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References
[ References on Mathematics and Algorithmic Foundations]
[1] W. Feller: An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, voLl, 3rd Ed. revised print, John Wiley & Sons, 1970.
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[ References on Communications]
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194 References
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[References on Multimedia Signal Processing and Coding]
[11] R.N. Bracewell: The Fourier Transform and Its Applications, McGraw-Hill, 1986.
[12] KR. Castleman: Digital Image Processing, Prentice Hall, 1996.
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[ References on Cryptography, Security, and Copyright )
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References 195
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[27] U.S. Copyright Office: "The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998" (DMCA), Summary and Public Law, 1998.
[ Tutorials, Surveys, and Special Issues on Data Hiding]
[ See also:] [128, 132]
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[38] Special Issue on Watermarking, Signal Processing, vol.66, no.3, Elsevier Science, May, 1998.
196 References
[ Theses on Data Hiding and Watermarking J
[39J B. Chen: Design and Analysis of Digital Watermarking, Information Embedding, and Data Hiding Systems, Ph.D. Dissertation, MIT, June 2000.
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[41J D. Kundur: Multiresolution Digital Watermarking: Algorithms and Implications for Multimedia Signals, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1999.
[42J C-Y. Lin: Watermarking and Digital Signature Tecniques for Multimedia Authentication and Copyright Protection, Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, Dec. 2000.
[43J L. Qiao: Multimedia Security and Copyright Protection, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1998.
[44J M. Ramkumar: Data Hiding in Multimedia - Theory and Applications, Ph.D. Dissertation, 2000.
[45J J. Song: Optimal Rate Allocation and Security Schemes for Image and Video Transmission over Wireless Channels, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 2000.
[46J M. Wu: Multimedia Data Hiding, Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, April 2001, http://www.ee.princeton.edu/..-.minwu/ research /phd_thesis.html .
[47J W. Zeng: Resilient Video Transmission and Multimedia Database Application, Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, April 1997.
[ Spread Spectrum Additive Watermarking (Type-I Embedding) J
[ See also: J [98, 102, 105, 113, 172, 173J
[48J W. Bender, D. Gruhl, N. Morimote, "Techniques for Data Hiding", Proc. of SPIE, vo1.2420, pp40, 1995.
[49J 1. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, T. Shamoon: "Secure Spread Spectrum Watermarking for Multimedia" , IEEE Transaction on Image Processing, vol. 6 , no.12, pp.1673-1687, 1997.
[50J I.J. Cox: "Spread Spectrum Watermark for Embedded Signaling", U.S. Patent 5,848,155, Dec. 8, 1998.
References 197
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[55] M.L. Miller, J.A. Bloom: "Computing the probablity of false watermark detection", Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Information Hiding (IHW), 1999.
[56] M.L. Miller, J.A. Bloom, I.J. Cox: "Exploiting Detector and Image Information in Watermark Embedding", Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP'OO), Vancouver, Canada, Sept. 2000.
[57] C. Podilchuk, W. Zeng: "Perceptual Watermarking of Still Images", IEEE First Workshop of Multimedia Signal Processing, 1997.
[58] C. Podilchuk, W. Zeng: "Image Adaptive Watermarking Using Visual Models", IEEE Journal Selected Areas of Communications (JSAC), vo1.16, no.4, pp.525-538, May, 1998.
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[60] B. Tao, B. Dickinson: "Adaptive Watermarking in the DCT Domain" , Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP), 1997.
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198 References
[ Robust Data Hiding Via Enforcement (Type-II Embedding) ]
[ See also:] [95, 97, 99, 100, 107, 108, 125, 127, 131, 136, 137, 138, 139, 145, 146, 168]
[62] B. Chen, G.W. Wornell: "Digital Watermarking and Information Embedding Using Dither Modulation", Proc. of IEEE Workshop on Multimedia Signal Processing, Dec. 1998.
[63] B. Chen, G.W. Wornell: "Dither Modulation: A New Approach to Digital Watermarking and Information Embedding", Proc. of SPIE, Security and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents, vol. 3657, Jan., 1999.
