Root vegetables are plant roots used as vegetables.docx

7/27/2019 Root vegetables are plant roots used as vegetables.docx

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Root vegetables are plant roots used as vegetables. Here "root" means any underground part of a

plant.[1]

Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of

carbohydrates.[citation needed]

They differ in the concentration and the balance between sugars,

starches, and other types of carbohydrate. Of particular economic importance are those with ahigh carbohydrate concentration in the form of starch. Starchy root vegetables are important

staple foods, particularly in tropical regions, overshadowing cereals throughout much ofWest

Africa, Central Africa,[citation needed]

and Oceania, where they are used directly or mashed to makefufu orpoi.

Botany distinguishes true roots such as tuberous roots and taproots from non-roots such astubers, rhizomes, corms, and bulbs, though some contain both taproot and hypocotyl tissue,

making it difficult to tell some types apart. In ordinary, agricultural, and culinary use, "root

vegetable" can apply to all these types.[2]

The following list classifies root vegetables according to anatomy.

Ginger

Medical properties and research

Preliminary research indicates that nine compounds found in ginger may bind to human

serotonin receptors, which may explain ginger's extensive effects on the GI tract and suggestinga mechanism for its effects on anxiety.

[7]Ginger has been found to be more effective than placebo

in multiple studies for treating nausea caused by seasickness, morning sickness andchemotherapy

[8][9][10][11]though ginger was not found superior to placebo for pre-emptively

treating post-operative nausea. These studies also show superiority of odansetron over ginger inthe treatment of chemotherapy related nausea. Ginger is safe for use during pregnancy.

[12]The

television programMythbustersperformed an antidotal experiment using one of their staff who

suffered from severe motion sickness. Multiple treatments were administered; ginger as well asover-the-counter motion sickness aids were found to be effective over placebo.

Ginger compounds are active against a form ofdiarrhea which is the leading cause of infantdeath in developing countries. Zingerone is likely to be the active constituent against

enterotoxigenicEscherichia coliheat-labile enterotoxin-induced diarrhea.[8][13]

Ginger has been claimed to decrease the pain from arthritis, though studies have been

inconsistent. It may also have blood thinning and cholesterol lowering properties that may make

it useful for treating heart disease.[14]

Advanced glycation end-products are possibly associated inthe development of several pathophysiologies, including diabetic cataract for which ginger was

effective in preliminary studies, apparently by acting through antiglycating mechanisms.[15][16][17]

For its weight, ginger has more iron than liver.
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/5-HT_receptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT_receptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_root_vegetables#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypocotylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taproothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberous_roothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poi_(food)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fufuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staple_foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_organhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_root_vegetables#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable


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Chemistry

The characteristic odor and flavor of ginger is caused by a mixture ofzingerone, shogaols and

gingerols, volatile oils that compose one to three percent of the weight of fresh ginger. Inlaboratory animals, the gingerols increase the motility of the gastrointestinal tract and have

analgesic, sedative, antipyretic and antibacterialproperties.[18]

Ginger oil has been shown toprevent skin cancerin mice

[12]and a study at the University of Michigan demonstrated that

gingerols can kill ovarian cancercells.[19][20][21]

[6]-gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-

hydroxy-3-decanone) is the major pungent principle of ginger. The chemopreventive potentials

of [6]-gingerol present a promising future alternative to expensive and toxic therapeuticagents.

[22]Ginger contains up to three percent of a fragrant essential oil whose main constituents

are sesquiterpenoids, with (-)-zingiberene as the main component. Smaller amounts of other

sesquiterpenoids (-sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene and farnesene) and a small monoterpenoid

fraction (-phelladrene, cineol, and citral) have also been identified. The pungent taste of gingeris due to nonvolatile phenylpropanoid-derived compounds, particularly gingerols and shogaols,

which form from gingerols when ginger is dried or cooked. Zingerone is also produced from

gingerols during this process; this compound is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma.

[23]

Ginger is also a minor chemical irritant, and because of this was used as a horse suppositorybypre-World War I mounted regiments forfeaguing. Ginger has a sialagogue action, stimulating

the production ofsaliva, which makes swallowing easier.[citation needed]

Folk medicine

The traditional medical form of ginger historically was calledJamaica ginger; it was classifiedas a stimulant and carminative and used frequently fordyspepsia, gastroparesis, slow motility

symptoms, constipation, and colic. It was also frequently employed to disguise the taste of

medicines.[24]

Tea brewed from ginger is a common folk remedy for colds. Ginger ale and ginger

beerare also drunk asstomach settlers in countries where the beverages are made.

