Review Article -Based Nanomaterials: Synthesis and ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/jnm/2015/850147.pdf · based nanostructures with improved performance in the areas of lithium-ion

Review ArticleSnO2-Based Nanomaterials Synthesis and Application inLithium-Ion Batteries and Supercapacitors

Qinqin Zhao Lisha Ma Qiang Zhang Chenggang Wang and Xijin Xu

School of Physics and Technology University of Jinan 336 Nanxin Zhuang West Road Jinan Shandong 250022 China

Correspondence should be addressed to Xijin Xu sps xuxjujneducn

Received 8 August 2014 Accepted 24 September 2014

Academic Editor Chuanfei Guo

Copyright copy 2015 Qinqin Zhao et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

Tin dioxide (SnO2) is an important n-type wide-bandgap semiconductor and SnO

2-based nanostructures are presenting

themselves as one of the most important classes due to their various tunable physicochemical properties In this paper we firstlyoutline the syntheses of phase-pure SnO

2hierarchical structures with different morphologies such as nanorods nanosheets and

nanospheres as well as their modifications by doping and compositing with other materialsThen we reviewed the design of SnO2-

based nanostructures with improved performance in the areas of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and supercapacitors

1 Introduction

As one of the most important classes of materials metaloxide semiconductor nanomaterials present themselves invarious areas of science and technology due to their shape-and size-dependent physical and chemical properties [1 2]Among variousmetal oxide nanomaterials SnO

2has become

the foremost one because of its wide applications in lithiumbatteries [3ndash6] supercapacitors [7ndash10] gas sensors [11 12]and catalysis [13 14] Recently reports on the applications ofSnO2nanostructures mainly depend on their morphologies

and structural features Thus considerable efforts have beendevoted to synthesizing SnO

2nanostructures with different

morphologies such as nanorods [15ndash17] nanowires [18ndash20]nanotubes [11] nanosheets [2 21] and 3D nanospheres self-assembled from these low-dimensional nanostructures viainteractions such as van der Waals forces hydrogen andcovalent bonding [3 22ndash24]

Various methods have been adopted for the preparationof nanoscaled SnO

2nanostructures such as hydrothermal

route and template method However because the perfor-mance enhancement to meet the increasing requirements isstill to be a challenge thenmany researchers have establishedvarious ways to improve the performance of SnO

2-based

materials including doping [25 26] synthesis of stannatenanomaterials [27] and constructing the heterojunctions

[28] In this respect development of suitable synthetic strate-gies has become crucial to achieve the desired properties

In this review we outline the synthetic strategies ofphase-pure SnO

2hierarchical structures and the approaches

to enhance the performance The applications of hierar-chical SnO

2-based nanostructures in lithium-ion batteries

and supercapacitors are also reviewed By focusing on thehierarchical SnO

2-based nanostructures we hope to provide

a better understanding on their physicochemical propertiesand the design principles when used in energy conversionand energy storage and further explore the new possibilitiesto advance the future research

2 SnO2-Based Nanomaterials

21 Phase-Pure SnO2Nanostructures Many researchers have

devoted their efforts to manipulate the structures and mor-phologies of SnO

2in order to improve the performances and

widen their applications Two kinds of synthesis strategieshave generally been explored as follows

(1) Hydrothermal Method Hydrothermal method has beenpaid much attention due to its simplicity low cost highefficiency and convenient manipulation combined with flex-ible control over the sizes and morphologies of the resultingnanostructures [9 11 17 23 24] in which aqueous solution

Hindawi Publishing CorporationJournal of NanomaterialsVolume 2015 Article ID 850147 15 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552015850147

2 Journal of Nanomaterials

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 1 (a)-(b) FESEM images (c) low-magnification TEM image and (d) high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) image of the preparedhierarchical SnO

2nanostructures Inset in d exhibits the typical corresponding SAED pattern adapted from [2] with permission

is used as the reaction medium to create a high temperatureand high pressure reaction environment by heating the reac-tion vessel to a certain temperature In 2004 Cheng et al [16]synthesized single-crystalline SnO

2nanorods with diameter

of about 5 nm and length of about 20 nm Furthermoremany researchers developed the method and synthesizeddifferent SnO

2architectures by adjusting the precursors and

experimental conditions [2 11 17] For example SnO2hollow

microspheres composed of SnO2nanoparticles have been

synthesized [29] Recently Liu et al [2] developed a facileapproach to fabricate hierarchical SnO

2nanosheets using

SnCl2sdot2H2O as tin source and sodium citrate as control-

ling agents The ultrathin nanosheets with a thickness ofabout 20 nm are shown in Figures 1(a) and 1(b) whichcorresponds to the TEM image of Figure 1(c) The HRTEMimage (Figure 1(d)) exhibits the well-defined lattice fringescombined with the SAED pattern Their growth mechanismis generally summarized in Figure 2 [2 30] First of all SnO

2

nanocrystals were formed due to the hydrolysis of SnCl2

whereas in the second step the grown small SnO2nanoparti-

cles are further assembledwith each other to formnanosheetsbecause of the ldquooriented attachmentrdquo growth process Subse-quently the fast oriental attachment of the SnO

2nanoparti-

cles results in the formation of SnO2nanosheets Moreover

the new formed particles would spontaneously ldquolandrdquo on theas-formed sheets and further grow to another sheet whichled to the formation of flower-like SnO

2architectures

(2) Template Method Template-based methods offer manyadvantages including simplicity low cost and narrow size

distribution [11] However there are some limitations Forexample the post treatment process of the templates alwaysdamages the nanoarchitectures and it is difficult to removethe template and limit the ability to produce large-scalednanomaterials Generally templates such as silica nanorods[31] MoO

3nanorods [32] and carbon nanotubes [33] can

be removed through calcination at high temperature (eg toremove carbon or polystyrene spheres) or chemical dissolu-tion (eg use of hydrofluoric acid to remove silica templates)which may result in collapse of some fraction of the hollowstructures [34 35]Therefore it is highly desirable to developnew strategies for synthesizing hollow SnO

2nanostructures

Zhang et al [11] developed a reactive-template method tofabricate porous SnO

2nanotubes using MnO

2nanorods as

the sacrificial template The overall synthesis procedure isillustrated in Figure 3 which is based on the redox chemistrybetween reductive Sn2+ and oxidative MnO

2in an acidic

environment Chemical reactions for the formation of SnO2

nanotubes included in a basic aqueous solution are shown in(1)ndash(3)

MnO2+ 4H+ + 2eminus1 997888rarr Mn2+ + 2H

2O (1)

Sn4+ + 2eminus1 997888rarr Sn2+ (2)

MnO2+ Sn2+ + 2H

2O 997888rarr Mn2+ + Sn(OH)

4 (3)

When the MnO2nanorods are completely dissolved

because of reduction then the Sn(OH)4nanotubes with a

hollow interior are eventually formed Finally porous SnO2

Journal of Nanomaterials 3

Crystalline nucleation Aggregation

Self-

asse

mbl

y

Further growthOvertime

SnCl2middot2H2OC6H5Na3O7 middot2H2O

Figure 2 Schematic for the possible growth of the as-synthesized hierarchical SnO2nanostructures adapted from [2] with permission

I II

MnO2 nanorods SnO2 middotxH2O nanorods SnO2 nanotubes

Figure 3 Synthesis process for SnO2nanotubes via a reactive-template strategy adapted from [11] with permission

nanotubes were obtained by annealing the product at 500∘Cfor 2 h ((4)-(5))

Sn(OH)4997888rarr SnO

2sdot 119909H2O + (2 minus 119909)H

2O (4)

SnO2sdot 119909H2O 997888rarr SnO

2+ 2H2O (5)

The morphologies of the MnO2nanorods and the as-

prepared SnO2nanotubes (Figures 4(a) 4(b) and 4(c))

exhibit their 1D structure The SnO2nanotubes show a

rough surface because the tube walls are composed of manynanoparticles with a size in the range of 5ndash15 nm (Figures4(d) and 4(e)) The hollow porous structure of the nanotubesis also visible as indicated by the dashed lines in Figures4(d) and 4(e)The pore-size distribution (inset of Figure 4(f))calculated using the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) methodfor both the adsorption and desorption branches of theisotherm indicates that most of the pores have a diameterin the range of 2ndash6 nm Such porous structure leads toa Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area of661m2g

Wang et al [36] fabricated SnO2nanorods that consisted

of SnO2hollow microspheres via the soft template relying on

the use of (CH2)6N4and demonstrated that it is a nontoxic

water-soluble method to prepare the hollow structure underthe hydrothermal treatment

(3) Other Synthesis Methods Besides the above-mentionedmethods there are many other approaches for the fabricationof SnO

2-based nanostructures Spray pyrolysis is a process

for preparing particles or films by forming droplets from aprecursor solution and then evaporating and decomposing

them in a reactor This process has proven to be quite usefulfor the preparation of various nanostructure and compositeparticles as is shown in Figure 5 with many reports ontothe effect of the main variables on particle formation [37]Hong et al [38] prepared Pd-loaded double-shelled SnO

