Jharkhand Journal of Development and Management StudiesXISS, Ranchi, Vol. 17, No.3, September 2019, pp. 8201-8213

STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINTS OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENTIN INDIA: HISTORICAL TRAJECTORY AND EMERGING

PARADIGM

B.N. Prasad1

Traditionally Indian society has been most unequal and rigidlypatriarchal, negating thereby establishment of gender parity socialorder. Gender discrimination is the result of exclusion of femalesfrom productive resources. This results into deteriorating healthstatus, limited educational opportunities, poor nutrition andincreasing female morbidity, lack of hygiene and safe drinking water;to credit and aptitude to exercise one’s democratic rights. Gender iscentral consideration to assign roles and responsibilities, distributionof resources and rights between male and female. Allocation,distribution, utilisation, and control of resources are thus incumbentupon gender relations embedded in both ideology and practice.Democratic regime has impacted traditional social structure andcontributed towards establishment of little more egalitarian socialorder. This paper explores reasons for perpetuation of hithertopatriarchal social structure and consequent gender discrimination;in spite of significant economic transformation, diversified modernvalues and infusion of technological growth. This paper also tries tolocate emerging gender paradigms vis-a-vis patriarchal hegemoniccontrol; with the help of empirical parameters like education, health,work participation, and domestic violence.

Keywords: Social stratification, patriarchal, gender discrimination,egalitarian social order

Introduction

Former Secretary General of United Nations Kofi Annan said, “Genderequality is more than a goal in itself. It is a pre-condition for meetingchallenges of poverty reduction, promoting sustainable developmentand building good governance.” Two social facts are pertinent to note.First, status of women have no generalised paradigm; it varies acrossclass, time and space. Second, gender inequality and discriminationdo not have same magnitude and intensity in the time framework.Status of Indian women has kept on changing with change of historicalepoch. From equal status with their male counterpart in the ancienttime to all time low status during medieval era; to promotion of equalrights by social reformers during 18th and 19th century; and now womenquest for equality in 20th and 21st century.

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1 Professor & Head, Sociology & Social Anthropology, A. N. Sinha Institute ofSocial Studies, Patna. E-mail: prasad06bn@yahoo.co.in

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In India women have been worshipped as incarnations ofgoddesses but it remained as symbolic gesture and never translatedinto reality. Traditional view often praised role of women as wivesand mothers, but as individuals they were assigned a low socialposition. They could not find any other expression to their inborntalents/desires except as housewives. Mostly they were seen as justadjuncts to men. Status implies social and legal position of anindividual vis-à-vis others. Sociologically; gender is related to roles,behaviours and expectations ascribed to men and women on thebasis of sex differences. Therefore; gender inequality is distinct fromeconomic and other forms of social inequalities. There is symbioticrelationship between gender inequality and gender discrimination.Gender inequality is rooted in the basic fabrics of patriarchalsocial structure; gender inequality and patriarchal domination gohand in hand. The central reason of gender discrimination is unequalpower relations, which is perpetuated through denial of access toproperty, productive resources, income, employment, skill, education,health care, etc (Desai, 1994).

Historical Trajectory

Women enjoyed equal status as that of their male counterpartsduring Rig-Vedic period. They were free to participate in socio-economic,religious and cultural activities; optimum freedom of thought andaction (Chaturvedi, 1988, p. 139). According to ancient Indiangrammarians Patanjali and Katyayana; women were educated in earlyVedic period (Katyayana and Patanjali, as quoted in www.wikipedia.org/Women in India). Rig Vedic verses also mention that women marriedat a mature age and were probably free to select their husbands(Majumdar & Pusalker, 1951, p. 394). Rig Veda and Upanishadsmention several women sages and seers, notably Gargi and Maitreyi(Vedic Women: Loving, Learned, Lucky). According to historians;women enjoyed equal status and rights during early Vedic period.But in later Vedic time (Smriti era, approx. 500 B.C) their statusstarted declining. Significant deterioration started during Gupta period(7th-17th century A.D).

