Sample Copy. Not For Distribution.terminologies, formations, aims & objectives, Chin Hills Charter of demands, movement of Mizo National Front (MNF) and Mizoram Accord of 1972 & 1986

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Ethnicity and Insurgency

in Myanmar/Burma:

A Comparative Study of the Kuki-Chin

and Karen Insurgencies

i


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Ethnicity and Insurgency

in Myanmar /Burma:

A Comparative Study of the Kuki-Chin

and Karen Insurgencies

________________________________________________________________________

TS Letkhosei Haokip

EDUCREATION PUBLISHING (Since 2011)

www.educreation.in

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a great privilege and academic accomplishment for me to bring out this

research book entitled, “Ethnicity and Insurgency in Myanmar: A Comparative Study

of the Kuki-Chin and Karen Insurgencies’. It takes me complete 15 years (2002-

2017) with 2/3 years gap in between on account of ill health on one hand and

complexity & vastness of the topic on the other, to bring it to this form finally, after undergoing and overcoming myriads of obstacles and hindrances. My first and

foremost acknowledgement goes to the Almighty God for His benevolence that

enables me to complete this research work.

Secondly, I am really indebted to Prof. K. Ibo Singh, the then Head of

Department of Political Science, Manipur University, who had accepted me to carry

out the research work on the above stated topic in Manipur University (2003-2009),

which we could not complete on account of my ill health in the beginning and my

supervisor’s bad health at the later.

Thirdly, my special thanks and heartfelt gratitude goes to Prof. Werner Menski,

Head of Department of South Asian Studies, University of London, and editor of

‘Sage International Publication’, South Asian Studies (SAR), who repeatedly

requested and encouraged me to continue my research work via e-mail and phone

calls while I was in full frustration, losing all hopes academically.

My best compliment goes to all revolutionary leaders of Kuki-Chins and Karen

insurgent organisations of India and Myanmar/Burma for extending me full support

and co-operation in my tiresome but interesting research work. My sincere thanks go

to all persons concerned who spared their valuable time and permitted me to

conduct face-to-face interviews.

I am indebted to all friends and relatives who had supported me in my tireless pursuit to complete this research work. I am also really grateful to Dr (Mrs) Ritesh

Mishra, Associate Professor, OPJS University and Dr. Th. Siamkhum, Associate

Professor, Head of Department of Political Science, Churachandpur College,

Churachandpur & Visiting Professor, OPJS University, Churu, Rajasthan that this

pending research work of Manipur University (MU), Manipur is carried out for the

second time in OPJS University, Rajasthan (2014-2017), under their able ‘Supervision & Guideship’. Their undaunted support and tireless struggle played a

great role in accomplishing this research work.

Last but not the least, I am really thankful and obliged to ‘Educreation

Publishing’, New Delhi, Support Team: 1800-313-9192 for sponsoring this publication by taking all the responsibility and pain to bring out this publication. May God bless Educreation Publishing? Dated: Churachandpur, Manipur TS Letkhosei Haokip The 5th May 2018 Author/ Researcher

___________________________________________________________________ E-mail: [email protected]

iv


DEDICATION

Miss (L) Nemneilhing Mr. (L) Brandy@SL Zangboi Mr.(L) Khamliankhup@Lawmkhup.

I, the undersigned Author of the book entitled, “ETHNICITY AND

INSURGENCY IN MYANMAR/ BURMA: A Comparative Study of the Kuki- Chin and Karen Insurgencies”, hereby dedicated my book to, and for

profound remembrance of; 1. ~ My most beloved sister (Late) Miss Nemneilhing@ Nemnei Haokip,

28 Yrs (1971-1999) who have departed from this world on the 31st January

1999 for her Heavenly Abode. 2. ~ My most intimate Social Reformist Comrade (Late) Mr. Brandy@ SL

Zangboi Haokip, 41 Yrs. (1975-2016) Secretary, Information & Publicity, Kuki Reformation Forum (KReF) who have left this world on the 11th December 2016.

3. ~ My closest Social Comrade & Activist-cum-Reformist (Late) Mr. Lawmkhup@ Khamliankhup Lianzaw, 54 Yr.s (1964-2018) President, Kuki Inpi Manipur (KIM) who left his family, friends and community for his Heavenly Abode on the 23rd February 2018. With Best Compliments:

Yours’ Loving Bro/Friend, Sd/-

(TS Letkhosei Haokip) Author/Researcher

v


PREFACE

Burma, formerly known as the ‘Union of Burma’ now called Myanmar is the

largest country of Southeast Asia having an area of 6,76,553 sq. km. It has seven

States and seven divisions. The seven States are Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Chin, Mon,

Rakhine and Shan states. The seven divisions are Ayeyarwaddy, Bago, Magwe,

Mandalay, Sagaing, Tanintharyi, and Yangon. The country's population as per the

latest report of the Government is more than 54.3 million people. The Burmans

constitute 68 percent of the total Myanmarese population and occupy mainly the

plain areas of the country, whereas the minorities inhabit the surrounding

mountainous region of the country. The Shans are the largest ethnic group

constituting nine percent, followed by the Karens with seven percent and the

Rakhines constituting four percent of the total Myanmarese population. Buddhists

constitute about 83 percentages and the remaining 17 percent is shared by the

various indigenous tribal ethnic minorities, Indians, Chinese and Pakistanis residing

in the country.

The first chapter is the ‘Introduction’ of the thesis relating to the origin, custom

and culture, system of governance, territory, history and impact of Indian and

Burma independence upon ethnic Kuki-Chin people and genesis of their movement.

It also narrates about the Karen people of Myanmar/Burma and emergence of Karen

insurgency. The chapter also includes eruption of ethnic issues and chauvinism of

Burmese towards ethnic nationalities, Burmese economy under Ne Win and Military

Junta’s offensives upon minorities.

The second chapter deals with ‘Karen Insurgency prior to 1988’, their characteristic features, population, area of inhabitation and social & political

background. It also contains about the creation of a ‘Regional Autonomy Enquiry Commission’ established to find out the political claim of ethnic Karen nationality.