2

yolk-shell spheres by one-step spray pyrolysis Patil et al[39] synthesized high-purity nanostructured SnO

2powders

through spray pyrolysis Ju et al [40] reported the use of spraypyrolysis to produce SnO

2powders with uniform morphol-

ogy and narrow size distribution In addition others methodare also used to synthesize SnO

2-based nanostructures Yan

et al [41] synthesized the hierarchical SnO2hollow spheres

by two layers of tetragonal prism nanorod arrays formedon the surface of self-generated NO bubbles in the aqueoussolution This method is promising in the design of thehollow structures without further heat treatment Dai et al[18] synthesized SnO

2nanowires sandwiched nanoribbons

and nanotubes by high temperature thermal oxide methodChen et al [15] reported that SnO

2nanorod arrays were

synthesized in a ternary solvent system comprising aceticacid ethanol and water using SnCl

4as the Sn source and

NaBr as the additive The growth of SnO2crystals was

carefully controlled in the mixed solvents leading to theexclusively heterogeneous nucleation on a substrate andfinally the mesocrystalline nanorod arrays were obtainedMost of the above methods are illustrated in Table 1

22 Doped Hierarchical SnO2Nanostructures Doping of

oxide nanomaterials is a general approach to tailor theirelectrical and optical properties Thus many efforts havebeen carried out to improve the performance of the materials


(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

80

60

40

20

0

Volu

me a

dsor

bed

(cm

3 g)

00 02 04 06 08 10

Relative pressure (PP0)

005

004

003

002

001

000dVdD

por

e vol

ume (

cm3

gnm

)

1 10 100

Diameter (nm)

AdsorptionDesorption

(f)

Figure 4 SEM images of (a) MnO2nanorods and ((b) (c)) SnO

2nanotubes ((d) (e)) TEM images of SnO

2nanotubes (f) N

2adsorption-

desorption isotherm with the BJH pore-size distribution in the inset adapted from [11] with permission


Table 1 Summary of various methods for SnO2-based nanostructure synthesis

Structure type Method Matrix Growth reagent Growth condition Reference

SnO2 nanosheetsHydrothermal

method In solutionSnCl2sdot2H2O

C6H5Na3Osdot2H2Oethanol water

Autoclave 180∘C 8 h [2]

3D SnO2 nanoflowersHydrothermal

method Ti foil SnCl4sdot5H2O NaOHwater

Autoclave 200∘C(2 4 8 16 h) [9]

Zn-doped SnO2 nanorodsHydrothermal

method In solution SnCl4sdot5H2O ZnCl2NaOH ethanol water Autoclave 200∘C 24 h [14]

Single-crystalline SnO2nanorods

Hydrothermalmethod In solution SnCl4sdot5H2O alcohol

water Autoclave 150∘C 24 h [16]

SnO2 hollow microspheres Hydrothermalmethod In solution SnCl4sdot5H2O

carbamide water Autoclave 160∘C 16 h [29]

Porous SnO2 nanotubes Template method In solution MnSO4sdotH2OSnCl2sdot2H2O HCL Autoclave 160∘C 12 h [11]

SnO2 hollow microspheres Template method In solution SnCl2 H2O2 NaOH(CH2)

6N4


Pd-Loaded SnO2 Yolk-Shellnanostructures Spray pyrolysis Spray solution

C2O4SnPd(NO

3)

2sdot119909H2O

C12H22O11 HNO3

Air flow rate10 Lminminus1 1000∘C [38]

SnO2 nanoparticles Spray pyrolysis Spray solution SnCl4sdot5H2OAir flow rate 17 kgm2

673 K and 1073K [39]

SnO2 powders Spray pyrolysis Spray solution SnCl4sdot5H2O citricacid ethylene glycols

Gas flow rate40 Lmin 900∘C [40]

Tin Oxide nanowiresnanoribbons andnanotubes

High temperaturethermal oxide

methodGas

Sn foil + SnO-layered

N2 flow gas

Lindberg blue tubefurnace configuration

1050ndash1150∘C[18]

Figure 5 Various nanostructure and composite particles preparedby spray pyrolysis adapted from [37] with permission

by doping other elements For example Yin and Guo [42]prepared Fe-doped SnO

2gas sensor for CO detection and

the response value of the compositematerial to 2000 ppmCOwas raised 13 times than that of pure SnO

2 Turgut et al [43]

synthesized MoF double doped SnO2films and obtained

the best electrical and optical properties In relation to SnO2

nanostructures doping with element Zn has been paid moreattention by several groups [14 44ndash46] As previous reports

[2 44] Sn(IV) would form Sn(OH)6

2minus ions in highly alkalinesolution and then undergo decomposition to obtain SnO

2

nuclei After introduction of Zn2+ into the reaction mixturedifferent morphologies of Zn-doped SnO

2nanostructures

can be formed Jia et al [44] synthesized Zn-doped SnO2

hierarchical architectures assembled by nanocones via asolvothermal approach Li et al [47] reported that Zn-dopedSnO2nanostructures are composed of dense SnO

2nanowires

with growth orientation along the (101) direction Huanget al [14] modified the morphologies and properties of theflower-like single-crystalline SnO

2nanorods by Zn doping

in a facile hydrothermal synthesis route without any complexor toxic organic reagents After Zn doping the morphologychanged from nanorods with a constant diameter (Figures6(a) and 6(b)) to needle-like nanorods (Figures 6(c) and6(d)) The needle-like nanorods are of smooth surfaces andrectangular cross section with a diameter of 30ndash50 nm and alength up to several hundred nanometers The lattice spacingof crystallographic planes marked in the image (Figure 6(f))has been measured to be 035 nm and 027 nm respectivelycorresponding to the (110) and (101) planes of rutile SnO

2 In

addition doping of other elements such as Co and Fe wasalso synthesized by a chemical route using polyvinyl alcoholas surfactant [23] Moreover Wang et al [48] have reportedthe synthesis of hierarchical SnO

2nanoflowers using NaF as

the morphology-controlling agent and SnCl2sdot2H2O as the tin

source This resulted in the simultaneous Sn2+ self-dopingof SnO

2nanostructures and led to the formation of tunable


(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 6 SEM and TEM images of pure SnO2nanorods and Zn-doped SnO

2nanorods ((a) (b)) SEM image of pure SnO

2nanorods ((c)

(d)) SEM image of Zn-doped SnO2nanorods (e) TEM image and (f) HRTEM image of a typical nanorod Inset in (f) is the fast Fourier

transform (FFT) of the HRTEM image adapted from [14] with permission


(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7 SEM images of WO3-SnO2HNS nanocomposites with different added amounts of Na

2SnO3 (a) 02mmol (b) 05mmol and (c)

1mmol adapted from [52] with permission

oxygen vacancies bandgap states and the corresponding shift-ing in the semiconductor Fermi levels and further extendedabsorption in the visible spectral range

23 SnO2-BasedNanocomposites Recentlymany researchers

have reported the fabrication of sensitized semiconductorby noble metal particles or the formation of semiconductorheterojunction in which the performance can be greatlyimproved Chung et al [49] synthesized AuZnO core-shell structure for gaseous formaldehyde sensing at roomtemperature The sensor response of the AuZnO core-shell structure was enhanced to 1057 from 191 of the pureZnO Ju et al [28] prepared NiOZnO PN heterojunctionTEA gas sensor and the response is much higher than thatof pure ZnO nanosheet sensor and other reported oxidechemiresistive gas sensors Herein SnO

2-based nanocom-

posites have been actively pursued in order to improve theirperformance in gas sensors [50 51] dye-sensitized solar cells[47] and so on Li et al [51] prepared the composites of SnO

2

nanocrystalgraphene-nanosheets on the basis of the reduc-tion of graphene oxide (GO) by Sn2+ ion The morphologiesof SnO

2graphene-nanosheets composites were changedwith

different ratios of Sn2+ and GO Li et al [52] synthesizedWO3-SnO2hollow nanospheres by hydrothermal process

with a diameter and thickness of about 550 nm and 30 nmrespectivelyThe influence of the Na

2SnO3concentrations on

the morphologies of nanocomposites was investigated due toits alkaline nature Na

2SnO3whichmay control the hydrolysis

degree of Na2WO4 as shown in Figure 7 When the reaction

was carried out with 02mmol Na2SnO3 a small number of

nanospheres coexisted with irregular aggregates of nanopar-ticles (Figure 7(a)) As the amount of Na

2SnO3was increased

to 05mmol the obtained product consisted of largenanospheres (Figure 7(b)) However particles aggregatedwithout an orderly shape were collected when the amount ofNa2SnO3increased to 1mmol as shown in Figure 7(c)

Besides the composites of SnO2nanostructures with

other materials such as Fe2O3 CuO and ZnO have also

been reported Liu et al [53] demonstrated the growth ofFe2O3SnO

2nanoparticle decorated graphene flexible films

Choi et al [54] preparedCuO-loaded SnO2hollow spheres by

ultrasonic spray pyrolysis Moreover ZnO-SnO2nanocom-

posites have been also investigated in some reports [55 56]

