ssignment 1 – Interpretation of the Selected Fables Web view18Assignment 1 – Interpretation of the Selected Fables. 18. ... and the effects that that action has on the word

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Assignment 1 – Interpretation of the Selected Fables

Assignment 1 – Interpretation of Fables

3014VTA – Values and Ethics

Submitted by: David Martin

Student #2636349

[email protected]

Date Submitted: 13 September 2007

David Martin Student #2636349 3014VTA – Values and Ethics

mailto:[email protected]

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Fable 1: The Fable of Education as a Commodity

Egoism is the ethical perspective of self interest; it can be seen as making decisions that work

towards one’s own interests (Regis, 1980, p. 52). Further, while it is a descriptive theory of

human motivation, egoism does not say if these motivations are good or bad in an ethical sense

(Sober, 2000, p. 129). Subjectivism is the perspective of viewing ethical standpoints as a

reflection of what the holder approves of (Mackie, 1990, p. 17). These two perspectives will be

used to interpret the fable of Education as a Commodity.

An ethical egoist would not “sacrifice is own good for the good of others” (Regis, 1980), but

would see the value of volunteer work in the fable as being enriching both to them (the

volunteer) and to those with whom they are working. Further, doing volunteer work purely for

altruistic reasons is untenable to many egoists, altruism is seen as being used to mask actions of

self-interest (MacIntyre, 1967). Even if the true nature of the volunteers is altruistic,

subjectivism would disallow egoism theorists to acknowledge these actions as anything other

than egotistical in nature as shown in the fable with Deidre’s concern that volunteering is just a

means to other (individual) needs.

Universal egoism claims that each person should always and only act in his own interest (Regis,

1980, p. 53), which would take quite a poor view of volunteer work; unless, as our fable states

the volunteering ‘is used as a pathway (back) into paid employment or to better paid

employment’. Further evidence of self-interest in the fable is the tendency for people to be


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protective of their own skills and knowledge, not wanting others to gain the upper hand in the

employment market.

Deidre’s observations are very subjective; she repeatedly states her viewpoint along with her

emotions and personal thoughts. Deidre is even contradictive, she herself feeling so honoured

to be involved in the volunteer industry yet, at the same time being paid a wage. Further

evidence of subjectivism can be interpreted in her view that the extent of volunteer work being

performed is surely a good thing, even though she has concerns about what the motivation of

volunteers is becoming. These concerns are subjective; even if they are considered true they

are not objective (Mackie, 1990, p. 22).

Egoism is valid and evident in this fable, and while the reasons for volunteering are different for

each person, they do fill a need in our community in a positive way. Therefore a criticism of

egoism is that it fails to take account of moral value in a consistent way (Regis, 1980, p. 55). In

the fable, the value of the work done cannot always be measured for the reason it was done,

but is measured by the final outcome. Further, the very altruistic nature of volunteering gives

light to the contradiction of egoism, which should not be seen as an all encompassing

explanation of human actions and thought, but must be taken as part of a pluralistic view on

ethics and morals.

Egoism and subjectivism have been highlighted in this fable in various ways, positive and

negative in connotation and consequence. Firstly, Deidre’s subjective viewpoint is typical of

human nature, and secondly, while it has been suggested humans (and nature itself) is wired in


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an egotistical way, the volunteers in the fable do provide a valuable and needed community

service, many for altruistic reasons.


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Fable 2: The Fable of the Educational Contract

Deontology is an ethic that argues actions as being virtuous by way of a universal moral law,

which we should all abide by regardless of the consequences. Further, it is a complex ethic

based on Kantian ideas of respect and duty, where emotions and inclinations should not be

trusted as motivation for action. Rather, actions should be motivated by duties which we have

imposed upon ourselves. Treating people as ends in themselves rather than an ends to a mean

is also an important concept in the sometimes criticised ethic of Deontology.

Deontology is an example of a non-consequential ethic; followers of this ethic would not be

concerned with the final outcome of Anatoly’s decisions, only the way that the decisions were

made (LaFollette, 2000, p. 412). Further, moral decisions should be made rationally, without

real concern for the final outcome, concentrating instead on whether the decision was made on

the correct moral ground and processes. Deontology has one overriding rule (The Categorical

Imperative) on judging a decision morally good or bad; the decision or act being performed

needs to be able to apply universally. Therefore a good moral decision is one that you would

be happy for everyone to make (Preston, 1996, p. 47).