Various pressure groups from indigenous minorities, political parties and religious

group emerged, demanding restoration of democracy in Myanmar/Burma. For

maintaining more its foothold, KNU re-organized its structure into 5 main Brigades of

4-5 battalions and 3 more special forces battalion were set up to strike till the

attainment of Karen political goal. In-depth study is also made about the Karen movement and its related events and incidents in this chapter.

The third chapter is about ‘Karen Insurgency after 1988’ which includes the roots

of conflict and crisis of 1988 in Burma, post coup of 1988, emergence of new political

forces and new leaders. Detailed discussion is also made about strategic

considerations for the Karen National Union (KNU), their hopes and political

aspirations, various Youth, Women, Human Rights and Overseas organizations

having their respective bases in foreign countries, with specific responsibility set up

to work for the cause of Karen people from abroad. It also highlights the peace talks

and ceasefires between the leaderships of Burmese Military Junta and Karen / KNU

with no results, the root causes of the 1988 „Mass Uprising, the result of the Post

September Coup of 1988 and exodus of hundreds and thousands of pro-democracy

activists to neighbouring foreign countries of Thailand, India and Bangladesh.

vi


The fourth chapter substantiate about ethnic ‘Kuki-Chin Insurgency prior to

1988’ under the following key heads as historical background, origin, nomenclature

terminologies, formations, aims & objectives, Chin Hills Charter of demands,

movement of Mizo National Front (MNF) and Mizoram Accord of 1972 & 1986 and

statehood attainment in 1987 respectively. The most striking event of the era is the

emergence of various Kuki-Chin revolutionary groups. The main objective of these

revolutionary groups is ‘homeland’ movement. It is during the last part of 1980s and

early 1990s that the Chin National Front (CNF) was again revived for the cause of the Chin people in Burma, followed by mushrooming of so many Kuki revolutionary

outfits such as KNF, KNA, KLA, KRA, UKLF and factional branches of KNF. Other Kuki-

Chin revolutionary outfits worth mentioning that emerged during this period are

ZRO/ZRA, HPC and HNA etc.

The fifth chapter, ‘Kuki-Chin Insurgency after 1988’ elaborates the revolutionary

movement of ethnic Kuki-Chin people, their location, main area of operations,

member strength, structures and strategies of organisations, sources of funding and

their offensive activities. It also exhibits the pains and agonies of those Chin refugees

undergo within and outside Burma at the hands of Military Junta and outsiders. The

chapter also contains internal associations of various Kuki outfits under two

conglomerate umbrella organisations as KNO and UPF and their external links. Earlier

part of 1990s was a period of ‘Chaos and Terror’ for the Kuki people as the United

Naga Council (UNC) has served “Quit Notices to Kukis,” on 22 October 1992,

resulting to the ‘mass genocide’ of over 900 Kukis including women, children and

elderly, uprooted 350 villages and rendered 50,000 Kukis refugees in their own

ancestral land by the National Socialist Council of Nagaland, Isak-Muivah faction

(NSCN-IM), resulting to the birth of the most tragic historic event to recount in the

annals of Kuki History is the 13 September observed as “Kuki Black Day” by ethnic

Kukis around the globe. The chapter also includes the signing of an SoO, Suspension

of Operation by the Kuki outfits with GoI and GoM in 2008.

The sixth chapter, ‘Kuki-Chin Insurgency and Indian Connection’ can briefly

be analysed through the following heads as shared history, origin, blood relation,

same custom and culture, languages, related clans & sub-clans and same political

aspirations. Christianity also plays great role in bringing closer the Kuki-Chins

together. Other factors that connect Kuki-Chins of Myanmar/Burma and India are;

1). Social Contact and Social Organizations, 2). Political Parties and 3). Collaboration

among ethnic Kuki-Chin Revolutionary Outfits. Apart from the above, Suspension of

Operation (SoO) of KNO & UPF with Government of India (GoI) and Government of

Manipur (GoM) added more flavour to Kuki-Chins connection. Moreover, official

connections and relationships between India and Myanmar through i). Development

Projects, 2). Trade Feature, 3). Counter Insurgency through its’Look East Policy’ and

signing of 11 MoUs in 2017 bolstered the connection between India and Myanmar.

The seventh chapter, ‘Comparison between Karen and Kuki-Chin Insurgencies’,

clearly signifies similarities and differences between ethnic Karen and Kuki-Chin

people and their movements. It highlights the fact that both ethnic groups are

indigenous ethnic minority nationalities of Myanmar, possessing territory and

Christian by faith. It also exhibits composition of Karen and Kuki-Chin by tribes and

sub-tribes, acquiring social, political, human rights and insurgent organisations with

vii


the objectives of ‘Self Determination’ and ‘Federal States’ with equal status and

rights. It also draws clear distinction between the two ethnic groups’ differences in

terms of social system, populations, racial divisions and internal social organisations.

The last chapter, ‘Dawning of Democratic Era and India’s strategy towards

Myanmar & Northeast Insurgents’ highlights the dawning of democracy and historic

Myanmar/Burma general elections 2010 & 2015 and pro-democracy Icon Ms Aung

San Suu Kyi’s party maiden victory in both elections. It also portrays 2010 ‘People’s

Assembly’, ‘National Assembly’ and ‘Division & State Parliament’ seats and winners

and 2015 election results of ‘House of Nationalities’. House of Representatives,

State & Regional Hllutaws and ‘Ethnic Affairs Ministry’ respectively. It further

narrates world reactions of applause over Suu Kyi’s release from House Arrest and Indo-Myanmar relationships of mutual co-operation and understanding and signing

of 11 MoUs in 2017. It winds up with the findings and suggestions of the researcher

to bring amicable solution to the bone of contention between ethnic Kuki and Naga

tribals and the government of India and government of Manipur to solve the issue.