24 Stannate Nanomaterials Stannate nanomaterials likeZnSnO

3[57 58] Zn

2SnO4[59 60] and CdSnO

3[61] have

also attracted much more attention for higher reversiblecapacities low cost easy preparation and especially variousmorphologies [58ndash61] Wang et al [61] synthesized highlyporous CdSnO

3nanoparticles using citric acid (Figure 8) and

applied it as an anodematerial for rechargeable LIBs It can beseen that there was a sharp contrast between the bright cav-ities and dark edges which further confirmed the formationof the porous structure (Figures 8(a) 8(b) and 8(c)) For theCdSnO

3nanoparticles the HRTEM images showed lattice

fringes spacing of ca 01996 nm corresponding to the (024)planes of rhombohedral-phase CdSnO

3(Figure 8(d))

Zn2SnO4have also drawn much attention as anode

materials [27] Zhao et al [62] fabricated monodispersedhollow Zn

2SnO4boxes by the simple coprecipitation and

alkali etching way The hollow boxes exhibit an electro-chemical performance with high capacity and good cyclingstability than the solid cubes and those reported Wang etal [60] prepared flower-like Zn

2SnO4composites through

a green hydrothermal synthesis in which the flower-likeZn2SnO4structures are composed of several 1D Zn

2SnO4

nanorods These structures generally consist of several sharptips branching out in three dimensions with large surfacearea Duan et al [58] fabricated amorphous ZnSnO

3hollow

nanoboxes for the first time in a large scale by a facile alkalinesolution etching method

3 Applications of SnO2-Based Nanomaterials

31 Lithium-Ion Batteries In order to address both energyand power demands there is an urgent need to developclean energy sources systems Herein LIBs have attractedwidespread attention because of their high energy densityhigh power smooth discharge and light weight as well asbeing environment friendly [63] The electrodersquos materialis one of the key components for perfecting LIBs It playsa crucial role in establishing the overall properties of the


(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 8 SEM and TEM images of CdSnO3 (a) an SEM image (b) low-magnification and (c) high-magnification TEM images and (d)

HRTEM image adapted from [61] with permission

MWCNTs

KNa 12-dimethoxyethane

rt 3d

GNRs

Ultrasonication in airGNRs

SnO2SnCl2 2-pyrrolidinone

Figure 9 Scheme for the synthesis of the GNRsSnO2composite adapted from [78] with permission

battery SnO2has been demonstrated to be one of the most

promising anode materials for high performance LIBs [3364ndash66] due to its high theoretical specific storage capacity

(782mAhg) compared with the commercially used graphite(372mAhg) [67 68] The mechanism of LIBs for SnO

2is

based on the alloyingdealloying processes which are the


20

15

10

05

00

minus05

minus10

minus15

minus20

minus25

Curr

ent d

ensit

y (A

g)

00 05 10 15 20 25

Potential (V versus Li+Li)1st cycle2nd cycle3rd cycle

a

b

c

d

a998400

(a)

30

25

20

15

10

05

00

Pote

ntia

l (V

ver

susL

i+L

i)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Capacity (mAhg)1st cycle2nd cycle30th cycle

(b)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Cap

acity

(mA

hg)

minus5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Cycle numberSnO2 chargeSnO2 dischargeGNRmiddotSnO2 charge

GNRmiddotSnO2 dischargeSnO2GNRmiddotSnO2

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Cou

lom

bic

effici

ency

()

(c)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Capa

city

(mA

hg)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Cycle numberChargeDischarge

01Ag

01Ag

02Ag05Ag

1Ag2Ag

(d)

Figure 10The electrochemical performance of the GNRsSnO2composite electrodesThe specific capacities are calculated based on the total

mass of the GNRsSnO2composite in the anode electrodes (a) CV curves of the first second and third cycles of the composite electrodes at

a scan rate of 05mVs over the voltage range of 001sim25 V (b)The first second and 30th chargedischarge curves of the composite electrodeat a rate of 100mAg (c) Comparison of capacity retention and Coulombic efficiency of GNRs and the GNRsSnO

2composite at a rate of

100mAg (d) Rate capability of the composite electrodes with various current densities adapted from [78] with permission

intrinsic driving force for the electrochemical activity [6869]

SnO2+ 4Li+ + 4eminus1 997888rarr Sn + 2Li

2O (6)

Sn + 120594Li+ + 120594eminus1 larrrarr Li120594Sn (0 le 120594 le 44) (7)

However the lithiationdelithiation process often inducesthe large volume expansion and further causes pulverizationThis will lead to severe internal strain cracking and blockingof the electrical contact pathways in the electrodes which

result in their rapid deterioration and low retention of theelectrical capacity [70 71] To overcome the above problemsmany efforts have been carried out to optimize the structurescompositions and morphologies of SnO

2-based materials

such as 0D nanoparticles [64 72] 1D nanowires [73] 2Dnanosheets [35] and the doping [74 75] or composition [76]with other materials

Wu et al [22] reported that hierarchical SnO2nanos-

tructures that consist of SnO2nanosheets exhibit superior

reversible capacities (discharge capacity of 516mAhg) and


cyclic capacity retention (80) after 50 cycles at a cur-rent rate of 400mAg which is much higher than that ofcommercial SnO

2nanoparticles (286mAg 48 retention)

This can be ascribed to its stable porous structure Thehigh porosity short transport paths of SnO

2nanosheets

and the interconnections between the individual buildingblocks of such hierarchical structures endow those promisingcandidates as anode materials for LIBs Wang et al [77]fabricated N-doped G-SnO

2sandwich papers The sandwich

structure not only assures solid contact between the SnO2

particle and the graphene layer but also facilitates highelectrode conductivity and renders the elastomeric spaceneeded to accommodate the volume changes of SnO

2 When

this material is used in LIBs it exhibits a very large capacityhigh rate capability and excellent cycling stability All theexcellent electrochemical performances of this material withrespect to commercial SnO

2nanoparticles can be attributed

to the structural features that provide a large number ofsurface defects induced onto the graphene by N-dopingexcellent electronic conductivity short transportation lengthfor both lithium ions and electrons and enough elastomericspace to accommodate volume changes upon Li inser-tionextraction Lin et al [78] synthesized a composite madefrom graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) and SnO

2nanoparticles

used as the anode material for LIBs The synthesis route ofthe GNRsSnO

2composite is illustrated in Figure 9 First

the GNRs were obtained using KNa alloy to unzip theMWCNTsThen SnCl

2and 2-pyrrolidinone were added into

the GNRs with ultrasonication for reducing Sn2+ to Sn0Lastly the Sn NPs were oxidized overnight using ultrasoni-cation in air The CV curves of the initial three cycles showthe reversibility of the composite electrode chargedischargeprocess as shown in Figure 10(a) The composite as ananode material for LIBs exhibits reversible capacities ofover 1520 and 1130mAhg for the first discharge and chargerespectively which is more than the theoretical capacityof SnO

2(Figure 10(b)) The reversible capacity retains sim

825mAhg at a current density of 100mAgwith aCoulombicefficiency of 98 after 50 cycles (Figure 10(c)) Further-more the composite shows good power performance witha reversible capacity of sim580mAhg at the current densityof 2 Ag as shown in Figure 10(d) The high capacity andgood power performance and retention can be attributed touniformly distributed SnO

2NPs along the high-aspect-ratio

GNRs The GNRs act as conductive additives that buffer thevolume changes of SnO

2during cycling This work provides

a starting point for exploring the composites made fromGNRs and other transition metal oxides for lithium storageapplications

Besides Yang et al [79] synthesized SnO2graphene

nanosheet nanocomposite as an anode material for LIBsTheSnO2-In2O3GNS nanocomposite exhibits obvious enhance-

ment electrochemical performance in terms of lithium stor-age capacity (962mAhg at 60mAg rate) initial Coulombicefficiency (572) cycling stability (608 capacity reten-tion after 50 cycles) and rate capability (39325mAhg at600mAg rate after 25 cycles) compared to SnO

2GNS and

pure SnO2-In2O3electrode

Stainless steel substrate

MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2

Figure 11 Schematic image of the amorphous MnO2loaded on the

SnO2nanowires grown on the stainless steel substrate The SnO

2

nanowire provides a direct path for the electrons adapted from [90]with permission

32 Supercapacitors Supercapacitors also called electro-chemical capacitors have been known for over than fifty yearsand considered as one of the most promising energy storagedevices for a wide range of uninterruptible power suppliesand civilian and military applications in electric vehicles[80ndash82] In contrast to conventional capacitors and LIBssupercapacitors possess much higher energy density and alsoexhibit higher specific power Up to now there are mainlythree kinds of electrode materials for supercapacitors whichare as follow metal oxides carbon and conducting polymers[83ndash86] Due to low cost and environmental compatibilityconsideration metal oxide candidates with good capacitivevalues have attracted much attention [87]

