the babies paid significantly more attentionwhen the intervals were perfect octaves, fifths, orfourths than otherwise. These intervals are prevalentin the musical systems of most cultures around theworld. Thus, humans probably have a biologicalpredisposition to pay more attention to thoseintervals than to others.

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthensthe argument?

(A) Several similar experiments using olderchildren and adults found that these subjects,too, had a general tendency to pay moreattention to octaves, fifths, and fourths thanto other musical intervals.

(B) None of the babies in the experiment hadprevious exposure to music from any culture.

(C) All of the babies in the experiment had beenexposed to music drawn equally from a widevariety of cultures around the world.

(D) In a second experiment, these same babiesshowed no clear tendency to notice primarycolors more than other colors.

(E) Octaves, fifths, and fourths were played morefrequently during the experiment than othermusical intervals were.

20. Professor Donnellys exams are always more difficultthan Professor Curtiss exams. The question aboutdinosaurs was on Professor Donnellys last exam.Therefore, the question must be difficult.

Which one of the following exhibits both of thelogical flaws exhibited in the argument above?

(A) Lewis is a better baker than Stockman. Lewismade this cake. Therefore, it must be betterthan most of Stockmans cakes.

(B) Porters new book of poetry is better than anyof her other books of poetry. This poem isfrom Porters new book, so it must be good.

(C) Professor Whitburn is teaching English thisyear and always assigns a lot of reading.Therefore, this years English class will have todo more reading than last years class.

(D) Shields first novel has a more complicated plotthan any other that she has written. Hence,that plot must be very complex.

(E) Mathematics is more difficult than history.Therefore, my calculus test will be moredifficult than my history test.

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2 -16- 221. Ethicist: As a function of ones job and societal role,

one has various duties. There are situationswhere acting in accord with one of these dutieshas disastrous consequences, and thus theduties are not absolute. However, it is aprinciple of morality that if one does not haveoverwhelming evidence that fulfilling such aduty will have disastrous consequences, oneought to fulfill it.

Which one of the following most closely conforms tothe principle of morality cited by the ethicist?

(A) A teacher thinks that a certain student hasreceived the course grade merited by thequality of his work. The teacher should fulfillher duty not to raise the students grade, eventhough the lower grade might harm thestudents chance of obtaining an internship.

(B) A person should not fulfill his duty to tell hisfriend the truth about the friends newhaircut, because lying will make the friendhappier than the truth would.

(C) A police investigator discovers that acontractor has slightly overcharged wealthycustomers in order to lower rates for acharity. The investigator should not fulfill hisduty to report the contractor provided thatthe contractor stops the practice.

(D) A psychiatrists patient tells her about hisrecurring nightmares of having committed aterrible crime. The psychiatrist should fulfillher duty to report this to the authoritiesbecause the patient may have broken the law,even though the psychiatrist also has a dutyof confidentiality to her patients.

(E) A journalist thinks there is a slight chance thata story about a developing crisis willendanger innocent lives. Therefore, thejournalist should await further developmentsbefore fulfilling his duty to file the story.

22. Detective: Laser-printer drums are easily damaged,and any nick in a drum will produce a blemishof similar dimensions on each page producedby that printer. So in matching a blemish on apage with a nick on a drum, we can reliablytrace a suspicious laser-printed document tothe precise printer on which it was produced.

Which one of the following, if true, most weakens thedetectives argument?

(A) Criminals are unlikely to use their own laserprinters to produce suspicious documents.

(B) Drum nicks are usually so small that itrequires skill to accurately determine theirsize and shape.

(C) The manufacturing process often produces thesame nick on several drums.

(D) Blemishes on documents are sometimes totallyconcealed by characters that are printed overthem.

(E) Most suspicious documents are not producedon laser printers.

23. Whoever is kind is loved by somebody or other, andwhoever loves anyone is happy. It follows thatwhoever is kind is happy.

The conclusion follows logically if which one of thefollowing is assumed?

(A) Whoever loves someone loves everyone.(B) Whoever loves everyone loves someone.(C) Whoever is happy loves everyone.(D) Whoever loves no one is loved by no one.(E) Whoever loves everyone is kind.