Medieval period was dark phase in the life of Indian women(Mishra, 2006). Although; reformatory religious movements, e.g.Buddhism and Jainism allowed women to be admitted to religiousorder, but by and large, Indian women faced confinement andrestrictions (Info Change Women: Background and Perspective).Social evils like Child Marriage, Sati, Purdha system, Jauhar, DevadasiPratha, etc, started largely during this period. Women were treatedas sole property of her father, brother or husband, without any control

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of her own on her body and life. This type of thinking and way oflife had obvious impact on the Rig-Veda thought process of genderequality and freedom. Girl has been looked as a source of misery andburden, need extra protection. On the flipside, boys were free fromsuch care and protection. This resulted in vicious cycle of oppression,where women were at the receiving end. This process gave rise tomany social evils including restriction of girl’s education. Earlymarriage and denial of education led to many problems, e.g., increasedbirth rate, poor health of women, and high mortality rate of motherand children. Restriction on Widow Remarriage was another majorsocial evil in medieval India. Condition of widows was very pathetic.They were out of the social world with lots of restrictions. Widowswere supposed to lead pious life and not allowed to enter in anycelebration. Their mere presence in celebration was considered as abad omen. Any woman remarrying was looked down by the society.This was one of the major reasons for large number of widowscommitting sati during medieval period. To be a widow in Hindu societywas just a curse.

In spite of general deplorable condition in medieval period; somewomen excelled in the fields of literature, education, religion and politics(NRCW). Razia Sultana was only women monarch who ruled DelhiSultanate. Gond queen Durgavati ruled 15 years before she lost herlife in a battle with Akbar’s general Asaf Khan in 1564. Chand Bibidefended Ahmadnagar Kingdom against mighty force of Akbar in 1590s.Nur Jehan (wife of Jehangir) effectively wielded imperial power andwas force behind Mughal throne. The Mughal princesses Jahanaraand Zebunnissa were well-known poets, and also influenced the rulingadministration. In South India, many women administered villages,towns and divisions, and effectively controlled social and religiousinstitutions (Kamat, 2006).

Bhakti movements not only tried to restore women’s status butalso questioned dominant forms of oppression (Info Change Women,op. cit,). Mirabai, a female saint and devotee of Krishna, was animportant Bhakti movement personalities. Bhakti sects within:Hinduism e.g, Mahanubhav, Varkari, etc, were principal movementswhich openly advocated social justice and gender equality. Shortly afterBhakti movement, Guru Nanak also preached the message of equalitybetween men and women. He advocated that women be allowed to leadreligious assemblies; to perform and lead congregational hymn singingcalled Bhajans; to become members of religious managementcommittees; to lead armies on the battlefield; have equality in marriage,and equality in Amrit (Baptism). Other Sikh Gurus also preachedagainst discrimination of women (NRCW, op. cit.).

Till first half of 19th century not much attention has been paidby the Colonial Power to the deplorable condition of Indian women.Till 1813 British rulers followed a policy of non-interference in religious,social and cultural life of the country (Chandra, 1985, p. 114). It wasmainly to avoid tinkering with dogmatic traditional values and avoidbacklash of orthodox Indians. But after 1813 British Raj took somerelevant steps to transform Indian society and culture. Many externaland internal factors were responsible for this. 18th and 19th centurieswitnessed a great ferment of new ideas in Britain and Europe, whichinfluenced the British outlook towards Indian problems. All over Europenew attitudes, manners, and morals were appearing. The great FrenchRevolution of 1789 with its message of “Liberty, Equality, andFraternity” generated powerful democratic sentiments and unleashedforces of modern nationalism and humanism. Industrial revolution inmiddle of 18th century and consequent growth of industrial capitalismforced British government to change their attitude towards Indiansociety. They felt the need for partial modernisation of Indian culture.Doctrine of ‘partial modernisation’ has got strong support of great Indianreformers of the time, like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar ChandraVidyasagar, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, etc.