SnO2-based supercapacitors have been paid significant

attention due to their high electrochemical capacitor (EC)and chemical stability [88 89] Yan et al [90] synthesizedSnO2MnO

2composite for the application of supercapacitor

electrodes The prepared process was shown in Figure 11This nanostructure has several advantages (1) a thin layerof MnO

2would enable a fast reversible faradic reaction and

would provide a short ion diffusion path (2) SnO2nanowires

with high conductivity would provide a direct path for theelectrons transport and (3) SnO

2nanowires would create

channels for the effective transport of electrolyte Basedon the above it exhibited a specific capacitance (basedon MnO

2) as high as 637 F gminus1 at a scan rate of 2mVsminus1

(800 F gminus1 at a current density of 1 A gminus1) in 1M Na2SO4

aqueous solution (Figure 12(a)) Temperature is an importantinfluence factor on supercapacitor cells It is valuable toevaluate the capacitive behavior of SnO

2MnO

2composites

at various temperatures Figure 12(b) shows the specificcapacitance obtained at different temperatures and scanrates It can be seen obviously that the specific capacitanceand rate capability increase with the increase of tempera-ture This is attributed to the decrease of effective internalresistance with increasing temperature The energy density


600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100

Scan rate (mVSminus1)

(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)

Figure 12 (a) Plotted curve of the variation in the specific capacitance of the SnO2MnO

2composites as a function of the scan rate (b)

Specific capacitance obtained at different scan rates at 3 27 and 55∘C (c) Curve showing long-term stability as a function of the cycle numbertested by constant current chargedischarge method (current density of 20A gminus1) which was carried out continuously at 3 plusmn 1∘C (ice waterbath) and then at 27∘C (room temperature) and finally at 55 plusmn 2∘C (water bath) The inset shows the first cycle of chargedischarge curves atdifferent temperatures at a high current density of 20A gminus1 adapted from [90] with permission

and power density measured at 50A gminus1 are 354Wh kgminus1and 25 kWkgminus1 respectively demonstrating a good ratecapability After that the SnO

2MnO

2composite electrode

shows an excellent long-term cyclic stability (less than 12decrease of the specific capacitance is observed after 2000CVcycles) as shown in Figure 12(c) Li et al [89] fabricatedFe3O4SnO

2core-shell nanorods The hybrid nanorod film

displayed well-defined electrochemical features in Na2SO4

aqueous electrolyte chargingdischarging within seconds

and with much higher areal capacitance (7013mF cmminus2 at020mA cmminus2) than pristine Fe

3O4nanorod film In addi-

tion the PANISnO2composite electrode exhibited specific

capacitance of 173 F gminus1 at a scan rate of 25mV sminus1 [8 91] Baoet al [92] designed Zn

2SnO4MnO

2coreshell nanocable-

carbon microfiber hybrid composites for high-performancesupercapacitor electrodes The hybrid composite exhibitedexcellent rate capability with specific energy of 368Whkgand specific power of 32 kWkg at current density of 40Ag


respectively as well as good long-term cycling stability (only12 loss of its initial specific capacitance after 1000 cycles)

Moreover compared with other materials graphene hasbeen used as the electrode of electrochemical supercapacitors(ESCs) due to its good capacitive performance superiorconductivity large surface-to-volume ratio and suitable poresize distribution [93] As we know carbon and metal oxidematerials are two hotspots as electrode materials for elec-trochemical supercapacitors (ESCs) in which energy can bestored due to the formation of an electrical double layer at theinterface of the electrode If integrating the above two kindsof materials into the electrodes of ESCs their capacitive per-formance will be greatly enhanced because most of the metaloxide can contribute pseudo-capacitance to the total capac-itance apart from the double-layer capacitance from carbonmaterials [94ndash96] Thus combined SnO

2with graphene for

the supercapacitors can obviously enhance the performanceof capacitance Li et al [51] synthesized SnO

2graphene

(SnO2G) nanocomposites by a facile solvent-based synthesis

route based on the oxidation-reduction reactionThe electro-chemical performance of SnO

2graphene showed an excel-

lent specific capacitance of 3633 F gminus1 which was five-foldhigher than that of the as-synthesized graphene (684 F gminus1)El-Deen et al [97] fabricated grapheneSnO

2nanocomposite

which exhibited high specific capacitance (323 F gminus1) excel-lent cycling stability very good salt removal efficiency (83)and distinct electrosorptive capacity of 149mg gminus1

4 Conclusion

In this paper we discussed the synthesis of phase-pureSnO2hierarchical structures with different morphologies

including nanoparticles nanorods nanosheets nanosphereand the porous and hollow structures We also reviewedtheir modifications by doping and compositing with othermaterials and synthesis of stannate nanomaterials Reactionparameters such as the chemical state of the tin precursors(Sn(IV) versus Sn(II) salts) concentration additives andsolvents play an important role in adjusting their morpholo-gies SnO

2-based nanostructures such as anode materials

demonstrate superior cycle performance of lithium storageby doping In the supercapacitors the prepared SnO

2-based

nanostructures provide fast ion and electron transfer whichled to a prominent supercapacitor performance ThereforeSnO2-based nanostructures with a proper design can possess

advanced physical and chemical properties which are vitalfor a variety of energy and environment applications

Although significant progress has been made in thesynthesis of SnO

2-based nanostructures further efforts are

still required to understand the mechanism of doping andnanocomposites better which are still unclear but crucial forthe design of SnO

2-based nanostructures in enhancement of

their lithium storage supercapacitors and energy conversionperformance After the introduction of components withdifferent chemical compositions SnO

2-based nanomaterials

got wide applications However it is still a challenge in thelarge-scale synthesis of SnO

2nanocrystals with more specific

facets exposed We hope that the present paper will further

expand the applications of SnO2-based nanostructures to

meet the environment- and energy-related demands

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the University of Jinan (UJN) for thesupport on new staff and the project was supported bythe Taishan Scholar (no TSHW20120210) the NationalNatural Science Foundation of China (Grant no 11304120)and the Encouragement Foundation for Excellent Middle-aged and Young Scientist of Shandong Province (Grant noBS2012CL005)

References

[1] J S Chen and XW Lou ldquoSnO2-based nanomaterials synthesis

and application in lithium-ion batteriesrdquo Small vol 9 no 11 pp1877ndash1893 2013

[2] Y Liu Y Jiao Z Zhang F Qu A Umar and X Wu ldquoHier-archical SnO

2nanostructures made of intermingled ultrathin

nanosheets for environmental remediation smart gas sensorand supercapacitor applicationsrdquo ACS Applied Materials andInterfaces vol 6 no 3 pp 2174ndash2184 2014

[3] X W Lou C M Li and L A Archer ldquoDesigned synthesis ofcoaxial SnO

2carbon hollow nanospheres for highly reversible

lithium storagerdquo Advanced Materials vol 21 no 24 pp 2536ndash2539 2009

[4] S-L Chou J-Z Wang H-K Liu and S-X Dou ldquoSnO2

meso-scale tubes one-step room temperature electrodeposi-tion synthesis and kinetic investigation for lithium storagerdquoElectrochemistry Communications vol 11 no 2 pp 242ndash2462009

[5] Y Han X Wu Y Ma L Gong F Qu and H Fan ldquoPorousSnO2nanowire bundles for photocatalyst and Li ion battery

applicationsrdquo CrystEngComm vol 13 no 10 pp 3506ndash35102011

[6] P Meduri C Pendyala V Kumar G U Sumanasekera andM K Sunkara ldquoHybrid tin oxide nanowires as stable and highcapacity anodes for li-ion batteriesrdquo Nano Letters vol 9 no 2pp 612ndash616 2009

[7] S N Pusawale P R Deshmukh and C D Lokhande ldquoChem-ical synthesis of nanocrystalline SnO

2thin films for superca-

pacitor applicationrdquoApplied Surface Science vol 257 no 22 pp9498ndash9502 2011

[8] Y L Gao J X Wu W Zhang et al ldquoSO2+4SnO2as a new

electrode for electrochemical supercapacitorsrdquo Ceramics Inter-national vol 40 no 6 pp 8925ndash8929 2014

[9] X Meng M Zhou X Li et al ldquoSynthesis of SnO2nanoflowers

and electrochemical properties of NiSnO2nanoflowers in

supercapacitorrdquo Electrochimica Acta vol 109 no 30 pp 20ndash262013

[10] S Faraji and F N Ani ldquoMicrowave-assisted synthesis ofmetal oxidehydroxide composite electrodes for high powersupercapacitorsmdasha reviewrdquo Journal of Power Sources vol 263pp 338ndash360 2014


[11] J Zhang J Guo H Xu and B Cao ldquoReactive-templatefabrication of porous SnO

2nanotubes and their remarkable gas-

sensing performancerdquo ACS Applied Materials amp Interfaces vol5 no 16 pp 7893ndash7898 2013

[12] Y Jia L He Z Guo et al ldquoPreparation of porous tin oxidenanotubes using carbon nanotubes as templates and their gas-sensing propertiesrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry C vol 113 no22 pp 9581ndash9587 2009

