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Structures of sentences Syntax Slide 2 Syntax is Openness Ordering words in sequences to express meanings for which no separate word exists. Meanings we want to express far outstretch the resources provided by the lexicon & morphology Slide 3 Syntax is Openness Ordering words in sequences to express meanings for which no separate word exists. Meanings we want to express far outstretch the resources provided by the lexicon & morphology Though the lexicon & morphology are somewhat open (to new members/meanings), syntax gives another way to express new meanings/nuances/ precision/links between ideas Slide 4 Syntax is Openness Syntax enhances the creativity of expression All grammatical systems (phonology, morphology, the lexicon) are open, however openness is a more salient feature in syntax. Slide 5 Syntax is Sentences The largest linguistic unit showing grammatical structure (over which patterns apply)* Opposite the morpheme the smallest such unit Slide 6 Syntax is Sentences The largest linguistic unit showing grammatical structure (over which patterns apply)* Opposite the morpheme the smallest such unit Bloomfield: S= a string of words not included in any larger form by virtue of grammatical structure John went home. I saw him. 2 sentences; bec the 2 are gramly independent Slide 7 Syntax is A system of principles constructing & interpreting new sentences (hence, its open) New sentences are quite common, more so than words. Theyre more likely to be considered unremarkable (vs. words) Slide 8 Syntax is Grammaticality Not to be confused with meaningfulness Some grammatical sentences are nonsensical Some ungrammatical sentences are sensical Slide 9 Syntax is Grammaticality Not to be confused with meaningfulness Some grammatical sentences are nonsensical Some ungrammatical sentences are sensical Recognizing the ungrammatical tells us about the syntax of a language. As across all science, finding problems leads to insights about the system. Slide 10 Hierarchy: sentence structure Grouping above the level of morphology and words (the lexicon) and below the sentence, we have another unit which we need to recognize in order to understand language. Slide 11 Hierarchy: sentence structure Grouping above the level of morphology and words (the lexicon) and below the sentence, we have another unit which we need to recognize in order to understand language. We find evidence for these chunks of words in three tests: movability, contractibility, & structural ambiguity. Slide 12 Hierarchy: sentence structure Grouping: Movability If certain groups always move about together, they constitute a single group Slide 13 Hierarchy: sentence structure Grouping: Movability If certain groups always move about together, they constitute a single group A reasonable criterion but imperfect: on the fence the fence.the net on (p 109) Slide 14 Hierarchy: sentence structure Grouping: Movability If certain groups always move about together, they constitute a single group A reasonable criterion but imperfect: on the fence the fence.the net on (p 109) However, words that dont belong together dont consistently move around in concert Cf. the net on (p 109) Slide 15 Hierarchy: sentence structure Grouping: Contractability The potential for a string of words to be replaced by a single word (if it is, that string = a grmtcl element) Slide 16 Hierarchy: sentence structure Grouping: Contractability The potential for a string of words to be replaced by a single word (if it is, that string = a grmtcl element) Also imperfect: are through the mtns or the line through mtns replaceable? Slide 17 Hierarchy: sentence structure Grouping: Contractability The potential for a string of words to be replaced by a single word (if it is, that string = a grmtcl element) Also imperfect: are through the mtns or the line through mtns replaceable? Again, groups of words which dont belong together cannot be replaced by a single word E.g. chugged along the Slide 18 Hierarchy: sentence structure Grouping Meaning differences/structural ambiguity Sometimes a sentence/phrase which has ambiguous meanings can be interpreted by alternative groupings (or construing the structure differently) E.g. to shoot the man with the rifle This, thus, recognizes the various groups as valid units Slide 19 Syntactic units Grammatical units showing unified behavior E.g. morphemes, words, sentencesclauses & phrases Slide 20 Syntactic units Grammatical units showing unified behavior E.g. morphemes, words, sentencesclauses & phrases Clauses Simple sentences: just one verb and one event Complex sentences: combine simple Ss Slide 21 Syntactic units Grammatical units showing unified behavior E.g. morphemes, words, sentencesclauses & phrases Clauses Simple sentences: just one verb and one event Complex sentences: combine simple Ss Simples Ss or their modified versions = clauses Slide 22 Syntactic units Clauses 1. minor clause: basically no structure (e.g. interj.) 