Anatoly is being guided by external duties and self gain, rather than the deontologist view of

respect for others. The conflict he has within himself shows that he is aware of his true ethical

responsibility but finds himself changing his ethic to become accountable (Hill, 2000, p. 239).

Opponents of deontology argue that there are always external factors that will challenge us to

act morally in the Kantian sense.


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Respect is another key and often debated term associated with deontology. Anatoly is

someone who seems to be respected in one way; his employers are giving him positive

feedback on his work and Anatoly will be getting a renewed contract. This can be interpreted

as a form of appraisal respect (Darwall, 1977, p. 39) based on his apparent character and ability

to achieve measurably good results. However respecting others is to treat them as an end in

themselves rather than a means to an end (Darwall, 1977, p. 36) and Anatoly is struggling to

treat the farmers with the respect he knows they should be receiving.

This fable shows the complexity and various interpretations and difficulties with Kantian ethics,

non-consequential and deontology. The very terms respect and duty have so many contextual

meanings that seem impossible for even ethic experts to agree and utilise these ethical

perspectives in everyday life (Hallgarth, 1996, p. 610). A further paradox of deontology is that

Anatoly could be found innocent of any wrong doing and responsibility as factors out of his

control are forcing decision that can be likened to bad moral luck (Nagel, 1998).

Deontology is an ethic dealing with non-consequencialistic ideas of duty and respect where

decisions should be based on rationality rather than emotions. Deontology also judges these

decisions by attempting to universally apply them. Deontology is also a much debated ethic

and has multiple interpretations.


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Fable 3: The Fable of Accountability

Consequentialism is an ethic which considers the value of actions as morally right if those

actions produce good results (Hallgarth, 1996, p. 610). Further, utilitarian principles determine

the rightness of an action by observation, using scientific methods and without intuitions

(Brandt, 1992, p. 113). Rule utilitarianism views that the value of an action is fixed by having a

relevant moral rule behind the decision or action; in contrast, act utilitarianism values the

rightness of a single act and the effects that that action has on the word (Brandt, 1992, p. 114).

The Gravy Train is a highly successful and an ethically sound situation for a consequencialist.

By all empirical measures there is great satisfaction from a large number of people. The fable

shows that while the faculty teachers are in a demanding situation, and Peter has reservations

about withholding individual freedom and excellence, the overall happiness generated by the

program far outweighs the negatives (or pain) and therefore is a good ethical decision (Mill,

1897, p. 1). However these reservations form a criticism of utilitarianism, that exceptions to the

rules (in this case the teacher’s innovation and curriculum freedom) are lost, and that this loss

is acceptable “providing the pay-off in utility was high enough” (Scarre, 1996, p. 122). Further,

while the fable has the short-term positive effect on the majority, the loss of excellence and

innovation in the teaching environment may have a higher negative decision over a longer

term, rendering the program with a bad ethical result. Another criticism of consequentialism is

that it is impossible to predict all of the effects, especially long term effects, of actions and

decisions, therefore making consequentialism an invalid tool of measurement (Preston, 1996,

p. 42).


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There is some debate over the description of happiness or pleasure used in consequentialism;

and while it can be defined as “intended pleasure, and the absence of pain” (Mill, 1897, p. 1),

happiness and pleasure are words that have such wide ranging definitions that

misinterpretations are common, but a preference would be unquestionably given to actions

that are employing our higher faculties (Mill, 1897, p. 2), as is the case in the fable. Further, the

effect ‘good’ has also been described as an indefinable quality that defies measurement or

graduation (Hallgarth, 1996, p. 614). Therefore the very measurements that attempt to make

utilitarianism a universal ethic are in doubt.

Utilitarianism is a consequential ethic based on the observations of the results, especially in

relation to the happiness that is generated by the action or decision being made. There are

several ethical variations and there are also criticisms of utilitarianism, including the ambiguity

of the term happiness and whether happiness is something that can actually be measured.