[13] X Wang H Fan and P Ren ldquoSelf-assemble flower-likeSnO2Ag heterostructures correlation among composition

structure and photocatalytic activityrdquo Colloids and Surfaces APhysicochemical and Engineering Aspects vol 419 no 20 pp140ndash146 2013

[14] H Huang S Tian J Xu et al ldquoNeedle-like Zn-doped SnO2

nanorods with enhanced photocatalytic and gas sensing prop-ertiesrdquo Nanotechnology vol 23 no 10 Article ID 105502 2012

[15] S Chen M Wang J Ye et al ldquoKinetics-controlled growth ofaligned mesocrystalline SnO

2nanorod arrays for lithium-ion

batteries with superior rate performancerdquo Nano Research vol6 no 4 pp 243ndash252 2013

[16] B Cheng J M Russell W Shi L Zhang and E T Samul-ski ldquoLarge-Scale Solution-Phase Growth of Single-CrystallineSnO2Nanorodsrdquo Journal of the American Chemical Society vol

126 no 19 pp 5972ndash5973 2004[17] N Talebian and F Jafarinezhad ldquoMorphology-controlled syn-

thesis of SnO2nanostructures using hydrothermal method and

their photocatalytic applicationsrdquo Ceramics International vol39 no 7 pp 8311ndash8317 2013

[18] Z R Dai J L Gole J D Stout and Z L Wang ldquoTin oxidenanowires nanoribbons and nanotubesrdquo Journal of PhysicalChemistry B vol 106 no 6 pp 1274ndash1279 2002

[19] X LWang N Aroonyadet Y Z Zhang et al ldquoAligned epitaxialSnO2nanowires on sapphire growth and device applicationsrdquo

Nano Letters vol 14 no 6 pp 3014ndash3022 2014[20] Z YangGDuQMeng et al ldquoDispersion of SnO

2nanocrystals

on TiO2(B) nanowires as anode material for lithium ion battery

applicationsrdquo RSC Advances vol 1 no 9 pp 1834ndash1840 2011[21] X Li X Meng J Liu et al ldquoTin oxide with controlled

morphology and crystallinity by atomic layer deposition ontographene nanosheets for enhanced lithium storagerdquo AdvancedFunctional Materials vol 22 no 8 pp 1647ndash1654 2012

[22] H B Wu J S Chen X W Lou and H H Hng ldquoSynthesis ofSnO2hierarchical structures assembled from nanosheets and

their lithium storage propertiesrdquo Journal of Physical ChemistryC vol 115 no 50 pp 24605ndash24610 2011

[23] Y Gao and Z Tang ldquoDesign and application of inorganicnanoparticle superstructures current status and future chal-lengesrdquo Small vol 7 no 15 pp 2133ndash2146 2011

[24] W Shi S Song and H Zhang ldquoHydrothermal synthetic strate-gies of inorganic semiconducting nanostructuresrdquo ChemicalSociety Reviews vol 42 no 13 pp 5714ndash5743 2013

[25] J Kaur J Shah R K Kotnala andK CVerma ldquoRaman spectraphotoluminescence and ferromagnetism of pure Co and Fedoped SnO

2nanoparticlesrdquo Ceramics International vol 38 no

7 pp 5563ndash5570 2012[26] J M D Coey A P Douvalis C B Fitzgerald and M

Venkatesan ldquoFerromagnetism in Fe-doped SnO2thin filmsrdquo

Applied Physics Letters vol 84 no 8 pp 1332ndash1334 2004[27] Y Zhao Y Huang Q Wang et al ldquoHollow Zn

2SnO4boxes

coated with N-doped carbon for advanced lithium-ion batter-iesrdquo Ceramics International vol 40 no 1 pp 2275ndash2280 2014

[28] D Ju H Xu Z Qiu J Guo J Zhang and B CaoldquoHighly sensitive and selective triethylamine-sensing propertiesof nanosheets directly grown on ceramic tube by formingNiOZnO PN heterojunctionrdquo Sensors and Actuators B Chem-ical vol 200 pp 288ndash296 2014

[29] F Du Z Guo and G Li ldquoHydrothermal synthesis of SnO2

hollow microspheresrdquo Materials Letters vol 59 no 19-20 pp2563ndash2565 2005

[30] G Xi and J Ye ldquoUltrathin SnO2nanorods template- and

surfactant-free solution phase synthesis growth mechanismoptical gas-sensing and surface adsorption propertiesrdquo Inor-ganic Chemistry vol 49 no 5 pp 2302ndash2309 2010

[31] J Ye H Zhang R Yang X Li and L Qi ldquoMorphology-controlled synthesis of SnO

2nanotubes by using 1D silica

mesostructures as sacrificial templates and their applications inlithium-ion batteriesrdquo Small vol 6 no 2 pp 296ndash306 2010

[32] B Liu and H C Zeng ldquoSalt-assisted deposition of SnO2

on 120572-moO3nanorods and fabrication of polycrystalline SnO

2

nanotubesrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry B vol 108 no 19 pp5867ndash5874 2004

[33] Y Wang H C Zeng and J Y Lee ldquoHighly reversible lithiumstorage in porous SnO

2nanotubes with coaxially grown carbon

nanotube overlayersrdquo Advanced Materials vol 18 no 5 pp645ndash649 2006

[34] N Du H Zhang J Chen J Sun B Chen and D Yang ldquoMetaloxide and sulfide hollow spheres layer-by-layer synthesis andtheir application in lithium-ion batteryrdquo Journal of PhysicalChemistry B vol 112 no 47 pp 14836ndash14842 2008

[35] X M Yin C C Li M Zhang et al ldquoOne-step synthesis ofhierarchical SnO

2hollow nanostructures via self-assembly for

high power lithium ion batteriesrdquo Journal of Physical ChemistryC vol 114 no 17 pp 8084ndash8088 2010

[36] H Wang J Liang H Fan et al ldquoSynthesis and gas sensitivitiesof SnO

2nanorods and hollow microspheresrdquo Journal of Solid

State Chemistry vol 181 no 1 pp 122ndash129 2008[37] D S Jung Y N Ko Y C Kang and S B Park ldquoRecent progress

in electrode materials produced by spray pyrolysis for next-generation lithium ion batteriesrdquo Advanced Powder Technologyvol 25 no 1 pp 18ndash31 2014

[38] Y J Hong J-W Yoon J-H Lee and Y C Kang ldquoOne-pot synthesis of Pd-loaded SnO

2yolk-shell nanostructures for

ultraselective methyl benzene sensorsrdquo Chemistry vol 20 no10 pp 2737ndash2741 2014

[39] L A Patil M D Shinde A R Bari and V V Deo ldquoNoveltrapping system for size wise sorting of SnO

2nanoparticles

synthesized from pyrolysis of ultrasonically atomized spray forgas sensingrdquo Sensors and Actuators B Chemical vol 143 no 1pp 316ndash324 2009

[40] S H Ju H C Jang and Y C Kang ldquoCharacteristics of nano-sized tin dioxide powders prepared by spray pyrolysisrdquo Journalof the Ceramic Society of Japan vol 117 no 1368 pp 922ndash9252009

[41] W Yan M Fang X Tan et al ldquoTemplate-free fabricationof SnO

2hollow spheres with photoluminescence from Snirdquo

Materials Letters vol 64 no 19 pp 2033ndash2035 2010[42] X-T Yin and X-M Guo ldquoSelectivity and sensitivity of Pd-

loaded and Fe-doped SnO2sensor for CO detectionrdquo Sensors

and Actuators B Chemical vol 200 pp 213ndash218 2014[43] G Turgut E Sonmez S Aydin R Dilber and U Turgut ldquoThe

effect of Mo and F double doping on structural morphologicalelectrical and optical properties of spray deposited SnO

2thin


filmsrdquo Ceramics International vol 40 no 8 pp 12891ndash128982014

[44] T JiaWWang F Long Z FuHWang andQ Zhang ldquoSynthe-sis characterization and photocatalytic activity of Zn-dopedSnO2hierarchical architectures assembled by nanoconesrdquo Jour-

nal of Physical Chemistry C vol 113 no 21 pp 9071ndash9077 2009[45] M Torabi and S K Sadrnezhaad ldquoElectrochemical evaluation

of nanocrystalline Zn-doped tin oxides as anodes for lithiumion microbatteriesrdquo Journal of Power Sources vol 196 no 1 pp399ndash404 2011

[46] X Liu J Iqbal Z Wu B He and R Yu ldquoStructure and room-temperature ferromagnetism of Zn-doped SnO

2nanorods

prepared by solvothermal methodrdquo The Journal of PhysicalChemistry C vol 114 no 11 pp 4790ndash4796 2010

[47] Z Li Y Zhou T Yu J Liu and Z Zou ldquoUnique Zn-doped SnO

2nano-echinuswith excellent electron transport and

light harvesting properties as photoanode materials for highperformance dye-sensitized solar cellrdquo CrystEngComm vol 14no 20 pp 6462ndash6468 2012