In Burma, ginger and a local sweetener made from palm tree juice (htan nyat) are boiled

together and taken to prevent the flu.

In China, ginger is included in several traditional preparations. A drink made with sliced

ginger cooked in water with brown sugar or a cola is used as a folk medicine for the common

cold.[25]

"Ginger eggs" (scrambled eggs with finely diced ginger root) is a common homeremedy for coughing.

[citation needed]The Chinese also make a kind of dried ginger candy that is

fermented in plum juice and sugared, which is also commonly consumed to suppress

coughing. Ginger has also been historically used to treat inflammation, which several

scientific studies support, though one arthritis trial showed ginger to be no better than a

placebo oribuprofen for treatment ofosteoarthritis.[14]

In Congo, ginger is crushed and mixed with mango tree sap to make tangawisi juice, which

is considered a panacea.

In India, ginger is applied as a paste to the temples to relieve headache, and consumed when

suffering from the common cold. Ginger with lemon and black salt is also used for nausea.

In Indonesia, ginger (jahe in Indonesian) is used as a herbal preparation to reduce fatigue,

reducing "winds" in the blood, prevent and cure rheumatism and control poor dietary habits.
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In Nepal, ginger is called aduwa, and is widely grown and used throughout the country

as a spice for vegetables, used medically to treat cold and also sometimes used to flavor tea.

In the Philippines, ginger is known as luya and is used as a throat lozenge in traditionalmedicine to relieve sore throat. It is also brewed into a tea known assalabat.

[26][27]

In the United States, ginger is used to prevent motion and morning sickness. It is recognized

as safe by the Food and Drug Administration and is sold as an unregulated dietarysupplement. Ginger water was also used to avoid heat cramps in the United States.

In Peru, ginger is sliced in hot water as an infusion for stomach aches as infusin de Kin.

Nutritional information

100g of Ginger contains the following nutritional information according to the USDA:[28]

Calories : 80

Fat: 0.75

Carbohydrates: 17.77

Fibers: 2 Protein: 1.82

Cholesterol: 0

GARLIC

When crushed,Allium sativum yields allicin, an antibiotic[67]

and antifungal compound

(phytoncide). It has been claimed that it can be used as a home remedy to help speed recoveryfrom strep throat or other minor ailments because of its antibiotic properties

[citation needed]. It also

contains the sulfur-containing compounds alliin, ajoene, diallylsulfide, dithiin, S-allylcysteine,and enzymes, B vitamins, proteins, minerals, saponins, flavonoids, and Maillard reactionproducts, which are not sulfur-containing compounds. Furthermore, a phytoalexin (allixin) was

found, a nonsulfur compound with a -pyrone skeleton structure with antioxidant effects,

antimicrobial effects,[68]

antitumor promoting effects,[69]

inhibition of aflatoxin B2 DNA

binding,[69]

and neurotrophic effects. Allixin showed an antitumor promoting effectin vivo,inhibiting skin tumor formation by TPA and DMBA initiated mice.

[69]Analogs of this compound

have exhibited antitumor promoting effects in in vitro experimental conditions. Herein, allixin

and/or its analogs may be expected useful compounds for cancer prevention or chemotherapyagents for other diseases.

The composition of the bulbs is approximately 84.09% water, 13.38% organic matter, and 1.53%inorganic matter, while the leaves are 87.14% water, 11.27% organic matter, and 1.59%inorganic matter.

[70][71]

The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant's cells

are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored in cell

vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids.The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic.
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Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to react over time. Among the members of the

onion family, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products, making

garlic much more potent than onions, shallots, orleeks.[72]

Although many humans enjoy thetaste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism,

deterring animals such as birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant.[73]

A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Diallyl disulfide

is believed to be an important odor component. Allicin has been found to be the compound most

responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermotransient receptorpotential channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of

cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness.[74]

Because of its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the "stinking rose". When eaten in

quantity, garlic may be strongly evident in the diner's sweat and breath the following day. This is

because garlic's strong-smelling sulfur compounds are metabolized, forming allyl methyl sulfide.

Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS) cannot be digested and is passed into the blood. It is carried to the

lungs and the skin, where it is excreted. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMSseveral hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time.

