STYLE AND USAGE GUIDE TO ACCOMPANY

STYLE AND USAGE GUIDE TO ACCOMPANY PAUL V. ANDERSON’S

TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION A READER-CENTERED APPROACH

S I X T H E D I T I O N

C. Gilbert Storms Miami University (Ohio)

Copyright 2007 Wadsworth All Rights Reserved 1

Style and Usage Guide to accompany Paul Anderson’s Technical Communication, 6th Edition

C. Gilbert Storms

Publisher: Michael Rosenberg Assistant Editor: Christine Halsey Developmental Editor: Ed Dodd Production Editor: Lianne Ames Marketing Manager: Kate Edwards

Copyright © 2007 by Wadsworth, a part of the Thomson Corporation. Wadsworth, Thomson, and the Thomson logo are trademarks used herein under license. All rights reserved. Instructors (or students) of classes using Paul V. Anderson’s Technical Communication, Sixth edition may download and print this study guide. Otherwise, no part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution or information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher. For more information contact Wadsworth, 25 Thomson Place, Boston, MA 02210 USA, or visit our Internet site at http://www.wadsworth.com For permission to use material from this text or product contact us: Tel 1-800-730-2214 Fax 1-800-730-2215 Web www.thomsonrights.com


Preface

This Style and Usage Guide provides you with a brief, easy-to-use guide to issues of grammar, punctuation, style, and usage about which you may have questions in college and your career.

Designed for use with Paul V. Anderson's Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach, Sixth Edition, the Guide includes references to portions of that book where you'll find more complete discussion of some topics.

To gain practice at recognizing and solving some of the major issues discussed here, use the exercises at the end of the Guide.

Subject Table of Contents

All of the topics treated in the Style and Usage Guide appear in alphabetical order in the text. However, this is a listing of those topics organized by subject category in order to give you an overview of the issues treated in the book.

I. Grammar and Sentence Structure Active and passive voice ......................................................................................................................................11 Awkward constructions ........................................................................................................................................15 Case ......................................................................................................................................................................18 Comparative and superlative degrees (of adjectives and adverbs) .......................................................................28 Dangling modifiers...............................................................................................................................................30 Fragments .............................................................................................................................................................35 Misplaced modifiers .............................................................................................................................................41 Parallelism............................................................................................................................................................45 Pronoun-antecedent agreement.............................................................................................................................51 Pronoun reference.................................................................................................................................................52 Sentence types ......................................................................................................................................................58 Shifts.....................................................................................................................................................................62 Subject-verb agreement ........................................................................................................................................65

II. Punctuation Apostrophes..........................................................................................................................................................14 Brackets ................................................................................................................................................................16 Colons...................................................................................................................................................................23 Commas................................................................................................................................................................23 Comma splices .....................................................................................................................................................27 Dashes ..................................................................................................................................................................31 Ellipsis points .......................................................................................................................................................32 Exclamation points ...............................................................................................................................................33 Fused sentences ....................................................................................................................................................35 Parentheses ...........................................................................................................................................................47 Periods..................................................................................................................................................................48 Question marks.....................................................................................................................................................53 Quotation marks ...................................................................................................................................................54 Semicolons ...........................................................................................................................................................57 Slashes..................................................................................................................................................................64


III. Usage Abbreviations .........................................................................................................................................................5 Acronyms and initialisms .....................................................................................................................................10 Addresses .............................................................................................................................................................11 Capitalization........................................................................................................................................................17 Contractions..........................................................................................................................................................30 Dates.....................................................................................................................................................................32 Hyphens................................................................................................................................................................37 Italics ....................................................................................................................................................................39 Numbers ...............................................................................................................................................................42 Quotations ............................................................................................................................................................55 Sexist and discriminatory language......................................................................................................................59 Specialized terms..................................................................................................................................................64Words often confused (appear alphabetically throughout the Guide)

IV. Exercises

Grammar and Sentence Structure Awkward constructions ....................................................................................................................................70 Case...................................................................................................................................................................71 Dangling modifiers ...........................................................................................................................................73 Fragments .........................................................................................................................................................74 Misplaced modifiers .........................................................................................................................................74 Parallelism ........................................................................................................................................................75 Pronoun-antecedent agreement .........................................................................................................................76 Pronoun reference .............................................................................................................................................76 Sentence types...................................................................................................................................................78 Shifts .................................................................................................................................................................79 Subject-verb agreement ....................................................................................................................................80

Punctuation Apostrophes ......................................................................................................................................................70 Colons, Dashes, and Parentheses ......................................................................................................................72 Commas ............................................................................................................................................................72 Comma splices..................................................................................................................................................73 Fused sentences.................................................................................................................................................74 Periods, Question marks, and Exclamation points............................................................................................75 Semicolons........................................................................................................................................................77

Usage Capitalization ....................................................................................................................................................71Quotations and quotation marks .......................................................................................................................77 Sexist and discriminatory language ..................................................................................................................78

V. Solutions to Exercises Apostrophes .........................................................................................................................................................81 Awkward constructions .......................................................................................................................................81 Capitalization.......................................................................................................................................................81 Case .....................................................................................................................................................................82 Colons, Dashes, and Parentheses.........................................................................................................................82 Commas...............................................................................................................................................................83 Comma splices.....................................................................................................................................................84 Dangling modifiers ..............................................................................................................................................84 Fragments ............................................................................................................................................................84 Fused sentences ...................................................................................................................................................85 Misplaced modifiers ............................................................................................................................................85 Parallelism ...........................................................................................................................................................85 Periods, Question marks, and Exclamation points...............................................................................................86 Pronoun-antecedent agreement............................................................................................................................86


Pronoun reference................................................................................................................................................87 Quotations and Quotation marks .........................................................................................................................87 Semicolons ..........................................................................................................................................................87 Sentence types .....................................................................................................................................................88 Sexist and discriminatory language .....................................................................................................................88 Shifts....................................................................................................................................................................89 Subject-verb agreement .......................................................................................................................................89

Abbreviations Abbreviations, including acronyms and initialisms, are short ways of writing words. They are commonly formed from one or several letters of the abbreviated term. Abbreviations are often used in technical writing since they can save space and writing time. However, use them sparingly and with discrimination since too many abbreviations, or unfamiliar ones, can easily confuse readers. A good rule is to write out expressions unless an abbreviation will be familiar to readers, unless repeated use of a long term would be unwieldy, or unless you need to conserve space in tables, illustrations, or communications where space is at a premium, such as brochures, quick reference cards, or computer screens.

Here are some specific guidelines for using abbreviations in your writing:

Make sure readers will understand your abbreviations. Define them in the text or, if you are using a large number of abbreviations, create a glossary or "list of abbreviations" to define meanings. A common practice in using acronyms and initialisms is to write out an expression the first time you use it and to place the abbreviation in parentheses after the expression. Thereafter, you can use the abbreviation.

Examples: Janette attended the International Technical Communication Conference (ITCC) last June. The ITCC is held in a different city each year.

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is the federal agency charged with responding to natural disasters. FEMA helps victims of events such as forest fires, floods, and earthquakes to rebuild their homes.

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Avoid using abbreviations too frequently or using too many different ones. Using too many abbreviations can make reading difficult for readers, even those familiar with your abbreviations.

Names and Titles Do not abbreviate personal names.

Revise: Benj., Geo., Thos., Wm.

To: Benjamin, George, Thomas, William

Follow all initials in names with a period.


Examples: Mary T. Brighton, J. H. Wisniewski

The titles Mr., Ms., Miss, Mrs., and Dr. usually are abbreviated.

Examples: Mr. Abkarian, Ms. Delacorte, Dr. Van Hoven

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However, most writers spell out other titles when they appear before names.

Examples: Professor Amy M. Cassabon, the Reverend Walter S. Chang, Senator Dolores Martinez-Charles

Most abbreviated titles come after names, but some may appear before if space constraints dictate.

Examples: Rep. Carl G. Brandt, Gov. Virginia I. Barkeley, Hon. Anthony T. Leonardi

Do not use the titles Mr., Ms., Miss, Mrs., or Dr. if another, or an equivalent, title is used after the name (see also Miss, Mr., Mrs., Ms.).

Revise: Mr. Raymond Stern, Ph.D. Dr. Sylvia R. Grenville, M.D.

To: Raymond Stern, Ph.D. Dr. Sylvia R. Grenville OR Sylvia R. Grenville, M.D.

Do not abbreviate titles used without specific names.

Revise: The Dr. treated 25 patients on Friday.

To: The doctor treated 25 patients on Friday. OR Doctor Berkowitz treated 25 patients on Friday.

Here are some frequently used abbreviations for titles:

Personal Jr. Junior (preceded by a comma) Sr. Senior (preceded by a comma) Mr. Mister (a man) Ms. A married or unmarried woman

Professional Atty. Attorney Dr. Doctor Drs. Doctors


Hon. Honorable (preceded by the if the title is written out)

Rev. Reverend (preceded by the if the title is written out)

Academic Degrees B.A. Bachelor of Arts B.S. Bachelor of Science B.S.E.E. Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Surgery D.V.M. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine Ed.D. Doctor of Education LL.B. Bachelor of Law LL.D. Doctor of Law M.A. Master of Arts M.B.A. aster of Business Administration M.D. Doctor of Medicine M.S. Master of Science Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy

Time and Dates Here are some frequently used abbreviations for time and dates:

A.M. ante meridiem (before noon) P.M. post meridiem (after noon) A.D. anno Domini (in the year of our Lord) B.C. before Christ B.C.E. before the common era C.E. common era

Write out the names of days of the week and months of the year, especially when you are writing the date as the month and year only.

Example: January 1995

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Jan. January Feb. February Mar. March Apr. April

Aug. August Sept. September Oct. October Dec. December

Sun. Sunday Mon. Monday


Tues. Tuesday Wed. Wednesday Thurs. Thursday

Fri. Friday Sat. Saturday

Organizations The following abbreviations are often used in the names of companies and other organizations. However, use them in your own writing only if they appear in official communications of the organization, such as letterhead, reports, and marketing materials. If they don't, you should write out the organization's name. Many organizations have policies concerning how their name should be written and what parts of it may or may not be abbreviated. So do not abbreviate an organization's name unless such abbreviations appear in official communications of the organization.

Assn. Association Attys. Attorneys Bros. Brothers Co. Company Corp. Corporation

CPA Certified Public Accountant(s) Inc. Incorporated Ltd. Limited & and

Research The following abbreviations are often found in research articles, books, and reports:

bull. bulletin cf. confer (see or compare) ch., chs. chapter, chapters diss. dissertation ed., eds. edited by, editors e.g. exempli gratia (for example) et al. et alii (and others) etc. et cetera (and so forth) ff. and the following (usually

pages) fig. figure Ibid. Ibidem (in the same place) i.e. id est (that is) l., ll. line, lines MS, MSS manuscript, manuscripts n., nn. note, notes NB nota bene (take note)

n.d. no date op. cit. opere citato (in the work

cited) p., pp. page, pages proc. proceedings pseud. pseudonym pub. published by rept. report, reported by rev. revised, revised by rpt. reprint sec., secs. section, sections sic sic (thus) std. standard trans. translated by vol., vols. volume, volumes vs., v. versus

Measurements The following abbreviations for measurements often appear [?] technical and scientific communications:

amp ampere atm atmosphere

bbl barrel Btu British thermal unit


bu bushel C Celsius cal calorie cd candela cm centimeter cp candle

power cu cubic cwt hundred-

weight db decibel doz dozen in inch F Fahrenheit ft foot ft lb foot-pound g gram gal gallon H hertz ha hectare hp horsepower hr hour hz herz J joule K kelvin kc kilocycle kg kilogram

km kilometer kn knot kph kilometers

per hour kw kilowatt L liter lb pound lm lumen m meter mg milligram mHz megahertz mi mile mL milliliter mm millimeter min minute mo month mpg miles per

gallon mph miles per

hour nm nautical

mile N number W ohm oz ounce p probability pH measure of

acidity

pk peck ppm parts per

million psi pounds per

square inch pt pint qt quart R roentgen rad radian rpm revolutions

per minute sd standard

deviation sec second sp gr specific

gravity sq square std standard t metric ton tn ton temp temperature V volt W watt yd yard yr year

Business The following abbreviations often appear in business communications:

@ at acct. account attn. attention c/o in care of COD cash on delivery ea. each mdse. merchandise mfg. manufacturing pd. paid


$ dollars / per % percent

Acronyms and initialisms Acronyms and initialisms are special kinds of abbreviations. Initialisms are abbreviations formed from the letters (usually the first letters) of two or more words.