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Fable 4: The Fable of the Educational Requirement

Humans are rational, the decisions we make, whether morally wrong or right are based on

thought and reason. This is the basis of moral rationalism, which can be used as an approach to

ethical decision making. Desires and emotions are seen not as impediments to reason, but as

drivers that cause reason and rationalism to be used in ethical decision making. Commitments

and self-held beliefs are also used to reason out ethical decisions.

Yanita’s actions certainly appear to be done in a rational way; she is fully aware of her

commitments to her profession and her own beliefs (Benn, 1986, p. 39) and at the time of the

decision does not appear to have been swayed emotionally. Further, her actions are done with

clearly stated purpose and without hesitation (Solomon, 1993, p. 30). Another requirement of

rationalism is “abstraction, reflection and the need to justify one’s course of action” (Solomon,

1993, p. 30) which happens in the case of Yanita, who examines the courses available, reflects

on her own needs and abilities as well as the requirements of her re-registration; then

questions the motives of both the registration system and her own possible decisions. The

sanctioned education rules of the re-registration process have come into conflict with Yanita’s

self-anchored reasons; with the conflict between the two demonstrating behaviour that is

contrary to Yanita’s general moral behaviour (Baier, 1998, p. 69). Further, she has recognised

the need for self financial planning, reasons that she is already up to date with her professional

education requirements and that the rules are meant for new recruits rather than experienced

staff. Improvements to the system in light of Yanita’s rational dilemma could include increasing


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the value of teaching subjects against being a student, or reducing the educational

requirements as experience increases.

This is an example of a rational egoist, being able to do what she has reason to think has the

weight of practical reasoning behind it (Baier, 1998, p. 70). A reason can been defined as

something that relates to what a person wants or desires (Benn, 1986, p. 22) and in Yanita’s

case this is the desire to learn a topic of personal interest. However as time passes Yanita is

becoming convinced that her decision may have been unethical, illustrating that her decision

may have been reasoned on falsely based emotion, and she is now able to “perceive the

falsehood” (Hume, 1998, p. 66) of the falsification of her CPE record.

Moral reasoning and rationalism are evident in decision making in the fable and is an ethic that

can be used to rank actions according to importance of current situations. Humans are seen as

rational beings and this ethic demonstrates how ethics and rational thought work together.


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Fable 5: The Fable of Vocation

Communitarianism is an ethic that has is based on society and the connections made between

individual in society. Further, communitarianism rejects authoritarianism and raises concerns

about market individualism and their negative effects on communities (Tam, 1998, p. 3).

Further, it claims that the state and the market are not enough to increase the quality of life

(Arthur, 2000, p. 8). However communitarianism is criticised for vague definitions of the term

community (Okin, 1999, p. 66).

In the fable the government is seen to be taking a more authoritarian role with the restriction

of funding based on government imposed adjustments to the educational requirements and

outcomes of the Learning Centre. Further, the outcomes are based on the continuing push to

liberalise education in a way that focuses on people’s economic value in the workplace, rather

than people’s intrinsic value in the community. Therefore the current happenings in the fable

are at odds with the values of communitarianism, with Fatima wondering if “the trade-off

between economic prosperity and community neglect has become untenable” (Tam, 1998, p.

4). The concerns of communitarianism are evident in that those in control of the economic

resources are forcing conformity through the threat of withdrawing those resources (Tam,

1998, p. 3).

The Learning Centre has a number of positives according to the views of Communitarianism.

Firstly, the initial aims of the centre as a community educator and secondly, the centre is

designed to be run in a participative way. Thirdly, the learning outcomes are not just about


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work, but about self-confidence, self-esteem and other less vocationally oriented skills which

communitarianism encourages, education has a responsibility for character formation of

students (Tam, 1998, p. 9). However, the fable also shows that in reality the Centre is ruled

authoritarian style by Fatima, with the committee only operating in an advisory and monitoring

role, which would be in conflict with communitarianism.

Communitarianism conflicts with and criticises liberalism by claiming that while liberals have

the right and freedom to choose; the criteria used to make decisions are based on egotistical

ideas and personal risk minimisation (Walzer, 1995, p. 55). It is also thought that western

society has lost social solidarity and the concepts of what is good and worthwhile (Walzer,

1995, p. 8). However, communitarianism does not seek to replace these ideas, but can be used

to create a “framework which mixes varying degrees of individualist and authoritarian

practices” (Tam, 1998, p. 29).

