Stress and HealthStress and HealthChapter 11Chapter 11

Chapter 11 MenuChapter 11 Menu• Stress• Cognitive factors in stress• Kinds of experiences causing stress• Sources of stress in everyday life • Suicide • Types of conflict• Bodily reaction to stress • Relationship between stress and the immune system• Relationship between stress and personality• Relationship between stress and social factors• Two ways to deal with stress• Psychological defense mechanisms• Meditation to relieve stress• Cultural influences on stress• How being religious helps to cope with stress• Ways to promote wellness in one’s life

• StressStress - the term used to describe the physical, emotional, - the term used to describe the physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to events that are cognitive, and behavioral responses to events that are appraised as threatening or challenging.appraised as threatening or challenging.

• StressorsStressors - events that cause a stress reaction. - events that cause a stress reaction.• DistressDistress - the effect of unpleasant and undesirable - the effect of unpleasant and undesirable

stressors.stressors.• EustressEustress - the effect of positive events, or the optimal - the effect of positive events, or the optimal

amount of stress that people need to promote health and amount of stress that people need to promote health and well-being.well-being.

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Cognitive Factors of StressCognitive Factors of Stress• Cognitive appraisal approach Cognitive appraisal approach - states that how - states that how

people think about a stressor determines, at people think about a stressor determines, at least in part, how stressful that stressor will least in part, how stressful that stressor will become.become.• Primary appraisalPrimary appraisal - the first step in - the first step in assessingassessing a a

stress, which involves estimating the severity of a stress, which involves estimating the severity of a stressor and classifying it as either a threat or a stressor and classifying it as either a threat or a challenge.challenge.

• Secondary appraisal Secondary appraisal - the second step in assessing - the second step in assessing a threat, which involves estimating the resources a threat, which involves estimating the resources available to the person for available to the person for copingcoping with the stressor. with the stressor.

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Cognitive factors in

stress

Causes of StressCauses of Stress• Catastrophe Catastrophe - an unpredictable, - an unpredictable,

large-scale event that creates a large-scale event that creates a tremendous need to adapt and tremendous need to adapt and adjust as well as overwhelming adjust as well as overwhelming feelings of threat.feelings of threat.• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

(PTSD) (PTSD) - a disorder resulting from - a disorder resulting from exposure to a major stressor, with exposure to a major stressor, with symptoms of anxiety, nightmares, symptoms of anxiety, nightmares, poor sleep, reliving the event, and poor sleep, reliving the event, and concentration problems, lasting for concentration problems, lasting for more than one month.more than one month.

Kinds of experiences causing stress

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Causes of StressCauses of Stress• Major Life Events Major Life Events - cause stress by requiring - cause stress by requiring

adjustment.adjustment.

• Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) - assessment - assessment that measures the amount of stress in a person’s life over that measures the amount of stress in a person’s life over a one-year period resulting from major life events.a one-year period resulting from major life events.

• College Undergraduate Stress Scale (CUSS) - College Undergraduate Stress Scale (CUSS) - assessment that measures the amount of stress in a assessment that measures the amount of stress in a college student’s life over a one-year period resulting college student’s life over a one-year period resulting from major life events.from major life events.

• HasslesHassles - the daily annoyances of everyday life. - the daily annoyances of everyday life.

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Kinds of experiences causing stress

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Kinds of experiences causing stress

Everyday Sources of StressEveryday Sources of Stress• PressurePressure - the psychological experience produced by - the psychological experience produced by

urgent demands or expectations for a person’s urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behavior that come from an outside source.behavior that come from an outside source.

• UncontrollabilityUncontrollability - the degree of control that the - the degree of control that the person has over a particular event or situation. The person has over a particular event or situation. The less control a person has, the greater the degree of less control a person has, the greater the degree of stress.stress.

• FrustrationFrustration - the psychological experience produced - the psychological experience produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need.perceived need.

• ConflictConflict - psychological experience of being pulled - psychological experience of being pulled toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, only toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, only one of which may be attained.one of which may be attained.

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Everyday Sources of StressEveryday Sources of Stress• PressurePressure - the psychological experience - the psychological experience

produced by urgent demands or expectations produced by urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behavior that come from an for a person’s behavior that come from an outside source.outside source.

• UncontrollabilityUncontrollability - the degree of control that - the degree of control that the person has over a particular event or the person has over a particular event or situation. The less control a person has, the situation. The less control a person has, the greater the degree of stress.greater the degree of stress.

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Everyday Sources of Stress• FrustrationFrustration - the psychological experience - the psychological experience

produced by the blocking of a desired goal or produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need. Possible reactions:fulfillment of a perceived need. Possible reactions:• AggressionAggression - actions meant to harm or destroy. - actions meant to harm or destroy.• Displaced aggression Displaced aggression – taking out one’s frustrations on – taking out one’s frustrations on

some less threatening or more available target, a form of some less threatening or more available target, a form of displacement.displacement.