Examples: ASTM, American Society for Testing Materials NSF, National Science Foundation HDTV, high definition television

Acronyms are initialisms that are customarily pronounced as words.

Examples: AIDS, Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome LAN, local area network NASA, National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Here are some guidelines for using acronyms and initialisms:

Acronyms are always written in capital letters, except for those that have become accepted as ordinary words, which can be written in lowercase.

Examples: radar, Radio Detecting and Ranging laser, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

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Initialisms may be written in upper-or lowercase. Usually, periods are not used with uppercase initialisms, but they are with lowercase ones. However, academic degrees, abbreviations for time, some titles, and some geographic abbreviations use periods.

Examples: DNA, SOP or s.o.p., A.M. or a.m., A.D., B.C. B.S., LL.D., Ph.D., M.P., U.S.A., U.K., [Note that U.S. postal abbreviations appear in capitals and do not use periods: CA, IL, NY.]

Form the possessive of acronyms and initialisms by adding an apostrophe.

Examples: the AMA's position on universal health-care coverage NSF's procedure for evaluating proposals

Form the plural of an acronym or initialism by adding the letter s. If the initialism ends in s, you may make the plural by using 's. However, because readers may mistake this construction for a possessive, it may be better to write out the expression.

Examples: CEOs, IRAs, Ph.D.s, B.S.'s (or Bachelors of Science)


Active and passive voice Active and passive voice are terms used to describe the relationship between subject and verb in a sentence (for a more complete discussion of this topic, see the guideline on the active voice in Chapter 8, "Developing an Effective Style," of Paul V. Anderson’s Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach). In sentences using the active voice, the subject performs the action.

Example: The scientists approved the locations for the air monitoring stations.

In sentences using the passive voice, the subject is acted upon.

Example: The locations for the air monitoring stations were approved by the scientists.

Because passive voice sentences are often longer and use more words than active voice sentences, and because they are sometimes vague in describing who or what is performing the action, you should try to use the active voice unless you have a good reason to use the passive. Some of these reasons might be when the identity of the person performing the action is not important to an understanding of the sentence,

Example: Documents filed in the Reports Completed File are kept for three months, then destroyed.

or when using the active voice might be offensive or upsetting to readers,

Example: Unfortunately, your application has been turned down.

or when using the passive voice would enable you to keep the reader's attention focused consistently on a topic.

Example: Proposal forms are available in the Administrative Services office. These forms must be filled out completely and submitted by March 1.

adapt, adopt Adapt means to adjust to a set of circumstances or to a situation.

Example: Production staff will have to adapt to the new schedule as quickly as possible.

Adopt means to take up as one's own or to choose as a course of action.

Example: The Institute has adopted a new policy on conducting research with human subjects.

Addresses In a business letter, a return address should appear at the top of the letter, either flush left (if you are using a full block letter format), flush right (if you are using a semiblock letter format), or centered in a letterhead. This address should include a company name, building number, and street, city, state, and zip code.

Example: FastTech Software, Inc.


3374 Randolph Boulevard, Suite 401 Alexandria, Virginia 86332

Note that in this address, a comma appears between the company name and the designation Inc., between the street address and the suite number, and between the city and state. No comma appears between the state and zip code.

If you are writing as a private individual, omit the company name in the address. But do not put your name in its place since your name will appear at the end of the letter.

Example: 9337 Hamilton Avenue Edison, NJ 08903

A business letter also should contain an inside address, flush left, usually three or more lines below the date of the letter. This address should include the name and title (if appropriate) of the person to whom you are writing, the appropriate firm name, street address, city, state, and zip code.

Example: Ms. Stephanie A. Rice Vice President for Administrative Services Golson Engineering, Inc. 14498 Barron Road Atlanta, GA 21847

When writing addresses as part of prose text, separate the elements with commas.

Example: For more information about our research service, write to Richard C. Kim, 1458 Third Street, Colville, CA 97430.

See "Appendix A: Formats for Letters, Memos, and Books" in Paul V. Anderson’s Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach for more information on how to place addresses in business letters.

affect, effect Affect is a verb that means to act upon or influence.

Example: The cold weather shouldn't affect the new engine's performance.

Effect can be either a noun meaning a result or consequence, or a verb meaning to bring about, cause, or accomplish something.

Examples: The effect of the cold weather should be apparent by morning.

It will be very difficult to effect a reduction in the Engineering Department's budget for the coming year.


Because using "effect" as a verb is more formal and is often confused with "affect," it may be best to avoid this usage either by using a more common word, such as "make" or "cause," or by changing the object of "effect" from a noun to a verb.

Revise: During his first two years as Director, Marshall tried to effect a change in the hospital's waste disposal policies.

To: During his first two years as Director, Marshall tried to make a change in the hospital's waste disposal policies. OR

During his first two years as Director, Marshall tried to change the hospital's waste disposal policies.

already, all ready Already means by a specific time.

Example: Biologists had already taken the water samples from Antelope Creek.

All ready means completely prepared.

Example: The seismographs were all ready for operation three days before the Earthquake Research Center was to open.

all right, all-right, alright All right (two words, no hyphen) is an adverbial expression meaning all correct or satisfactory.

Example: Gloria checked Erik's calculations and discovered that they were all right.

All-right and alright are slang expressions that usually aren't used in formal writing.

altogether, all together Altogether is an adverb meaning completely or entirely.

Example: Dimethylethylamine concentrations in the air samples were altogether too high.

All together is an adverb phrase meaning collected, or in a group.

Example: The cattle were all together near the fence.

among, between Among and between are both prepositions expressing relationship, but between is used to refer to two objects, while among refers to more than two.

Examples: The brace fits between the partition and the floor panel.

The engineers could not agree among themselves.


amount, number Amount refers to an aggregate or mass quantity.

Example: The amount of fuel remaining was insufficient for the rocket to return to Earth.

Number refers to things that can be counted.

Example: The large number of pages in the report requires that we print it in two volumes.

Because amount refers to an aggregate quantity, it takes a singular verb.

Example: The number of protein molecules in the sample is constant.

However, number may take a singular or plural verb, depending on whether it refers to a specific or an approximate number (see Subject-verb agreement).

Example: A number of reasons were offered for the increase in volatile organic compounds discharged from the plant.

and/or And/or is sometimes used by writers to mean that both of two alternatives is possible or that only one is. However, the construction is often unclear to readers. Try to use either and or or, or clearly indicate that both alternatives are possible.

Revise: Use bills and/or coins in this machine.

To: You may use bills or coins in this machine. OR

This machine takes either bills, coins, or a combination of both.

Apostrophes Use apostrophes to form the possessive case of nouns, to indicate omissions in contractions and numbers, and to form the plurals of some letters, numbers, and words used as such. Here are some more specific guidelines for using apostrophes:

Use apostrophes to form the possessive case of nouns (including acronyms and initialisms). When the noun doesn't end in s, form the possessive by adding ‘s.

Examples: The design team's report was the most thorough we have seen.

The EPA's guidelines on chloroform concentrations will be issued next week.

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When a noun ends in s, form the possessive by adding an apostrophe after the s.

Example: The workers' timesheets were all completed.

When you want to show collective possession by two or more nouns, put the’s after the last noun in the series.


Example: Milton and Knowlton's findings caused a sensation in the medical community. [Here, the findings belong to Milton and Knowlton working together as a team.]

But when you want to show individual possession, use's after each noun.

Example: The editor read both Milton's and Knowlton's papers. [Here, the editor read papers written individually by Milton and Knowlton.]

When a term is composed of more than one word, add the's to the last word.

Examples: The Deputy Director's testimony was the first to be heard by the subcommittee.

The National Transportation Safety Board's report on dangerous railroad crossings will not be available until March.

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Use an apostrophe to show where material has been omitted in contractions and numbers.

Examples: Darlene can't meet with Oliver until Friday morning.

There's no need to wait until next week to make the decision.

KEMCO changed its formula for the AllClean solvent in the fall of '93.

Do not use apostrophes with possessive pronouns, such as his, hers, its, yours, ours, and theirs. Be especially careful not to confuse its (the possessive form of it) and it's (a contraction of it is; see its, it's).

Use an apostrophe to form the plurals of words used as such in a sentence. Words used in this way are often italicized (see Italics).

Example: He often qualifies his statements with however's.

Do the same with lowercase letters used as such.

Example: He sometimes confuses a's and s's on the keyboard.

Do the same to form the plurals of some numbers.

Example: In the 1940's, Washington, D.C., was very different than it is today.

(Exercises are on p. 105.)

Awkward constructions Awkward constructions occur when words that should remain together in a sentence are separated by other words, making it difficult for readers to understand what they're reading (see Chapter 8, "Developing an Effective Style," in Paul V. Anderson’s Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach for a more complete discussion of this topic). There are four kinds of awkward constructions you especially should try to avoid.


Avoid awkwardly long separations of subject and verb.

Revise: Further changes in the global climate, when the ice now covering the Arctic Ocean melts, will occur.

To: Further changes in the global climate will occur when the ice now covering the Arctic Ocean melts.

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Avoid awkwardly long separations of parts of a verb.

Revise: We have, in spite of the third-quarter decline in sales, made a profit this year.

To: We have made a profit this year in spite of the third-quarter decline in sales.

Avoid awkwardly long separations of a verb and its object.

Revise: Bring me as soon as you can the test report on the new valves.

To: Bring me the test report on the new valves as soon as you can.

Avoid separating the parts of an infinitive (split infinitive).

Revise: There is no reason to unnecessarily delay the new product announcement.

To: There is no reason to delay the new product announcement unnecessarily.


Brackets Brackets are used to indicate material that an author or editor has inserted into a quotation.

Example: "The corporation [CompuTech, Inc.] began implementing its multicultural awareness training program in the Toledo office."

You also may use the Latin abbreviation sic in brackets to signal that a writer has quoted material as it appears in the original source, even though that material contains an error.

Example: MacDougall's article states that "the experiments were conducted over a period of three months [sic]."

capital, capitol Capital is a noun meaning the chief city of a country, state, or province, usually the location of its government.

Example: Columbus is the capital of Ohio.

It also means money or property that can be used to produce more money.


Example: Derek and Joan needed capital to start their consulting business.

Capitol is a noun referring to the building in which a state or national legislature meets. When spelled with a capital letter, it refers specifically to the building in Washington, D.C., in which the U.S. Congress meets.

Capitalization Capital letters make your writing easier to understand by distinguishing certain kinds of words. For example, you signal the beginnings of sentences by capitalizing the first word of every sentence. But mainly, capital letters are used to designate proper nouns, including the following:

Personal names: Richard Jameson, Carlos Ramirez, Katherine Radicek, Joyce Nathanson •

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Personal titles when they appear immediately before someone's name (Dr. Charles Costello), but not after it (Charles Costello, the doctor)

Titles of publications, films, television and radio programs, and videos: A Brief History of Time, National Geographic, Cousteau Odyssey, Gone with the Wind

Names of specific places, including

cities, states, counties, provinces, and countries: San Francisco, North Dakota, Cochise County, Alberta, Russia

continents and regions: Asia, North America, the Middle East geographic features: the Pacific Ocean, the Missouri River, the Rocky Mountains sections of the United States: the East, the Southwest, New England

Names of stars, planets, and constellations: Alpha Centauri, Venus, Libra

Names of ethnic groups and nationalities: Asians, African Americans, Native Americans (native Americans also is acceptable), Hispanic Americans, Europeans, Chinese, Hungarians, French

Names of languages: Arabic, English, German, Greek, Swahili

The names of religions and members of religious groups, sacred books, holy days, and words referring to a Supreme Being: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Buddhists, Christians, Hindus, Jews, Moslems, the Bible, the Koran, the Talmud, Christmas, Easter, Ramadan, Yom Kippur, Allah, God, Buddha, Yahweh, Krishna

Words made from proper nouns: Jewish, Californian, Mexican, Southern, Philadelphian

Days of the week, months, and holidays: Monday, August, Memorial Day, Thanksgiving

Historical documents and laws: Constitution of the United States, Gettysburg Address, Treaty of Versailles, Clean Air Act


Events or eras: the Industrial Revolution, the Information Age, the Nineties •

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Abbreviations of capitalized words, including acronyms and initialisms: ANSI, CIA, IRS, NIH

Names of organizations: National Council of Churches, United Nations, Stanford University, the Nature Conservancy

Trade and model names: Ford Mustang, Apple Macintosh, Coke, Frigidaire

Some capitalizations of words are optional:

Abbreviations for morning and afternoon times may or may not be capitalized: a.m., p.m. or A.M., P.M., but note that in either form, each letter is followed by a period.