This well-known phenomenon of "garlic breath" is alleged to be alleviated by eating fresh

parsley.[75]

The herb is, therefore, included in many garlic recipes, such aspistou,persillade, and

the garlic butter spread used in garlic bread. However, since the odour results mainly fromdigestive processes placing compounds such as AMS in the blood, and AMS is then released

through the lungs over the course of many hours, eating parsley provides only a temporary

masking. One way of accelerating the release of AMS from the body is the use of a sauna.[citation

needed]

Because of the AMS in the bloodstream, it is believed by some to act as a mosquito repellent, butno clinically reported evidence suggests it is actually effective.

Carrots

Nutrition

-Carotene structure.Caroteneis responsible for the orange colour of carrots andmany other fruits and vegetables.

The carrot gets its characteristic and bright orange colour from-carotene, which is metabolised

into vitamin A in humans when bile salts are present in the intestines.[3]

Massive
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overconsumption of carrots can cause carotenosis, a benign condition in which the skin turns

orange. Carrots are also rich in dietary fibre, antioxidants, and minerals.

Lack of vitamin A can cause poor vision, including night vision, and vision can be restored by

adding it back into the diet. An urban legend says eating large amounts of carrots will allow one

to see in the dark. The legend developed from stories of British gunners in World War II, whowere able to shoot down German planes in the darkness of night. The legend arose during the

Battle of Britain when the RAF circulated a story about their pilots' carrot consumption as an

attempt to cover up the discovery and effective use ofradartechnologies in engaging enemyplanes, as well as the use of red light (which does not destroy night vision) in aircraft

instruments.[4][5]

It reinforced existing German folklore and helped to encourage Britons

looking to improve their night vision during the blackoutsto grow and eat the vegetable.

Ethnomedically, the roots are used to treat digestive problems, intestinal parasites, and tonsillitis

orconstipation.

Sweet potato

Cultivation

Producers (in mi l l ion tonnes)Data for year 2009

China 76.8Uganda 2.77

Nigeria 2.75

Indonesia 2.1

Tanzania 1.38

Viet Nam 1.21

India 1.1Japan 1.0World 102.7

The plant does not tolerate frost. It grows best at an average temperature of 24 C (75 F),

abundant sunshine and warm nights. Annual rainfalls of 7501,000 mm (3039 in) areconsidered most suitable, with a minimum of 500 mm (20 in) in the growing season. The crop is
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sensitive to drought at the tuber initiation stage 5060 days after planting, and it is not tolerant to

water-logging, as it may cause tuber rots and reduce growth of storage roots if aeration is

poor.[21]

Depending on the cultivar and conditions, tuberous roots mature in two to nine months. With

care, early-maturing cultivars can be grown as an annual summer crop in temperate areas, suchas the northern United States. Sweet potatoes rarely flowerwhen the daylight is longer than 11

hours, as is normal outside of the tropics. They are mostly propagated by stem or root cuttings or

by adventitious roots called "slips" that grow out from the tuberous roots during storage. Trueseeds are used for breeding only.

They grow well in many farming conditions and have few natural enemies; pesticides are rarelyneeded. Sweet potatoes are grown on a variety of soils, but well-drained, light- and medium-

textured soils with a pH range of 4.5-7.0 are more favorable for the plant.[2]

They can be grown

in poor soils with little fertilizer. However, sweet potatoes are very sensitive to aluminum

toxicity and will die about six weeks after planting if lime is not applied at planting in this type

of soil.

[2]

Because they are sown by vine cuttings rather than seeds, sweet potatoes are relativelyeasy to plant. Because the rapidly growing vines shade out weeds, little weeding is needed. In the

tropics, the crop can be maintained in the ground and harvested as needed for market or homeconsumption. In temperate regions, sweet potatoes are most often grown on larger farms and are

harvested before first frosts.

China is the largest grower of sweet potatoes, providing about 80% of the world's supply; 130

million tons[ambiguous]

were produced in 1990; about half that of common potatoes. Historically,

most of China's sweet potatoes were grown for human consumption, but now most (60%) are

grown to feed pigs. The rest are grown for human food and for other products. Some are grownfor export, mainly to Japan. China grows over 100 varieties of sweet potato.