[48] H Wang K Dou W Y Teoh et al ldquoEngineering of facetsband structure and gas-sensing properties of hierarchical Sn2+-Doped SnO

2nanostructuresrdquo Advanced Functional Materials

vol 23 no 38 pp 4847ndash4853 2013[49] F-C Chung Z Zhu P-Y Luo R-J Wu and W Li ldquoAuZnO

core-shell structure for gaseous formaldehyde sensing at roomtemperaturerdquo Sensors and Actuators B Chemical vol 199 pp314ndash319 2014

[50] B Mondal B Basumatari J Das C Roychaudhury H Sahaand N Mukherjee ldquoZnO-SnO

2based composite type gas

sensor for selective hydrogen sensingrdquo Sensors and Actuators BChemical vol 194 pp 389ndash396 2014

[51] Y Li X Lv J Lu and J Li ldquoPreparation of SnO2-

nanocrystalgraphene-nanosheets composites and theirlithium storage abilityrdquo The Journal of Physical Chemistry Cvol 114 no 49 pp 21770ndash21774 2010

[52] H Li B Liu D Cai et al ldquoHigh-temperature humidity sensorsbased on WO

3-SnO2composite hollow nanospheresrdquo Journal

of Materials Chemistry A vol 2 no 19 pp 6854ndash6862 2014[53] S Liu R Wang M Liu et al ldquoFe

2O3SnO

2nanoparticle

decorated graphene flexible films as high-performance anodematerials for lithium-ion batteriesrdquo Journal of Materials Chem-istry A vol 2 no 13 pp 4598ndash4604 2014

[54] K-I Choi H-J Kim Y C Kang and J-H Lee ldquoUltraselectiveand ultrasensitive detection ofH

2S in highly humid atmosphere

using CuO-loaded SnO2hollow spheres for real-time diagnosis

of halitosisrdquo Sensors andActuators B Chemical vol 194 pp 371ndash376 2014

[55] A Hamrouni H Lachheb and A Houas ldquoSynthesis character-ization and photocatalytic activity of ZnO-SnO

2nanocompos-

itesrdquo Materials Science and Engineering B vol 178 no 20 pp1371ndash1379 2013

[56] W W Wang Y J Zhu and L X Yang ldquoZnO-SnO2hollow

spheres and hierarchical nanosheets hydrothermal prepara-tion formation mechanism and photocatalytic propertiesrdquoAdvanced Functional Materials vol 17 no 1 pp 59ndash64 2007

[57] B Geng C Fang F Zhan and N Yu ldquoSynthesis of polyhedralZnSnO

3microcrystals with controlled exposed facets and their

selective gas-sensing propertiesrdquo Small vol 4 no 9 pp 1337ndash1343 2008

[58] J-F Duan S-C Hou S-G Chen and H-G Duan ldquoSynthesisof amorphous ZnSnO

3hollow nanoboxes and their lithium

storage propertiesrdquoMaterials Letters vol 122 pp 261ndash264 2014

[59] WCunWXinming Z Jincai et al ldquoSynthesis characterizationand photocatalytic property of nano-sized Zn

2SnO4rdquo Journal of

Materials Science vol 37 no 14 pp 2989ndash2996 2002[60] K Wang Y Huang H Huang et al ldquoHydrothermal synthesis

of flower-like Zn2SnO4composites and their performance as

anode materials for lithium-ion batteriesrdquo Ceramics Interna-tional vol 40 no 6 pp 8021ndash8025 2014

[61] L Wang W Zhang C Wang et al ldquoA facile synthesis of highlyporous CdSnO

3nanoparticles and their enhanced performance

in lithium-ion batteriesrdquo Journal of Materials Chemistry A vol2 no 14 pp 4970ndash4974 2014

[62] Y Zhao Y Huang Q Wang et al ldquoPreparation of hol-low Zn

2SnO4boxes for advanced lithium-ion batteriesrdquo RSC

Advances vol 3 no 34 pp 14480ndash14485 2013[63] Y N Zhou M Z Xue and Z W Fu ldquoNanostructured thin

film electrodes for lithium storage and all-solid-state thin-filmlithium batteriesrdquo Journal of Power Sources vol 234 pp 310ndash332 2013

[64] D Deng and J Y Lee ldquoHollow core-shell mesospheres ofcrystalline SnO

2nanoparticle aggregates for high capacity Li+

ion storagerdquoChemistry ofMaterials vol 20 no 5 pp 1841ndash18462008

[65] C Wang Y Zhou M Ge X Xu Z Zhang and J Z JiangldquoLarge-scale synthesis of SnO

2nanosheets with high lithium

storage capacityrdquo Journal of the American Chemical Society vol132 no 1 pp 46ndash47 2010

[66] Z Wang D Luan F Y C Boey and X W Lou ldquoFast formationof SnO

2nanoboxes with enhanced lithium storage capabilityrdquo

Journal of the American Chemical Society vol 133 no 13 pp4738ndash4741 2011

[67] X W Lou Y Wang C Yuan J Y Lee and L A ArcherldquoTemplate-free synthesis of SnO

2hollow nanostructures with

high lithium storage capacityrdquo Advanced Materials vol 18 no17 pp 2325ndash2329 2006

[68] HWang and A L Rogach ldquoHierarchical SnO2nanostructures

recent advances in design synthesis and applicationsrdquo Chem-istry of Materials vol 26 no 1 pp 123ndash133 2014

[69] Y H Jin K M Min S D Seo H W Shim and D WKim ldquoEnhanced Li storage capacity in 3 nm diameter SnO

2

nanocrystals firmly anchored on multiwalled carbon nan-otubesrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry C vol 115 no 44 pp22062ndash22067 2011

[70] S Ding D Luan F Y C Boey J S Chen and XW Lou ldquoSnO2

nanosheets grown on graphene sheets with enhanced lithiumstorage propertiesrdquo Chemical Communications vol 47 no 25pp 7155ndash7157 2011

[71] J-M Tarascon and M Armand ldquoIssues and challenges facingrechargeable lithium batteriesrdquo Nature vol 414 no 6861 pp359ndash367 2001

[72] H-X Zhang C Feng Y-C Zhai K-L Jiang Q-Q Li and S-SFan ldquoCross-stacked carbon nanotube sheets uniformly loadedwith SnO

2nanoparticles a novel binder-free and high-capacity

anode material for lithium-ion batteriesrdquo Advanced Materialsvol 21 no 22 pp 2299ndash2304 2009

[73] L-Y Jiang X-L Wu Y-G Guo and L-J Wan ldquoSnO2-based

hierarchical nanomicrostructures facile synthesis and theirapplications in gas sensors and lithium-ion batteriesrdquo TheJournal of Physical Chemistry C vol 113 no 32 pp 14213ndash142192009


[74] Y Wang I Djerdj B Smarsly and M Antonietti ldquoAntimony-doped SnO

2nanopowders with high crystallinity for lithium-

ion battery electroderdquo Chemistry of Materials vol 21 no 14 pp3202ndash3209 2009

[75] X Wang X Cao L Bourgeois et al ldquoN-doped graphene-SnO2

sandwich paper for high-performance lithium-ion batteriesrdquoAdvanced Functional Materials vol 22 no 13 pp 2682ndash26902012

[76] P Wu N Du H Zhang J Yu and D Yang ldquoCNTsSnO2C

coaxial nanocables with highly reversible lithium storagerdquo TheJournal of Physical Chemistry C vol 114 no 51 pp 22535ndash225382010



[78] J Lin Z Peng C Xiang et al ldquoGraphene nanoribbon andnanostructured SnO

2composite anodes for lithium ion batter-

iesrdquo ACS Nano vol 7 no 7 pp 6001ndash6006 2013[79] H Yang T Song S Lee et al ldquoTin indium oxidegraphene

nanosheet nanocomposite as an anode material for lithiumion batteries with enhanced lithium storage capacity and ratecapabilityrdquo Electrochimica Acta vol 91 pp 275ndash281 2013

[80] X Lu W Zhang C Wang T-C Wen and Y Wei ldquoOne-dimensional conducting polymer nanocomposites synthe-sis properties and applicationsrdquo Progress in Polymer Science(Oxford) vol 36 no 5 pp 671ndash712 2011

[81] S Sarangapani B V Tilak and C P Chen ldquoMaterials forelectrochemical capacitors theoretical and experimental con-straintsrdquo Journal of the Electrochemical Society vol 143 no 11pp 3791ndash3799 1996

[82] E Faggioli P Rena V Danel X Andrieu R Mallant and HKahlen ldquoSupercapacitors for the energymanagement of electricvehiclesrdquo Journal of Power Sources vol 84 no 2 pp 261ndash2691999

[83] K W Nam W S Yoon and K B Kim ldquoX-ray absorptionspectroscopy studies of nickel oxide thin film electrodes forsupercapacitorsrdquo Electrochimica Acta vol 47 no 19 pp 3201ndash3209 2002

[84] J-H Sung S-J Kim and K-H Lee ldquoFabrication of microca-pacitors using conducting polymer microelectrodesrdquo Journal ofPower Sources vol 124 no 1 pp 343ndash350 2003