• Escape or withdrawal Escape or withdrawal - leaving the presence of a - leaving the presence of a stressor, either literally or by a psychological withdrawal stressor, either literally or by a psychological withdrawal into fantasy, drug abuse, or apathy.into fantasy, drug abuse, or apathy.

• Conflict Conflict - psychological experience of being pulled - psychological experience of being pulled toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, only one of which may be attained.only one of which may be attained.

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SuicideSuicide• Suicidal behavior is highly linked to Suicidal behavior is highly linked to

depression.depression.

• People who talk about suicide should be People who talk about suicide should be taken seriously and need help.taken seriously and need help.

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Types of ConflictTypes of Conflict

• Approach–approach conflict Approach–approach conflict – conflict occurring when – conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable goals.a person must choose between two desirable goals.

• Avoidance–avoidance conflict Avoidance–avoidance conflict - conflict occurring - conflict occurring when a person must choose between two when a person must choose between two undesirable goals.undesirable goals.

• Approach–avoidance conflict Approach–avoidance conflict - conflict occurring - conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects.that has both positive and negative aspects.• Double approach–avoidance conflict Double approach–avoidance conflict - conflict in which the - conflict in which the

person must decide between two goals, with each goal person must decide between two goals, with each goal possessing both positive and negative aspects.possessing both positive and negative aspects.

• Multiple approach–avoidance conflict Multiple approach–avoidance conflict - conflict in which the - conflict in which the person must decide between more than two goals, with person must decide between more than two goals, with each goal possessing both positive and negative aspects.each goal possessing both positive and negative aspects.

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Types of conflict

Bodily Reactions to StressBodily Reactions to Stress

• Autonomic nervous system Autonomic nervous system consists of:consists of:• Sympathetic system Sympathetic system - responds to stressful events- responds to stressful events• Parasympathetic system Parasympathetic system - restores the body to - restores the body to

normal functioning after the stress has ceased.normal functioning after the stress has ceased.

• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - the - the three stages of the body’s physiological three stages of the body’s physiological reaction to stress, including alarm, resistance, reaction to stress, including alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. and exhaustion.

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Bodily reactions to stress

Stress & the Immune SystemStress & the Immune System• Immune system Immune system - the system of cells, organs, and - the system of cells, organs, and

chemicals of the body that responds to attacks chemicals of the body that responds to attacks from diseases, infections, and injuries.from diseases, infections, and injuries.• Negatively affected by stress.Negatively affected by stress.

• PsychoneuroimmunologPsychoneuroimmunologyy - the study of the effects - the study of the effects of psychological factors such as stress, emotions, of psychological factors such as stress, emotions, thoughts, and behavior on the immune system.thoughts, and behavior on the immune system.

• Natural killer cell Natural killer cell - immune system cell responsible - immune system cell responsible for suppressing viruses and destroying for suppressing viruses and destroying tumor cells.

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Relationship between stress and the immune systemRelationship between stress and the immune system

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Relationship between stress and the immune systemRelationship between stress and the immune system

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Relationship between stress and the immune systemRelationship between stress and the immune system

Stress & PersonalityStress & Personality• Type A personality Type A personality - person who is ambitious, time - person who is ambitious, time

conscious, extremely hardworking, and tends to have high conscious, extremely hardworking, and tends to have high levels of hostility and anger as well as being easily levels of hostility and anger as well as being easily annoyed.annoyed.

• Type B personality Type B personality - person who is relaxed and laid-back, - person who is relaxed and laid-back, less driven and competitive than Type A, and slow to angless driven and competitive than Type A, and slow to anger.er.

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Stress and PersonalityStress and Personality• Type C personality Type C personality - pleasant but repressed - pleasant but repressed

person, who tends to internalize his or her person, who tends to internalize his or her anger and anxiety and who finds expressing anger and anxiety and who finds expressing emotions difficult.emotions difficult.

• Hardy personality Hardy personality - a person who seems to - a person who seems to thrive on stress but lacks the anger and thrive on stress but lacks the anger and hostility of the Type A personality.hostility of the Type A personality.

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Relationship between stress and personalityRelationship between stress and personality

Stress and PersonalityStress and Personality• OptimistsOptimists - people who expect positive - people who expect positive

outcomes.outcomes.

• PessimistsPessimists - people who expect - people who expect negative outcomes.negative outcomes.

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Stress and Social FactorsStress and Social Factors• Social factors increasing the effects of Social factors increasing the effects of

stress include poverty, stresses on the stress include poverty, stresses on the job or in the workplace, and entering a job or in the workplace, and entering a majority culture that is different from majority culture that is different from one’s culture of originone’s culture of origin

• BurnoutBurnout - negative changes in thoughts, - negative changes in thoughts, emotions, and behavior as a result of emotions, and behavior as a result of prolonged stress or frustration.prolonged stress or frustration.

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Stress and Social FactorsStress and Social Factors• Acculturative stressAcculturative stress - stress resulting from the need to - stress resulting from the need to

change and adapt a person’s ways to the majority change and adapt a person’s ways to the majority culture.culture.