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2-17-224. It is now clear that the ancient Egyptians were the

first society to produce alcoholic beverages. It hadbeen thought that the ancient Babylonians were thefirst; they had mastered the process of fermentationfor making wine as early as 1500 B.C. However,archaeologists have discovered an Egyptian cupdating from 2000 B.C. whose sides depict whatappears to be an Egyptian brewery, and whosechemical residue reveals that it contained a form ofalcoholic beer.

The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticismon which one of the following grounds?

(A) It makes a generalization about Egyptiansociety based on a sample so small that it islikely to be unrepresentative.

(B) It uses the term alcoholic beverage in adifferent sense in the premises than in theconclusion.

(C) It presumes, without providing justification,that because one society developed atechnology before another, the developmentin the latter was dependent on thedevelopment in the former.

(D) It ignores the possibility that the first knowninstance of a kind is not the first instance ofthat kind.

(E) It provides no evidence for the claim that theBabylonians produced wine as early as1500 B.C.

25. Studies have shown that specialty sports foodscontain exactly the same nutrients in the samequantities as do common foods from the grocerystore. Moreover, sports foods cost from two to threetimes more than regular foods. So very few athleteswould buy sports foods were it not for expensiveadvertising campaigns.

Which one of the following, if true, most weakens theargument?

(A) Sports foods are occasionally used by world-famous athletes.

(B) Many grocery stores carry sports foodsalongside traditional inventories.

(C) Sports foods are easier than regular foods tocarry and consume during training andcompetition.

(D) Regular foods contain vitamins and mineralsthat are essential to developing strength andendurance.

(E) Sports foods can nutritionally substitute forregular meals.

22

S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

33 -18-

1. Sambar deer are physically incapable of digestingmeat. Yet sambar deer have been reported feeding onbox turtles after killing them.

Which one of the following, if true, best resolves thediscrepancy above?

(A) Sambar deer eat only the bony shells of boxturtles.

(B) Sambar deer often kill box turtles by accident.(C) Sambar deer kill box turtles only occasionally.(D) Box turtles sometimes compete with sambar

deer for food.(E) Box turtles are much slower and clumsier than

are sambar deer.

2. Benson: In order to maintain the quality of life inour city, we need to restrict growth. That iswhy I support the new zoning regulations.

Willett: I had heard such arguments ten years ago,and again five years ago. Each time the citycouncil was justified in deciding not to restrictgrowth. Since there is nothing new in this ideaof restricting growth, I oppose the regulations.

Which one of the following most accurately describesa way in which Willetts reasoning is questionable?

(A) It presumes that growth is necessarily goodwithout offering support for that position.

(B) It is based on attacking Benson personallyrather than responding to Bensons reasoning.

(C) It ignores the possibility that new reasons forrestricting growth have arisen in the past fiveyears.

(D) It fails to take into account the variety of factorsthat contribute to the quality of life in a city.

(E) It overlooks the possibility that the city councilof ten years ago was poorly qualified to decideon zoning regulations.

3. A recent study involved feeding a high-salt diet to arat colony. A few months after the experiment began,standard tests of the rats blood pressure revealedthat about 25 percent of the colony had normal,healthy blood pressure, about 70 percent of thecolony had high blood pressure, and 5 percent of thecolony had extremely high blood pressure. Theconclusion from these results is that high-salt dietsare linked to high blood pressure in rats.

The answer to which one of the following questionsis most relevant to evaluating the conclusion drawnabove?

(A) How much more salt than is contained in a ratsnormal diet was there in the high-salt diet?

(B) Did the high blood pressure have any adversehealth effects on those rats that developed it?

(C) What percentage of naturally occurring ratcolonies feed on high-salt diets?

(D) How many rats in the colony studied hadabnormally high blood pressure before thestudy began?

(E) Have other species of rodents been used inexperiments of the same kind?

4. Detective: Bill has been accused of committing theburglary at the warehouse last night. But noone saw Bill in the vicinity of the warehouse.So we must conclude that Bill did not committhe burglary.