2. major clause: refers to real/imaginary event & has a verb and accompanying nouns A. Independent stand alone B. Dependent but correspond to ind. clauses Slide 23 Syntactic units Phrases Intermediate-sized units b/w words & clauses Slide 24 Syntactic units Phrases Intermediate-sized units b/w words & clauses Grouped by internal structure: NP & VP - found in most languages NB nouns & verbs are not separate p.o.s. in all languages Slide 25 Syntactic units Phrases Intermediate-sized units b/w words & clauses Grouped by internal structure: NP & VP - found in most languages NB nouns & verbs are not separate p.o.s. in all languages PP, AdjP, AdvP even less common Slide 26 Syntactic units NPs Typically refers to some concrete/abstract entity May include: Determiner, Possessive Pron, Demonstrative, Adjective Slide 27 Syntactic units NPs Typically refers to some concrete/abstract entity May include: Determiner, Possessive Pron, Demonstrative, Adjective VPs Refers to events that NPs are involved in Includes: lexical verb + gram &/or lex free/bnd morphemes Slide 28 Clause structure Clauses sequences of phrases of various types Similar to phrase structure Sample structures: NP VPI ate NP VP PPI ate at home VP NP PPAre you at home? Slide 29 Clause structure Clauses sequences of phrases of various types Similar to phrase structure Sample structures: NP VPI ate NP VP PPI ate at home VP NP PPAre you at home? PP VP NPIn Norway lives a nysse VP NP NPAre you my mother? NP VP NP NPI will give her something precious INT VP NPWhat is that thing? INT VP NP PPWhen was the train in Voss? Slide 30 Clause structure However. Consider questions which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him? Slide 31 Clause structure However. Consider questions which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him? Notice the AUX and its VERB are split Slide 32 Clause structure However. Consider questions which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him? Notice the AUX and its VERB are split We can record such sentences but that would greatly increase the number of sentence patterns that we store. Slide 33 Clause structure However. Consider questions which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him? Notice the AUX and its VERB are split We can record such sentences but that would greatly increase the number of sentence patterns that we store. As youve noticed, linguistics: looks for ways to streamline all language-related units we store Slide 34 Clause structure However. Consider questions which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him? Notice the AUX and its VERB are split We can record such sentences but that would greatly increase the number of sentence patterns that we store. As youve noticed, linguistics: & tries to do so by making generalizations/rules. (thus, this increase in sentence patterns to be memorized is rejected in favor of formula which capture pattern regularities) Slide 35 Clause structure Grammatical relations Furthermorethe NP VP PP variety description, although capturing generalizations about clause structure, fails to say anything about meaning: Leaving out any acct of systematic sims & difs in mng Slide 36 Clause structure Grammatical relations Furthermorethe NP VP PP variety description, although capturing generalizations about clause structure, fails to say anything about meaning: Leaving out any acct of systematic sims & difs in mng Such a description merely specifies possible formal shapes, related only in that they involve similar component units Slide 37 Clause structure Grammatical relations Furthermorethe NP VP PP variety description, although capturing generalizations about clause structure, fails to say anything about meaning: Leaving out any acct of systematic sims & difs in mng Such a description merely specifies possible formal shapes, related only in that they involve similar component units Gr roles show differences in mng expressed by formally related Ss & also deepens understanding Slide 38 Grammatical relations Gr roles show differences in mng expressed by formally related Ss & also deepen understanding: Slide 39 Grammatical relations Gr roles show differences in mng expressed by formally related Ss & also deepen understanding: by recognizing grtcl roles or functions assocd w/ the formal syntactic shapes it is possible not just to acct for differences of mng expressed by formally re- lated Ss, but also to describe clausal syntax beyond merely listing alternatives Slide 40 Grammatical relations Gr roles show differences in mng expressed by formally related Ss & also deepen understanding: by recognizing grtcl roles or functions assocd w/ the formal syntactic shapes it is possible not just to acct for differences of mng expressed by formally re- lated Ss, but also to describe clausal syntax beyond merely listing alternatives 3 different types of grtcl functions: Experiential roles, Subj/obj, Theme Slide 41 