In regards to material collection of Karen insurgency, for this research thesis,

the researcher had faced various obstacles to visit Thailand (as all Karen insurgency,

KNU/KNLF leaders flee Burma) for field work among Karen insurgent troops, however

got the chance to meet and interact with David Taw, Head of Foreign Affairs

Department, Karen National Union (KNU) in 2007 at New Delhi and collected all

necessary information and data for the same. Relating to Kuki-Chin revolutionary

organisations, the Scholar/ researcher had conducted field work and visited several

times the headquarter of Chin National Front (KNF) located at Indo-Myanmar border

and the camps of various Kuki revolutionary organisations such as KNO and UPF

arm-wing UG groups. Apart from field works, there are ample literatures such as

books, journals, magazines, news papers, bulletins, documents & pamphlets written

by foreign and local writers. In this research endeavour, for the portions for which

authenticated books and documents are not available, personal interviews are

conducted with individuals who possessed wide experiences and relevant knowledge

about the subject matter. viii


Content Table

SR. NO. INDEX PAGE

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1. Origin of the Kukis 3

1.1 Kuki-Jewish Origin Theory 3

1.2 Course of Migration 4

1.3 Kuki Governance 6

1.4 Kuki Custom and Culture 6

1.5 Kuki History and Indegeneity 7

1.6 Historical Kuki Territory and Defense of Zalengam 8

1.7 Genesis of Kuki Movement 9

1.8 Kuki Preparation for War against the British 11

1.9 An Oath of Commitment Ceremony for Waging War 12

1.10 Impact of Kuki Rising 1917-1919 in Burma & 13 Lushai Hills 1.11 Kuki-British War Casualty 15

1.12 Trials and Sentences of the Kuki Chiefs& War 16 Commanders 1.13 Impact of Indian Independence on the Kukis 18

2. The Chins 20

2.1 Introduction to Chin Movement 20

2.2 Impact of Burma’s Independence on Chins 21

2.3 Chin Hills Charter of Demands 21

2.4 Chin Revolutionary & Indian Support 23

2.5 Chronology of Chin Revolutions 24

3. Root Causes of Mizo Uprising and Movement 24

4. The Karen People 25

4.1 Eruption of Ethnic Issues 26

4.2 The Burmese Chauvinism 28 4.3 Burmese Strategy towards Ethnic Nationalities 29

4.4 Myanmar/Burma Economy under Ne Win 31

4.5 Military Junta and Minorities 32

4.6 Emergence of Karen Insurgency 33

CHAPTER 2 KAREN INSURGENCY PRIOR TO 1988 36

1. Origin of the Karens 36

2. Background of Karen Movement 38 3. Formation of the Karen National Union (KNU) 39

4. The Third KNU Congress 1948 with AFPFL Govt. 39

5. Regional Autonomy Inquiry Commission 40

ix


6. The Mutiny of Karen-Kachin Rifles 41

6.1 Seizure of Insein and KNU’s Blunder 41

6.2 The Fall of Mandalay 42

7. British Commonwealth Ceasefire 1949 43

8. Proclamation of Independent Karen State 44

9. KNU Congress of 1950 & Four Principles of Karen 44 Revolution

10. Parliament’s Disposal of Karen Question 46

11. Influence of Communist Ideology in KNU’s Guerilla Warfare 46

12. Formation of Ethnic United Front (EUF) 47

13. Rise of Indigenous Minorities, Political Parties & Religious 48 groups as Pressure Group against Military Rule

14. Indigenous ethnic Insurgents Struggle for Independence 48

15. Re-organisation of Karen National Union (KNU) 49

16. Aims and Objectives of KNU 53

CHAPTER 3 KAREN INSURGENCY AFTER 1988 54

1. Administrative Divisions: Regions & States 56 2. Roots of Conflict and Crisis of 1988 & Deteriorating 58

Economy 3. Mass Protest Rally 59

4. Foreign Countries Reaction 60

5. The Coup of 18 September 1988 61

6. Post September Coup of 1988 61 7. Media Reports Shocking News 62

8. Junta’s Strategy to Flush-out Pro-democracy Activists 62

8.1 Exodus of Refugees 63

9. Propagation of Democratic Ideology 63

10. Emergence of New Leaders 64

11. Emergence of New Political Forces 65

12. Legalisation of Political Parties & Mushrooming of New 65 Parties

13. Choosing to Engage; Strategic Consideration for the Karen 66 National Union (KNU)

14. Aspiration of the Karen People & KNU 67

14.1 Karen Constitution Preamble 68

15. Karen Political Organisation: Karen National Union (KNU) 68 15.1 Other Social and Overseas Organisations 70

15.2 Karen Overseas Groups 70

16. Ceasefire between Military Junta & KNU 70

17. KNU’s Response to Military Offensives 70

18. Karen Rebels Seek Peace 71

19. Living in Fear; Karen Refugees Flee to avoid Force Re- 72 location

20. Peace Talks and Situational Aspects 74

21. Outsiders View of Karen Issue 76

22. General Election 2010 & Guerilla Chief Warns of War ahead 77 of Vote

x


23. Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA), 2015 78

23.1 The Second NCA Meeting 79

23.2 Chiang Mai Peace Talks 79