The reasoning in the detectives argument is mostvulnerable to criticism on the grounds that theargument

(A) treats evidence that is irrelevant to theburglars identity as if it were relevant

(B) merely attacks the character of Bills accusers(C) fails to provide independent evidence for the

theory that Bill committed the burglary(D) treats a lack of evidence against Bill as if it

exonerated Bill(E) fails to establish the true identity of the burglar

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33 3SECTION III

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are bycommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

3-19-35. Psychologist: Because of a perceived social stigma

against psychotherapy, and because of agediscrimination on the part of someprofessionals, some elderly people feeldiscouraged about trying psychotherapy. Theyshould not be, however, for many youngerpeople have greatly benefited from it, andpeople in later life have certain advantagesover the youngsuch as breadth ofknowledge, emotional maturity, andinterpersonal skillsthat contribute to thelikelihood of a positive outcome.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe main conclusion of the psychologists argument?

(A) Certain psychotherapists practice agediscrimination.

(B) Elderly people are better able to benefit frompsychotherapy than are younger people.

(C) Elderly people should not be reluctant toundergo psychotherapy.

(D) Characteristics associated with maturity areimportant factors in psychotherapys success.

(E) Elderly people are less inclined to trypsychotherapy than are younger people.

6. Heavy salting of Albrittens roads to melt winter iceand snow began about 20 years ago. The areasgroundwater now contains approximately 100milligrams of dissolved salt per liter. Groundwater ina nearby, less highly urbanized area, where little saltis used and where traffic patterns resemble those ofAlbritten 20 years ago, contains only about 10milligrams of dissolved salt per liter. Since water thatcontains 250 or more milligrams of dissolved salt perliter tastes unacceptably salty, continuing the saltingof Albrittens roads at its present rate will renderAlbrittens groundwater unpalatable within the nextfew decades.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriouslyweakens the argument?

(A) Even water that contains up to 5,000 milligramsof dissolved salt per liter is safe to drink.

(B) The concentration of dissolved salt inAlbrittens groundwater is expected to reach400 milligrams per liter within a few decades.

(C) Salting icy roads is the simplest way to preventaccidents on those roads.

(D) Albrittens groundwater contained roughly 90milligrams of dissolved salt per liter 20 yearsago.

(E) Salting of Albrittens roads is likely to decreaseover the next few decades.

7. Numerous books describe the rules of etiquette.Usually the authors of such books merely codifystandards of behavior by classifying variousbehaviors as polite or rude. However, this suggeststhat there is a single, objective standard of politeness.Clearly, standards of politeness vary from culture toculture, so it is absurd to label any one set ofbehaviors as correct and others as incorrect.

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable tocriticism on the grounds that the argument

(A) reaches a conclusion about how peopleactually behave on the basis of assertionsregarding how they ought to behave

(B) bases a generalization about all books ofetiquette on the actions of a few authors

(C) fails to justify its presumption regarding theinfluence of rules of etiquette on individualbehavior

(D) overlooks the possibility that authors ofetiquette books are purporting to state what iscorrect behavior for one particular culture only

(E) attempts to lend itself credence by unfairlylabeling the position of the authors ofetiquette books absurd

8. In jazz history, there have been gifted pianists who,because they had no striking musical ideas, led nomemorable recording sessions. But precisely becausethey lacked such ideas, they were able to respondquickly to the ideas of imaginative and difficult leaders.Thus, these pianists are often heard adding masterfultouches to some of the greatest jazz recordings.

Which one of the following principles is bestillustrated by the information above?

(A) The success of a group enterprise depends onthe ability of the leader to recognize theweaknesses of others in the group.

(B) The production of any great work requirescontributions from those who areunimaginative but technically skilled.

(C) People without forceful personalities cannotbecome great leaders in a field.

(D) A trait that is a weakness in some settings cancontribute to greatness in other settings.

(E) No one can achieve great success without thehelp of others who are able to bring onesideas to fruition.

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33 3

33 -20-9. Editorial: When legislators discover that some

public service is not being adequatelyprovided, their most common response is toboost the funding for that public service.Because of this, the least efficiently rungovernment bureaucracies are the ones thatmost commonly receive an increase in funds.