Social Reformer Movement and Gender Issue

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was one of the central figures of social awakeningduring first half of 19th century. Roy had great faith in traditionalIndian philosophical system, but he believed that western rationalityand scientific approach would be helpful to regenerate Indian society.He believed in the principle of human dignity and social equalityof men and women. In 1829 Roy founded a new religious societycalled ‘Brahma Sabha”, later known as ‘Brahmo Samaj’ to reformIndian society. Society was based on twin pillars of reason, Vedas andUpanishads. His ceaseless war against sati led to abolition of thesocial evil in 1829. Although the said law could not prove an effectivedeterrent, but it certainly changed Indian mindset. Roy was one ofthe earliest propagators of women education. He opposed prevailingidea that women were inferior in intellectual and moral sense. Heattacked polygamy and degraded state of widows. To raise status ofwomen he demanded women’s right in inheritance and property. Hewas also against child marriage and favoured widow remarriage. Hehimself married to a widow; thereby setting example to fellowcountrymen.

Next towering personality (after Mohan Roy) was Pandit IshwarChandra Vidyasagar. He is popularly known as Vidyasagar; meanssea of knowledge. He dedicated his entire life to the cause of social

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reform and women up-liftment, especially down-trodden women. Hewaged a long struggle for widow remarriage. He raised his powerfulvoice, backed by the weight of immense traditional learning, in favourof widow remarriage in 1855. This led to enactment of ‘WidowRemarriage Act in 1856.’ Due to his fearless struggle and effectivepersuasion 25 widow remarriage were performed between 1855 and1860. In 1850, Vidyasagar protested against child-marriage. All hislife he campaigned against polygamy. He was also deeply interested inwomen education. As a Government Inspector of Schools, he organised35 girl’s schools, many of which he ran at his own expense. As aSecretary to the Bethune School, he was one of the pioneers of highereducation for women.

Mahatma Jotiba Phule was a real philanthropist. Born in alow caste Mali family; he was quite aware of socially degradedposition of non-Brahmins, untouchables and women. Jotiba alongwith his wife started a girl’s school at Poona and soon many suchschools came up. Active promoters of these schools were JagannathShankar Seth and Bhau Daji in Maharashtra. Phule was also a greatpioneer of widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra. VishnuShastri Pundit founded Widow Remarriage Association in 1850s.Another prominent worker in the field was Karsondas Mulji whostarted ‘Satya Prakash” in Gujarat in 1852 to advocate widowremarriage. Jotiba Phule is also credited with opening first home forwidows of upper caste and a home for newborn girl child to be savedfrom female infanticide. Swami Dayananda Saraswati was founderof Arya Samaj. He gave a cry, “Back to Vedas.” He tried to changetraditional mindset of people through teachings of Vedas. He translatedVedas from Sanskrit to Hindi for common men, so that they canunderstand its basic philosophy which gives utmost importance towomen. Dayananda emphasised for the equal rights for women in everyfields of life.

Apart from valiant efforts by the great social reformers of19th century, some Indian women also proved their worth andcourage. Notable among them were Kittur Chennamma, queen ofKittur princely state of Karnataka. She led an armed rebellion against“Doctrine of Lapse.” Rani Lakshmi Bai; fought valiant war againstcolonial power in 1857. Begum Hazrat Mahal of Avadh was womenruler who led the revolt of 1857. Other prominent women freedomfighters were Bhikaji Cama, Vijayalakshami Pandit, Aruna Asaf Ali,Dr Annie Besant, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Sucheta Kriplani, DurgabaiDeshmukh, etc. Captain Lakshmi Sahgal was chief of exclusive womenwing of Subhash Chandra Bose’s Indian Army called: “The Rani ofJhansi Regiment.”