• Four Methods of AcculturationFour Methods of Acculturation::• IntegrationIntegration• AssimilationAssimilation• SeparationSeparation• MarginalizationMarginalization

• Social support system Social support system - the network of family, friends, - the network of family, friends, neighbors, coworkers, and others who can offer support, neighbors, coworkers, and others who can offer support, comfort, or aid to a person in need.comfort, or aid to a person in need.

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Ways to Deal with StressWays to Deal with Stress• Coping strategies - actions that people - actions that people

can take to master, tolerate, reduce, or can take to master, tolerate, reduce, or minimize the effects of stressors.minimize the effects of stressors.• Problem-focused copingProblem-focused coping- coping strategies - coping strategies

that try to eliminate the source of a stress that try to eliminate the source of a stress or reduce its impact through direct actions.or reduce its impact through direct actions.

• Emotion-focused coping Emotion-focused coping - coping strategies - coping strategies that change the impact of a stressor by that change the impact of a stressor by changing the emotional reaction to the changing the emotional reaction to the stressor.stressor.

Two ways to deal with stress

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Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms• Psychological defense mechanisms Psychological defense mechanisms - -

unconscious distortions of a person’s unconscious distortions of a person’s perception of reality that reduce stress and perception of reality that reduce stress and anxiety.anxiety.

• DenialDenial - psychological defense mechanism in - psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to acknowledge or which the person refuses to acknowledge or recognize a threatening situation.recognize a threatening situation.

• RepressionRepression - psychological defense - psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to mechanism in which the person refuses to consciously remember a threatening or consciously remember a threatening or unacceptable event, instead pushing those unacceptable event, instead pushing those events into the unconscious mind.events into the unconscious mind.

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Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms• RationalizationRationalization - psychological defense - psychological defense

mechanism in which a person invents mechanism in which a person invents acceptable excuses for unacceptable acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior.behavior.

• ProjectionProjection - psychological defense - psychological defense mechanism in which unacceptable or mechanism in which unacceptable or threatening impulses or feelings are threatening impulses or feelings are seen as originating with someone else, seen as originating with someone else, usually the target of the impulses or usually the target of the impulses or feelings.feelings.

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Defense Mechanisms• Reaction formation Reaction formation - psychological defense - psychological defense

mechanism in which a person forms an mechanism in which a person forms an opposite emotional or behavioral reaction to opposite emotional or behavioral reaction to the way he or she really feels to keep those the way he or she really feels to keep those true feelings hidden from self and others.true feelings hidden from self and others.

• DisplacementDisplacement - redirecting feelings from a - redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a less threatening one. threatening target to a less threatening one.

• Regression Regression - psychological defense - psychological defense mechanism in which a person falls back on mechanism in which a person falls back on childlike patterns of responding in reaction to childlike patterns of responding in reaction to stressful situations.stressful situations.

Psychological defense mechanismsPsychological defense mechanisms

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Psychological Defense MechanismsPsychological Defense Mechanisms

• IdentificationIdentification - defense mechanism in which a - defense mechanism in which a person tries to become like someone else to person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety.deal with anxiety.

• Compensation (substitutionCompensation (substitution)) - defense - defense mechanism in which a person makes up for mechanism in which a person makes up for inferiorities in one area by becoming superior in inferiorities in one area by becoming superior in another area.another area.

• SublimationSublimation - channeling socially unacceptable - channeling socially unacceptable impulses and urges into socially acceptable impulses and urges into socially acceptable behavior.behavior.

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Psychological defense mechanisms

MeditationMeditation• MeditationMeditation - mental series of exercises - mental series of exercises

meant to refocus attention and achieve a meant to refocus attention and achieve a trancelike state of consciousness.trancelike state of consciousness.

• Concentrative meditationConcentrative meditation - form of meditation - form of meditation in which a person focuses the mind on some in which a person focuses the mind on some repetitive or unchanging stimulus so that the repetitive or unchanging stimulus so that the mind can be cleared of disturbing thoughts mind can be cleared of disturbing thoughts and the body can experience relaxation.and the body can experience relaxation.

• Receptive meditation Receptive meditation - form of meditation in - form of meditation in which a person attempts to become aware of which a person attempts to become aware of everything in immediate conscious everything in immediate conscious experience, or an expansion of experience, or an expansion of consciousness.consciousness.

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Meditation to relieve stressMeditation to relieve stress

Cultural Influences on StressCultural Influences on Stress• Different cultures perceive stressors Different cultures perceive stressors

differently. differently.

• Coping strategies will also vary from Coping strategies will also vary from culture to culture.culture to culture.

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Religiosity and StressReligiosity and Stress• People with religious beliefs also have People with religious beliefs also have

been found to cope better with stressful been found to cope better with stressful events.events.

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Factors Promoting WellnessFactors Promoting Wellness• ExerciseExercise

• Social activitiesSocial activities

• Getting enough sleepGetting enough sleep

• Eating healthy foodsEating healthy foods

• Having funHaving fun

• Managing one’s timeManaging one’s time

• Practicing good coping skillsPracticing good coping skills

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The EndThe End