Sweet potatoes very early became popular in the islands of the Pacific Ocean, spreading fromPolynesia to Japan and the Philippines. One reason is that they were a reliable crop in cases of

crop failure of other staple foods because oftyphoon flooding. They are featured in many

favorite dishes in Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, and other island nations. Indonesia, Vietnam,India, and some other Asian countries are also large sweet potato growers. Sweet potato, also

known as kelangin Tulu is part ofUdupi cusine. Uganda (the third largest grower after

Indonesia), Rwanda, and some other African countries also grow a large crop which is animportant part of their peoples' diets. North and South America, the original home of the sweet

potato, together grow less than three percent of the world's supply. Europe has only a very small

sweet potato production, mostly in Portugal. In the Caribbean, a variety of the sweet potato

called the boniato is popular. The flesh of the boniato is cream-colored, unlike the more popularorange hue seen in other varieties.Boniatos are not as sweet and moist as other sweet potatoes,

but many people prefer their fluffier consistency and more delicate flavor.

Sweet potatoes have been an important part of the diet in the United States for most of its

history, especially in the Southeast. From the middle of the 20th century, however, they have

become less popular. The average per capita consumption of sweet potatoes in the United Statesis only about 1.52 kg (3.34.4 lb) per year, down from 13 kg (29 lb) in 1920. Southerner Kent
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Wrench writes: "The Sweet Potato became associated with hard times in the minds of our

ancestors and when they became affluent enough to change their menu, the potato was served

less often."[22]

New Zealanders grow enough kmara to provide each person with 7 kg (15 lb) per year, and

they also import substantially more than this from China.

[citation needed]

In the Southeastern United States, sweet potatoes are traditionally cured to improve storage,

flavor, and nutrition, and to allow wounds on the periderm of the harvested root to heal.[22]

Proper curing requires drying the freshly dug roots on the ground for two to three hours, then

storage at 8590 F (2932 C) and 90 to 95% relative humidity from five to fourteen days.

Cured sweet potatoes can keep for thirteen months when kept at 5559 F (1315 C) and >90%relative humidity. Colder temperatures injure the roots.

[23][24]

Electronic sizing of sweet potatoes was first introduced to the industry by Wayne E. BaileyProduce Company of Chadbourn, North Carolina in 1990.

[25]

[edit] Yields of sweet potato crop

In 2010, the world average annual yield for sweet potato crop was 13.2 tonnes per hectare. The

most productive farms of sweet potato breeds were in Senegal, where the nationwide average

annual yield was 33.3 tonnes per hectare.[26]

Yields as high as 80 metric tonnes per hectare havebeen reported from farms ofIsrael.

[27]

[edit] Nutrient content

Besides simple starches, sweet potatoes are rich in complex carbohydrates, dietary fiber, beta

carotene (a vitamin A equivalent nutrient), vitamin C, and vitamin B6. Pink, yellow and greenvarieties are high in carotene, the precursor of vitamin A.

In 1992, the Center for Science in the Public Interest compared the nutritional value of sweetpotatoes to other vegetables. Considering fiber content, complex carbohydrates, protein, vitamins

A and C, iron, and calcium, the sweet potato ranked highest in nutritional value. According tothese criteria, sweet potatoes earned 184 points, 100 points over the next on the list, the common

potato.

Sweet potato varieties with dark orange flesh have more beta carotene than those with light-

colored flesh, and their increased cultivation is being encouraged in Africa, where vitamin A

deficiency is a serious health problem. Despite the name "sweet", it may be a beneficial food fordiabetics, as preliminary studies on animals have revealed it helps to stabilize blood sugar levels

and to lower insulin resistance.[2
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Ginseng

Modern science and ginseng

Ginsenosides are the active compounds that distinguish thePanax species. However, even

though the root of the ginseng plant is the most valued form, it is the leaves that contain thehighest amounts of ginsenosides. Therefore, the measure of potency and purity for ginseng root

products by the levels of leaf ginsenosides is a poor determinant. There are many manufacturers

of ginseng products who, knowingly or unknowingly, actually use counterfeit products orginseng leaves instead of roots. Herbal companies who follow Good Manufacturing Practices

(GMP) regularly test for the quality, potency, and species authentication of herbs using cross-

sectional microscopic examination, thin layer chromatography, and high pressure liquid

chromatography (HPLC). One study found HPLCf is especially useful in the differentiation andauthentication ofPanax ginsengfromPanax quinquefolius due to the unambiguous distinction of

slightly varying isotypes of ginsenoside compounds.[5]

Ginseng is noted for being an adaptogen, one which can, to a certain extent, be supported with

reference to its anticarcinogenic and antioxidant properties.[6]