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Freedom Struggle and Women Emancipation

Scholars believe that above trend was an exception to the general trendtill 19th century, and had not much impact on Indian patriarchal socialorder. Movement for liberation of women received a great stimulusfrom rise of ‘militant national movement’ in 20th century. Gandhijitried to liberate Indian women from the clutches of purdha and othersuch social evils. He brought them out from their confinements andencouraged them to actively participate in freedom struggle. Gandhijispread message of gender equality and criticised dominant India desireto have male child. He was against child marriage and favoured widowremarriage. He urged youths of the country to come forward and acceptyoung widows as their life partner. It is due to his efforts that womenplayed important role in freedom struggle. They participated in largenumbers in agitation against partition of Bengal and Home RuleMovement. After 1918 they marched in political processions, picketedshops selling foreign cloths and liquors, spun and propagated Khadi,went to jail in Non-Cooperation Movements, faced lathis, tear gas andbullets. They participated actively in revolutionary movements, votedin elections to legislatures and contested as candidates. Some of thembecame ministers or parliamentary secretaries in popular ministriesof 1937 (op. cit: 230). During trade union and kisan movements in1920s women were often found in the forefronts. Above all participationin the national movement contributed to awakening of Indian womenand their emancipation.

Another important development was birth of women’s movementin the country. Up to 1920s enlightened men and women worked forup-liftment of women. Now self-conscious and confident women under-took the task. They started many organisations and institutions forthe purpose; the most outstanding was All India Women’s Conferencefounded in 1927. All India Women’s Education Conference was held inPoona in 1927 (Info Change Women, op. cit.). Gandhi emphasised thatgirls are equally capable of everything boys can do but need of the timeis to give them opportunities so that they can prove themselves. It waslargely due to his efforts that when India became free ‘Right to Vote’came naturally to Indian women, whereas in developed nations likeUSA, England, etc. women got this right very late and that too afterlots of protests and struggles.

Changing Scenario in Independent India

Women’s struggle for equality took a big step forward with comingof Indian Independence. Indian Constitution guarantees equalityof men and women (Articles 14 and 15), equality of opportunity

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(Article 16), equal pay for equal work (Article 39-d). HinduSuccession Act of 1956 made daughter an equal co-heir with son.Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 permitted dissolution of marriage onspecific grounds. The Constitution allows special provisions to bemade by the State in favour of women and children (Article 15-3),renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 15(A)-e), provisions to be made by the State for securing just and humaneconditions of work and for maternity relief, Article 42 (Menon-Sen &Kumar, 2001).

Social reform movements, freedom struggle, women’s movementsand Constitutional provisions made tremendous impact towardsemancipation of Indian women. Independence brought many promisesand dreams for Indian women: the dream of an egalitarian, just anddemocratic society in which both the sexes would have equal voice. Onthe one hand, women are at the peak of the ladder of success. Womenachievers can be located in socio-economic, cultural, educational, andother fields of modern India. But on the flipside they are mutely sufferingviolence and discrimination afflicted on them by society and their familymembers. Majority of them are still in grip of patriarchal social normsand subservient position. In spite of constitutional guarantee of ‘equalopportunity’, patriarchy asserts itself through legal loopholes andmanipulations to consolidate age-old domination. Governmentprogrammes remained economic in nature, i.e., to increase economicopportunities for women. But no programme has been launched tillthe date to address cultural and traditional discrimination againstwomen; probably most important reasons for women’s subservientposition.

Main concern of the paper is to explore reasons for perpetuationof patriarchal social structure and gender inequalities amidstremarkable socio-economic and technological growth. One of the reasonsis: capitalism which constitutes economic base continuouslyrestructures patriarchal social institutions for its own growth. Whiledoing so, it subsumes the latter but allows maintaining what Althusserargues, its ‘relative autonomy’ (Maduro, 1977, p. 4).

Patriarchal institution that got strengthened during medievalperiod gained legitimacy during colonial regime as well. Colonial modeof production that penetrated during colonial era subsumed patriarchalinstitution through covert collaboration where patriarchal relationswere allowed to exercise its hegemonic control. Two historical forceseventually hold women as source of resource depletion, instead ofresource creator; which is a historical social fact.

