Right and Wrong in It Profesional Field

8/3/2019 Right and Wrong in It Profesional Field

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UNIT10: Science, Technology andUNIT10: Science, Technology andEthicsEthics

Ethics:Ethics: A system of moral principle orA system of moral principle orvaluesvalues

Principle: A basic truth, law, orPrinciple: A basic truth, law, or

assumptionassumption

Value: A principle, standard, or qualityValue: A principle, standard, or qualityconsidered worthwhileconsidered worthwhile


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Focus of Ethical Dilemmas in S&T

Ethical issues related to science andEthical issues related to science and

technology usually focus on thetechnology usually focus on the

following:following:

MedicineMedicine

MilitaryMilitaryEconomicsEconomics


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Ethics in Medicine:Ethics in Medicine:

BiotechnologyBiotechnology

CloningCloning

Gene TherapyGene Therapy

Altering species for enhancedAltering species for enhancedproduction, e.g., growth hormoneproduction, e.g., growth hormone

MedicineMedicine

TransplantsTransplants

Life Extending MachinesLife Extending Machines

FertilityFertility


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Ethics and the MilitaryEthics and the Military

Weapons of Mass DestructionWeapons of Mass Destruction

Nuclear TestingNuclear Testing

Human subjects in Military Experiments, i.e.,Human subjects in Military Experiments, i.e.,Chemical Warfare, LSD, Nuclear testingChemical Warfare, LSD, Nuclear testing


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Ethics and EconomicsEthics and Economics

Pollution for ProfitPollution for Profit

Whistle BlowersWhistle Blowers

MonopoliesMonopoliesAdvertisingAdvertising

Buying InfluenceBuying Influence


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Ethical Decision Making in S&TEthical Decision Making in S&T

Generally ethical issues can be usefully clarifiedGenerally ethical issues can be usefully clarifiedif the following considerations to ethicalif the following considerations to ethicaldecision and judgment making are applied.decision and judgment making are applied.

1. The facts of the matter1. The facts of the matter

2. Affected Patients and Their Interests2. Affected Patients and Their Interests(all affected parties)(all affected parties)

3. Key concepts, criteria, and principles3. Key concepts, criteria, and principles(What is life? What does it mean to kill)(What is life? What does it mean to kill)

4. Ethical Theories and Arguments4. Ethical Theories and Arguments


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Ethical Theories and ArgumentsEthical Theories and Arguments

The theories and arguments for ethical behaviorThe theories and arguments for ethical behaviorin science and technology have developedin science and technology have developedover many centuries. The sources andover many centuries. The sources andfoundations for our ethical and moralfoundations for our ethical and moral

behavior are usually traced to religion, family,behavior are usually traced to religion, family,schools, employers, moral leaders, evenschools, employers, moral leaders, evenancient philosophers. Generally speaking ourancient philosophers. Generally speaking ourethical decisions can be associated withethical decisions can be associated with oneoneof three models ethical decision making.of three models ethical decision making.

Teleology (Consequence Ethics)Teleology (Consequence Ethics)

Deontology (Duty Ethics)Deontology (Duty Ethics)

Personal EthicsPersonal Ethics


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Three Classes of Ethical TheoryThree Classes of Ethical TheoryTeleological (consequence ethics)

Examples: J.S. Mills

(Altruistic), Ayn Rand

(egoistic)

Consideration of ConsequencesRelative People oriented

SelectedAltruism (one or

a few)

Utilitarianism(Greatest number

of people)

Egoism (self)


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Three Classes of Ethical TheoryThree Classes of Ethical Theory

Subjective (Personal Ethics)

Ex: Kierkegaard, C.S. Lewis, K. Jaspers,

Nietzche, Emil Brunner

Individualistic

Antinomian

Nonrational

Existential

Mystical Insights God Intuition Emotion Conscience Instinct


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Three Classes of Ethical TheoryThree Classes of Ethical Theory

Deontological (Duty Ethics)

Example: I. Kant

Sources of Maxims

Absolutist

Legalistic

Follow Maxims

Principle oriented

A priori guidance

Importance of goodwill

Religious

AuthorityReason

CategoricalImperative

Moral

LeadersEmployers


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Teleology (Consequence Ethics)Teleology (Consequence Ethics)

Teleology (Consequence Ethics)Teleology (Consequence Ethics): determination of: determination ofrightness or wrongness based onrightness or wrongness based on consequencesconsequences ..