23.3 KNU and Myanmar Government Agreement 79

23.3.1 KNU/KNLA-PC Government 6-Point State-Level 80 Peace Agreement

CHAPTER 4 KUKI-CHIN INSURGENCY PRIOR TO 1988 82

1. Term Derivation 82

2. Kuki-Meitei Connection and Relationship 86

3. Present Day Manipur Kuki-Naga Relationship 88 4. Kuki-Chin-Mizo Relationship during Pre-Independence 91

British Era 5. Kuki People’s Connection between Manipur & Others 93

5.1 Manipur and Assam Kukis 93

5.2 Manipur and Meghalaya Kukis 93

5.3 Manipur and Nagaland Kukis 93

5.4 Manipur and Mizoram Lushai-Kukis 93 5.5 Manipur and Tripura Kukis 93

5.6 Manipur and Burma Kukis 94

5.7 Manipur and Bangladesh Kukis 95

5.8 Kuki Settlements in Isreal 95

6. Controversial Terminologies & Nomenclatures 97

7. Groping for Nomenclature; Elasticity of Tribes & Sub- 98 Tribes

8. Hmar Kukis Revolt/ Rising of 1959 100

9. Zomi Movements & Formation of Zomi National Congress 101 (ZNC)

10. Chin Hills Response to Zomi Movement 103

11. Zo Movement; Re-vitalization and Re-propagation of 104 ZoRO

12. Demand for Kuki State/ Kuki Homeland 105

12.1 Presidents of Kuki National Assembly (KNA), 107 1946-1995

13. Mizo Movement & Kawnpui Convention 1965 107 13.1 Allegation on Paite Community of being Spies 108

13.2 Mizo Uprising 1966 109

13.3 MNF’s Strategic Plan for Armed Uprising 110

13.4 MNF Aizawl Attack & Other Places 111

13.5 India’s Response & Airstrikes 112

13.6 Army Ground Operation & Withdrawal of MNF 112

13.7 Post Mizo Revolution 112

14. A Retrospect of Mizoram Accord 1972 113

15. Emergence of various Kuki Revolutionary Organisations 116

CHAPTER 5 KUKI-CHINS INSURGENCY AFTER 1988 120

1. Post Independent Period Kuki-Chin-Mizo Relationship 121 xi


2. NSCN-IM’s Ethnic Cleansing Operation on Kukis during 123

1990s 3. Churachandpur Crisis of 1997 125

4. Erstwhile Haokip Reserved Land 127

5. Valley-based Militants Atrocities towards Kuki People 130

6. Kuki Students Democratic Front (KDSF), Burma 131

7. Plight of Kuki People of Myanmar/ Burma 131

8. Formation of KNO/KNA 133

8.1 Funding 134

8.2 Leadership 134

8.3 Objectives 134 8.4 Structure 135

8.5 Strength 136

8.6 Strategy 136

8.7 Territory 136

8.8 External Link 137

8.9 Internal Associations 137

8.9.1 United People’s Front (UPF) 138

8.10 Suspension of Operation (SoO) with GoI 141

8.11 Stipends and Designated Camps 142 8.12 Chehlep Harmony Camp 142

8.13 Salem Camp 142

8.14 Sinai Camp 143

8.15 Ebenezer Camp 143

8.16 Muvanlai Camp 143

8.17 Nazareth Camp 144

8.18 Gamnom Camp 144

9. Kuki Nationalism & Re-unification- cum-Nation Building 146 Movement

9.1 Chavang Kut 146

9.2 All India Radio (AIR) Churachandpur & Link 148 Language 9.3 Kuki National Conventions, 2010 148

9.4 Re-Appropriation of Haokip-Kipgen-Doungel-Guite 150 Clans & Sub- Clan Lineage 9.5 Kuki Unity Celebrations, 2010 151

9.6 Kuki Reformation Forum (KReF) 152

9.7 Reformed & Re-structured Kuki Inpi Manipur (KIM) 153

9.8 Chavang Kut; Celebrations of Brotherhood, 2015 & 154 2016

10. Post 1988 Mizo National Front (MNF) 155

11. The Chin National Front/ Army (CNF/CNA) 157

11.1 Location; Main Area of Operation 158

11.2 Member strength 158

11.3 Structure 158

11.4 Funding 159 11.5 Aims and Objectives 159

xii


11.6 Chin Refugees 159

11.7 Chin National Conference, 2013 161

11.8 CNF Elections 2016 at Camp Victoria 163

12. Myanmar/Burma General Elections 2010 & 2015 164

12.1 Suu Kyi’s Release & Its Impact on Kuki-Chins 165

12.2 Myanmar’s 21st Century Second Panglong 166 Conference, 2010

13. CNF and Myanmar Government Peace Agreement 167

CHAPTER 6 THE KUKI-CHIN INSURGENCY & INDIAN 169

CONNECTION

1. Historical Connection 170

2. Military Junta Regime 170

2.1 Pro-democracy Activists 171

2.2. Sheltering of Chin Insurgents 171

2.3 Accommodation of Chin Refugees 172

2.4 Traditional Territory 172

3. Social Contact 173

4. Blood Relation 173

5. Custom and Culture 174 6. Language and Dialect 174

7. Inter-Related Clans & Sub-Clans 177

8. Christianity & Church 177

8.1 Mizoram Presbyterian Church, Mizoram 178

8.2 Zomi / Chin Baptist Convention (ZBC/CBC), Chin 179 State 8.3 Kuki Churches Fellowship International (KCFI), HQ: 179 Manipur 8.4 Kuki-Chin Baptist Union (KCBU), Manipur 180

9. Social Organisations & Interactions 181

10. Political Aspiration & Political Parties 182

10.1 Kuki National Assembly (KNA), Manipur & Assam 182

10.2 Khulmi National Union (KNU), Manipur 182

10.3 Zomi National Congress (ZNC), Manipur & Burma 182

10.4 Mizo National Front (MNF), Mizoram 182

10.5 Zomi People’s Party (ZPP), Myanmar 182

11. Collaboration among ethnic Kuki-Chin Revolutionary 183 Outfits 11.1 Indian Roles on Chin Movement 183 11.2 Responsibility of GoI over Kuki Resurgence 185