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One must not undermine impact of economic transformationon patriarchal institution, especially in post-colonial era. Witheducational development and rising aspiration for self identity, aspiringIndian women are asserting them self. This process is opening up newhorizon and vista of choices for them. But all engrossing questionremains that whose socio-economic space is expanding in a societywhere structural differentiation rules the roost of development andchange. One should be extremely careful while assessing qualitativeimpact of educational development and work participation rate ongender equality. The point can be exemplified with the help of followingtables:

Table-1. Educational Development, Work Participation Rateand Declining Sex Ratio

Year Sex Ratio (0-6 Age Female Literacy Female WorkGroup of Children) Rate Participation Rate

1981 962 29.8 19.31991 945 39.3 22.32001 927 53.7 25.62011 914 64.6 25.5

Source: Data on sex ratio, literacy rate and female work participation are collectedfrom Census of India (1981, 1991, 2001 & 2011), Govt. of India.

The above table reveals rising trend of female education, fromless than 30 percent to as high as 65 percent in three decades. Similarly,there has been increasing work participation rate in the correspondingperiod- 19.3 percent in 1981 to 25.5 percent in 2011. Both the trendsare encouraging, but they never had corresponding impact on sex ratio.Rather sex ratio declined alarmingly during the same period, from 962in 1981 to as low as 914 in 2011.

I t is a proven fact that education lay foundation for changeand equips a person to change one’s world view. Gir ls in highereducation not only exposed to modern values, but also have enormouspower for self-sufficiency and self-assertion. Table below shows thatpercentage of enrolment of gir l child has successively increased atall levels. But only 52.8 percent reaches to upper primary level,which declines to 48.7 percent at senior secondary stage. This furthersubstantially declines to 25.7 percent at higher educat ion level.However; situation has improved in recent times, but still it is at thedepressing level. In such a scenario how one can expect that gir ls willbe able to assert themselves and thereby can defy r igid patr iarchalrules and domination. Let us ponder upon some more socio-economicindicators-

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Table-2. Upward Movement of Girls’ Education in India, (Girls Studentsin Lakh)

Educational YearLevel 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16Primary 285 404 498 648.49 627.69 628.92 622.50

(100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100)Upper Primary 68 125 175 292.48 320.35 326.64 328.74

(23.9) (30.9) (35.1) (45.1) (51.0) (51.9) (52.8)Secondary + 34 63 107 228.94 272.83 292.41 303.31Sr. Secondary (11.9) (15.6) (21.5) (35.3) (43.5) (46.5) (48.7)Higher Education 13 15 32 120.33 133.01 157.23 159.91

(4.6) (3.7) (6.4) (18.5) (21.2) (25.0) (25.7)

P – ProvisionalFigure in bracket show percentageSource: Educational Statistics at a Glance, MHRD, Bureau of Planning,Monitoring and Statistics, New Delhi

Table-3. Distribution Main and Marginal Workers in India

Year Percentage to Total Workers

Persons Total Main Cultivators Agricultural Household Other MarginalWorkers Workers Labourers Industry Workers Workers

(in %) (in %)

Males 27,50,14,476 87.3 31.1 20.8 3.2 44.9 12.72001 Females 12,72,20,248 57.3 32.9 38.9 6.5 21.7 42.7

Total 40,22,34,724 77.8 31.7 26.5 4.2 37.6 22.2

Males 33,18,65,930 82.3 24.9 24.9 2.9 47.2 17.72011 Females 14,98,77,381 59.6 24.0 41.1 5.7 29.2 40.4

Total 48,17,43,311 75.2 24.6 30.0 3.8 41.6 24.8

Source: Primary Census Abstract, Census of India 2001 and 2011.