[64] B. Chen, G.W. Wornell: "Quantization Index Modulation: A Class of Provably Good Methods for Digital Watermarking and Information Embedding" , IEEE Trans. on Info. Theory, vol.47, noA, pp1423-1443, May 2001.
[65] J. Chou, S.S. Pradhan, L.E. Ghaoui, K. Ramchandran: "Watermarking Based on Duality With Distributed Source Coding and Robust Optimization Principles" , Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP'OO), Vancouver, Canada, Sept. 2000.
[66] J.J. Eggers, R Bauml, R Tzschoppe, B. Girod: "Scalar Costa Scheme for Information Embedding", submitted to IEEE Trans. on Signal Processing, 2002, preprint available at http:/ / www-nt.e-technik.unierlangen.de/ rveggers/ publications.html.
[67] C-T. Hsu, J-L. Wu: "Hidden Signatures in Image" , Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP'96), vol. 3, Lausanne, Switzerland, Sept. 1996.
[68] M. Kesal, M.K. Mihcak, R Koetter, and P. Moulin: "Iteratively Decodable Codes for Watermarking Applications,", Proc. of 2nd Inter. Symp. on Turbo codes and Related Topics, Brest, France, Sept. 2000.
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[70] G.C. Langelaar and RL. Lagendijk: "Optimal Differential Engergy Watermarking of DCT Encoded Images and Video", IEEE Trans. on Image Processing, voLlO, no.1, pp.148-158, Jan. 2001.
[71] M. Ramkumar, A.N. Akansu: "A Robust Scheme for Oblivious Detection of Watermarks / Data Hiding in Still Images", Symposium on Voice, Video, and Data Communication, Proc. of SPIE, 1998.
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[72] M.D. Swanson, B. Zhu, A.H. Tewfik: "Robust Data Hiding for Images", Proc. of IEEE DSP Workshop, 1996.
[ Data Hiding Capacity and Related Fundamental Issues]
[ See also:] [64]
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200 References
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[ Perceptual Models: HAS and HVS ]
[ See also:] [14, 24]
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[89] Doug Coulter: Digital Audio Processing, R&D Books, 2000.
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[ Specialized Embedding: Binary Images ]
[93] A.K. Bhattacharjya, H. Ancin: "Data Embedding in Text For a Copier System", Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP'99), Kobe, Japan, Oct. 1999.
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[98) N.F. Maxemchuk, S. Low: "Marking Text Documents", Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP'97), Santa Barbara, Oct. 1997.
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[ Specialized Embedding: Audio)
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[ Specialized Embedding: Video]
[ See also:] [146]
[105] F. Hartung, B. Girod: "Watermarking of Uncompressed and Compressed Video", Signal Processing, vol.66, no. 3, pp. 283-301, May, 1998.
202 References
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[107] D. Mukherjee, J-J. Chae, S.K. Mitra, B.S.Manjunath: "A Source and Channel Coding Framework for Vector-Based Data Hiding in Video", IEEE Trans. on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology, v.10, n.4, pp630-645, June, 2000.
[108] M.D. Swanson, B. Zhu, A.H. Tewfik: "Data Hiding for Video-inVideo", Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP'97), Santa Barbara, Oct. 1997.
[109] M.D. Swanson, B. Zhu, A.H. Tewfik: "Multiresolution Scene-Based Video Watermarking Using Perceptual Models", IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communication (JSAC), v.16, n.4, pp540-550, May 1998.
[110] M. Wu, H. Yu, A. Gelman: "Multi-level Data Hiding for Digital Image and Video", Proceedings of SPIE, vol. 3845, Photonics East Conference on Multimedia Systems and Applications, Boston, MA, 1999.
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[ Specialized Embedding: 3-D Graphic Data]
[114] O. Benedens: "Geometry-based Watermarking of 3-D Models", IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, Jan. 1999, pp46-55.
[115] R. Ohbuchi, H. Masuda, M. Aono: "Watermarking Three-Dimensional Polygonal Models Throug Geometric and Topological Modifications" , IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications (JSAC), vol. 16, no. 4, May 1998, pp551-559.