UtilitarianismUtilitarianism -- the view that an action or policy isthe view that an action or policy isright if and only if it is likely to produce at least asright if and only if it is likely to produce at least as

great a surplus of good over evil consequences asgreat a surplus of good over evil consequences asany available alternativeany available alternative

Hedonic Utilitarians:Hedonic Utilitarians: 19th century, Jeremy Bentham,19th century, Jeremy Bentham,Pleasure is the only good and pain the only badPleasure is the only good and pain the only bad

Ideal Utilitarians:Ideal Utilitarians: Friendship and beauty (good) andFriendship and beauty (good) andopposites, alienation and ugliness (bad)opposites, alienation and ugliness (bad)


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Deontology (Duty Ethics)Deontology (Duty Ethics)

Deontology (duty ethics)Deontology (duty ethics): Certain actions are: Certain actions are

inherently or intrinsically right or wronginherently or intrinsically right or wrong -- thatthat

is, right or wrong regardless ofis, right or wrong regardless ofconsequences. For example, telling lies orconsequences. For example, telling lies or

breaking a promise are intrinsically wrong,breaking a promise are intrinsically wrong,

regardless of the consequencesregardless of the consequences


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Six Classifications of S&T Ethical ConflictsSix Classifications of S&T Ethical Conflicts

1.1. Violation of Established World Orders: (Natural orViolation of Established World Orders: (Natural orSocial Order of Things):Social Order of Things):

2.2. Violations of Supposedly Exception less MoralViolations of Supposedly Exception less MoralPrinciplesPrinciples

3.3. Distribution of Science or Technology RelatedDistribution of Science or Technology RelatedBenefitsBenefits

4.4. Infliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant RisksInfliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant Risksof Harm without Prior Consentof Harm without Prior Consent

5.5. Infliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant RisksInfliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant Risks

of Harm without Prior Consentof Harm without Prior Consent6.6. Science or TechnologyScience or Technology--Engendered PositiveEngendered Positive

RightsRights


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Violation of Established World Orders: (NaturalViolation of Established World Orders: (Natural

or Social Order of Things):or Social Order of Things):

Some ethical conflicts arise from the fact that scientificSome ethical conflicts arise from the fact that scientificor technological breakthroughs make possibleor technological breakthroughs make possible

actions that some believe violate some establishedactions that some believe violate some established

natural or social order.natural or social order.

BiomedicineBiomedicineGenetic EngineeringGenetic Engineering

In vitro fertilizationIn vitro fertilization

Animal Science:Transgenic Animals (Beefalo,Animal Science:Transgenic Animals (Beefalo,

etc.) Bovine Growth Hormoneetc.) Bovine Growth Hormone


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Ethical Responses toEthical Responses to Violations of Established WorldViolations of Established World

Orders: (Natural or Social Order of Things):Orders: (Natural or Social Order of Things):

Teleologists:Teleologists: Concern for safety of humans who consume fromConcern for safety of humans who consume froman unnatural alliancean unnatural alliance

Deontologists:Deontologists: The natural order of things is intrinsically good.The natural order of things is intrinsically good.

Technology is seen as artificial, therefore, its use to change theTechnology is seen as artificial, therefore, its use to change the

natural order is bad.natural order is bad.

Those in favor of this technology might counter by saying that GodThose in favor of this technology might counter by saying that God

created the natural order. Humans are part of the natural order.created the natural order. Humans are part of the natural order.

Therefore, intervention of humans is natural.Therefore, intervention of humans is natural.

Some opposition to intervention in the natural or social order isSome opposition to intervention in the natural or social order is

based on based on sacredness.sacredness.

Examples:Examples: Hasidic CommunityHasidic Community of Brooklyn, NY. Birth control isof Brooklyn, NY. Birth control is

forbidden onforbidden on the basis of thethe basis of the TorahTorah. Wahibi Muslim sect. TV. Wahibi Muslim sect. TV

violates sacred order related to theviolates sacred order related to the Koran.Koran.


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Violations of Supposedly Exception lessViolations of Supposedly Exception less

Moral PrinciplesMoral Principles

Ethical issues related to the use, failure to use, orEthical issues related to the use, failure to use, or

withdrawal of particular scientific or technologicalwithdrawal of particular scientific or technological

procedures that are seen by some as violating one orprocedures that are seen by some as violating one or

another important moral principles that is believedanother important moral principles that is believedexception less.exception less.