Work participation rate is an important indicator of socio-economic status of working population, which is defined as percentageof total workers to total population. The data above shows thatpercentage of main worker has declined from 77.8 percent to 75.2 percentover a decade. But marginal worker has increased from 22.2 to 24.8percent. Census defines a worker as ‘Main Worker’ if he/she has workedfor 6 months or more/year; otherwise they are considered to be a‘Marginal Worker’. Increasing percentage of marginal workers providesclear picture of deprivation of labouring poor on developmental paradigm.This is largely due to shrinking job opportunities in formal sectorsand in-formalisation of Indian economy.

Even on the economic front situation of women is not verypromising. Percentage of marginal women works is much higher thantheir male counterparts, unprotected by any laws and rules becausemost of them work in unorganized informal sectors. Women

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participation as agriculture labour has increased from 2001 to 2011,significantly higher than male agriculture labour. In new millenniumagrarian sector is passing through a critical phase, especially due toneo-liberal economic development. Consequently, condition ofagriculture labour has deteriorated over the years. Women are worstvictims of the process. Some of them also work in household industry,which is largely unpaid or underpaid.

Table-4. Maternal Care Indicators for Births in India, inPercentage

Indicator NFHS – 1 NFHS – 2 NFHS – 3 NFHS – 4(1992-93) (1998-99) (2005-06) (2015-16)

Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban

Who received antenatal care 59.2 83 59.9 86.5 72.2 90.7 75.1 89.0Who had at least three antenatal 37.3 66.8 36.9 70.1 42.8 73.8 44.8 66.4

careWho received antenatal care 20.2 40.9 26.7 55.8 36.1 63 54.2 69.1

within the first trimester ofpregnancy

Births delivered in a health facility 16.7 58.4 24.7 65.1 31.1 69.4 75.1 88.7Deliveries assisted by health 25.9 66.4 33.5 73.3 39.9 75.3 78.0 90.0

personnel

Source: National Family Health Survey – 1, 2 and 3 (NFHS) India

Health status is multi-dimensional in nature. It is capturedthrough a range of indicators, such as mortality, morbidity,anthropometric measures, nutrition and life expectancy. Mortalityand life expectancy are widely used to measure health conditionsof any population. Access to and benefits from public health systemhave been uneven between better endowed and vulnerable sectionsof Indian society. Keeping this uneven access of health services inview, National Health Policy 2002 evolved a policy structure, whichreduces these inequities and allows disadvantaged section a fair accessto public health services by various measures including separateschemes and sectoral outlays. Although there is improvement in healthstatus of women but still there is substantial gap in many dimensionsof key health indicators, such as morbidity and mortality of childrenand women.

Table above shows that primary health indicators cut sorrypicture for Indian women- from antenatal care to health facilitiesand professional help during delivery is extremely low especiallyfor rural women. Situation becomes grime if other health indicators,such as malnutrition and stunted girl children are taken intoconsideration.

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Table-5. Violence against Women in IndiaType of Violence Year

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Reported violence 1,95,856 2,03,804 2,13,585 2,13,585 2,44,270 309546 337922 327394(100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100)

Reported rapes 21,467 21,397 22,172 24,206 24,923 34707 36735 34651(10.96) (10.50) (10.38) (11.33) (10.20) (11.21) (10.87) (10.58)

Reported domestic 81,344 89,546 94,041 99,135 1,06,527 118866 122877 113403violence (41.53) (43.94) (44.03) (46.41) (43.61) (38.40) (36.36) (34.64)

Reported dowry 8,172 8,383 8,391 8,618 8,233 8083 8455 7634deaths (4.17) (4.11) (3.93) (4.03) (3.37) (2.61) (2.50) (2.50)

Reported abductions 22,939 25,741 29,795 35,565 38,262 51881 57311 59277(11.71) (12.63) (13.94) (16.65) (15.66) (16.76) (16.96) (18.11)

Assaults with intent 40,413 38,711 40,613 42,968 45,351 70739 82235 82422to outrage modesty (20.63) (18.99) (19.01) (20.12) (18.57) (22.85) (24.34) (25.18)