The statements in the editorial, if true, most stronglysupport which one of the following?

(A) The least efficiently run governmentbureaucracies are the bureaucracies thatlegislators most commonly discover to befailing to provide some public serviceadequately.

(B) When legislators discover that a public serviceis not being adequately provided, they neverrespond to the problem by reducing thefunding of the government bureaucracyproviding that service.

(C) Throughout the time a governmentbureaucracy is run inefficiently, legislatorsrepeatedly boost the funding for the publicservice that this bureaucracy provides.

(D) If legislators boost funding for a public service,the government bureaucracy providing thatservice will commonly become less efficient asa result.

(E) The most inefficiently run governmentbureaucracy receives the most funding of anygovernment bureaucracy.

10. Fred argued that, since Kathleen is a successful filmdirector, she has probably worked with famousactors. But, while Fred is right in supposing thatmost successful film directors work with famousactors, his conclusion is not warranted. For, as heknows, Kathleen works only on documentary films,and directors of documentaries rarely work withfamous actors.

Which one of the following strategies is used aboveto criticize Freds reasoning?

(A) maintaining that too little is known aboutKathleen to justify any conclusion

(B) showing that Kathleen must not have workedwith famous actors

(C) claiming that Fred has failed to take relevantinformation into account

(D) showing that Fred has mistakenly assumedthat all successful film directors work withfamous actors

(E) demonstrating that Fred has failed to showthat most successful film directors work withfamous actors

11. In early 1990, Queenston instituted a tax increasethat gave its school system a larger operating budget.The school system used the larger budget to increasethe total number of teachers in the system by 30percent between 1990 and 1993. Nevertheless, therewas no change in the average number of students perteacher between 1990 and 1993.

If the statements above are true, then on the basis ofthem which one of the following must also be true?

(A) No classes in Queenstons school systemexperienced an increase in enrollmentbetween 1990 and 1993.

(B) The total number of students enrolled inQueenstons school system increased between1990 and 1993.

(C) The operating budget of Queenstons schoolsystem increased by exactly 30 percentbetween 1990 and 1993.

(D) Most teachers who worked for Queenstonsschool system in 1990 were still working forthe system in 1993.

(E) The quality of education in Queenstons schoolsystem improved between 1990 and 1993.

12. Our computer experts are asked from time to time toallocate funds for new hardware and software for ourcompany. Unfortunately, these experts favor cutting-edge technologies, because that is what excites them,despite the fact that such experimental technologiesare highly expensive, full of undiscovered bugs, andthus are not the most profitable investments.

Of the following, which one conforms most closely tothe principle illustrated by the situation describedabove?

(A) When senior executives choose to promotejunior executives, they tend to favor thosewho share their professional interests, notthose who have had the most education.

(B) When supermarkets choose foods, they choosethe kinds that can be sold for the most profit,not the kinds of foods that are the mosthealthful for consumers.

(C) When librarians choose books for the library,they choose the kinds that they enjoy reading,not the kinds of books that serve the interestsof the community.

(D) When students choose courses, they choosethose that require the least amount of work,not those in which they might learn the most.

(E) When television executives choose programs toair, they choose the ones with the most sex andviolence because that is what viewers want, notthe shows with the highest artistic merit.

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33 3

3-21-313. It is characteristic of great artists generally, and of

great writers in particular, to have a discerning viewof the basic social and political arrangements of thesociety in which they live. Therefore, the greater awriter one is, the more astute one will be inperceiving the basic social and political arrangementsof ones society.

Which one of the following most accurately describesa flaw in the reasoning above?

(A) It assumes, without providing justification,that members of a group that is part of alarger group possess all of the characteristicspossessed by members of the larger group.

(B) It assumes, without providing justification,that because something is sometimes the caseit must always be the case.

(C) It assumes, without providing justification,that those artists with political insight do nothave insight into matters outside of politics.

(D) It assumes, without providing justification,that only great individuals can makediscerning criticisms of their societies.

(E) It assumes, without providing justification, thatbecause people who have one quality tend tohave a second quality, those who have more ofthe first quality will have more of the second.