12. Kuki UGs SoO with Indian Army 185

12.1 SoO with Centre & Manipur Government 187

12.2 Impact of SoO 187

12.3 Response 187

12.4 Imbroglio 188

12.5 SoO Meetings with GoI & GoM 188

12.6 Abrogation of SoO Ground Rules and Delayed Talks 189

xiii


12.7 Indo-Kuki Political Talks 193

12.8 Appointment of Kuki Interlocutor 194

12.9 Visit of Kuki Militants Designated Camps 195

13. Kuki People are Shocked: UPF-KNO Down to Territorial 195 Council (TC)

13.1 Draft Broad outline of Settlement between GoI 196 and KNO-UPF

CHAPTER 7 COMPARISION BETWEEN KAREN & KUKI-CHIN 198

INSURGENCIES

1. Ethnic Karen People 198

2. Ethnic Kuki People’s Movement 199

3. Political History of Ethnic Chins 200

4. Brief comparisons of ethnic Karen and Kuki-Chin History & 201 Polity

4.1 Similarities 201

4.2 Differences 201

5. Karen Social Divisions 201

1) Red Karen 2) Sgaw Karen 3) Pwo Karen 202

4) Paku Karen 5) Black Karen 202

6. Chin Tribes and Sub-Tribes 202

1) Asho Tribes 2) Cho Tribes 3) Khumi Tribes 202

4) Zomi-Kuki Tribes 5) Laimi Tribes 6) Lushai/ Mizo 202

Tribes 7. Kuki Tribes and Sub-Tribes 202

8. Karen Habitation & Distribution of Population 203

9. Chin Location & Distribution of Population 203

10. Kuki Territory & Population 203

11. Faith & Religion 204

11.1 Karen Baptist Convention (KBC) 204

11.2 Chin Baptist Convention (ZBC/CBC) 204

11.3 Mizoram Presbyterian Church (MPC) 204

11.4 Kuki Baptist Convention (KBC) 204

12. Karen Social Organisations 205

12.1 Karen Youth Organisation (KYO) 205

12.2 Karen Women Organisation (KWO) 205

12.3 Karen Human Rights Groups (KHRG) 205

13. Chin Social Organisations 205

13.1 Chin Youth Organisation (CYO) 205

13.2 Women’s League of Chinland (WLC) 205

13.3 Chin Human Rights Organisation (CHRO) 206

14. Kuki Social Organisations 206

14.1 Kuki Inpi (KI) 206

14.2 Kuki Students’ Organisation (KSO) 207

14.3 Kuki Khanglai Lawmpi (KKL) 208

14.4 Kuki Organisation for Human Rights Trust 208 (KOHRT)

xiv


14.5 Kuki Women’s Human Rights Organisation 209 (KWHRO) 14.6 Kuki Students Democratic Front (KSDF), Burma 209

15. Comparison between ethnic Karen and Kuki-Chin Social 210

Divisions, Habitation, Population, Territory, Social

Organisations and Religious Administrative Set-Up:


15.2 Differences 210

16. Karen Movement and Political Organisations 211

16.1 Aspirations of Karen People and KNU 211

16.2 Structure of Karen National Union (KNU) 212 16.3 Political Aims and Objectives of KNU 212

16.4 Other Social and Overseas Karen Organisation 212

17. Chin Political Organisations and Movement 212

17.1 Structure and Aims & Objectives of CNF 212

17.2 Social Organisations & Regional Committees 213

18. Kuki Political Organisations 213

18.1 Kuki National Assembly (KNA) 213

18.2 Kuki National Organisation (KNO) 214

18.3 Kuki State Demand Committee (KSDC) 214 19. Comparisons of ethnic Karen and Kuki-Chin Insurgent 215

Movements in respect to their aspirations, structure of

Organisations, social and overseas organisations


19.2 Differences 215

20. Retrospection; A Brief Assessment 217

21. Present Political Conditions 220

22. Concluding Comment 220

CHAPTER 8 DAWNING OF DEMOCRATIC ERA IN MYANMAR AND 222

INDIA’S STRATEGY TOWARDS MYANMAR & IT’S

NORTHEAST INSURGENTS

1. Myanmar/Burma’s First Historic National Election 2010 223

2. General Election 2010 and Suu Kyi’s Party Maiden Victory 223

3. 2010 Election Results and Party-wise Seat holding 224

3.1 People’s Assembly Seats & Assembly Winners 224

3.2 National Assembly Seats & Winners 226

3.3 Division and State Parliament Seats & Winners 227

4. World Re-Actions towards Aung San Suu Kyi’s Release & Its 228 Impact

5. 2015 Myanmar’s Landmark Election 232

5.1 Election Results 234

5.2 House of Nationalities 236 5.3 House of Representatives 237

5.4 State and Regional Hlluttaws 238

5.5 Ethnic Affairs Ministers 238

xv


6. Applauding Reactions 239

7. Impact of Myanmar Election on India; Indo-Myanmar 243 Relationship

7.1 Developmental Projects 244

7.2 Trade Features 244

7.3 Counter Insurgency 244

7.4 Joint Operation against NE Rebels in Myanmar 244

7.5 Mechanism to Tackle Insurgency 246

7.6 Guards along Eastern Borders 246

7.7 Installations of Hotlines 246

7.8 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) 248 8. GoI’s Attitude towards Kuki Revolutionary Groups, KNO-UPF 248

9. Conclusion 249 xvi


Abbreviations & Nomenclatures ABFSU- All Burma Federation of Student Union ABMA- All Burma Monks’ Alliance ABSDA- All Burma Students’ Democratic Alliance ACFO- Anti-Communist Freedom Organisation AFPFL- Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League AFO- Anti-Fascist Organization

AFPFCPB- Anti-Fascist People's Freedom Communist Party of Burma AMRDP- All Mon Region Democracy Party AKA- American Karen Agency AKO- Aussie Karen Oranisation ALP- Arakan Liberation Party ANP- Arakan National Party ANDP- Akha National Development Party BDA- Burma Defence Army BIA- Burma Independence Army BNA- Burma National Army BNCC- Baite National Covenant Convention BNO- Bengali National Organisation BSPP- Burma Socialist Programme Party BUDP- Burma United Democracy Party BWPP- Burma Workers & Peasants Party CAGKP- Committee against Genocide of Karen People CIDKP- Committee for Internally Displaced Karen People CDP- Chin Democratic Party CLA- Chin Liberation Army CNA- Chin National Army CNF- Chin National Front CNO- Chin National Organisation CNLA- Chin National liberation Army