The terms north, south, east, and west are capitalized when they refer to sections of the country,

Example: Fosteria Inc.'s U.S. operations are mainly in the South.

but not when they refer to directions.

Example: Drive south on Holmes Boulevard for about two miles, then turn right onto Oak Street.

The terms black and white, when referring to race, may or may not be capitalized.

Do not capitalize the following words:

Names of seasons: summer, fall, winter, spring

Common nouns


Case Case refers to the form that you give nouns and pronouns in a sentence, depending on whether you are using them as subjects or objects, or whether you are trying to show possession.

Personal pronouns change form most often to show a different case, person, or number. This table shows the different forms that they can take:

Case Person Singular Plural

Subjective first I we second you you third he, she, it they


Objective first me us second you you third him, her, it them

These pronouns change again to form the possessive case:


Possessive first my, mine our, ours second your, yours your, yours third his, hers, its their, theirs

Personal pronouns also add the suffix -self or -selves to become intensive or reflexive pronouns. The intensive pronouns create special emphasis (I myself will supervise the installation), while reflexive pronouns are objects of verbs (He held himself responsible for the loss).


first myself ourselves second yourself yourselves

Intensive/ Reflexive

third himself, herself, itself

themselves

Note that you should never use intensive and reflexive pronouns in place of I or me.

Revise: Dana and myself designed the quality assurance program.

To: Dana and I designed the quality assurance program.

Revise: The opening presentation will be given by yourself and me.

To: The opening presentation will be given by you and me.

Of the relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, and that), only who, whom, and whose change form when their case changes. The singular and plural forms of all the relative pronouns are the same.

Case Singular Plural

Subjective who who Objective whom whom Possessive whose whose

Who, whom, and whose usually refer to people, which refers to things, and that may refer to people or things. Sometimes, whose may be used to refer to things in order to avoid an awkward use of of which. (See that, which, who.)


Here are some guidelines for choosing the case of nouns and pronouns:

Use the subjective case for subjects of sentences, including compound subjects (see Subject-verb agreement).

Examples: We interviewed 15 physicists for the survey.

Who is responsible for reviewing the risk assessment files?

Carlos and I will visit the Biloxi plant on Tuesday.

How will Susan and he get to the airport?

Constance said that she and Alex would coordinate the new production schedule. [In this sentence she is in the subjective case because it is the subject of its own clause.]

Even after studying the organization chart, Amy had difficulty determining who was in charge of the research division. [In this sentence who is in the subjective case because it is the subject of its own clause.]

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Use the subjective case for objects of the verb to be and its various forms.

Example: It was they who decided to postpone the meeting until everyone could attend.

Use the subjective case after than and as.

Examples: Dolores has more years of service with the company than he.

Who is as effective a conference speaker as she?

Kaiser has fewer factories than they.

Max is more experienced at investigating industrial accidents than Will or she.

Use objective case for objects of verbs or prepositions, including multiple objects of prepositions.

Examples: As soon as I heard the news about Fred's promotion, I told her.

Give the Burckhardt account to them.

To whom will you assign the new documentation project?

Whom should we tell about the problems with the thermostat? [In this sentence, whom is the object of the verb tell, so it uses the objective case.]

Shortly after Jamal joined GeoSphere, Inc., his boss sent Sheila and him on a business trip to Rome.


I left the package with Rhonda and her.

Appositives, nouns that follow and describe other nouns or pronouns, should take the same case as the nouns or pronouns to which they refer.

Examples: Both technicians, Ray Small and I, met with the production manager on Tuesday afternoon. [Here, I is in the subjective case because it is in apposition with the subject of the sentence, technicians.]

The production manager met on Tuesday afternoon with both technicians, Ray Small and me. [Here, me is in the objective case because it is in apposition with technicians, which is an object of the preposition with.]

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When using the relative pronouns who, and whom, use the subjective case when the pronoun is subject of its own clause, but the objective case when the pronoun is object of a verb or preposition.

Examples: Who is chairing the video conference today? [Who is the subject of the verb is.]

Diane tried to determine who was responsible for the asbestos removal. [Who is the subject of the verb was.]

The instructions must be clear to whoever cleans the printer. [Whoever is the subject of the verb cleans.]

To whom is the memo addressed? [Whom is the object of the preposition to.]

Ramon may appoint whomever he chooses to be assistant manager. [Whomever is the object of the verb chooses.]

Use the possessive case in nouns or pronouns that indicate possession.

Examples: I will distribute Serena's memo to the other department managers by tomorrow afternoon.

The truck's powerful headlights could barely penetrate the thick fog.

Bring your draft of the product brochure to the meeting on Thursday.

After Nicholas moves to the San Francisco plant, his office will become yours.

The plane rolled forward until its nose almost touched the front of the hangar.

Barbara asked her co-workers if it was her turn to drive or theirs.

Whose turn is it to drive?

Use the possessive form of a noun or pronoun before a gerund (a combination verb and noun ending in -ing).


Examples: Melinda's leaving for Brazil means that the Dallas office will be short-handed.

His rushing to get to the airport caused Nigel to forget his passport.

When a term is composed of more than one word, add the's to the last word.

Examples: The Executive Director's office is on the third floor.

Susquehanna Steel's new furnace will accommodate twice as much ore as their old furnaces.

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Examples: Goshen and Hammond's poster was the best one at the conference.

Howe and Sung's study on chloroflourocarbons in manufacturing is one that we should examine very carefully.

But when you want to show individual possession, make each noun or pronoun possessive.

Examples: Howe's and Sung's studies on chloroflourocarbons in manufacturing are the ones most respected by industrial chemists.

The responsibility for troubleshooting the new software is Cartwright's and hers.

(See also Apostrophes.)


cite, site, sight Cite is a verb meaning to refer to.

Example: Fortney and Reasor cite three sources in support of their argument.

Site is a noun meaning a location.

Example: Mobile, Alabama will be the site of Coastal Oil's new refinery.

Sight is a noun meaning something that is seen.

Example: The space shuttle launch was a stirring sight.

It also can be a verb meaning to see something.

Example: The naturalists didn't sight any of the elusive mountain goats until the next morning.


Colons A colon (:) is used to introduce certain kinds of information or to separate elements in time references and titles. Here are some guidelines for using colons:

You may use a colon to introduce an explanation, a list, or a quotation.

Examples: Recent research has revealed one way to determine the structure of protein: neural networks.

Dr. Besecker addressed several topics: the composition of the Epoxy formula, the size of the projectiles used in the test, and the damage to the test samples.

In his article, "The Aims of Scientific Research," Collingwood argues the importance of keeping careful records of research results: "There is no substitute for scrupulous record keeping during the conduct of scientific experiments."

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However, do not place a colon between a verb or a preposition and its objects, or after such as or including.

Revise: The only exceptions to this rule are:

To: The only exceptions to this rule are

Revise: Send the proposal to me at: 244 Van Courtlandt Boulevard, Schenectady, NY 12345

To: Send the proposal to me at 244 Van Courtlandt Boulevard, Schenectady, NY 12345

Revise: Reorganization is continuing at many of the nation's largest corporations, including: Procter & Gamble, General Electric, and IBM.

To: Reorganization is continuing at many of the nation's largest corporations, including Procter & Gamble, General Electric, and IBM.

Use a colon to separate elements in time references.

Example: Lucia's appointment was at 10:30 a.m.

Colons often are used to separate titles and subtitles.

Example: Before the workshop, all the participants will read Brownlow's Technology Transfer: Twelve Case Studies.


Commas


Commas help to make your sentences clear by indicating relationships between parts of those sentences. Here are some guidelines for using commas in your writing:

Use a comma to separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, such as and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet.

Examples: The new generator arrived last week, and the electricians immediately installed it at the construction site.

Nuclear power plants are a promising source of energy, but many citizens are concerned about the safety of nuclear reactors.

The road was closed for repairs, so the delivery truck had to take a detour.

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Use a comma after long phrases or clauses that introduce a sentence.

Examples: In keeping with the board of directors' decision, Kostrell Electronics delayed its release of the new microwave receiver for a week.

When he read the completed manual, Owen discovered that some important material had been left out.

Introductory transitional words or phrases, such as however, nevertheless, as a result, therefore, and in conclusion, are usually set off with a comma. However, you may omit this comma if the introductory material is short and omitting the comma will not cause difficulty in reading.

Examples: Therefore, we conclude that the AACH/3 formula will be the most effective alternative for coating the wings of the aircraft.

Because of this we are confident that Dr. Yoshida will do an excellent job as director of the Freeport Foundation.

Use commas to separate words, phrases, or clauses in a series.

Examples: The investigation was long, tedious, and inconclusive. OR

The investigation was long, tedious and inconclusive. [You may omit the comma before the next-to-last item in the series if the sentence's meaning is clear.]

Use commas to set off nonrestrictive clauses and phrases in sentences.

Nonrestrictive clauses and phrases give nonessential information about the nouns or pronouns they modify. They can be omitted without changing the meaning of a sentence. Restrictive clauses or phrases, however, are essential to the meaning of the words they modify.


Nonrestrictive: I spoke with Damon Brighton, who has been president of NewDrug Pharmaceutical Company for 13 years.

Restrictive: Rice is a crop that is raised almost entirely in Asia.

To separate nonrestrictive clauses or phrases, surround them with commas. If the nonrestrictive expression comes at the beginning of a sentence, follow it with a comma; if it comes at the end of a sentence, precede it with a comma.

Examples: The phenomenon, which was unknown in Kepler's time, explains the apparent hesitation of the planets in their orbits.

Believed by many to be a potent carcinogen, dioxin is sometimes found in rural streams and lakes.

Blood tests on the subjects failed to detect any toxic effects, which were discovered later in liver biopsies.

Use commas to set off nonrestrictive appositives in sentences.

Appositives are nouns that follow and describe other nouns or pronouns. Like nonrestrictive adjective clauses and phrases, nonrestrictive appositives are not necessary to the meaning of a sentence. You can set them off from the rest of the sentence by using commas in the same way you do with nonrestrictive clauses and phrases.

Examples: The researchers isolated the ras oncogene, a gene that causes cancer in laboratory animals.

The new environmental policy will most affect the elf owl, a small owl that lives in the desert Southwest.

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Use a comma to set off titles that follow a person's name (see also Abbreviations).

Examples: The keynote address was delivered by Marianna Rosellini, Ph.D.

The news conference was conducted by Dr. Eugene Kamfrowitz, Research Director of the Center for Chemical Research.

Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions, interjections, and words used in direct address.

Examples: The common cold, for example, is a type of viral infection.

The dinosaurs, despite their enormous size, did not survive.

Of course, we haven't tried using the new electronic mail system yet.

Sandra, I appreciate the work you've done to improve our department newsletter.


Use commas to set off contrasted elements within a sentence.

Examples: Steven decided to put a gas furnace, rather than electric heat, in his new house.

The compact disc player uses a tiny, yet powerful, laser to read the information on the disc.

The proper place to address such issues is the courtroom, not the newspapers or television talk shows.

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Use commas to separate geographical place names and elements in dates and addresses.

Examples: Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory is located in Batavia, Illinois.

Our application was submitted on December 15, 1993 and approved on January 23, 1994.

The Brayce Corporation's new offices will be located at 550 Vine Street, Suite 200, Toledo, Ohio 87654.