14. Political scientist: The economies of a number ofEuropean countries are currently in severedifficulty. Germany is the only neighboringcountry that has the resources to resuscitatethese economies. Therefore, Germany shouldbegin aiding these economically troubledcountries.

Which one of the following principles most helps tojustify the political scientists reasoning?

(A) Any nation that alone has an obligation toeconomically resuscitate neighboringcountries ought to be the only nation toprovide any economic aid.

(B) Any nation that alone has the capacity toeconomically resuscitate neighboringcountries should exercise that capacity.

(C) Any nation that can afford to give economicaid to just a few other nations ought to aidjust those few.

(D) Only nations that alone have the capacity toeconomically resuscitate neighboringcountries should exercise that capacity.

(E) Only nations that can afford to give economicaid to just a few other nations ought to aidjust those few.

15. Critic: Works of literature often presentprotagonists who scorn allegiance to theirsociety and who advocate detachment ratherthan civic-mindedness. However, modernliterature is distinguished from the literatureof earlier eras in part because it morefrequently treats such protagonistssympathetically. Sympathetic treatment ofsuch characters suggests to readers that oneshould be unconcerned about contributing tosocietal good. Thus, modern literature candamage individuals who appropriate thisattitude, as well as damage society at large.

Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich the critics argument relies?

(A) Some individuals in earlier eras were moreconcerned about contributing to societalgood than is any modern individual.

(B) It is to the advantage of some individuals thatthey be concerned with contributing tosocietal good.

(C) Some individuals must believe that theirsociety is better than most before they canbecome concerned with benefiting it.

(D) The aesthetic merit of some literary workscannot be judged in complete independenceof their moral effects.

(E) Modern literature is generally not as conduciveto societal good as was the literature of earliereras.

16. Psychologist: Some people contend that childrenshould never be reprimanded. Any criticism, letalone punishment, they say, harms childrensself-esteem. This view is laudable in its challengeto the belief that children should be punishedwhenever they misbehave, yet it gives adangerous answer to the question of how oftenpunishment should be inflicted. When parentsnever reprimand their children, they are in effectrewarding them for unacceptable behavior, andrewarded behavior tends to recur.

The view that children should never be reprimandedfunctions in the psychologists argument as a statementof a position that the psychologists argument

(A) is designed to discredit entirely(B) is designed to establish as true(C) is designed to establish as well intentioned(D) claims has a serious flaw though is not without

value(E) claims is less reasonable than any other view

mentioned

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33 -22-17. Traditionally, students at Kelly University have

evaluated professors on the last day of class. Butsome professors at Kelly either do not distribute thepaper evaluation forms or do so selectively, andmany students cannot attend the last day of class.Soon, students will be able to use school computersto evaluate their professors at any time during thesemester. Therefore, evaluations under the newsystem will accurately reflect the distribution ofstudent opinion about teaching performance.

Which one of the following is an assumptionrequired by the argument?

(A) Professors who distribute the paper evaluationforms selectively distribute them only tostudents they personally like.

(B) Students can wisely and insightfully assess aprofessors performance before the end of thesemester.

(C) The traditional system for evaluating teachingperformance should not be used at anyuniversity.

(D) Nearly all professors who fail to distribute thepaper evaluation forms do so because theybelieve the students will evaluate themunfavorably.

(E) Dissatisfied students are in general not morelikely than satisfied students to submit acomputerized evaluation.

18. A seriously maladaptive trait is unlikely to persist ina given animal population for long, since there isenough genetic variation in populations that somemembers will lack the trait. Those lacking the traitwill compete more successfully for the availableresources. Hence these members of the populationsurvive and reproduce at a higher rate, crowding outthose with the maladaptive trait.

The proposition that those lacking a maladaptivetrait will compete more successfully for the availableresources figures in the argument in which one of thefollowing ways?

(A) It expresses a view that the argument as awhole is designed to discredit.

(B) It is the arguments main conclusion.(C) It is a premise of the argument.(D) It presents evidence that the argument

attempts to undermine.(E) It is an intermediate conclusion of the

argument.