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[117] M.M. Yeung and B-L. Yeo: "Fragile Watermarking of 3-D Objects", Proc. of Inter. Conf. on Image Processing (ICIP), Chicago, IL, 1998.
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[ Specialized Embedding: Visible Watermarking]
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[ Specialized Embedding: Non-Perceptual Data]
[120] G. Qu, J.L. Wong, and M. Potkonjak: "Optimization-Intensive Watermarking Techniques for Decision Problems", Proc. of 36th ACM/IEEE Design Automation Conference Proceedings, pp.33-36, June 1999.
[121] J. Stern, G. Hachez, F. Koeun, J-J. Quisquater: "Robust Object Watermarking: Application to Code", Proc. of the Third Info. Hiding Workshop (IHW'99) , 1999.
[ (Semi-) Fragile Watermarking for Authentication/Annotation]
[122] Epson America, Inc.: http://www.epson.com/cam....scan/cam_extras/ ias/, Image Authentication System, 1999.
[123] J. Fridrich, M. Goljan: "Protection of Digital Images using Self Embedding", Proc. of Symposium on Content Security and Data Hiding in Digital Media, Newark, NJ, May 1999.
[124] G. L. Friedman: "The Trustworthy Digital Camera: Restoring Credibility to the Photographic Image", IEEE Trans. on Consumer Electronics, vol.39, no.4, pp.905-91O, Nov. 1993.
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204 References
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[131] F.A.P. Petitcolas, Examples of Least-significant-bit Embedding, http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/ "'fapp2/steganography / image_ downgrading/, 1998.
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[ Digital Fingerprinting ]
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[ Miscellaneous Applications of Data Hiding]
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206 References
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[ Attack and Security Issues of Watermarking]
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Index
A
Additive embedding, 2D-21, see also Type-I embedding
Additive noise robustness against, 183 sources, 27 statistical model, 27, 39
Adversaries, see also Attacks; Security
applicable applications, 10, 149-150
concealing communications against, 2
in SDMI public challenge, 175-189
incentive in authentication, 65 measures against, 81-83
Applications of data hiding access control, 1, 5, 15, 93,
96, 115, 146, 175, 188 annotation, 1,5,65, 74, 94 content authentication, 1, 4,
15, 65, 75-76, 93, 119-136, 168-173, 178, 188
conveying side information, 1, 9, 137-146
copy control, 5, 93, 96, 175, 188
device control, 5, 93, 96, 175, 188
fingerprinting, 5, 15, 93 ownership protection, 1,4, 15,
93, 96 rights management, 5, 96,146,
175-189, 192 traitor tracing, see fingerprint
ing Attackers, see Adversaries Attacks, see also Adversaries; Se
curity averaging multiple copies, 109,
151, 157 blind attacks, 179 block replacement attack, 10,
15D-155 ciphertext attack, 179 collusion attacks, 109, 151 concealment attack, 10, 150-
155
212 Index
copy attack, 65, 184 countermeasures against, see
Countermeasures (against attacks)
double capturing attack, 10, 171-172
filtering attacks, 150-155 forgery attacks, 123, 188-189 geometric distortion, 187, see
also jittering attacks; warping attack
geometric distortions, 151 jittering attacks, 149, see also
geometric distortion; warping attack
audio, 179, 180, 187 images, 151 video frames, 109, 136
known data hiding algorithm, against, 149-173
plaintext attack, 82, 179 SDMI attacks, see SDMI pub
lic challenge synchronization attack, see ge
ometric distortion; jittering attack; warping attack
unknown data hiding algorithm, against, 175-189
warping attack, 151, 180, 187, see also jittering attacks; geometric distortion
Audio attacks against audio water
marking, 10, 175-189 golden ear, 183, 184 human auditory system, see
Human auditory system (HAS)
Authentication, see also Applications of data hiding
advantages of watermarks for, 74, 119-120
attacks against, 171-173 cryptographic, 121