[85] C G Liu H T Fang F Li M Liu and H M ChengldquoSingle-walled carbon nanotubes modified by electrochemicaltreatment for application in electrochemical capacitorsrdquo Journalof Power Sources vol 160 no 1 pp 758ndash761 2006

[86] HMi X Zhang X Ye and S Yang ldquoPreparation and enhancedcapacitance of core-shell polypyrrolepolyaniline compositeelectrode for supercapacitorsrdquo Journal of Power Sources vol 176no 1 pp 403ndash409 2008

[87] C D Lokhande D P Dubal and O S Joo ldquoMetal oxide thinfilm based supercapacitorsrdquo Current Applied Physics vol 11 no3 pp 255ndash270 2011

[88] Y M Dai S C Tang J Q Peng et al ldquoMnO2SnO

2coreshell

heterostructured nanorods for supercapacitorsrdquo Materials Let-ters vol 130 pp 107ndash110 2014

[89] R Li X Ren F Zhang C Du and J Liu ldquoSynthesis ofFe3O4SnO

2core-shell nanorod film and its application as a

thin-film supercapacitor electroderdquo Chemical Communicationsvol 48 no 41 pp 5010ndash5012 2012

[90] J Yan E Khoo A Sumboja and P S Lee ldquoFacile coat-ing of manganese oxide on tin oxide nanowires with high-performance capacitive behaviorrdquo ACS Nano vol 4 no 7 pp4247ndash4255 2010

[91] P Manivel S Ramakrishnan N K Kothurkar et al ldquoOpti-cal and electrochemical studies of polyanilineSnO

2fibrous

nanocompositesrdquoMaterials Research Bulletin vol 48 no 2 pp640ndash645 2013

[92] L H Bao J F Zang and X D Li ldquoFlexible Zn2SnO4MnO

2

coreshell nanocable-carbon microfiber hybrid composites forhigh-performance supercapacitor electrodesrdquoNano Letters vol11 no 3 pp 1215ndash1220 2011

[93] T Lu Y ZhangH Li L Pan Y Li and Z Sun ldquoElectrochemicalbehaviors of graphene-ZnO and graphene-SnO

2composite

films for supercapacitorsrdquo Electrochimica Acta vol 55 no 13pp 4170ndash4173 2010

[94] G Arabale D Wagh M Kulkarni et al ldquoEnhanced superca-pacitance of multiwalled carbon nanotubes functionalized withruthenium oxiderdquo Chemical Physics Letters vol 376 no 1-2 pp207ndash213 2003

[95] B J Lee S R Sivakkumar J M Ko J H Kim S M Jo andD Y Kim ldquoCarbon nanofibrehydrous RuO

2nanocomposite

electrodes for supercapacitorsrdquo Journal of Power Sources vol168 no 2 pp 546ndash552 2007

[96] D Kalpana K S Omkumar S S Kumar and N G Ren-ganathan ldquoA novel high power symmetric ZnOcarbon aerogelcomposite electrode for electrochemical supercapacitorrdquo Elec-trochimica Acta vol 52 no 3 pp 1309ndash1315 2006

[97] A G El-Deen N A M Barakat K A Khalil M Motlakand H Y Kim ldquoGrapheneSnO

2nanocomposite as an effective

electrode material for saline water desalination using capacitivedeionizationrdquo Ceramics International vol 40 no 9 pp 14627ndash14634 2014

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

CorrosionInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Polymer ScienceInternational Journal of



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Biomaterials


NanoscienceJournal of

TextilesHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

NanotechnologyHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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CrystallographyJournal of


The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


CoatingsJournal of

Advances in

Materials Science and EngineeringHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Smart Materials Research



MetallurgyJournal of


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MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials


Journal ofNanomaterials


(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 1 (a)-(b) FESEM images (c) low-magnification TEM image and (d) high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) image of the preparedhierarchical SnO

2nanostructures Inset in d exhibits the typical corresponding SAED pattern adapted from [2] with permission

is used as the reaction medium to create a high temperatureand high pressure reaction environment by heating the reac-tion vessel to a certain temperature In 2004 Cheng et al [16]synthesized single-crystalline SnO

2nanorods with diameter

of about 5 nm and length of about 20 nm Furthermoremany researchers developed the method and synthesizeddifferent SnO

2architectures by adjusting the precursors and

experimental conditions [2 11 17] For example SnO2hollow

microspheres composed of SnO2nanoparticles have been

synthesized [29] Recently Liu et al [2] developed a facileapproach to fabricate hierarchical SnO

2nanosheets using

SnCl2sdot2H2O as tin source and sodium citrate as control-

ling agents The ultrathin nanosheets with a thickness ofabout 20 nm are shown in Figures 1(a) and 1(b) whichcorresponds to the TEM image of Figure 1(c) The HRTEMimage (Figure 1(d)) exhibits the well-defined lattice fringescombined with the SAED pattern Their growth mechanismis generally summarized in Figure 2 [2 30] First of all SnO

2

nanocrystals were formed due to the hydrolysis of SnCl2

whereas in the second step the grown small SnO2nanoparti-

cles are further assembledwith each other to formnanosheetsbecause of the ldquooriented attachmentrdquo growth process Subse-quently the fast oriental attachment of the SnO

2nanoparti-

cles results in the formation of SnO2nanosheets Moreover

the new formed particles would spontaneously ldquolandrdquo on theas-formed sheets and further grow to another sheet whichled to the formation of flower-like SnO

2architectures

(2) Template Method Template-based methods offer manyadvantages including simplicity low cost and narrow size

distribution [11] However there are some limitations Forexample the post treatment process of the templates alwaysdamages the nanoarchitectures and it is difficult to removethe template and limit the ability to produce large-scalednanomaterials Generally templates such as silica nanorods[31] MoO

3nanorods [32] and carbon nanotubes [33] can

be removed through calcination at high temperature (eg toremove carbon or polystyrene spheres) or chemical dissolu-tion (eg use of hydrofluoric acid to remove silica templates)which may result in collapse of some fraction of the hollowstructures [34 35]Therefore it is highly desirable to developnew strategies for synthesizing hollow SnO

2nanostructures

Zhang et al [11] developed a reactive-template method tofabricate porous SnO

2nanotubes using MnO

2nanorods as

the sacrificial template The overall synthesis procedure isillustrated in Figure 3 which is based on the redox chemistrybetween reductive Sn2+ and oxidative MnO

2in an acidic

environment Chemical reactions for the formation of SnO2

nanotubes included in a basic aqueous solution are shown in(1)ndash(3)

MnO2+ 4H+ + 2eminus1 997888rarr Mn2+ + 2H

2O (1)

Sn4+ + 2eminus1 997888rarr Sn2+ (2)

MnO2+ Sn2+ + 2H

2O 997888rarr Mn2+ + Sn(OH)

4 (3)

When the MnO2nanorods are completely dissolved

because of reduction then the Sn(OH)4nanotubes with a

hollow interior are eventually formed Finally porous SnO2



Self-

asse

mbl

y




I II





2sdot 119909H2O + (2 minus 119909)H

2O (4)


2+ 2H2O (5)













2


2powders

















(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

80

60

40

20

0

Volu

me a

dsor

bed

(cm

3 g)

00 02 04 06 08 10


005

004

003

002

001

000dVdD

por

e vol

ume (

cm3

gnm

)

1 10 100

Diameter (nm)


(f)



2nanotubes (f) N

2adsorption-











Autoclave 200∘C(2 4 8 16 h) [9]










6N4



C2O4SnPd(NO

3)

2sdot119909H2O

C12H22O11 HNO3



673 K and 1073K [39]





methodGas


N2 flow gas


1050ndash1150∘C[18]





2 Turgut et al [43]






2


2nanostructures



2nanowires




2 In







(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)



2nanorods ((c)




(a) (b) (c)







2-based nanocom-


2











2SnO3was increased










3[57 58] Zn


3[61] have






3(Figure 8(d))







2SnO4


3hollow





(a) (b)

(c) (d)



MWCNTs


rt 3d

GNRs







2is



20

15

10

05

00

minus05

minus10

minus15

minus20

minus25

Curr

ent d

ensit

y (A

g)

00 05 10 15 20 25


a

b

c

d

a998400

(a)

30

25

20

15

10

05

00

Pote

ntia

l (V

ver

susL

i+L

i)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600


(b)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Cap

acity

(mA

hg)

minus5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55



200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Cou

lom

bic

effici

ency

()

(c)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Capa

city

(mA

hg)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30


01Ag

01Ag

02Ag05Ag

1Ag2Ag

(d)








2O (6)




2-based materials









2nanosheets





2 When




2nanoparticles















2GNS and



MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2



2















2MnO

2composites



600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials





Self-

asse

mbl

y




I II





2sdot 119909H2O + (2 minus 119909)H

2O (4)


2+ 2H2O (5)













2


2powders

















(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

80

60

40

20

0

Volu

me a

dsor

bed

(cm

3 g)