CNLP- Chin National Liberation Party

CNU- Chin National Union CNVP- Chin National Vanguard Party CPA- Communist Party of Arakan CBC- Chin Baptist Convention CPFL- Chin People’s Freedom League CPT- Communist Party of Thailand CRDB- Committee for Restoration of Democracy in Burma DAB- Democratic Alliance of Burma DFNR- Democratic Front for National Reconstruction DKBA- Democratic Karen Buddhist Army DNUF- Democratic Nationalities United Front DPA- ‘Deutsche Presse-Agentur’ (West German Press Agency)

DPNS- Democratic Party for New Society FAP- Frontier Area Peoples FBC- Free Burma Coalition FBR- Free Burma Ranger FNDF- Federal National Democratic Front FTU-K- Federation of Trade Union- Kawthoolei

xvii


GTU- Gangte Tribal Union INA- Indian National Army HNA- Hmar National Army HNU- Hmar National Union HPC- Hmar People’s Convention/ Haokip People’s Council

HPC (D)- Hmar People’s Convention (Democratic) HRL- Haokip Reserved Land KAF- Karen Armed Forces KAG- Karen Action Group KBC- Kuki Baptist Convention (India)/ Karen Baptist Convention (Burma) KCA- Kuki Chiefs Association/ Kuki Christian Association KCBU- Kuki-Chin Baptist Union KCC- Kuki Christian Church KCFI- Kuki Churches Fellowship International KCO- Karen Central Organisation KDUP- Kokang Democracy & Unity Party KHRG- Karen Human Rights Groups KMHR- Kuki Movement for Human Rights KI- Kuki Inpi KIM- Kuki Inpi Manipur KKL- Kuki Khanglai Lawmpi KLA- Kuki Liberation Army KLO- Kuki Liberation Organisation KNA- Kuki National Assembly/ Kuki National Army KNA (A)- Kuki National Assembly- Assam KNF- Kuki National Front KNF (MC)- Kuki National Front (Military Council) KNF (P)- Kuki National Front (President) KNF (S)- Kuki National Front (Samuel) KNF (Z)- Kuki National Front (Zougam) KNLA- Karen National Liberation Army/ Kuki National Liberation Army KNL- Karen National League KNLA-PC- Karen National Liberation Army- Peace Council KNLF- Karen National Liberation Front/ Kuki National Liberation Front KNO- Kuki National Organisation KNPP- Karenni National Progressive Party KNU- Karen National Union/ Kom National Union (Manipur) KNUP- Karen National United Party KNDO- Karen National Defence Organisation KIO/ KIA- Kachin Independent Organisation/Army KNU- Khulmi National Union KOHRT- Kuki Organisation for Human Rights Trust KORD- Karen Office for Relief & Development KPGF- Kawthoolei People‟s Guerilla Force KPLA- Kawthoolei People‟s Liberation Army KPP- Kayin People’s Party KRA- Kuki Revolutionary Army KRC- Karen Refugee Committee KReF- Kuki Reformation Forum KSDC- Kuki State Demand Committee KSDF- Kuki Students Democratic Front KSDP- Kachin State Democracy Party KSNG- Karen Students’ Network Group

xviii


KSO- Kuki Students’ Organisation/ Karen Solidarity Organisation KU- Kuki Union KUMF- Karen Union Military Front KUMP- Karen Union Military Police KYO- Karen Youth Organisation KWHRO- Kuki Women for Human Rights Organisation

KWO- Karen Women’s Organisation LDA- League for Democratic Alliance LDP- League for Democracy & Peace LNDP- Lisu National Development Party MCS- Mizo Cultural Society MMIC- Manipur Mizo Integration Council MNA- Mizo National Army MNF- Mizo National Front MNFF- Mizo National Famine Front MNP- Mon National Party MNV- Mizo National Volunteer MPC- Mizo People’s Convention MZP- Mizo Zirlai Pawl (Mizo Students Association)

MUF- Mon United Front MUL- Mon Unity League NCUB- National Council of the Union of Burma NDF- National Democratic Front NLA- Nationalities Liberation Alliance NDUF- National Democratic United Front NLD- National League for Democracy NLDJ- National League for Democracy & Justice NSCN (IM)- National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Issac-Muivah) NSCN (K)- National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Khaplang) NMSP- New Mon State Party NPF- National Politics Front NULF- National United Liberation Front

NUF- National United Front NUP- National Unity Party OKO- Overseas Karen Organisations PNC- Paite National Council PDP- Parliament Democracy Party PDP- People’s Democratic Party PLP- Patriotic League for Peace PNO- Pa-O National Organisation PPP- People’s Progressive Party PRA- People's Revolutionary Army (Burma) -do- Pakan Revolutionary Army (Manipur) PVO- People's Voluntary Organization RC- Revolutionary Council RNA- Revolutionary Nationalities Alliance SLORC- State Law & Order Restoration Council SNC- Simte National Council SNLD- Shan Nationalities League for Democracy SNDP- Shan Nationalities Democracy Party SSIA- Shan State Independent Army SSNLO- Shan State Nationalities Liberation Organisation

SSPP- Shan State Progressive Party xix


SSWC- Shan State War Council SPDC- State Peace and Development Council SYCB- Students & Youth Congress of Burma TCU- Tedim-Chin Union THKSCALO-Tripura Halam-Kuki Socio-Cultural & Linguistic Organisation TKBA- Thadou-Kuki Baptist Association TNDA- Tai-Leng National Development Party TNP- Taang National Party UBMAFPFL- Union of Burma Main Anti-Fascist People Freedom League UDP- Unity & Developed Party UKLF- United Kuki Liberation Front UKRA- United KomRem Revolutionary Army

UMLA- United Minority Liberation Army UMP- Union Military Police UNF- United Nationalities Front UNDP- Union National Democratic Party UPF- United People’s Front USDP- Union Solidarity & Development Party USRA- United Socialist Revolutionary Army UZDP- United Zomi Democratic Party UZO- United Zoumi Organisation VNO- Vaiphei National Organisation WBA- We Burman Association WDP- Wa Democratic Party WLB- Women’s League of Burma WSA- Wa State Army YLA- Young Lushai Association YMA- Young Mizo Association ZBC- Zomi Baptist Convention ZCLF- Zomi Chin Liberation Front ZDV- Zou Defence Volunteer ZLF- Zomi Liberation Front ZNC- Zomi National Congress ZNF- Zomi National Front ZRA/ZRO- Zomi Revolutionary Army/ Organisation ZoRO- Zo Re-Unification Organisation ZORO- Zomi Re-Unification Organisation ZPP- Zomi People’s Party

Nomenclatures:

1. 88GS = 1988 Generation Students (Activists of 1988 Burma Uprising).