In the fable the Centre is dependant for its funding on political ideas that ministers want to

inflict on the general public. This is an example of government control being masked by

organisations that appear to be community based and led (Mowbray, 2005, p. 257). This type of

organisation is at risk of becoming totally government dominated, therefore no longer being

community driven (Mowbray, 2005, p. 263). A further negative effect is that the Centre is being

forced away from being a community driven organisation into one that needs to be market

responsive. This is shown in the centre being unable to offer non-vocational courses at an

affordable cost for most participants.


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Communitarianism can be used in the field of politics to change the focus of policy and decision

making towards inclusive citizenship. It is a recently developed ethic that has grown in

opposition to modern liberalisation and an individualistic society.


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Fable 6: The Fable of the Educational Partisan

Post modernism is based on the deconstruction of previously held and used ethical principals.

Further, it states that morals are “grounded in particular contexts” (Bagnall, Moral Education in

a Postmodern Word: Continuing Professional Education, 1998, p. 314) and moves away from

universalistic rules that have been used to govern our moral behaviour and replaces them, with

situationalism seen as the true moral response (Bagnall, 1998, p. 322).

The use of language and truth (or lack of) in the fable highlights the postmodernism view of

language creating the world; “anything could me made to look good or bad, important or

unimportant, useful or useless, by being redescribed” (Rorty cited in Linn, 1996, p. 36). The

government has clearly changed the value and importance of the academics by using mass

media to redescribe their actions and motivations.

The advertising campaign undertaken by the government also highlights the postmodernistic

concept of human perception being unable to separate matters of fact from values (Bagnall,

1995, p. 81). The general public where able to be confused about the self-interest of the

educators when the advertising used values rather than facts to promote the government’s

ideals. Further, postmodern representation of knowledge is determined by conversation,

assertion is done by people around us, as Rorty says (1994 as cited in Linn, 1996, p. 31) “there is

nothing to objectivity except intersubjectivity.” This is highlighted in the fable in a number of

ways. Firstly in the one sided mass media advertising, the knowledge collected by the public

was very subjective. Secondly, the interested parties working together to create the new


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framework are an example of intersubjectivity. However the new education framework seems

very rule heavy, and therefore can be criticised as eroding the moral value of the educational

system by replacing them with a structured, but shallow framework. Further, postmodernism

states that rule following does not respect, nor is it sensitive to traditions and interests of

others (Bagnall, 1998, p. 315).

Another postmodern point would view Lucien’s work in the fable is a positive move for the unemployed

and unskilled. The government’s reforms have focused on a specific political campaign and practical

action (Linn, 1996, p. 42).

While Lucien appears almost repentant at the end of the fable, a postmodernist would not be able to lay

blame on the cause and effects of his actions because the truth cannot be discovered about causal

relationships (Linn, 1996, p. 32). This demonstrates consequential ethics argument that this

postmodernist view allows bad moral decisions to be made without concern for others and the results of

our actions.

Postmodernism challenging of traditional ethics is a shift in the critical analyses of how we use language,

codes, and rules to make moral decisions. It poses the questions of requiring moral restrictions, which

only restrict or own ability to use moral sense in any situation that occurs.


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Critical Self-Assessment

In all my assignment work, the first step is to create an effective layout or template for the

assignment, including formatting, headings and basic content structure. After unpacking the

question I went through the readings and other sources, and in the earlier fables made concept

maps of each ethic. Using the key points and I then answered the suggested questions posed

within the assignment, referring the key points as much as possible. The next step was to

confirm my arguments using referencing, this means going back through the readings and

additional sources, to confirm the content of the assignment.

I found that I was normally around 60-150 word short for each ethic after each week. I then let

the interpretations sit and then go back to them, normally after starting the next week’s fable.

As so many of the ethical perspectives cross over or are in conflict with each other, I see this

process as valuable in getting a fuller idea about each perspective.

Ethics and morals are intriguing subjects, a real insight into human behaviour and the why of

many of our own actions. This assignment has allowed me to analyse my own belief system,

and while it hasn’t changed too many of my day to day actions it has given me insights into how

to be more culturally aware and take notice of social circumstances in which a light touch is

required.