embedded digital signature for, 121
fragile watermarking for, 75-76, 121
semi-fragile watermarking for, 69
AWGN (additive white Gaussian noise), 23, 26-30
B
Binary images document images, 75-76 embedding mechanism for, 69-
70 equalizing uneven embedding
capacity for, 70-73 line drawing, 74 perceptual model, 67-69 pixel fiippability, 68, 84-88 recovering from printing and
scanning, 78-80, 88-91 robustness for watermarking,
69, 77-80 security for watermarking, 81-
83 signature images, 70, 74 watermark applications for, 65,
74-76 Biorthogonal modulation, see Mod
ulation and multiplexing Bit error
combat, 70 probability, 29 recover, in video communica
tions, 145 Block concealment
attacks by, 10, 150-155 edge directed interpolation for,
143, 151 Block DCT transform, 48, 96, 121-
123, 153-154, see also DCT Block-based data hiding, 67-73, 96-
109, 150-155 Bursty errors, 145
c
Capacity embedding, see Embedding ca
pacity generic channels, see Chan
nel capacity CDM, see Modulation and multi
plexing, CDM Channel capacity, 5, 27, 28, 31 Channels, 5
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channels, 23, 26-30
binary symmetric channel (BSC), 27,30
capacity, see Channel capacity
colored Gaussian noise channels, 26, 162
continuous input and continuous output (CICO), 27
continuous-input continuousoutput (CICO), 29
Costa's code, 19, 32 discrete-input continuous-output
(DICO),28 discrete-input discrete-output
(DIDO), 27, 30 erasure channels, 50 with side information, 19, 21,
159 Ciphers, see Cryptography, encryp
tion Code division modulation/ multi
plexing, see Modulation and multiplexing, CDM
Compliance coding standard compliant de
vice, 9, 33, 138-142 rights management compliant
device, 178, 188 Compression
H.26x,104
Index 213
JPEG, 96, 104, 108, 120, 121, 123, 124, 131, 133, 152, 166, 167
JPEG 2000, 134 lossy, 3-5, 9, 88, 120-122,133,
134, 149, 156, 176, 179, 188
MP3, 178, 189 MPEG, 104, 115, 136 scalable, 94 transcoding, see Transcoding wavelet, 134
Content authentication, see Authentication
Control data, 114 Correlation-based detection, 23, 97,
158 distribution of, 24, 98 weighted correlator, 98-99 with normalized variance, 23,
97, 99 Countermeasures (against attacks)
block replacement attack, against, 153-154
concealment attack, against, 153-154
double capturing attack, against, 10,172-173
forgery attacks, against, 81-83, 123, 129-130
geometric attack, against, 155-168
jittering attacks, against audio, 183 video frames, 8, 109-112,
114 RST (rotation, scale, transla
tion), against, 155-168 Cover media, defined, 15 Cryptography
cryptanalysis, 179 encryption, 2, 3, 146, 150, 189 hash, 119, 121, 189 public-key cryptography, 81,
119, 121
214 Index
signature, see Digital signatures, cryptographic
Customized media decoder, 9, 138-142
D
Data hiding, 2 advantages of, 140 binary images, 65-83 color images, 96, 134 framework, 15-17, 122-123 grayscale images, 96-109, 155-
168 key elements of, 16-17 layered system structure, 16 video, 109-116
Data payloads, see Payloads DCT (discrete cosine transform),
see also Block DCT transform
block-DCT embedding, see Block DCT transform; Blockbased data hiding
DCT -domain visual model, 103-107, 125-128
quantized DCT coefficients, 9, 123-125
whole-DCT embedding, 153-154
Detection Baysian rule, 24, 98 blind detection, see non-coherent
detection coherent detection, 23, 151,
153 detection statistics, 23-24, 151-
156, 158, 166-167 hypothesis testing formulation,
23-24, 97-101 Neyman-Pearson rule, 24, 166-
167 non-coherent detection, 5, 22,
23, 32, 97-101, 151, 155, 156, 187
statistics, see also Correlationbased detection
whitening, 98, 162-164 Digital Millennium Copyright Act
(DMCA),150 Digital rights management (DRM),
146, 175-189, 192 Digital signatures
E
content feature based, 121 cryptographic, 119, 121, 189 digitized signature images, 70,
74 handwritten, 65 signature in signature, 74
ECC, see Error correction coding Embedded data, define, 15 Embedding capacity, 5, 19,26-33 Embedding distortion, defined, 15 Embedding domain