Grammatical relations Experiential roles NP VP PP etc tell us sthg @ a Ss structure But not @ meaning Slide 42 Grammatical relations Experiential roles NP VP PP etc tell us sthg @ a Ss structure But not @ meaning 1 The Northstar is leaving from track 2 2 The Northstar is being shunted from track 2 Slide 43 Grammatical relations Experiential roles NP VP PP etc tell us sthg @ a Ss structure But not @ meaning 1 The Northstar is leaving from track 2 2 The Northstar is being shunted from track 2 Same phrase patterns (NP VP PP) but NP is an Actor doers of event (in 1) and an Undergoer patient or sufferer (in 2) (Verb = Event) Slide 44 Grammatical relations Subject/Object needed in addn to above 3 experiential roles The sniper shot the tourist The tourist was shot by the sniper Slide 45 Grammatical relations Subject/Object needed in addn to above 3 experiential roles The sniper shot the tourist The tourist was shot by the sniper But note how the unfortunate tourist is undergoing in both but functions grammatically differently. i.e. it moves to the front, before the verb; verb agrees w/ NP; NB use of pronoun substitution for the NP and the use of tag Qs. Slide 46 Grammatical relations Subject/Object needed in addn to above 3 experiential roles The sniper shot the tourist The tourist was shot by the sniper But note how the unfortunate tourist is undergoing in both but functions grammatically differently. i.e. it moves to the front, before the verb; verb agrees w/ NP; NB use of pronoun substitution for the NP and the use of tag Qs. Thus subject differs from actor Slide 47 Subject/Object: not so easy Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position? Slide 48 Subject/Object: not so easy Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position? Or is it also a meaningful grtcl reln? (like actor,etc) Slide 49 Subject/Object: not so easy Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position? Or is it also a meaningful grtcl reln? (like actor,etc) If yes, consider: Subject = perspective clause is viewed from Viewed from sniper/tourists p.o.v. Slide 50 Subject/Object: not so easy Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position? Or is it also a meaningful grtcl reln? (like actor,etc) If yes, consider: Subject = perspective clause is viewed from Viewed from sniper/tourists p.o.v. (or) Sub= the thing about which the truth of the proposition can be evaluated Slide 51 Subject/Object: not so easy Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position? Or is it also a meaningful grtcl reln? (like actor,etc) If yes, consider: Subject = perspective clause is viewed from Viewed from sniper/tourists p.o.v. (or) Sub= the thing about which the truth of the proposition can be evaluated (or) Sub= cognitive prominence; events are profiled from the subjects perspective Slide 52 Subject/Object: not so easy So, if its also a meaningful grtcl reln? (actor, etc) then, what of Object? Slide 53 Subject/Object: not so easy So, if its also a meaningful grtcl reln? (actor, etc) then, what of Object? Perhaps it represents the secondary vantage pt Slide 54 Subject/Object: not so easy So, if its also a meaningful grtcl reln? (actor, etc) then, what of Object? Perhaps it represents the secondary vantage pt NB ditransitive verbs (e.g. give takes 2 objects) Which ever is fronted takes on secondary prominence Slide 55 Subject/Object: not so easy Hence S/O are not the construal of the world of experience/experiential meaning; Slide 56 Subject/Object: not so easy Hence S/O are not the construal of the world of experience/experiential meaning; S/O = selecting perspectives that the speaker wants to representwhich leads perhaps to the hearer adopting the same angle. Slide 57 Subject/Object: not so easy Hence S/O are not the construal of the world of experience/experiential meaning; S/O = selecting perspectives that the speaker wants to representwhich leads perhaps to the hearer adopting the same angle. AKA the establishment of a shared perspective Lx as interactive; mng as interpersonal Slide 58 Grammatical relations Theme (AKA topic) Can be either what the clause is about, or establish a setting for it: it anchors the message, fixing a pt from the message can be expanded Cf German example on p 121 Slide 59 Grammatical relations Theme (AKA topic) Can be either what the clause is about, or establish a setting for it: it anchors the message, fixing a pt from the message can be expanded Cf German example on p 121 Der Priester & Den Bischof are S & O respectively Slide 60 Grammatical relations Theme (AKA topic) Can be either what the clause is about, or establish a setting for it: it anchors the message, fixing a pt from the message can be expanded Cf German example on p 121 Der Priester & Den Bischof are S & O respectively The 4 examples have same experiential & interper-sonal mngs; & NPs maintain roles (NOM & ACC) But the theme hinges on which NP comes first Slide 61 Undergoer indicates patient or sufferers