I am happy with my approach to assignment writing at the moment, though this is part of my

first batch of assignments, and while there is a certain amount of trepidation waiting for the

results, feedback will be essential to making any changes in the process.


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References

Arthur, J. (2000). Schools and Community: The Communitarian Agenda in Education. London:

RoutledgeFalmer.

Bagnall, R. G. (1995). Discriminative Justice and Responsibility in Postmodernist Adult

Education. Adult Education Quarterly , 2 (45), 79-94.

Bagnall, R. G. (1998). Moral Education in a Postmodern Word: Continuing Professional

Education. Journal of Moral Education , 3 (27), 313-331.

Baier, K. (1998). The Rational and the Moral Order. In J. P. Sterba (Ed.), Ethics: The Big Questions

(pp. 69-83). Oxford: Blackwell.

Benn, S. I. (1986). Practical Rationality and Commitment. In A Theory of Freedom (pp. 22-42).

Cambridge University Press.

Brandt, R. B. (1992). Morality, utilitarianism and rights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Darwall, S. (1977). Two Kinds of Respect. Ethics , 88 (1), 36-49.

Hallgarth, M. W. (1996). Consequentialism and deontology. In R. S. Chadwick, Encyclopedia of

applied ethics (pp. 609-621). San Diego: Academic Press.

Hill, T. E. (2000). Kantanism. In H. LaFollette (Ed.), The Blackwell guide to ethical theory (pp. 227-

246). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.


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Hume, D. (1998). On Reasons and the Emotions. In J. P. Sterba (Ed.), Ethics: the Big Questions

(pp. 65-68). Oxford: Blackwell.

LaFollette, H. (2000). Pragmatic Ethics. In H. LaFollette (Ed.), The Blackwell guide to ethical

theory (pp. 400-419). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Linn, R. (1996). Richard Rorty's Postmodern Synthesis. In R. Linn, A Teacher's Introduction to

Postmodernism (pp. 28-48). Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English.

MacIntyre, A. (1967). Egoism and Altruism. In P. Edwards (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

New York: Macmillan.

Mackie, J. L. (1990). Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. London: Penguin.

Mill, J. S. (1897). Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill. Retrieved from

http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/m/mill/john_stuart/m645u/

Mowbray, M. (2005). Community capacity building or state opportunism? Community

Development Journal , 3 (40), 255-264.

Nagel, T. (1998). Moral Luck. In L. P. Pojman (Ed.), Ethical Theory: Classical and Contemporary

Readings, Third Edition (pp. 352-359). Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Okin, S. M. (1999). Femenism and multiculturalism: some tensions. In D. Anvon, & A. De-Shalit

(Eds.). London: Routledge.

Preston, N. (1996). Ethical theory: an overview. In Leigchhardt, Understanding ethics (pp. 39-

66). NSW: Federation Press.


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Regis, E. J. (1980). What is Ethical Egoism? Ethics Vol 91 , 50-62.

Scarre, G. (1996). The Problems of Philosophy: Utilitarianism. London: Routledge.

Scheffler, S. (1982). The Project and its Motivation. In S. Scheffler, The Rejection of

Consequentialism: A philosophical investigation of the considerations underlying rival

moral conceptions (pp. 1-13).

Sober, E. (2000). Psychological Egoism. In H. LaFollette (Ed.), The Blackwell guide to ethical

theory (pp. 129-148). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Solomon, R. C. (1993). Acting for Reasons: Two Kinds of Theories. In Ethics: A Short Introduction

(pp. 29-33). Brown and Benchmark.

Tam, H. (1998). What is Communitarianism? In H. Tam, Communitarianism: A New Agenda for

Politics and Citizenship (pp. 1-30). New York: New York University Press.

Walzer, M. (1995). The Communitarian Critique of Liberalism. In A. Etzioini (Ed.), New

Communitarian Thinking: Persons, Virtues, Institutions and Communitites (pp. 52-70).

Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.


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ssignment 1 – Interpretation of the Selected Fables Web view18Assignment 1 – Interpretation of the Selected Fables. 18. ... and the effects that that action has on the word