2. Pumpi = A Kuki traditional leather cannon explosive, made from gun-powder

and sharped edged objects rolled in a dried skin of a Mithun that can explode

like an Atom bomb.

3. Selvun= the skin of a four-legged cow family herbivorous animal,`Mithun'. 4. Sawbaws= A corrupted Burmese Shan word derived from ‘Sau’ meaning ‘Lord’ and ‘hpa’ for ‘heaven’ to mean Royal title. 5. Tatmadaw= The official name for Burmese Armed Forces administered by the Ministry of Defense comprised of Army, Navy and Air Force. 6. NRC Handelsbad= A Dutch daily Newspaper published by NRC Media in Netherlands.

xx


Ethnicity and Insurgency in Myanmar /Burma

CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

_______________________________________________________________________

‘Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingandaw’ or Burma, formerly known as the ‘Union of Burma’ now called Myanmar is the largest country of Southeast Asia having an area of 6,76,553 sq. km. It lies between longitudes 92o and 102 o east of Greenwich and latitudes 10 o and 28 o north. The Irrawaddy with its tributaries rising in ramparts is dividing Tibet and Burma is about 1500 miles long and runs through the heart of the country. It has seven States and seven divisions. The seven States are Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Chin, Mon, Rakhine and Shan states. The seven divisions are Ayeyarwaddy, Bago, Magwe, Mandalay, Sagaing, Tanintharyi and Yangon. The country's population as per the latest report of the Government is more than 54.3 million people. The Burmans constitute 68 per cent of the total Myanmarese population.

Fig-1: 18th Century Chin Manfolk

(Photo Picture: Fig-1: Chin Website)

The Burmans occupy mainly the plain areas of the country, whereas the minorities such as the Karens, the Shans, the Kachins, the Mons, the Rakhines, the Rohingyas, the Kayahs, the Chins, the Po-as, the Lahus and the ‘Was’ [i] inhabit the surrounding mountainous region of the country. The Shans are the largest ethnic group constituting nine percent, followed by the Karens with seven percent and the Rakhines constituting four percent of the total Myanmarese population. The Mons, the ‘Chins’ [ii] and the Kachins constitute one percent each. The remaining five percent of the population is shared by smaller ethnic groups such as Was, Palaungs, Kokangs, Lisus, Akhas, Lahus, Pa-ohs, Rohingyas inclusive of the Kukis, and the

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TS Letkhosei Haokip

Naga ethnic tribals. There are also a number of Indians, Chinese, Pakistanis and ethnic minorities other than the above constituting about 4 percent of the total population. Christians constitute about 6.5 percent of which 3 percent is Baptist and 1 percent Roman Catholic and 2.5 percent belongs to other protestant churches. Islam constituting 3.8 percent, Hinduism 1 percent and another 6.4 percent includes other religion such as Animism, Traditional religion, Chinese etc. Buddhists constitute about 83 percentages.

Fig-2: 20th Century longneck Karen

Woman in Traditional Ornaments.

Fig-3: 18th Century Kuki-Chin Warriors

Fig-4: A Kuki Belly of 18th Century Miss Hoikhonem, of Kanjang,

Nagaland. (Photos: Figs. 2&3: Chin & Karen website & Fig.4: William Shaw).

Burma's independence struggle was more of an armed one led by General Aung

San, a dynamic young man, who is widely respected as the architect of Modern

Burma. He had successfully negotiated with the British government under the labour

Prime Minister, Lord Atlee for the transfer of power to the urmese. The election held

in April 1947 for the drafting of the constitution was dominated by Aung San's Party, Anti Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL). While in the process of drafting the

new constitution Aung San, along with his six ministers were assassinated. Aung San

was only 32 years when he was assassinated.

After the assassination of Aung San, the political vacuum in Burma was filled in by Thakin Nu. Later U Nu and others carried forward the movement towards independence. Burma attained its independence on 4 January 1948 from the British colonialism as war torn but potentially rich country, with one major problem. The major problem inherited by the independent Burma from the British colonialism is the question of how to deal with the numerous ethnic minorities. It has remained with Burma or Myanmar ever since. The continuing inability of the various Burmese governments to recognize the rights of the minorities has led to a spiraling chain of other problems, including widespread armed insurgency and civil war. The prolonged unsolved problems of the minorities widen the gap between the ethnic Burmans and the minorities psychologically and emotionally, thereby shaking the political integrity of Myanmar every now and then.

Notes: [i] :`Wa' is one of the unrepresented minor ethnic communities of Burma,

like the Pa-ohs, Lahus, Kukis and Palaung etc. [ii]: The Chin Hills Regulation, 1896, Sec.2(3) states that `Chins" include: (a)

Lushais, (b) Kukis, (c) Burmans domiciled in the Chin Hills, and (d) Any

person(s), who have adopted the customs and language of the Chins and are

habitually in the Chin Hills of Upper Burma).

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This nationality problem of the minorities has resulted in the mushrooming of

numerous ethnic insurgency armies involved in eternal war with the Burman

dominated `Tatmadaw'.[iii] A brief historical background of ethnic Kuki-Chin people with subsidiary 45

dialects of languages spoken by 342,854 peoples according to John LeRoy Christian in his book, ‘Modern Burma: A Survey of its Political and Economic Development’ (1942:14&15) is elaborated in a serial-wise sequence as Kuki-Chin-Mizo on micro basis for convenience as under.