Examples:Examples:

1. Any course of action sure to result in the destruction of1. Any course of action sure to result in the destruction of

innocent civilian lives in time of war is ethicallyinnocent civilian lives in time of war is ethically

impermissible. Iraqimpermissible. Iraq2. Life must always be preserved (Kavorkian)2. Life must always be preserved (Kavorkian)

3. A human being must never be treated merely as a3. A human being must never be treated merely as a means tomeans toan end (harvesting of fetal tissue).an end (harvesting of fetal tissue).


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Distribution of Science or Technology RelatedDistribution of Science or Technology Related

BenefitsBenefits

Benefits of developments in science and technology allocated inBenefits of developments in science and technology allocated inways that do not seem equitable to one or another socialways that do not seem equitable to one or another socialgroups; particularly so with respect to medical benefits, whethergroups; particularly so with respect to medical benefits, whetherdiagnostic tests, surgical procedures, or therapeutic drugsdiagnostic tests, surgical procedures, or therapeutic drugsdevices or services.devices or services.

The ethical issue often centers on who should receive the benefitsThe ethical issue often centers on who should receive the benefitsand who will not. Often life and death decisions.and who will not. Often life and death decisions.

Example:Example: Transplant criteria often based on middle classTransplant criteria often based on middle classvalues.values.

1. Motivated to save life1. Motivated to save life

2. Understands the benefits2. Understands the benefits3. Capable of adhering to strict diet3. Capable of adhering to strict diet

4. Show up for post transplant appointments4. Show up for post transplant appointments

5. Post treatment quality of life5. Post treatment quality of life

6. Contribution of treatment candidate to community6. Contribution of treatment candidate to community


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Ethical Responses toEthical Responses to Distribution of Science orDistribution of Science or

Technology Related BenefitsTechnology Related Benefits

Deontologists:Deontologists: Medical care is a basic human right, therefore, it isMedical care is a basic human right, therefore, it is

morally unthinkable to deny a person treatment simply becausemorally unthinkable to deny a person treatment simply because

of socioof socio--economic status.economic status.

Teleologists:Teleologists: May find the concept of absolute right potentiallyMay find the concept of absolute right potentiallydangerous; that is that guaranteeing everyone who needs andangerous; that is that guaranteeing everyone who needs an

expensive exotic treatment may preclude many more individualsexpensive exotic treatment may preclude many more individuals

from getting less expensive, more beneficial, nonfrom getting less expensive, more beneficial, non--lifelife--oror--deathdeath

treatments. Individuals do not have the moral right to draw,treatments. Individuals do not have the moral right to draw,

without limit, on public or insurance company funds to have theirwithout limit, on public or insurance company funds to have theirlives extended, regardless of the quality sustained life.lives extended, regardless of the quality sustained life.


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Infliction of Harm or Exposure to SignificantInfliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant

Risks of Harm without Prior ConsentRisks of Harm without Prior Consent

Developments in science and technology whileDevelopments in science and technology whileundertaken to benefit one group, may inflict harm orundertaken to benefit one group, may inflict harm or

impose significant risk of harm on another without theimpose significant risk of harm on another without the

latters prior consent.latters prior consent.

Examples:Examples: Research on animals;Research on animals; production of crossproduction of cross--

border and multi generational pollution; theborder and multi generational pollution; the

maintenance of carcinogenmaintenance of carcinogen -- containing workplaces;containing workplaces;

and the operation of hair trigger military defenseand the operation of hair trigger military defense

systems.systems.


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Responses toResponses to Infliction of Harm or Exposure toInfliction of Harm or Exposure to

Significant Risks of Harm without Prior ConsentSignificant Risks of Harm without Prior Consent

Teleologists:Teleologists: on coston cost--benefit grounds, activities thatbenefit grounds, activities that

promise future benefits for humans but inflictpromise future benefits for humans but inflict

suffering on animals are ethically permissible andsuffering on animals are ethically permissible and

perhaps obligatory.perhaps obligatory.Rationale:Rationale: since animals cannot consent to anything,since animals cannot consent to anything,

they are different in a moral ly relevant respect fromthey are different in a moral ly relevant respect from

humans.humans.

Deontologists:Deontologists: Research using animals as morallyResearch using animals as morally

wrong because animals are not capable ofwrong because animals are not capable of

consenting.consenting.


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Science or Technology Precipitated ValueScience or Technology Precipitated Value

Conflicts:Conflicts:

Scientific or technological advances allow somethingScientific or technological advances allow something

new to be done that precipitates a value conflict.new to be done that precipitates a value conflict.