19. Tanya would refrain from littering if everyone elserefrained from littering. None of her friends litter,and therefore she does not litter either.

Which one of the following uses flawed reasoning mostsimilar to the flawed reasoning in the argument above?

(A) All residents of the same neighborhood havesome goals in common. One group ofneighborhood residents wants improvementsmade to a local park, so some other residentsof that neighborhood must share this goal.

(B) If a talented artist is willing to starve for hercareer, then her friends should take her choiceof profession seriously. Donnas friends takeher choice of profession seriously, and she iswilling to starve for her career, so she must bea talented artist.

(C) Herbert will stop selling office supplies in hisstore if none of his regular customerscomplains. Some of his regular customersnever knew that Herbert sold office supplies,so those customers will not complain.

(D) If all whales need to surface for air, then whalesmust be easy to observe. Blue whales are easilyobserved, so they must surface for air.

(E) If all of a restaurants customers like its food, itmust be an exceptional restaurant. Everyonewhom Sherryl consulted liked the food atChez Louis, so it must be an exceptionalrestaurant.

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3-23-320. Scientist: Genetic engineering has aided new

developments in many different fields. Butbecause these techniques require themanipulation of the genetic codes of organisms,they are said to be unethical. What the criticsfail to realize is that this kind of manipulationhas been going on for millennia; virtually everyfarm animal is the result of selective breedingfor desired traits. Since selective breeding isgenetic engineering of a crude sort, geneticengineering is not unethical.

Which one of the following is an assumption onwhich the scientists argument depends?

(A) The manipulation of the genetic code oforganisms is never unethical.

(B) Anything that is accomplished by nature is notunethical to accomplish with science.

(C) The manipulation of the genetic code throughselective breeding for desired traits is notunethical.

(D) The manipulation of the genetic code throughselective breeding for desired traits isimportant for human survival.

(E) Science can accomplish only what is already insome sense natural, and nothing natural isunethical.

21. Baumgartners comparison of the environmentalhazards of gasoline-powered cars with those ofelectric cars is misleading. He examines onlyproduction of the cars, whereas it is the productstotal life cycleproduction, use, and recyclingthatmatters in determining its environmental impact. Atypical gasoline-powered car consumes 3 times moreresources and produces 15 to 20 times more airpollution than a typical electric car.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe conclusion of the argument?

(A) Baumgartner makes a deceptive comparisonbetween the environmental hazards ofgasoline-powered and electric cars.

(B) The use of a typical gasoline-powered carresults in much greater resource depletionthan does the use of a typical electric car.

(C) Baumgartner uses inaccurate data in hiscomparison of the environmental hazards ofgasoline-powered and electric cars.

(D) The total life cycle of a product is what mattersin assessing its environmental impact.

(E) The production of gasoline-powered carscreates more environmental hazards thandoes that of electric cars.

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33 -24-22. Over the last 10 years, there has been a dramatic

increase in the number of people over the age of 65living in this region. This is evident from the fact thatduring this time the average age of people living inthis region has increased from approximately 52 to57 years.

Which one of the following, if true, would moststrengthen the argument?

(A) The number of people in the region under theage of 18 has increased over the last 10 years.

(B) The birth rate for the region decreasedsignificantly over the last 10 years.

(C) The total number of people living in theregion has decreased over the last 10 years.

(D) The number of people who moved into theregion over the last 10 years is greater thanthe number of those who moved out.

(E) The average age for people in the region ishigher than that for people in surroundingregions.

23. Editorial: A recently passed law limits freedom ofspeech in order to silence dissenters. It hasbeen said that those who are ignorant ofhistory will repeat its patterns. If this is true,then those responsible for passing the lawmust be ignorant of a great deal of history.Historically, silencing dissenters has tended topromote undemocratic policies and theestablishment of authoritarian regimes.