1. Kuki Origin

Kuki people are Tibeto-Burman Mongoloid-Jewish ethnic minority community,

separated by the three international boundaries of India, Myanmar and Bangladesh.

It is believed that the Kukis emerged out from a cave called ‘Khul’ [iv] somewhere in

central China. The so stated cave is believed to be the present „Great Wall of China‟

built by Qin Shi Huangdi during the 17th century. About 25 years back (1987) my elderly paternal grand uncle told me that his

father who had learnt from his father and great grand-fathers down the generations that ‘Those ancestors emerging from the cave include Chongthu/Songthu ,Vangalpa ,Khupngam and some clansmen, leaving behind Songja, Noimangpa and other clansmen of the group’. Pi Nemneh, wife of Songja, cursed Chongthu and party, for leaving them at doom in the ‘Khul’. The names of villages of the time were Noimang, Kholaichal, Khopalva, Khothip, Khomang, Khokanglai and Khokisupi.

Notes [iii] : ‘Tatmadaw' is the proper Barman Arm Force of the SLORC or SPDC Military Junta trained specially to deal with ethnic minorities with an iron rod. [vi]: ‘Khul’ means ‘Cave’ where forefathers were believed to emerge; somewhere in central China which researchers and scholar believed to be the ‘Great Wall’ of China. [p]: Ethnic Kuki-Chins or Chin-Kuki-Mizo people believed and claimed to have emerged from ‘Khul’ or ‘Khur/ Khurpui’ or ‘Chhinlung’ or ‘Shinlung’, meaning ‘cave’ or ‘bowel’ of the earth.

1.1 Kuki-Jewish Origin Theory One acceptable theory propounded by Dr Milui Lenthang Khuplam, stated that the Kukis are one of the ten lost tribes of the Jews. In this connection in 1999, Hillel Halkin, a well-known author and journalist, and for many years the Israel correspondent for the ‘New York Times’ presented Dr. Khuplam a scroll of confirmation that states the Kuki people as descendants of Manasseh as one of the twelve tribes of Israel.

In the year 2001, Lars Goran Svensson of Sweden and ‘Sister Angel’, his assistant, met with Dr Khuplam. They had come to Manipur for a third time to seek out the lost tribes of Israel in order to bring them back to the ‘Promised Land’. In the year 2006-07, 300 Kuki families were taken on batches to Isreal.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes

TS Letkhosei Haokip

Figs-5 & 6: Seven Legged Lampstand & A Scroll

Fig-7: The Promise Land (Jerusalem) Fig-8: Israeli Manesseh Kukis

(Photos:Figs.5-7:http://www.microsoft.com/isapi/redir.dll?prd=ie&pver =6&ar= msnhome..& Fig.8: Beith Shalom, B.Vengnom)

It may also be stated that the DNA test confirmed that the Kukis or

‘Manmasis’ [v] are truly one of the ten lost tribes of Israel. The traditional religious

rituals and ceremonies of ethnic Kuki people, all resembled that of the Jews. Now, it

is believed that the so called cave or ‘Khul’ [vi] of central China might have been the

present ‘Great Wall of China’. Some writers and philosophers are of the view that the so called ‘Khul’ is located some 40 miles away from ‘Kailas/Kailash Mountain’ in

Tibet. Inspite of the above confirmation, there is so far no valid proof that whether

Manasseh and Manmasi are the same or co-incidental.

Fig-9: Great Wall Fig-10: Mount Kailas, Tibet Fig-11:Mansarovar of China where „Khul‟ is believed to Fresh water Lake at

be located 40 miles away Mount Kailas,Tibet (Photos: Fig.9: Great Wall-Wikipedia, Fig.10: Mt.Kailash-wikipedia & Fig.11: Mansarovar Lake Wekipedia). 1.2 Course of Migration

According to history, the Manmasi (Manasseh) people with other tribes of Israel were exiled to Assyria in 722 BC. Babylon conquered Assyria in 607 BC. Syria was

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later conquered by Persia in 457 BC. Alexander the Great of Greece conquered Persia

in 331 BC. It was during this period that the Manmasi people were deported from

Persia to Afghanistan and other places. Throughout this entire period, their ‘Savun

Lekhajol’ or Torah scroll was with them under the possession of ‘Thempu’ [priest(s)]

and ‘Lamkai Pipu’ [elder(s)].

Fig-12: King Divid‟s Kingdom

Fig-14: National Flag of Israel

Fig-13: Migratory Route Map

Fig-15:Kuki National Orgn (KNO) Flag

(Photo: Figs.12-14: http://www.microsoft.com/isapi/redir.dll?prd =ie&pver=6&ar=msnhome... & Fig.15: KNO website).

Note [v]: In olden days, the word „Manmasi‟ was uttered by the Kukis whenever

an earthquake occurs as “Manmasi Chate Kadam nauve!!”, meaning,“We, the

descendants of Manmasi (Manasseh) are alive”. Manasseh is one of the ten lost

tribes of the Jews. In Chothe-Kuki (oldest Kuki tribe of Manipur) dialect, „Malmasi/

Manmasi meant ‘Ancestor/ Progenitor’. [vi]: The irony with ‘Khul or Cave’ is believed to be the ‘Great Wall of China’.

Ancient people with very little knowledge might have thought the exit door or

outlet of the large & tall structural concrete wall where they emerged out to

another space or another world to them.

From Afghanistan their migration continued eastward till reaching Tibetan- Chinese border. Some of the tribesmen remained back at the Bay of Bengal. From

there the adventurous groups continued to wander following the course of Wei River,

and reached central China. They settled there at about 231 BC. However, as time passed, the Chinese influences and assimilation started

gradually. In early 17th century, the Chinese became cruel to them and started enslaving them. Some of them escaped and lived in caves (Khul) in the mountainous region. It was during this period that they lost their script (animal skinned-scroll). Some section of those escaping, wandered around through the jungle southward

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