Don't use commas where they're not needed:

Between subject and verb.

Revise: This model laser printer, can print 12 pages per minute.

To: This model laser printer can print 12 pages per minute.

Revise: The problem in using chemicals to melt ice on roadways, is that these same chemicals damage road surfaces.

To: The problem in using chemicals to melt ice on roadways is that these same chemicals damage road surfaces.

Before a coordinating conjunction joining a compound subject, verb, or objects.

Revise: Timber growers, and environmentalists will have to work together to develop new forest management practices.

To: Timber growers and environmentalists will have to work together to develop new forest management practices.

Revise: The robot arm lifted the satellite from the shuttle's cargo bay, and released it into space.

To: The robot arm lifted the satellite from the shuttle's cargo bay and released it into space.


Revise: The new ceramic finish can withstand high temperatures, and attack by corrosive chemicals.

To: The new ceramic finish can withstand high temperatures and attack by corrosive chemicals.

After a coordinating conjunction.

Revise: The merger will bring about some changes, but, they should help us to serve our clients more effectively.

To: The merger will bring about some changes, but they should help us to serve our clients more effectively.

Revise: Several workshops will be available to you during the retreat. And, you can take any of them free of charge.

To: Several workshops will be available to you during the retreat. And you can take any of them free of charge.

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Around restrictive clauses or phrases.

Revise: Every employee, who brings a car to work, must register that car with the Corporate Security office.

To: Every employee who brings a car to work must register that car with the Corporate Security office.

Revise: All the companies, that worked on the development of the new airbus, will have their names listed on the cover of the prospectus.

To: All the companies that worked on the development of the new airbus will have their names listed on the cover of the prospectus.

Before the first item in a series.

Revise: On her trip Andrea will visit several cities, such as, San Francisco, Dallas, St. Louis, and Chicago.

To: On her trip Andrea will visit several cities, such as San Francisco, Dallas, St. Louis, and Chicago.


Comma splices A comma splice occurs when you use a comma to join two independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet) between them, or when you use a comma to join two independent clauses linked by a conjunctive adverb (such as however,


therefore, nevertheless, then, thus, moreover, consequently, furthermore, accordingly, also, or besides).

Examples: The air pollution count was high, the city declared an air quality emergency.

The air pollution count was high, therefore, the city declared an air quality emergency.

Here are some guidelines for avoiding comma splices:

Use a period or a semicolon to separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Examples: The air pollution count was high. The city declared an air quality emergency.

The air pollution count was high; the city declared an air quality emergency.

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Use a period or a semicolon to separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb.

Examples: The air pollution count was high. Therefore, the city declared an air quality emergency.

The air pollution count was high; therefore, the city declared an air quality emergency.

Use a comma to separate independent clauses only when a coordinating conjunction also separates them.

Examples: The air pollution count was high, so the city declared an air quality emergency.

On-site conditions during the test were stable, and the utility company agreed that the recorded data was accurate.


Comparative and superlative degrees (of adjectives and adverbs) Most adjectives and adverbs change their form in order to express comparison. The basic form of the adjective or adverb is called the positive degree, while the two forms of comparison are called the comparative and superlative degrees.

Most adjectives and some adverbs express comparison by adding -er to form the comparative degree and -est to form the superlative.

Examples: large, larger, largest friendly, friendlier, friendliest easy, easier, easiest


Some adjectives and adverbs add the terms more (or less) and most (or least) to the positive in order to make the comparative and superlative degrees.

Examples: powerful, more powerful, most powerful fortunate, more fortunate, most fortunate interesting, less interesting, least interesting

Some adjectives and adverbs use irregular forms to make the comparative and superlative degrees.

Examples: good (or well), better, best bad (badly), worse, worst little, less, least much, more, most far, further (farther), furthest (farthest)

Use the comparative form to express a greater degree or to refer to two items in comparison.

Examples: Telaron is a more effective medication than Avricil.

It acts faster than Avricil, has fewer side effects, and costs less.

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Use the superlative form to express the greatest degree or to refer to three or more in a comparison.

Examples: The Summit 6390 is the fastest plotter available in its price range.

The Titan is the most powerful of the rockets developed for the space program.

Use only single comparative or superlative forms, not double ones.

Revise: Corydon-QC is the more stronger formula.

To: Corydon-QC is the stronger formula.

Revise: Thorough mixing of the concrete will yield the most strongest surface.

To: Thorough mixing of the concrete will yield the strongest surface.

Avoid comparisons of adjectives and adverbs that seem to have absolute meanings.

Examples: unique, dead, perfect

complement, compliment Complement is a noun meaning something that fills up or completes.

Example: With Robert's return, the office has its full complement of workers.


It also is used as a verb meaning to support or complete.

Example: Patricia's slides complemented her presentation.

Compliment is a noun expressing admiration or congratulation.

Example: Todd paid Patricia a compliment after her presentation.

It, too, can be used as a verb with a similar meaning.

Example: Todd complimented Patricia on her presentation.

continual, continuous Continual means often repeated or continuing in time after interruptions. Continuous means continued, but without interruption.

Examples: The photocopier seemed to require continual repairs.

His success at preparing the developer solution was the result of continual practice.

The continuous dripping of the ethylene glycol left a deposit on the leaky valve.

The continuous roar of the plane's engines was a comforting sound.

Contractions Contractions are abbreviated forms of words with apostrophes used in place of the missing letters.

Examples: don't do not won't will not can't cannot isn't is not shouldn't should not wouldn't would not

Contractions are usually used in speech or informal writing only, so be careful. Use them only when your audience and the occasion will permit.

criterion, criteria Criterion is a noun meaning a standard for judgment. Criteria is the plural form of that noun.

Examples: Accuracy is the main criterion by which we judge our researchers.

There are three criteria for new hires: ability, integrity, and imagination.

Dangling modifiers


Dangling modifiers are verbal phrases (gerunds, infinitives, or participles) that do not refer clearly to the words they modify. They occur most often as introductory expressions at the beginnings of sentences.

Revise: Once mixed, you must handle the slurry carefully. [This sentence suggests that the reader, you, is being mixed.]

To: Once you mix the slurry, you must handle it carefully.

Revise: Anticipating the delay in delivery, the new forklifts were ordered 15 weeks before the plant was scheduled to open. [This sentence suggests that the forklifts are doing the anticipating.]

To: Anticipating the delay in delivery, the manager ordered the new forklifts 15 weeks before the plant was scheduled to open.


Dashes Dashes are formed by typing two hyphens successively (--). You can use dashes, like commas, to set off parenthetical information. However, dashes are a stronger mark of punctuation than commas and can be used as well to create emphasis or to clarify information in sentences. Here are some specific guidelines for using dashes in your writing:

Use dashes to set off information with greater emphasis than you could with commas or parentheses.

Example: The immune system--the body's main natural defense against disease--sometimes also attacks transplanted organs. [Note that here the dashes suggest that the parenthetical information is important; parentheses would suggest that it is less important.]

Compare: The immune system (the body's main natural defense against disease) sometimes also attacks transplanted organs.

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Use dashes to create an emphatic pause in a statement,

Example: There is one significant drawback to organ transplant surgery--the danger of rejection.

or to emphasize a contrast.

Example: Electric automobile engines are cleaner than gasoline engines--but not as powerful.

Use dashes to set off parenthetical information that already contains commas.


Example: There are several fuels other than gasoline that can be used to power automobile engines--for example, natural gas, electricity, methanol, ethanol, and hydrogen.

You may use dashes, like colons, to introduce explanatory or appositive material.

Example: There are three sources of the pollutants now evident in northern New Jersey streams--industrial, agricultural, and residential.

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Dates In most technical writing, dates are represented by the month, day, and year, with a comma separating the last two elements.

Example: May 29, 19--

However, the military form of writing dates also is widely used. Note that this form does not use internal punctuation.

Example: 15 April 19--

The numerical form of writing dates (4/15/94) is informal, so you shouldn't use it in more formal communications. Note that this form always uses month-day-year order.

different from, different than The preposition from is used with different.

Example: The van's steering is different from the sports car's.

Use different than only when a clause follows.

Example: The neutrino experiment's results were different than we had expected.

Ellipsis points Ellipsis points are a series of three spaced periods (...), which show that material has been omitted from a quotation.

Example: "Although current developments in biotechnology ... seem startling, many more spectacular advances are probably ahead."

As you can see, using ellipsis points enables you to convey important ideas borrowed from other sources in an economical manner, by eliminating extraneous or irrelevant material. However, be careful not to let your omission alter the essential meaning of a quotation. Here are some guidelines for using ellipsis points:

When you omit material before a quoted passage, begin the quotation with ellipsis points and a small letter.


Example: According to Dr. Steven Jelinek, improving the design of our highways, "... is an important key to improved traffic safety."

When the omitted material is at the end of a quotation, use four spaced periods, with no space between the last word in the quotation and the first period.

Example: "The performance of doctors and nurses in hospitals could be significantly improved by giving them computerized access to patients' medical records...."

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Also use the period plus ellipsis points (four periods in all) to indicate omission of a sentence or more within a quotation.

Example: "The new network technology will cover a wide range of business, administrative, and professional uses.... As this technology becomes widely available, other applications will emerge."

If the quoted material before an omission ends in a question mark or exclamation point, place the question mark or exclamation point immediately after the quotation, then follow it with the ellipsis points.

Examples: According to one employee, "The changeover to the new programming language has been an exciting, if exhausting, experience! ..."

I believe his exact words were, "Who wants to know? ..."

However, if the quotation, with its ellipsis points, is part of a sentence that asks a question or expresses an exclamation, then the question mark or exclamation point should follow the ellipsis.

Examples: It is absurd for Roe to predict that "Our service costs will increase 30% in the coming year...."!

Did Cameron really say, "The levels of carbon monoxide produced within the test vehicle when the exhaust system failed could have been fatal...."?

eminent, imminent Eminent is an adjective meaning admired or distinguished.

Example: Dr. Singh is an eminent surgeon.

Imminent is an adjective meaning about to happen.

Example: Having heard the warning sirens, Camilla knew that the tornado's arrival was imminent.

Exclamation points Exclamation points (!) are used to indicate emphasis or strong emotion.


In technical writing, exclamation points normally are used only in cautions and warnings.

Example: Caution! Dangerous when wet!

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Because they usually are used only for these important statements, it is unwise to use exclamation points to try to make arguments more persuasive or to give greater force to declarative sentences or directives.

Revise: This policy applies to everyone!

To: This policy applies to everyone. OR This policy applies to everyone, without exception.

Exclamation points may be used as part of quoted material (if they are part of the quoted text) or to indicate the force of spoken remarks.

Example: The captain gave the command to "Start the engines!"

Note that in this example, the exclamation point goes inside the quotation marks because it is part of the quotation. If it were not part of the quoted material, the exclamation point would go outside the quotation marks.

Example: Read all notices marked "Caution"!


explicit, implicit Explicit means stated directly, while implicit means implied or suggested.

Examples: The manual gives explicit instructions to clean the machine at the end of each day's work.

Jan's request to work on the rain forest study was implicit in her memo to Dr. Benet.

fewer, less Fewer and less are adjectives expressing degrees of comparison. Fewer refers to items that can be counted individually.

Example: There were fewer workers on all shifts this week because of the flu outbreak.

Less refers to collective quantities or to amounts.

Example: We had less snow last winter than in the three previous winters.

See also, amount, number.

first, firstly


Firstly is an unnecessarily formal way of writing first. Revise: firstly, secondly, thirdly, and so on to first, second, third.

foreword, forward Foreword is a noun meaning an introductory portion of a document.

Example: The book's foreword explains how the author first became interested in paleontology.

Forward is an adjective or adverb meaning ahead or toward the front.

Examples: Slowly, the massive combine moved forward.

Determined to put forward her proposal, Rachel rose to address the meeting.

Forward also can be a verb meaning to send ahead.

Examples: The mail will be forwarded to the company's new address.

I will forward your letter to the vice president.

Fragments Fragments are incomplete sentences, lacking a subject, a verb, or both. Since they are not normally used in formal writing, you may want to Revise: them by providing the missing elements or by attaching the fragment to the sentence preceding or following.