block DCT, 96-109,121-123, 153-154
DFT, 155-168 Fourier-Mellin, 157, 168 pixel, 67, 121 wavelet, 122, 134
Embedding mechanisms, 20-22 additive, 20-21, see also Type
I embedding enforcement, 21-22, see also
Type-II embedding spread spectrum, 23, 98, 103,
157, 187 table lookup, 34, 69, 123-129 Type-I, see Type-I embedding Type-II, see Type-II embed-
ding Embedding rate
CER (constant embedding rate), 44-51, 112-113
VER (variable embedding rate), 51-53, 112-113
Enforcement embedding, 21-22, see also Type-II embedding
Error analysis detection probability, 167 false alarm probability, 24, 165,
167 false negative, see miss detec
tion probability false positive, see false alarm
probability miss detection probability, 24 quantization, 24-26 Receiver operating character
istics (ROC) curves, 166-167
ROC curves, see Receiver operating characteristics
Error concealment, see also Block concealment
attacks on data hiding, used as, 10, 15D-155
data hiding for, 9, 143-146 Error correction coding (ECC)
BCH code, 132 Extracted data, defined, 15
F
False negative, see Error analysis, miss detection probability
False positive, see Error analysis, false alarm probability
Fingerprinting, see Applications of data hiding, fingerprinting
Flippability, for binary image pixels, 68, 84-88
H
Hearing, see Human auditory system (HAS)
Host media, defined, 15
Index 215
Human auditory system (HAS), 182, 184
Human visual system (HVS) binary images, 67-69, 84-88 DCT-domain visual model, 103-
107 grayscale images, 103-107
Hypothesis testing, 23-24, 97-101
I
Imperceptibility, 16, 17, 31, 125, see also Human auditory system (HAS); Human visual system (HVS)
Interleaving, 47,146, see also Shuffling
J
Just noticeable difference (JND), 24, 36, 103-107, see also Human auditory system (HAS); Human visual system (HVS)
K
embeddable components, 42, 126
unembeddable components, 31, 41,42, 103
Key element of data hiding, see Data hiding, key elements of
Keys, 54-55
L
Layered structure, for data hiding system, 16
Least significant bit (LSB) embedding, see Type-II embedding, LSB embedding
216 Index
Lookup tables
M
flippable scores, for, 87 Type-II embedding, 34, 69, 123-
128
Marked media, defined, 15 Modulation and multiplexing, 33-
37 amplitude modulation, 33 amplitude modulo modulation,
33-34 biorthogonal modulation, 34,
53 code division modulation/ mul
tiplexing (CDM), 35-37, 50,52
comparison, 35-37 orthogonal modulation, 34, 36-
37 spatial division, 35, see also
time division modulation/ multiplexing
time division modulation/ multiplexing (TDM), 34-37, 50, 52, 103, 114, 123
Moment-based approach, for analyzing shuffling, 47, 56
Multilevel embedding advantages of, 93-94 basic idea of, 94-96 for images, 96-109 for video, 109-116 spectrum partition for, 97-101
Multiple-bit embedding, 33-37, see also Modulation and multiplexing
N
Noise compression, by, 167 defined, 15
Non-coherent detection, see Detection, non-coherent detection
Non-compliant media decoder, see Customized media decoder
o Original signal, see Host signal Orthogonal modulation, see Mod
ulation and multiplexing, orthogonal modulation
Ownership protection, see Appli-
p
cations, ownership protection
Payloads, 94, see also Embedding capacity
control data, 94, 114 user data, 94, 113
Perceptual model, see Human auditory system (HAS); Human visual system (HVS)
Performance ROC curves, see Receiver op
erating characteristics Permutation, see Shuffling Pseudo-random number, 54, 126
Q
Quantization
R
error analysis, 24-26 JPEG quantization table, 101 QIM (quantization index mod-
ulation), 25
Random numbers, see Pseudo-random number
Receiver operating characteristics (ROC), 166-167, see also Detection, N eyman-Pearson rule
Registration, see Images, registration
s SDMI (Secure Digital Music Ini
tiative) background, 175 challenge, see SDMI public chal
lenge SDMI public challenge
attacks against fragile watermarks,
188-189 against robust watermarks,
179-188 background, 176 setup, 176-178
Security, see also Adversaries; Attacks