Some studies have found no

adaptogen responses in animal studies (Survival test on mice swimming).[7]

Many studies have been done with varying results using only ginseng extracts. However, when

ginseng is used in combination with other traditional Chinese herbs, the synergistic effects hadmany more definitive and positive results. For example, Si Jun Zi Tang, a traditional Chinese

formula, the main ingredient of which is ginseng, has been shown in multiple studies to have

radioprotective effects, preventing a decrease in the hematocrit during radiotherapy.[8][9]

In research, it has been difficult to either verify or quantify the exact medicinal benefits of

ginseng using science, as there are contradictory results from different studies, possibly due tothe wide variety and quality of ginseng used in the tests. High-quality studies of the effects of

ginseng in the United States are rare.[10]

However, many high-quality, double blind, randomized

controlled trials have been done in Asian countries, such as China, Taiwan and Japan.[citation needed]

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), similar toPanax ginsengin that they both contain the

active component ginsenoside, is distinguished in traditional Chinese medicine theory by havinga cold property while the property of ginseng is warm. Japanese ginseng, though the same

species as ginseng, is thought to have cooling properties similar to American ginseng due to the

difference in cultivation environment. (cite M5050) American ginseng has been shown in

various studies to have a beneficial effect for diabetes in the regulation of blood sugar levels.[11]

A comparative, randomized and double-blind study at the National Autonomous University of

Mexico indicated it may be "a promising dietary supplement" when assessed for an increase inquality of life.

[12]

A randomized, double-blind study showed that an extract of American ginseng reduced influenzacases in the elderly when compared to placebo.

[10]
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A recent study at the University of Hong Kong has identified ginseng to have anti-inflammatory

effects. The study found of the nine ginsenosides they identified, seven could selectively inhibit

expression of the inflammatory gene CXCL-10.[citation needed]

P. ginsengappear to inhibit some characteristics associated with cancer in animal models;

nevertheless, this effect is unclear in humans.

[13]

A randomized, double-blind pilot study notedGinseng appeared to reduce fatigue in cancer patients.[14]

There are references in literature, including authoritative compendia, that show interactions withginseng. Herbalist Jonathan Treasure of the British National Institute of Medical Herbalists

traces the growth of misinformation on an alleged adverse herb-drug interaction between the

monoamine oxidase inhibitorphenelzine and Asian ginseng (P. ginsengC.A. Meyer). Thisoriginally was mentioned in a 1985 editorial by Shader and Greenblatt in the Journal of Clinical

Psychopharmacology. Shader and Greenblatt devoted a couple of lines to the case of a 64-year-

old woman who took an undisclosed dose for an undisclosed time of a dietary supplement

product called "Natrol High" while concurrently taking phenelzine 60 mg qd. She experienced

symptoms of "insomnia, headache, and tremulousness". Treasure contacted Natrol by e-mail anddiscovered within ten minutes that there was noP. ginsengin the formula, but instead

Eleutherococcus senticosuswhich was then called by the popular name "Siberian ginseng", andit was given in a subclinical dosage mixed with a variety of other herbs. The purported

interaction effects are well-known side effects of phenelzine alone, which had been given in a

high dosage and are not at all suggestive ofEleutherococcus. However, this misinformed article

with a misidentified herb has been picked up in literature searches and megastudies, and is nowdocumented by conventional medical authorities, such as Stockley's, and is repeated in several

botanical monographs, e.g. World Health Organization (WHO 1999).[15][16][17]

[edit] Ginseng and reproductive activity

A 2002 study by the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine (published in the annals ofthe New York Academy of Sciences) found that in laboratory animals, both Asian and American

forms of ginseng enhance libido and copulatory performance. These effects of ginseng may notbe due to changes in hormone secretion, but to direct effects of ginseng or its ginsenoside

components on the central nervous system and gonadal tissues.[18][19]

In males, ginsenosides can

facilitate penile erection.[20]

This is consistent with traditional Chinese medicine and Koreanmedicine medicinal uses of ginseng.

Ginseng is known to contain phytoestrogens.[21][22][23]

In some studies, ginseng has been

demonstrated to have a stimulating effect on the pituitary gland to increase the secretion of

gonadotropins. Another study found that in young mice, it speeds up the development ofreproductive organs, while in adult male mice, it stimulates the production of sperm, andlengthens the estrus period in female mice.
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