Revise: Returning to discover that earth was uninhabited, a tremendous shock.

To: Returning to discover that earth was uninhabited was a tremendous shock. [A verb is added.]

Revise: In addition, boiling and flushing out the entire system with a special acidic solution following the test procedure.

To: In addition, we boiled and flushed out the entire system with a special acidic solution following the test procedure. [A subject is added.]

Revise: Crops in Ohio and Indiana may be harvested late this year. Because heavy rains have made it impossible for farmers to plant in April.

To: Crops in Ohio and Indiana may be harvested late this year because heavy rains have made it impossible for farmers to plant in April. [The fragment is attached to the preceding sentence as a subordinate clause.]


Fused sentences


A fused sentence occurs when two independent clauses are joined without any punctuation. Here are some guidelines for avoiding fused sentences in your writing:

Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, such as and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet.

Revise: Research has shown that depression can undermine the immune system and a few studies have hinted at a link between depression and cancer.

To: Research has shown that depression can undermine the immune system, and a few studies have hinted at a link between depression and cancer.

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Use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Revise: The five samples were taken to the laboratory and examined for evidence of damage to the paint no damage was found.

To: The five samples were taken to the laboratory and examined for evidence of damage to the paint; no damage was found.

Use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses when the second clause is introduced by a conjunctive adverb, such as however, therefore, nevertheless, then, thus, moreover, consequently, furthermore, accordingly, also, or besides.

Revise: Many landfills no longer accept yard waste however, composting offers an alternative to homeowners looking to dispose of grass clippings and fallen leaves.

To: Many landfills no longer accept yard waste; however, composting offers an alternative to homeowners looking to dispose of grass clippings and fallen leaves.


good, well Good is an adjective meaning satisfactory, worthy, attractive, or virtuous.

Examples: Maurice did a good job of organizing the poster session.

Jamilla is a good candidate for the new Planning Coordinator's position.

Donald's scale model of the new hydrofoil looks good.

Well is an adverb meaning satisfactorily or successfully.

Example: The beta test of the new software went well.

Well also is used as an adjective to describe someone's health.


Examples: Norman had a cold last week, but now he's well.

Sharon hasn't been well since her surgery.

Hyphens Hyphens (-) are used to form compound words and numbers, to join some prefixes and suffixes to words, and to divide words at the end of a line. Note that a hyphen is a single dash, not the double dash used to form the dash punctuation mark in typescript.

Be sure to consult a recent dictionary to determine when hyphens are used to form compound words. Usage in forming compounds varies a great deal, and while some are hyphenated (all-important, self-made, trade-in), many are written as two words (all told, trade name), and some are written as one word (selfless, trademark).

Here are some guidelines for using hyphens in your writing:

Hyphenate two or more words that act as a single modifier before a noun.

Examples: Art requested an up-to-date summary of conditions at the drilling site.

Fiona thought she'd had enough of high-sounding words for one day.

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Note that you should do this only when the compound modifier appears before the noun it modifies. When the modifier comes after the noun, you needn't hyphenate it.

Examples: We must replace the next-to-last circuit in the series.

The circuit we must replace is next to last in the series.

When you use two or more hyphenated modifiers to refer to the same noun, you needn't repeat the word after the hyphen in each modifier. You can simply use it in the last modifier in the sequence. But do use the hyphen in each modifier, whether the second word is present or not.

Revise: We use first-generation, second-generation, and third-generation software in our department.

To: We use first-, second-, and third-generation software in our department.

Hyphenate numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine (as well as the ordinal numbers twenty-first through ninety-ninth) and fractions when they are written out.

Examples: Thirty-six dollars, seven-thirty p.m., one-fourth of the assets

Use hyphens to set off some prefixes and suffixes to words. Do this when

— the root word is a proper noun: pre-Cambrian, post-Darwinian, sub-Saharan


— when the hyphen ends and the root word begins with a similar vowel: pre-eminent, pre-owned, anti-inflammatory, re-enlist, pro-agriculture, anti-abortion

— when the prefix ex- means former: ex-president, ex-manager

— when using the suffix elect: president-elect, delegate-elect

— when you want to emphasize a prefix: anti-discriminatory, pre-revolutionary, extra-curricular,

You may use hyphens to represent the words to or through between letters or numbers.

Examples: Boston-Washington shuttle, Cincinnati-Dayton Road, pp. 12-18.

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Use hyphens to avoid ambiguities in forming words. For example, note the differences in these words:

resign re-sign research re-search repress re-press resent re-sent retreat re-treat

Use hyphens to divide words at the ends of lines. Once again, it is best to consult a dictionary about the appropriate places to divide words. However, generally, you may use hyphens to accomplish the following:

Divide compound words that normally are written as one word.

Examples: after-shock, feed-back, down-fall, with-stand

Divide words between syllables.

Examples: cap-sule, head-line, ac-cus-tomed, ter-mi-nate

Divide words after a prefix or before a suffix.

Examples: un-armed, pre-paid, fault-less, ex-pan-sion

Divide words between double consonants before -ing.

Examples: sit-ting, pul-ling, swim-ming, stop-ping

There are some occasions when you should use hyphens with caution or not use them at all:

Divide hyphenated words only at the hyphen.

Examples: ill-advised, face-lift, flare-up


Do not divide abbreviations, one syllable words, or contractions.

Examples: OSHA, a.m., though, flushed, they're, wouldn't

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Do not divide words so that a one-letter syllable stands alone at the beginning or end of a line.

Examples: a●like, e●mote, em●bry●o

Do not divide words so that the last two letters stand alone at the beginning of a line.

Examples: late●ly, start●ed, en●er●gy, find●er

imply, infer Imply is a verb meaning to hint or suggest.

Example: His comments imply that we may submit the bid late if we have to.

Infer is a verb meaning to draw a conclusion.

Example: I infer from what he says that we may submit the bid late if we have to.

insure, ensure, assure All three of these words are verbs that mean "to make certain or guarantee." In most uses insure and ensure are simply alternative spellings of the same word.

Example: His careful research insured (or ensured) that the estimate was accurate.

However, insure, also has a specialized meaning, which is to pay a sum of money to an insurance company, which, in turn, will pay a benefit in the event of loss of life or property.

Example: Mitsugi insured the division's new computers for $175,000.

Assure has the connotation of giving assurance or certainty to people.

Example: Ms. Rovere assured us that the shipment would arrive on schedule.

Italics Italics (or underlining in typescript) are used to identify titles of publications and other works, to identify words in foreign languages, and to identify words, letters, and numbers used as such. They also may be used sparingly to emphasize certain words.

Here are some guidelines for using italics in your writing:

Use italics to identify the titles of books, magazines, journals, newspapers, pamphlets, films, television and radio programs, videos, software programs, and biological genera and species.

Examples: Jerry read The Voyage of the Beagle while vacationing in South America.


Laura saw 2001: A Space Odyssey five times.

This book was written using Microsoft Word 5.1.

Keith rarely misses a showing of Nova.

Several varieties of Canis lupus, the lobo wolf, have recently reappeared in the mountains of Arizona and New Mexico.

Use italics to identify words in foreign languages that occur within an English sentence.

Examples: His appointment to the committee is ex officio.

The name of the bank that manages the fund is Banco de Venezuela.

However, if the word is a foreign word that has become common in English, you needn't italicize it.

Examples: The speech was laden with cliches.

Leah takes karate lessons every Thursday afternoon after work.

Use italics to identify words, letters, and numbers used as such.

Examples: There is only one c in recommendation, but there are two in accommodation.

Gene's evaluations were the highest we've ever seen. He received nothing but 10s.

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Examples: This policy applies to everyone, without exception.

You must believe that you will succeed.

its, it's Its is the possessive form of the pronoun it. It uses no apostrophe.

Example: The library has 1,000,000 volumes in its stacks.

It's is a contraction of it is. It uses an apostrophe in place of the missing i in is.

Example: It's not possible to predict all of our employees' health costs for one year;

Jargon (see Specialized terms)

lay, lie


Lay is a verb meaning to place something somewhere or to put it down. Its past tense and past participle are both laid.

Examples: Lay the slide tray on the table next to the microscope.

He laid the extension cord on the floor so that it passed underneath the workbench.

Lie is a verb meaning to recline. It's past tense is lay, and its past participle is lain.

Examples: Marcia decided to lie down on the couch for a short nap before returning to the office.

However, she lay there sleeping for two hours.

like, as Like and as both express similarity. However, like is a Preposition, which you should use with nouns and pronouns that are not followed by verbs.

Examples: We've never seen boiler designs like Bronowski's.

A DNA molecule is structured like a spiral staircase.

As is a Conjunction; use it before clauses (which will have both a subject and a verb).

Example: Jeremy assembled the parts of the workstation as fast as he could.

This includes clauses in which the verb doesn't actually appear, but is understood.

Example: Sonia can repair her car as well as a professional mechanic (can).

mean, median Mean and median both refer to a midpoint in a group of units. But as used in technical writing, they describe quite different statistical relationships. The mean is the average of a group of numbers. The median is that number in a group, above and below which there exists the same quantity of numbers. In the following list of numbers, the mean is 21.2; the median is 13.

63 51 23 15 13 12 8 3 3

Misplaced modifiers In order to make your writing clear and unambiguous, it's important to keep related words together (see Chapter 8, "Developing an Effective Style," in Paul V. Anderson’s Technical


Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach for a more complete discussion of how to do this).

Place modifying clauses and phrases so it is clear what they modify.

Revise: Cynthia hung the photographs on the walls of her office, which she had taken herself.

To: Cynthia hung the photographs, which she had taken herself, on the walls of her office.

Revise: Be sure to have your request approved for the travel budget by your division manager.

To: Be sure to have your request for the travel budget approved by your division manager.

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Miss, Mr., Mrs., Ms. Until recently, the terms Miss and Mrs. were used as personal titles for unmarried and married women respectively. However, currently, the term Ms. is used as a title for all women, in the same way that Mr. is used for men, since it enables writers and speakers to refer to women without labeling them according to marital status.

Use Ms. when referring to women unless you know that the person to whom you're referring prefers the title Miss or Mrs.

If a person has a professional title, use that instead of Mr. or Ms.

Examples: Dr. Charlotte C. Kray or Charlotte C. Kray, M.D., rather than Ms. Charlotte C. Kray.

Professor Allen G. Canning, rather than Mr. Allen G. Canning

(See also Abbreviations and "Ethics Guideline: Use Inclusive Language" in Chapter 8, "Developing an Effective Style" of Paul V. Anderson’s Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach for additional information on using Miss, Mr., Mrs., and Ms.)

Numbers Different organizations have different guidelines about how to write numbers, so you will want to consult either your organization's style guide or some other appropriate style guides when you have to do this. See the entry on Style guides in this handbook for a listing of some well-known ones. However, here are some guidelines that are widely followed by writers using numbers:

Write numbers from zero to nine as words and all other numbers as figures.


Examples: one, three, seven, 12, 24, 1,365

You can write approximate numbers as words or figures.

Examples: 1,000 or one thousand, 10,000,000 or ten million

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You may write large approximate numbers as words, figures, or combinations of both.

Examples: $6,000,000,000, six trillion dollars, $6 trillion, or 6 trillion dollars.

Write out ordinal numbers (numbers expressing degree or sequence) unless they are more than one word.

Examples: first night, second quarter, third section 22nd page, 312th day, 63rd degree

Write out numbers that begin a sentence.

Examples: Five hundred seventy-three people attended the dedication ceremony.

Twenty-six respondents indicated that they strongly agreed with the policy.

If it seems awkward to do this, you can often rewrite the sentence so that it doesn't begin with a number.

Examples: Six hundred seventy-three patients responded to the survey. OR

Overall, 673 patients responded to the survey.

If several numbers occur in the same sentence or paragraph, write them in the same way.

Example: It took two days for the technicians to service the twenty-four hydraulic pumps.

It is not necessary to follow a number written as a word with a figure in parentheses:

Revise: Submit four (4) copies of your proposal to the Administrator's Office.

To: Submit four copies of your proposal to the Administrator's Office.

Form the plurals of numbers written as words by adding s or es, or by dropping y and adding ies, just as you would form the plural of any other noun.