00 02 04 06 08 10


005

004

003

002

001

000dVdD

por

e vol

ume (

cm3

gnm

)

1 10 100

Diameter (nm)


(f)



2nanotubes (f) N

2adsorption-











Autoclave 200∘C(2 4 8 16 h) [9]










6N4



C2O4SnPd(NO

3)

2sdot119909H2O

C12H22O11 HNO3



673 K and 1073K [39]





methodGas


N2 flow gas


1050ndash1150∘C[18]





2 Turgut et al [43]






2


2nanostructures



2nanowires




2 In







(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)



2nanorods ((c)




(a) (b) (c)







2-based nanocom-


2











2SnO3was increased










3[57 58] Zn


3[61] have






3(Figure 8(d))







2SnO4


3hollow





(a) (b)

(c) (d)



MWCNTs


rt 3d

GNRs







2is



20

15

10

05

00

minus05

minus10

minus15

minus20

minus25

Curr

ent d

ensit

y (A

g)

00 05 10 15 20 25


a

b

c

d

a998400

(a)

30

25

20

15

10

05

00

Pote

ntia

l (V

ver

susL

i+L

i)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600


(b)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Cap

acity

(mA

hg)

minus5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55



200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Cou

lom

bic

effici

ency

()

(c)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Capa

city

(mA

hg)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30


01Ag

01Ag

02Ag05Ag

1Ag2Ag

(d)








2O (6)




2-based materials









2nanosheets





2 When




2nanoparticles















2GNS and



MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2



2















2MnO

2composites



600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials




(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

80

60

40

20

0

Volu

me a

dsor

bed

(cm

3 g)

00 02 04 06 08 10


005

004

003

002

001

000dVdD

por

e vol

ume (

cm3

gnm

)

1 10 100

Diameter (nm)


(f)



2nanotubes (f) N

2adsorption-











Autoclave 200∘C(2 4 8 16 h) [9]










6N4



C2O4SnPd(NO

3)

2sdot119909H2O

C12H22O11 HNO3



673 K and 1073K [39]





methodGas


N2 flow gas


1050ndash1150∘C[18]





2 Turgut et al [43]






2


2nanostructures



2nanowires




2 In







(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)



2nanorods ((c)




(a) (b) (c)







2-based nanocom-


2











2SnO3was increased










3[57 58] Zn


3[61] have






3(Figure 8(d))







2SnO4


3hollow





(a) (b)

(c) (d)



MWCNTs


rt 3d

GNRs







2is



20

15

10

05

00

minus05

minus10

minus15

minus20

minus25

Curr

ent d

ensit

y (A

g)

00 05 10 15 20 25


a

b

c

d

a998400

(a)

30

25

20

15

10

05

00

Pote

ntia

l (V

ver

susL

i+L

i)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600


(b)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Cap

acity

(mA

hg)

minus5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55



200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Cou

lom

bic

effici

ency

()

(c)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Capa

city

(mA

hg)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30


01Ag

01Ag

02Ag05Ag

1Ag2Ag

(d)








2O (6)




2-based materials









2nanosheets





2 When




2nanoparticles















2GNS and



MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2



2















2MnO

2composites



600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials












Autoclave 200∘C(2 4 8 16 h) [9]










6N4



C2O4SnPd(NO

3)

2sdot119909H2O

C12H22O11 HNO3



673 K and 1073K [39]





methodGas


N2 flow gas


1050ndash1150∘C[18]





2 Turgut et al [43]






2


2nanostructures



2nanowires




2 In







(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)



2nanorods ((c)




(a) (b) (c)







2-based nanocom-


2











2SnO3was increased










3[57 58] Zn


3[61] have






3(Figure 8(d))







2SnO4


3hollow





(a) (b)

(c) (d)



MWCNTs


rt 3d

GNRs







2is



20

15

10

05

00

minus05

minus10

minus15

minus20

minus25

Curr

ent d

ensit

y (A

g)

00 05 10 15 20 25


a

b

c

d

a998400

(a)

30

25

20

15

10

05

00

Pote

ntia

l (V

ver

susL

i+L

i)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600


(b)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Cap

acity

(mA

hg)

minus5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55



200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Cou

lom

bic

effici

ency

()

(c)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Capa

city

(mA

hg)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30


01Ag

01Ag

02Ag05Ag

1Ag2Ag

(d)








2O (6)




2-based materials









2nanosheets





2 When




2nanoparticles















2GNS and



MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2



2















2MnO

2composites



600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials




(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)



2nanorods ((c)




(a) (b) (c)







2-based nanocom-


2











2SnO3was increased










3[57 58] Zn


3[61] have






3(Figure 8(d))







2SnO4


3hollow





(a) (b)

(c) (d)



MWCNTs


rt 3d

GNRs







2is



20

15

10

05

00

minus05

minus10

minus15

minus20

minus25

Curr

ent d

ensit

y (A

g)

00 05 10 15 20 25


a

b

c

d

a998400

(a)

30

25

20

15

10

05

00

Pote

ntia

l (V

ver

susL

i+L

i)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600


(b)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Cap

acity

(mA

hg)

minus5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55



200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Cou

lom

bic

effici

ency

()

(c)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Capa

city

(mA

hg)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30


01Ag

01Ag

02Ag05Ag

1Ag2Ag

(d)








2O (6)




2-based materials









2nanosheets





2 When




2nanoparticles















2GNS and



MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2



2















2MnO

2composites



600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials




(a) (b) (c)







2-based nanocom-


2











2SnO3was increased










3[57 58] Zn


3[61] have






3(Figure 8(d))







2SnO4


3hollow





(a) (b)

(c) (d)



MWCNTs


rt 3d

GNRs







2is



20

15

10

05

00

minus05

minus10

minus15

minus20

minus25

Curr

ent d

ensit

y (A

g)

00 05 10 15 20 25


a

b

c

d

a998400

(a)

30

25

20

15

10

05

00

Pote

ntia

l (V

ver

susL

i+L

i)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600


(b)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Cap

acity

(mA

hg)

minus5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55



200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Cou

lom

bic

effici

ency

()

(c)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Capa

city

(mA

hg)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30


01Ag

01Ag

02Ag05Ag

1Ag2Ag

(d)








2O (6)




2-based materials









2nanosheets





2 When




2nanoparticles















2GNS and



MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2



2















2MnO

2composites



600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials




(a) (b)

(c) (d)



MWCNTs


rt 3d

GNRs







2is



20

15

10

05

00

minus05

minus10

minus15

minus20

minus25

Curr

ent d

ensit

y (A

g)

00 05 10 15 20 25


a

b

c

d

a998400

(a)

30

25

20

15

10

05

00

Pote

ntia

l (V

ver

susL

i+L

i)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600


(b)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Cap

acity

(mA

hg)

minus5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55



200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Cou

lom

bic

effici

ency

()

(c)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Capa

city

(mA

hg)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30


01Ag

01Ag

02Ag05Ag

1Ag2Ag

(d)








2O (6)




2-based materials









2nanosheets





2 When




2nanoparticles















2GNS and



MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2



2















2MnO

2composites



600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials




20

15

10

05

00

minus05

minus10

minus15

minus20

minus25

Curr

ent d

ensit

y (A

g)

00 05 10 15 20 25


a

b

c

d

a998400

(a)

30

25

20

15

10

05

00

Pote

ntia

l (V

ver

susL

i+L

i)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600


(b)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Cap

acity

(mA

hg)

minus5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55



200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Cou

lom

bic

effici

ency

()

(c)

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Capa

city

(mA

hg)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30


01Ag

01Ag

02Ag05Ag

1Ag2Ag

(d)








2O (6)




2-based materials









2nanosheets





2 When




2nanoparticles















2GNS and



MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2



2















2MnO

2composites



600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials







2nanosheets





2 When




2nanoparticles















2GNS and



MnO2

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

eminus1

SnO2



2















2MnO

2composites



600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials




600

500

400

300

200

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


(a)

600

500

400

300

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e (Fg

minus1 )

0 20 40 60 80 100


3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

(b)

11

10

09

08

07

Spec

ific c

apac

itanc

e ret

entio

n

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cycle number

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

3∘C27

∘C55

∘C

Volta

ge (V

)

10

08

06

04

02

00

Time (s)0 10 20 30 40 50

(c)





2MnO










2SnO4MnO






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials






2with graphene for


2graphene





2nanocomposite


4 Conclusion





2-based
















Acknowledgments


References










































2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials






















2nanocrystals













2SnO4boxes












2

















2nanoparticles









2thin







2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials









2nanorods

















2O3SnO

2nanoparticle







2nanocompos-





































2

































2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials


























2coreshell







2fibrous



2



2composite




2nanocomposite













CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials










CeramicsJournal of







Biomaterials




Journal of


Journal of





CoatingsJournal of

Advances in








MaterialsJournal of


Nano

materials



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Review Article -Based Nanomaterials: Synthesis and ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/jnm/2015/850147.pdf · based nanostructures with improved performance in the areas of lithium-ion