authentication, data hiding for, 126-127, 129-130, 171-173
binary images, data hiding for, 81-83
SDMI systems, 178-189 Seeds, see Keys Shuffling, see also Uneven embed
ding capacity analysis, 47-49, 55-62 equalizing uneven embedding
capacity, for, 46-51 examples, 70-73 generation algorithm, 54-55
Side information, see also Control data
available to sender in communications, 19, 21, 159
convey to receiver, 52-53, 114, 140
Signature, see Digital signatures
Index 217
Signature in signature, 74 Spread spectrum, see Embedding
mechanisms, spread spectrum
Steganograph~ 2, 191 Strength of embedding, see also
Human auditory system (HAS); Human visual system (HVS)
T
TDM, see Modulation and multiplexing, TDM
Test media, defined, 15 Time division modulation/ multi
plexing, see Modulation and multiplexing, TDM
Transcoding, 8, 9, 94, 109, 137-142, see also Compression; Video, downsizing
Type-I embedding define, 20 embedding capacity, 27, 29 examples, 21, 101, 114, 157-
159 properties, 23-24 spread spectrum, 23, 98, 103,
157, 187 Type-II embedding
define, 21
u
embedding capacity, 27-29 examples, 22, 69-70, 101, 123-
128 LSB embedding, 22 properties, 24-26
Uneven embedding capacity difficulty introduced by, 41-
42 equalizing, 46-51, see also Shuf
fling
218 Index
examples, 70-73, 112-113 solutions, 42, see also Embed
ding rate, CER & VER; Shuffling
User data, 113
v Video
authentication, 136 downsizing, 138-142 MPEG compression, 104, 136,
138 Visible watermark, 4
w Watermark
digital watermark, 3, 15 imperceptible, 3, 4 paper watermark, 2 visible, 4
Watermarking, 2
About the Authors
Min Wu received the B.E. degree in electrical engineering and the B.A. degree in economics from Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, in 1996 (both with the highest honors), and the M.A. degree and Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Princeton University in 1998 and 2001, respectively. She was with NEC Research Institute and Signafy, Inc. Princeton, NJ, in 1998, and with the Media Security Group, Panasonic Information & Networking Laboratories, Princeton, NJ, in 1999. Since 2001, she has been with the Faculty of the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, the Institute of Advanced Computer Studies, and the Institute of Systems Research at the University of Maryland, College Park. Her research interests include information security, signal processing, and multimedia communications. She received an NSF CAREER award for her research on information security and protection in 2002 and holds three U.S. patents on multimedia data hiding. She is a member of the IEEE and the IEEE Technical Committee on Multimedia Signal Processing. More information about her research can be found at http://www.ece.umd.edu/ "'minwu/ research.html .
Bede Liu received the B.S. degree in E.E. from National Taiwan University and the M.E.E. and D.E.E. degrees from the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Prior to joining the Princeton University Faculty in 1962, his industrial associations included Bell Laboratories, Allen B. DuMont Laboratory, and Western Electric Company. His current research interests include signal and image processing, video coding and analysis. He was the IEEE President of the Circuits and Systems Society and a member of the IEEE Board of Directors. He received the IEEE Centennial Medal (1984), the IEEE Acoustic, Speech, and Signal Processing Society Technical Achievement Award (1985), the IEEE Circuits and Systems Society Education Award (1988), two Best Paper Awards from IEEE Transactions of Circuits and Systems on Video Technology (1994 and 1996), the IEEE MacVan Valkenburg Award (1997), the IEEE Third Millennium Medal (2000), the IEEE Circuits and Systems Society Golden Jubilee Award (2000), and the IEEE Signal Processing Society Award (2000). He is an IEEE Fellow and a member of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering. More information about his research can be found at http://www.ee.princeton.edu/ people/Liu.php .