Examples: ones, fours, sixes, thirties

Form the plurals of figures by adding s or's (see Apostrophes).

Examples: 1s, 4s, 6's, 30's

In documents, always write page numbers as figures. Chapter and volume numbers may appear as figures or as words.


Examples: Page 16 or p. 16 Chapter 2 or Chapter Two Volume 4 or Volume Four

Always express table and figure numbers as figures.

Examples: Table 6, Figure 3

Express units of measurement in figures.

Examples: 5 pounds, 24 tons, 7 miles, 3 meters, 6 liters

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However, when numbers occur together in a way that might be confusing to readers, write one number as a figure and the other as a word

Revise: We tested 3 6-pound samples.

To: We tested three 6-pound samples.

Write out percentages as figures with the word percent written out, unless the number occurs in a table.

Example: As many as 90 percent of the participants will return for a second seminar.

Write fractions as figures when they appear with whole numbers, but write them as words when they appear by themselves. Always write numbers with decimals as figures.

Examples: 3 ⅝, 9 ½, five-eighths, one-half, 7.625

Write times of day as figures when they are followed by a.m. or p.m., but write them as words when they appear without a.m. or p.m.

Examples: 2:30 p.m., 6:30 a.m., six o'clock, two-thirty in the afternoon

In writing addresses, write building and apartment numbers as figures. Write street numbers from one to nine as words, but write other street numbers as figures.

Examples: 930 Ogden Avenue, Apt. 4C 1766 Third Avenue 823 West 10 Street (or West 10th Street)

Write numbers identifying roads as figures.

Examples: Interstate 75, U. S. Route 27, State Route 73

In writing dates, the day of the month and the year should be written as figures.

Example: October 14, 1968


Only in informal writing should you also write the month as a figure.

Example: 10/14/68

Parallelism Parallelism in writing occurs when words, phrases, or clauses take the same grammatical form. Parallelism is useful because it can help to clarify meaning for readers and to make reading easier. See Chapters 2, "Overview of the Reader-Centered Communication Process," and Chapter 7, “Drafting Paragraphs, Sections, and Chapters,” in Paul V. Anderson’s Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach for additional information about parallelism. Here are some guidelines for using parallelism in your writing:

Use parallelism whenever you write words, phrases, or clauses in a series.

Revise: When we evaluated the centrifuges, we considered not only their initial cost but how much they would cost to maintain.

To: When we evaluated the centrifuges, we considered not only their initial cost but also their maintenance cost.

Revise: He could not tell when the project would begin, the completion date, or who would work on it.

To: He could not tell when the project would begin, when it would end, or who would work on it.

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Not Parallel: I. Introduction What is SolarNet? Who Should Read This Manual? Conventions Used How This Manual is Organized

II. About the SolarNet Network Components of SolarNet SolarNet Features

III. Planning Your Network Defining Your Network How to Expand Your Network Authorizing Access to the Network How Do I Locate Network Resources?


IV. Getting Started How to Install SolarNet Configuring SolarNet

V. How to Use SolarNet How Do I Access SolarNet? Getting Help Directories Opening and Reading Messages How to Create and Send Messages How to Enclose Files with Messages Printing Messages Saving and Closing

VI. SolarNet Maintenance Changing Your Directory How to Add and Delete Remote Nodes

VII. Troubleshooting SolarNet

Parallel: I. Introduction What is SolarNet? Who Should Read This Manual? What Conventions Are Used? How is This Manual Organized?

II. Learning About the SolarNet Network Components of SolarNet Features of SolarNet

III. Planning Your Network Defining Your Network Expanding Your Network Authorizing Access to the Network Locating Network Resources

IV. Getting Started Installing SolarNet Configuring SolarNet

V. Using SolarNet Accessing SolarNet Getting Help


Creating Directories Opening and Reading Messages Creating and Sending Messages Enclosing Files with Messages Printing Messages Saving and Closing

VI. Maintaining SolarNet Changing Your Directory Adding and Deleting Remote Nodes

VII. Troubleshooting SolarNet

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Try to develop similar parallelism in lists.

Revise: Eugenia recommended that her boss

permit employees to work flexible hours hold weekly meetings to discuss procedures with employees revision of the employee manual to reflect new policies.

To: Eugenia recommended that her boss

permit employees to work flexible hours hold weekly meetings to discuss procedures with employees Revise: the employee manual to reflect new policies.


Parentheses You may use parentheses ( ) to enclose supplementary, explanatory, or parenthetical information, or to enclose numbers or letters in lists. Here are some guidelines for using parentheses in your writing:

Use parentheses to enclose supplementary or explanatory information in a text. The material enclosed can be words, phrases, or sentences. Parentheses used in this way are similar to dashes or commas used to set off parenthetical information. However, parentheses tend to suggest the subordinate nature of the information more than dashes or commas do.

Examples: Brain waves during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep are recorded in an electroencephalogram (EEG).

Please call the Human Resources Office (ext. 5436) for more information about the voluntary separation plan.


Jack Hargit and Gwendolyn Liddell (both from the Kansas City office) will head the site inspection team.

Parentheses often are used to refer readers to other parts of a communication.

Examples: Sales last month rose 12 percent over the previous month (see Figure 3).

The procedures to follow when replacing the ink cartridge are discussed elsewhere in this manual (see Section 6, "Maintenance of the 5370").

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If material in parentheses is part of a sentence, then the end punctuation for that sentence follows the parentheses. However, if the material inside the parentheses is a complete sentence that stands on its own, then the end punctuation goes inside the parentheses.

Examples: Our review will cover only current operations of the Technical Services Division (we already have enough information about past operations).

The shipment will be sent three working days after we receive the order, (This is our policy on all orders received after January 1.)

Parentheses also are used to enclose numbers or letters used as list markers. Use two parentheses to enclose the number or letter, rather than just one.

Example: Scientific journals perform two important functions: (1) they publish new research, and (2) they screen it for acceptance into the scientific canon.

Note that when you use parentheses to enclose numbers or letters in this way, you should not put punctuation either inside or outside the parentheses (see also Periods).

Revise: There are four basic types of nuclear reactors: (a) heavy-water reactors (b) gas-cooled reactors (c) liquid-metal-cooled reactors (d) light-water reactors

To: There are four types of nuclear reactors: (a) heavy-water reactors (b) gas-cooled reactors (c) liquid-metal-cooled reactors (d) light-water reactors


Passive voice (see Active and passive voice)

Periods


Use periods as end punctuation for sentences, after initials in names, with some abbreviations, and after numbers and letters used as list markers. Here are some guidelines for using periods.

Use periods as end punctuation for declarative sentences and imperative sentences that don't require an exclamation point.

Examples: Pollens from weeds are the biggest causes of fall allergies.

Submit the well stream report as soon as possible after your return.

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You also may use a period after a question that really is a directive or to which you would expect an affirmative answer.

Example: Would you complete the well stream report and submit it by Friday.

If a quotation is part of a sentence, do not end it with a period. However, if the sentence is a quotation or ends in a quotation, place a period at the end of the quotation, inside the quotation marks.

Examples: "Variety is the spice of life," Ricardo's boss always says.

Ricardo's boss always says, "Variety is the spice of life."

"Variety is the spice of life."

Use periods after initials in names.

Examples: C. B. Yearwood, N. V. Pham, J. A. Varga

Many abbreviations customarily use periods.

Examples: Mr., Ms., Dr., Rev., etc., Inc., A.D., B.C., Ph.D., M.D.

However, some abbreviations do not use periods--for example, postal abbreviations for states' names (AZ, KY) and those for organizations (FBI, FCC, AFL). In some abbreviations, periods are optional--for example, E.S.T. or EST, U.S.A. or USA. If you're not sure whether or not to use a period in an abbreviation, consult a dictionary.

If a sentence ends in an abbreviation using a period, let that period be the end punctuation for the sentence; you needn't add another period.

Examples: Yuri worked 14 years for ElectroDyne, Inc.

The staff meeting ended at 10:45 a.m.

The new president of the county medical society is Ellen Jensen, M.D.

You may use periods after numbers and letters that serve as list markers.


Example: The rate at which groundwater flows depends upon several things:

1. slope of the terrain 2. soil type 3. layering of the soil

However, don't use periods with list markers if you are also using parentheses around these markers.

Revise: This manual covers four main topics:

(a.) how to configure your system, (b.) how to use different commands to operate your system, (c.) how to troubleshoot problems with the system.

To: a. how to configure your system,

b. how to use different commands to operate your system, c. how to troubleshoot problems with the system. OR

(a) how to configure your system, (b) how to use different commands to operate your system, (c) how to troubleshoot problems with the system.

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Revise: GLT Associates creates a variety of training materials for clients, including 1. written procedures, 2. computer-based training, and 3. interactive video programs.

To: GLT Associates creates a variety of training materials for clients, including (1) written procedures, (2) computer-based training, and (3) interactive video programs.


phenomenon, phenomena Phenomenon and phenomena are both nouns meaning a fact, appearance, or occurrence-something that is observable. Phenomenon is the singular form of the word; phenomena is the plural.

Examples: The phenomenon of the aurora borealis is often observed by residents of northern Canada.

Few phenomena are more striking.

principal, principle


Principal is an adjective meaning first in order or importance.

Examples: Ken Riegle is the principal investigator on this project.

There are two principal reasons why we should postpone opening another branch office.

It also can be a noun meaning someone in charge of a body or organization.

Example: The new principal of the school is Andre Forche.

Principle is a noun meaning a guiding idea or concept.

Examples: Autonomy is the main principle we will follow in articulating our new management policy.

No matter what consequences may follow, Carmen will never compromise her principles.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement Pronouns must agree with their antecedents (the nouns or pronouns to which they refer) in number and gender.

Examples: After lunch, Hakeem returned to his office.

Antoinette picked up her new computer last Thursday.

The projector was disconnected from its power source.

Apples produce their own chemicals for resisting disease.

Singular nouns and pronouns such as any, every, anyone, everyone, everybody, each, either, neither, person, man, woman, kind, sort, and type should be referred to by a singular pronoun, not a plural one.

Examples: Each car traveled at its [not their] own speed.

Neither of the sealants seems [not seem] to have all of the properties we are looking for.

Everyone has his [or her, not their] own favorite relaxation technique.

That type of plant must have its [not their] leaves trimmed several times a year.

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Examples: Stephens and Orlovsky worked all night to finish the prototype of their new electric motor.


The new spectrometers soon proved to be well worth their cost.

However, when antecedents are joined by or or nor, the pronoun that refers to them should agree with the nearer antecedent.

Examples: Neither the letters nor the package had reached its destination.

Either the plant manager or the workers must change their approach to this problem.

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Refer to collective nouns with either singular or plural pronouns, depending upon the sense of the noun.

Examples: After studying the merger proposal, the board of directors will make its decision.

A number of managers have expressed their concern about the merger.


Pronoun reference Make sure that pronouns refer clearly to their antecedents. There are several ways in which you can do this:

First, make sure that pronoun references to antecedents are unambiguous.

Revise: Carolyn asked Denise if she could work overtime on Friday.

To: Carolyn asked Denise if Denise could work overtime on Friday.

Revise: Rudy inserted the new paragraphs into the text, which he had just written.

To: Rudy inserted the new paragraphs, which he had just written, into the text.

Make sure that pronouns are near enough to their antecedents that the relationship between the two is clear (see Misplaced modifiers). Pronouns that are remote from their antecedents often cause unclear references.

Revise: The many switches confused Josh when he first climbed into the cockpit that were on the plane's control panel.

To: The many switches that were on the plane's control panel confused Josh when he first climbed into the cockpit.

Be especially careful in using pronouns such as it, this, that, which, you, and they when they make broad or implicit reference to an antecedent. In each case, make sure that the antecedents for these pronouns are clear and specific.


Revise: Ty works part-time in a restaurant to pay his tuition. Unfortunately, it takes a lot of time away from his studies, [It has no specific antecedent.]

To: Ty works part-time in a restaurant to pay his tuition. Unfortunately, the job takes a lot of time away from his studies.

Revise: It says in the manual to re-install the software before repeating the procedure. [It has no antecedent.]

To: The manual says (or the authors of the manual say) to re-install the software before repeating the procedure.