Example:Example: Human life preservation and death withHuman life preservation and death with

dignity. The critical point is that this conflict would notdignity. The critical point is that this conflict would not

exist without technology.exist without technology.Example:Example: Genetic tests showing predisposition forGenetic tests showing predisposition for

certain diseases. Should disclosure be made? Whatcertain diseases. Should disclosure be made? What

actions are appropriate?actions are appropriate?


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Science or TechnologyScience or Technology--Engendered PositiveEngendered Positive

RightsRights

Irrevocable EntitlementsIrrevocable Entitlements: Right to life and liberty: Right to life and liberty

Privacy is a part of liberty. Technology is oftenPrivacy is a part of liberty. Technology is often

perceived as a threat to rights of privacy.perceived as a threat to rights of privacy.


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Other Issues: Ethics in Science and TechnologyOther Issues: Ethics in Science and Technology

Public Harm of Aggregation:Public Harm of Aggregation: Accumulation of smallAccumulation of small

transgressions by humans results in an aggregationtransgressions by humans results in an aggregation

that has significant consequences.that has significant consequences.

ExampleExample:: The aggregate pollution of 400 millionThe aggregate pollution of 400 million

automobiles.automobiles.Practitioner Problems:Practitioner Problems:

Falling within the province of Professional Ethics weFalling within the province of Professional Ethics we

often rely, perhaps unfairly, on the scientist oroften rely, perhaps unfairly, on the scientist or

technologist to make the ethical decisiontechnologist to make the ethical decision


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Other Issues: Ethics in Science and TechnologyOther Issues: Ethics in Science and Technology

(cont.)(cont.)

Problems of Execution: Edward Wenks three kinds of ethical issues facedProblems of Execution: Edward Wenks three kinds of ethical issues facedby engineers;by engineers;

1.1. Distributive Justice:Distributive Justice: Should a project be given approval if a non trivialShould a project be given approval if a non trivialdegree of risk to health and safety could exist without the consent ofdegree of risk to health and safety could exist without the consent ofthose within the impact area?those within the impact area?

Examples:Examples: Hydroelectric dam in an unstable area. Dilemma oftenHydroelectric dam in an unstable area. Dilemma oftenrelates to what constitutes acceptable riskrelates to what constitutes acceptable risk

1932, U.S. Public Health Service, 432 Black Males1932, U.S. Public Health Service, 432 Black Males

1950s CIA, mind controlling experiments1950s CIA, mind controlling experiments

19491949--1969 Biological Warfare, 239 tests1969 Biological Warfare, 239 tests

2.2. Whistle Blowing:Whistle Blowing: Cheap unreliable designs; testing shortcuts;Cheap unreliable designs; testing shortcuts;

misrepresented results; faulty manufacturing; botched installations, etc.misrepresented results; faulty manufacturing; botched installations, etc.Example:Example: Morton ThiokalMorton Thiokal -- OO--rings 1986 Challengerrings 1986 Challenger

3.3. Consideration of LongConsideration of Long--term Effects:term Effects:

Example:Example: HalfHalf--life of nuclear waste, Design of Obsolescencelife of nuclear waste, Design of Obsolescence


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The Challenge of Contemporary Science andThe Challenge of Contemporary Science and

Technology to Traditional Ethical TheoryTechnology to Traditional Ethical Theory

Developments in contemporary science and technology requireDevelopments in contemporary science and technology requirerevisions in traditional ethical thinking and decision making.revisions in traditional ethical thinking and decision making.

McGinn ProposalMcGinn Proposal

Qualified Neo Consequntialism:Qualified Neo Consequntialism:Assessments must have theAssessments must have the

following Neo Consequentialist Qualities:following Neo Consequentialist Qualities:

1. Focused on harm and well1. Focused on harm and well--being:being: directed to identifying anddirected to identifying andweighing the importance of consequences likely to influence theweighing the importance of consequences likely to influence theharm or well being of affected patientsharm or well being of affected patients

2. Refined:2. Refined: designed to be sensitive to subtle effectsdesigned to be sensitive to subtle effects

3. Comprehensive:3. Comprehensive: designed to attend to all harm and well beingdesigned to attend to all harm and well beingrelated effectsrelated effects -- social, cultural, as well as economic andsocial, cultural, as well as economic andphysical on all participants.physical on all participants.

4. Discriminating:4. Discriminating: Designed to enable scientific andDesigned to enable scientific andtechnological options to be examined on a casetechnological options to be examined on a case--byby--case basis.case basis.

5. Prudent:5. Prudent: Embodying and attitude toward safetyEmbodying and attitude toward safety

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Right and Wrong in It Profesional Field