The editorialists reasoning is flawed in that it fails totake into account that

(A) the law may have other purposes in addition tosilencing dissenters

(B) certain freedoms might sometimes need to belimited in order to ensure the protection ofcertain other freedoms

(C) some historical accounts report that legalrestrictions on freedom of speech haveoccasionally undermined the establishment ofauthoritarian regimes

(D) many good laws have been passed by peoplewho are largely ignorant of history

(E) even those who are not ignorant of historymay repeat its patterns

24. Editorialist: Despite the importance it seems to havein our lives, money does not really exist. Thisis evident from the fact that all that would beneeded to make money disappear would be auniversal loss of belief in it. We witness thisphenomenon on a small scale daily in the risesand falls of financial markets, whosefluctuations are often entirely independent ofconcrete causes and are the results of merebeliefs of investors.

The conclusion of the editorialists argument can beproperly drawn if which one of the following isassumed?

(A) Anything that exists would continue to existeven if everyone were to stop believing in it.

(B) Only if one can have mistaken beliefs about athing does that thing exist, strictly speaking.

(C) In order to exist, an entity must have practicalconsequences for those who believe in it.

(D) If everyone believes in something, then thatthing exists.

(E) Whatever is true of money is true of financialmarkets generally.

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3-25-325. False chicorys taproot is always one half as long as

the plant is tall. Furthermore, the more rain falsechicory receives, the taller it tends to grow. In fact,false chicory plants that receive greater than twice theaverage rainfall of the species usual habitat alwaysreach above-average heights for false chicory.

If the statements above are true, then which one ofthe following must also be true?

(A) If two false chicory plants differ in height, thenit is likely that the one with the shortertaproot has received less than twice theaverage rainfall of the species usual habitat.

(B) If a false chicory plant has a longer-than-average taproot, then it is likely to havereceived more than twice the average rainfallof the species usual habitat.

(C) It is not possible for a false chicory plant toreceive only the average amount of rainfall ofthe species usual habitat and be of above-average height.

(D) If the plants in one group of false chicory arenot taller than those in another group of falsechicory, then the two groups must havereceived the same amount of rainfall.

(E) If a false chicory plant receives greater thantwice the average rainfall of the species usualhabitat, then it will have a longer taproot thanthat of an average-sized false chicory plant.

26. Fossilized teeth of an extinct species of herbivorousgreat ape have on them phytoliths, which aremicroscopic petrified remains of plants. Since onlyphytoliths from certain species of plants are foundon the teeth, the apes diet must have consisted onlyof those plants.

The argument assumes which one of the following?

(A) None of the plant species that left phytolithson the apes teeth has since become extinct.

(B) Plants of every type eaten by the apes leftphytoliths on their teeth.

(C) Each of the teeth examined had phytoliths of thesame plant species on it as all the other teeth.

(D) Phytoliths have also been found on the fossilizedteeth of apes of other extinct species.

(E) Most species of great ape alive today have dietsthat consist of a fairly narrow range of plants.

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S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

44 -26-

Questions 16

Exactly six guideposts, numbered 1 through 6, mark amountain trail. Each guidepost pictures a different one ofsix animalsfox, grizzly, hare, lynx, moose, or porcupine.The following conditions must apply:

The grizzly is pictured on either guidepost 3 orguidepost 4.

The moose guidepost is numbered lower than thehare guidepost.

The lynx guidepost is numbered lower than themoose guidepost but higher than the fox guidepost.

1. Which one of the following could be an accurate listof the animals pictured on the guideposts, listed inorder from guidepost 1 through guidepost 6?

(A) fox, lynx, grizzly, porcupine, moose, hare(B) fox, lynx, moose, hare, grizzly, porcupine(C) fox, moose, grizzly, lynx, hare, porcupine(D) lynx, fox, moose, grizzly, hare, porcupine(E) porcupine, fox, hare, grizzly, lynx, moose

2. Which one of the following animals CANNOT be theone pictured on guidepost 3?

(A) fox(B) grizzly(C) lynx(D) moose(E) porcupine

3. If the moose is pictured on guidepost 3, then whichone of the following is the lowest numberedguidepost that could picture the porcupine?

(A) guidepost 1(B) guidepost 2(C) guidepost 4(D) guidepost 5(E) guidepost 6

4. If guidepost 5 does not picture the moose, thenwhich one of the following must be true?

(A) The lynx is pictured on guidepost 2.(B) The moose is pictured on guidepost