Revise: Darlene carefully prepared the test tubes for the experiment, which took all Tuesday morning. [Which has no specific antecedent.]

To: Darlene carefully prepared the test tubes for the experiment. Her preparations took all Tuesday morning.

Revise: They say that you should not pump the accelerator before starting the car. [They has no specific antecedent.]

To: The owner's manual says not to pump the accelerator before starting the car.


Question marks Use question marks (?) to punctuate direct questions and to reflect uncertainty about declarative statements. Here are some guidelines for using question marks in your writing:

Use a question mark as end punctuation after a direct question.

Example: Can immunotherapy be effective in treating cancer?

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Examples: We should ask ourselves, Why have so many of our recent proposals been turned down? [Capitalize the first word of a question appearing in the middle of a sentence, even if the question doesn't appear in quotation marks, and precede the question with a comma.]

Vivian asked, "How many days do we have until the payment is due?" [Note that since the question mark is part of the quotation, it goes inside the final quotation mark.]

"Who is in charge of the investigation?" he asked.

Why did he ask, "Who is in charge of the investigation?"


When did Franklin Roosevelt say, "We have nothing to fear but fear itself”? [Here the question mark goes outside the quotation marks because the quotation is part of the question the sentence asks.]

• In a series of questions that have the same subject and verb, only the first question need contain the subject and verb. The subsequent questions need not begin with a capital letter, but each should be followed by a question mark.

Example: Will you travel by car? bus? train? plane?

• Do not use question marks at the end of indirect questions; use a period instead.

Example: Joyce wanted to know if immunotherapy could be effective in treating cancer.

• You may use a question mark in parentheses to express uncertainty about a statement.

Examples: Jeffries started his company in 1967 (?), and within just 10 years, it had grown into one of the largest in the industry.

Tomas reported that four of the six new computers failed on the same day (?). [Here the parentheses is included inside the period because it is part of the sentence.]


Quotation marks Place quotation marks (" ") around short direct quotations from written or spoken language, some titles, and words used in a special sense. Here are some guidelines for using quotation marks:

• Use double quotation marks to indicate direct quotations, but not indirect ones.

Examples: It was Francis Bacon who first said,"Knowledge is power."

"Whenever I start a project," Frieda said, "I first try to determine what its objectives are." [Here, quotation marks surround only the quoted material.]

Frieda says that whenever she starts a project, she first tries to determine its objectives. [No quotation marks around an indirect quotation.]

• Use single quotation marks for direct quotations within quotations.

Example: Archie protested, "In our work, there's no time to 'determine objectives.'" [Note that the period here goes inside both sets of quotation marks.]

• Use quotation marks to identify dialogue (or conversation) and thoughts.


Examples: I asked him, "Do you always inspect shipments in this way?" He answered, "Most of the time, but not always."

Olivia thought, "He's never asked us to work this late before."

"Can we possibly get this project finished by the deadline?" I asked myself. [Note that the question mark goes inside the quotation marks here because it is part of a question within a sentence.]

• Don't use quotation marks to enclose yes or no in indirect statements.

Example: Marco asked for permission to take Friday off, but his boss said no.

• Use quotation marks around the titles of articles in journals or newspapers, reports, essays, book chapters and sections of larger documents, short poems, paintings, and episodes of radio and television series.

Examples: Winters's "Unmistakable Evidence: DNA and Criminal Identification" in last month's Criminal Justice Forum was the best article of its kind I've read.

Read Chapter 4, "Deforestation and the Atmosphere," in Tanaka's Woodlands and Public Policy.

• Although short direct quotations always appear in quotation marks, you may present long quotations indented in block form in the text, without quotation marks. See Quotations for more information about how to display long quotations.

• You may use quotation marks to identify words meant in a special or ironic sense.

Examples: To sailors, a "chart" is a navigational map, but to jazz musicians, it's a musical arrangement.

Our standard operating procedures insure that all technicians will be "on the same page" when they test clients' samples.


Quotations Quotations are borrowings from the written or spoken words of others. Here are some guidelines for using quotations in your writing.

• Short direct quotations are surrounded by double quotation marks (single quotation marks if the quotation appears within another quotation).

Examples: “Let's inspect the storage tanks first," Jacob said. "Then we'll check the condition of the pipelines." [Note that only Jacob's quoted words appear in quotation marks, not the rest of the sentence.]


"Joan said that she would 'prefer' we use the Denver office for this assignment," Justine reported. [Since Joan's statement is quoted within Justine's, it appears in single quotation marks.]

• Direct quotations may be introduced by either a comma or a colon.

Examples: Dr. Chen said, "We need a fast and accurate way to determine the quality of water in streams and lakes.

Dr. Chen said: "We need a fast and accurate way to determine the quality of water in streams and lakes."

• If you have left material out of a quotation, indicate this by using ellipsis points: three spaced periods in the middle of a quotation or four if the omission is at the end of the quotation and coincides with the end of the sentence. When you use four periods, the first comes right after the last word in the quotation, without a space in front of it.

Examples: According to Linda, "We can't take on new customers during the next quarter because ... we have all the business we can handle."

In his report, Petersen points out that "planning for plant shutdowns is especially important since each day of downtime can cost several billions of dollars in lost income...."

• Use four ellipsis points to show that a sentence or more has been omitted from a quotation.

Example: According to Professor Hammadi, "The Sahara, in North Africa, is the largest desert in the world.... Parts of the Sahara are so dry that nothing can grow there."

• Indirect quotations do not require any quotation marks.

Example: DiAngelo argued that we should have in-house child care for employees, but the others disagreed.

• Use brackets to place qualifying or supplementary material within a quotation.

Example: "John A. Roebling constructed a suspension bridge across the Ohio River at Cincinnati [1866] before he built the more famous Brooklyn Bridge [1883]."

• When there is an obvious error in a quotation, place the Latin abbreviation sic (meaning so or thus) in brackets immediately after the error to show that you've quoted the material as it appeared in the original.

Example: "John A. Roebling constructed a suspension bridge across the Ohio River at Cincinati [sic] before he built the more famous Brooklyn Bridge."

• Help readers to evaluate your quotations by attributing them to a specific source.


Example: According to Alicia Barzcay, "Supplies of water for cities in the Southwest will decline markedly in the first half of the twenty-first century."

• Long quotations can be presented in block form without quotation marks. However, different organizations have different guidelines for the length of quotations that must be indented. For example, the Modern Language Association recommends indenting quotations of more than four lines, while the American Psychological Association advises indenting quotations of more than forty words. Be sure to consult an appropriate style guide for advice about when to indent quotations. Here is an example of a quotation in block form.

Example: The regulation of employee benefits is a relatively recent phenomenon. According to the report, Corporate Health Care 2000,

Human resources and benefits are closely governed by state and federal legislation. The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) was a landmark because it established legislation governing both the administration and communication of employee benefit programs. Before ERISA, the government had little control over how (or whether) employers communicated benefit information to their employees.


Semicolons Semicolons have a few, very specific uses: to separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction, to separate independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb, and to separate items in a series with internal punctuation.

• Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction, such as and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet.

Example: The world's tallest tree is believed to be a California redwood; it is 362 feet high.

• Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb, such as however, therefore, nevertheless, then, thus, moreover, consequently, furthermore, accordingly, also, or besides.

Example: The STARLAN network will link all of the Design Department's computer facilities; however, until its modern arrives, the department will not be able to connect its computers with those in the Chicago office.

• Use a semicolon to separate items in a series in which one or more of the items has internal punctuation.

Example: Cardas and Jenkins' policy requires that a manager work with clients to determine their needs; estimate the time and cost of projects; and manage the budget, design, production, and delivery of finished publications.



Sentence types Authors who write about grammar or style often classify sentences into different types according to structure or function. For example, in terms of structure, there are four types of sentences:

• A simple sentence has one independent clause.

Examples: MacroMedia, Inc., is composed of three divisions.

Stephanie went to the conference.

• A compound sentence has two independent clauses and no subordinate clauses;

Examples: Macromedia, Inc. has three divisions; they are all located in Houston.

Stephanie went to the conference, and she met an old friend there.

• A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Examples: Macromedia, Inc., has three divisions, all of which are located in Houston.

When Stephanie went to the conference, she met an old friend.

• A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Examples: Macromedia, Inc., has three divisions, all of which are located in Houston, but it is planning to build a new plant in Baton Rouge as well.

At first, Stephanie didn't want to go to the conference, but when she went, she met an old friend.

Sentences also can be classified according to the functions they perform.

• Declarative sentences make a statement.

Example: Enterprise Manufacturing will introduce its new product line next fall.

• Interrogative sentences ask a direct question and are punctuated by a question mark.

Example: When will Enterprise Manufacturing introduce its new product line?

• Imperative sentences express a directive or command. They may be punctuated by a period or an exclamation point.

Examples: Bring the mail over here. Stop that!

• Exclamatory sentences express an exclamation and are usually punctuated by an exclamation point.


Examples: I can't believe it!

This is the opportunity of a lifetime!


set, sit Set is a verb meaning to place or put in position.

Example: At the start of the interview, Renee set the tape recorder on the edge of the desk.

Sit is a verb meaning to be seated, as in a chair.

Example: Sam was pacing nervously, so Julia asked him to sit down.

Sexist and discriminatory language Avoid sexist and discriminatory language. Sexist language is language that suggests that people's qualities and abilities are determined by their sex. Discriminatory language characterizes people in terms of such things as age, race, ethnic background, or physical handicap in circumstances where these qualities are irrelevant, or it stereotypes people based upon these qualities. Since both types of language may offend your readers, and since this negative reaction may hinder the effectiveness of your communications, it is a good idea to try to avoid sexist and discriminatory language. (See Miss, Mr., Mrs., Ms. and two guidelines in Paul V. Anderson’s Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach: "Avoid Stereotypes" and "Use Inclusive Language" in Chapter 8, "Developing an Effective Style.") The guidelines presented here are adopted from these sections.

• Avoid terms that use "man" or that define workers by sex. Here are some examples of this sort of language and some alternative terms that you can use:

Examples Alternativesmankind humanity, human beings, peopleman-hours working hours, effort hours man-made artificial, synthetic manpower workforce man-sized job large job, challenging job workman's compensation worker's compensation businessman business person, manager,

executive chairman chair, chairperson, head fireman firefighter foreman supervisor mailman mail carrier policeman police officer salesman salesperson


spokesman spokesperson, representative stewardess flight attendant woman doctor, dentist, etc. doctor, dentist (or specialty,

such as surgeon, neurologist, pathologist)

• In writing letters, avoid salutations such as "Dear Sir," "Gentlemen," or "Dear Madam," which say that you expect the letter's reader to be either a man or a woman. Instead, try using the title of the department you are addressing or the recipient's job title.

Examples: Dear Personnel Department, Dear Switzer Plastics Company, Dear Supervisor, Dear Customer, Dear Subscriber, Dear Recipient

Although impersonal, such salutations are less likely to offend many readers than the more traditional, sexist terms.

• Avoid using sex-linked pronouns when referring to people of both sexes. Such pronouns can easily stereotype men's or women's roles.

Examples: This survey shows that the consumer is worried that he won't get quick and courteous service during the warranty period. [Assumes that all the consumers are men.]

An attorney must protect his clients' rights. [Assumes that all attorneys are men.]

Each nurse should check her time sheet before submitting it. [Assumes that all nurses are women.]

There are a number of ways to avoid this problem:

Use plural antecedents and pronouns.

Examples: This survey shows that consumers are worried that they won't get quick and courteous service during the warranty period.

Attorneys must protect their clients' rights.

Nurses should check their time sheets before submitting them.

Use he or she and his or her.

Examples: This survey shows that the consumer is worried that he or she won't get quick and courteous service during the warranty period.

An attorney must protect his or her clients' rights.

Each nurse should check his or her time sheet before submitting it.

Avoid using a pronoun.


Examples: This survey shows that the consumer is very worried about getting quick and courteous service during the warranty period.

An attorney must protect clients' rights.

Nurses should check time sheets before submitting them.

• With indefinite pronouns, such as one, anyone, each, and everyone, avoid sexist usage by converting nouns and pronouns to plurals.