Insults to the 12,214 11,009 9,961 8,570 9,173 12589 9735 8685modesty of women (6.23) (5.40) (4.66) (4.01) (3.76) (4.07) (2.88) (2.65)Imported girls from 67 48 36 80 59 31 13 6

foreign countries (0.03) (0.02) (0.01) (0.04) (0.02) (0.01) (0.00) (0.00)Violations of the 2,659 2,474 2,499 2,435 2,563 2579 2070 2424

Immoral Traffic Act (1.36) (1.21) (1.17) (1.14) (1.05) (0.83) (0.61) (0.74)

Note: Figures in bracket show percentageSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violence_against_women_in_India

Violence against women in India is mainly due to patriarchalhegemonic control and deep rooted gender inequality. Magnitude ofsuch violence is far wide as many expressions of violence are notconsidered crime and many go unreported because of dogmatic culturalvalues. India’s Gender Inequality Index rating is 0.524; at the bottom20 percent of ranked countries (UNDP, 2017). According to NationalCrime Records Bureau, reported incidents of crime against womenhave increased by 53.28 percent from 2011 to 2015 (Menon & Allen,2018). As per Indian Penal Code, crime against women includes rape,sexual assault, insult to modesty, persecution for dowry, dowry death,abduction, kidnapping, trafficking, domestic violence, etc. Out of allabove crime against women domestic violence is far more pervasiveand intense. 40 percent of total reported violence is in the form ofdomestic violence. The picture is much larger if one includes emotional,verbal and unreported violence as well.

Picture that emerges out of above discussion provides mixed bagof hope and despair, which may be analysed under following threedominant paradigms-

First, patriarchal hegemonic control has not eased out andautonomy paradigm for women is completely missing. Second scenariois one where their autonomy paradigm turns flexible to the extent thatrigid patriarchal values and practices have been challenged. That isnew social process which is evolving under the impact of modern forces

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are in direct conflict with traditional patriarchal institutions. Thirdscenario is unique, new and quit significant in nature. It is in thesense that autonomy paradigm of women has outshined patriarchalvalues and norms to the extent that patriarchal hegemonic controlover social institutions has been significantly weakened or erased. Itis not surprising that majority of the Indian women fall in the firstcategory. Only a small section of women who are in the process oftransition is an exception in second case. Both the categories of femalesare subsumed to market forces and consumerist culture unleashed byneo-liberal development in new millennium. On the flip side, patriarchalvalues are allowed to maintain its relative autonomy that is congenialfor capitalist circuit to expand. Third scenario constitutes a negligiblesection of womenfolk is subsumed through two ways- first, as consumerin the market, and second as labour allowing capital to accumulate atthe cost of their labour power.

However; Indian state tried to intervene in the social site throughlegislations and developmental initiatives, but such interventions werenarrow in its scope and half-hearted efforts to remove structuraldiscrimination. Social legislations like Dowry Prohibition Act, ChildMarriage Prevention Act, etc., have been more for co-option ofresentments of women rather than to elimination structuralinequalities. Through co-option state not only produces illusion butalso guards against popular resentments that might create huddlesfor capital circuit to expand. State under capitalism never dictatescapital rather it facilitates capital to restructure channels of socialsites so that the latter can continue to reproduce.

Summing-up

In conclusion paper argues that for gender sensitive egalitariansocial order there is a need for civil society engagement forcomprehensive struggles based on new social consciousness that mustseek to transform existing social system. Many studies show thatthrough new politico-economic empowerment, women are assertingcontrol over resources, discovering personal and collective power whichwas previously unimaginable (Purushothaman, 1998). This criticalmass of unified and empowered women will push forward policies thatenforce gender equality into future. It can be accomplished by meansof waging social movements, not only against patriarchy based socialinstitutions but also corporate led growth and market driven economy.World history suggests that people has changed the course of history.It is through peoples’ struggle alone that ‘participatory democracy’can be established, where ‘democracy for the people and not people forthe democracy’ will be the order.

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