Revise: Anyone who enters the building must show his identification to the security officer at the main entrance.

To: All those who enter the building must show their identification to the security officer at the main entrance.

Revise: Each member must pay her dues by January 31.

To: All members must pay their dues by January31.

• In instructions and directives, you also can use a second-person form of address, rather than third-person.

Revise: When one registers his car, he must pay a registration fee.

To: When you register your car, you must pay a registration fee.

• However, do not match the plural pronouns they or their with a singular indefinite pronoun. If you do this, you will create a pronoun-antecedent disagreement that many readers will consider ungrammatical (see Pronoun antecedent agreement).

Revise: If anyone files a grievance, they must be given a hearing within 30 days.

To: Anyone filing a grievance must be given a hearing within 30 days.

Revise: Each passenger will have their money refunded.

To: All passengers will have their money refunded.

• Refer to individual men and women in a parallel manner. For example, if you use Mr. or Ms. in referring to members of one sex, do the same for members of the other.

Revise: Mr. Milne and Elaine Dinardo will meet with the citizens' group.

To: Mr. Milne and Ms. Dinardo will meet with the citizens' group.

Or if you use full names in referring to members of one sex, do so for members of the other.

Example: Ernest Milne and Elaine Dinardo will meet with the citizens' group.


Similarly, if you use only first or last names in referring to people of one sex, do the same for people of the other sex.

Revise: Sprague and Bonnie are organizing the retirement reception.

To: Sprague and MacDougall are organizing the retirement reception. OR

Leo and Bonnie are organizing the retirement reception.

• Avoid describing people in terms of stereotypes. For example, in your reports, presentations, policy statements, and other communications, don't make all of the decision makers men and all of the clerical workers women.

• Mention a person's sex, race, or other personal characteristics only when these are relevant. In this way, you will avoid defining the person you are describing in terms of these characteristics, rather than as an individual.

Revise: Our Systems Department is managed by KevinKramer, a paraplegic.

To: Our Systems Department is managed by Kevin Kramer.

Revise: Our newest sales engineer is David Moline, a Native American.

To: Our newest sales engineer is David Moline.


Shifts Avoid awkward grammatical shifts within sentences or larger units of writing. These shifts can take place in tense, mood, voice, person, number, discourse, or tone.

• Avoid shifts in verb tense.

Revise: Willhome Industries has been in business for more than 60 years and never misses a payroll in all that time. [shift from past to present tense]

To: Willhome Industries has been in business for more than 60 years and has never missed a payroll in all that time.

• Avoid shifts in moods of verbs.

Revise: If the database were larger and was available on the office network, we could generate reports more easily. [shift in mood from subjunctive to indicative]

To: If the database were larger and were available on the office network, we could generate reports more easily.

• Avoid shifts in the voice of verbs.


Revise: After Malcolm ran upstairs and gave the package to Corrie, it was opened by them together. [shift from active to passive voice]

To: After Malcolm ran upstairs and gave the package to Corrie, they opened it together.

• Avoid shifts in the person and number of pronouns.

Revise: If one wants to become a surgeon, you must cultivate an early interest in anatomy. [shift from third person to second person]

To: If one wants to become a surgeon, one must cultivate an early interest in anatomy. OR

If you want to become a surgeon, you must cultivate an early interest in anatomy.

Revise: If a customer loses their credit card, they should call our toll-free number to report it. [shift from singular noun to plural pronoun]

To: If a customer loses his or her credit card, he or she should call our toll-free number to report it. OR

Any customer who loses a credit card should call our toll-free number to report it. OR

If customers lose their credit cards, they should call our toll-free number to report it.

• Avoid shifts between direct and indirect discourse.

Revise: Noriko asked if I were busy Friday afternoon and could I show her how to use the Chemline database. [shift from indirect to direct discourse]

To: Noriko asked if I were busy Friday afternoon and if I could show her how to use the Chemline database.

Revise: Nate said, "all right, I'm coming" and would Wanda meet him in the reception area. [shift from direct to indirect discourse]

To: Nate said, "All right, I'm coming. Would you meet me in the reception area?"

• Avoid abrupt shifts in tone of voice.

Revise: After carefully considering all the plans submitted to the committee, Kate decided that Alfred Greenwald's plan was super. [shift from formal-sounding language to slang]

To: After carefully considering all the plans submitted to the committee, Kate decided that Alfred Greenwald's plan was the most promising.



Slashes Slash marks are sometimes used in writing to indicate alternatives, to divide information, and to show omission of words. Here are some guidelines for using slash marks:

• Use a slash between words to indicate that either word applies.

Examples: Under the flextime system, an employee can perform his/her work during a variety of hours each week.

The new insurance plan covers medical/surgical services as well as preventive care.

• However, avoid ambiguous or unclear use of slash marks.

Revise: As the campaign progressed, the candidate's advisers discussed whether to use more radio/TV advertising.

To: As the campaign progressed, the candidate's advisers discussed whether to use more radio and TV advertising. OR

As the campaign progressed, the candidate's advisers discussed whether to use more radio or more TV advertising.

• You may use slash marks to indicate that words or letter have been omitted.

Examples: c/o in care of $8.00/hour $8.00 per hour 40 hours/week 40 hours per week

• Slash marks also are used to divide numbers in fractions.

Examples: 3/4, 7/8, 45/64

Specialized terms An important technique for making your writing clear is to use the specialized terms of your field carefully (see Chapter 8, "Developing an Effective Style," in Paul V. Anderson’s Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach for more information about this topic). It is acceptable, sometimes even desirable, to use specialized terms when communicating with other specialists, because specialized terms can convey your meaning precisely and can help to establish your credibility with expert readers. However, even specialists may find jargon-dense prose difficult to read. More important, many communications that you write may be read by readers who aren't knowledgeable about your subject. Or they may be read by both expert and inexpert readers--for example, by the executive whose training is in accounting or marketing, as well as by engineers.


The key in this and all situations is to make sure that all of your readers will be able to understand the language you use, which means explaining specialized terms to those readers who might not understand them. As is explained in "Developing an Effective Style," you can do this in several ways:

• Give a synonym.

Example: Myopia is nearsightedness.

• Give a description.

Example: A tandem valve consists of two valves placed one after another, so that if one valve fails, the other backs it up.

• Give an analogy.

Example: A videodisc is like a compact music disc that contains visual as well as sound images.

• Give a classical definition, by naming the group of things to which the defined term belongs, then distinguishing the term from other things in that group.

Example: A sphygmomanometer is an instrument for measuring blood pressure.

stationary, stationery Stationary means set in one position.

Example: At the start of the test, the vehicle is stationary.

Stationery is paper and envelopes that are used for writing.

Example: Cass sent her letter on official agency stationery.

Subject-verb agreement Subjects and verbs must agree in number. This means that sometimes you will have to look carefully at a sentence to determine its real subject and not be distracted by expressions that come between subject and verb.

Examples: Employee participation in HMOs is much higher today than five years ago. [The singular subject participation takes a singular verb, is.]

Studies of a building with gypboard partitions and one with concrete partitions reveal no significant differences between the comfort conditions in each building. [The plural subject studies takes a plural verb, reveal.]

The discovery of radioactive clouds and an object exerting enormous gravitational force suggests that there may be a black hole at the center of our galaxy. [The singular subject discovery takes a singular verb, suggests.]


Results of the survey of 350 purchasing managers were presented in an article in Management Today. [The plural subject results takes a plural verb, were presented.]

A series of trials was held to discover which of the five compounds was most effective. [The singular subject series takes a singular verb, was held.]

• Some plural nouns take a singular verb when they have a singular meaning.

Examples: Robotics is the subject he is most interested in.

The news from our Singapore plant is not good.

Three days is the time it usually takes to test a new software package.

• This also is true of book, film, and video titles that happen to be plural.

Example: The Lives of a Cell was written by Dr. Lewis Thomas.

• Collective nouns, such as board, committee, company, staff, and team, take a singular verb when they refer to the group as a unit, but a plural verb when they refer to individuals.

Examples: The Board of Trustees is meeting next Friday.

The committee was unanimous in its approval of the new networking plan. BUT

The committee were divided in their opinions of the new networking plan.

• The term amount always takes a singular verb, but the term number takes a singular verb if it refers to a specific quantity and a plural one if it refers to an approximate quantity (see amount, number).

Examples: The amount of rainfall in Tampa in April has remained the same for the last five years.

The number of pallets loaded onto the forklift was too great for the machine to lift.

Only a small number of patients come to the clinic on Saturdays.

• The names of companies may take either singular or plural verbs.

Examples: TetraCorp has streamlined its manufacturing process in the past three years.

Alpha Communications provides a variety of management consulting services for its clients.

Filson & Abramowitz, Inc. have opened new offices in three cities.


• Carefully examine sentences with inverted word order to make sure that their subjects and verbs agree

Examples: At the end of Brower's report are five recommendations for redesigning the CAD software.

Through all the speakers' remarks runs a common theme.

• Compound subjects joined by and take plural verbs.

Examples: Biographies and autobiographies are Miriam's favorite reading.

English and Spanish are the languages one hears spoken most often in New York City.

Ahmed and I have met six times in the last two weeks to discuss the office reorganization plan.

• However, some compound nouns take a singular verb when they have a singular meaning.

Examples: Question and answer was the discussion format Cindy used in the meeting.

Finding and clearing paper jams is the most common maintenance procedure we have to perform on the ATM.

• Compound subjects joined by or or nor should take a verb that agrees with the subject closest to it.

Examples: Either allergens, toxicants, or microbial contamination is the cause of the reaction.

Neither Professor Nagano nor her students were able to solve the problem.

• Singular pronouns such as each, any, either, neither, one, and everyone take singular verbs.

Examples: Each of the prototype cars is capable of reaching 60 mph in under 10 seconds.

Neither of them knows when to stop.

Every one of the items was inventoried last month.

• Indefinite pronouns such as all, more, most, some, and none may be singular or plural, depending upon whether they refer to an aggregate quantity or to individuals

Examples: Most of the new equipment has already been shipped.

Most of the soybean plants in the test plot are doing well.

Some of the rainwater evaporates quickly in the summer heat.


Some of the scientists favor a more aggressive research program.

None of the sheep has contracted the virus.

None of the pesticides listed by the agency were found in the groundwater samples.

• Relative pronouns such as who, which, and that take a singular verb if their antecedent is singular and a plural verb if their antecedent is plural.

Examples: Sarah is someone who is rarely late for meetings.

Astronomers who are studying far off galaxies are especially interested in using satellite telescopes.

The tiger is an example of an animal that has become endangered in the last decade.

Computers that store personal data jeopardize privacy.

Automobiles that are constructed with polymer-based composites are lighter than those that use traditional metal parts.


Superlative degree (see Comparative and superlative degrees)

there, their, they're Although these three words sound the same, they mean quite different things.

• There is an adverb referring to place.

Example: Park the car over there, in front of the hardware store.

It also can be used as an expletive to begin a clause.

Example: There are three ways to solve this problem.

• Their is a possessive form of the pronoun they, meaning something belonging to them.

Example: The Friedmans were ready to leave, so Todd brought them their coats.

• They’re is a contraction of they are, which uses an apostrophe in place of the missing a.

Example: It seems unusual that Ward and Holly aren't here. They're always the first to arrive.


Who, which, and that Who, which, and that are all relative pronouns. Who usually refers to people, which refers to things, and that may refer either to people or things.

Examples: Local governments have heard from many citizens who are concerned about the quality of their drinking water.

Radon is a radioactive gas which occurs naturally in the environment.

Botanists have samples of the fungus that infected the wheat.

To avoid awkward or wordy expressions, you may use whose to refer to things.

Examples: Sandra has a list of organizations whose utility costs (rather than the utility costs of which) increased last year.

The enzyme whose activity (rather than the activity of which) had the most dramatic effect became the focus for the next round of experiments.

who's, whose Although these two words sound, and even look, alike, it is important to distinguish carefully in using them.

• Who's is a contraction of who is, with an apostrophe taking the place of the missing i.

Example: The mail carrier knows who's living in that house.

• Whose is the possessive form of who.

Examples: Whose car is this?

Geraldo can tell you whose notes those are.
