Reference Book on Chemical Engineering Vol.2 - D. Sen

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(f.U NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHERS

Reference Book on

Chemical Engineering

THIS PAGE ISBLANK

Reference Book on

Chemical Engineering

Volume II

D. Sel B.Ch.E.

Fellow of the Institution of Engineers (India) Former Listed lOBI Consultant and Retired Chief Engineer (Chern.) of BVFCL, (Formerly HFCL) Namrup Unit, Assam

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) UMITED, PUBUSHERS New Delhi. Bangalore • Chcnnai • Cochin • Guwahati • Hyderabad J2landhar • Kolkafa • Ludmow • Mumbai • Ranchi

Copyright © 2005, New Age International (P) Ltd., PublishersPublished by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

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ISBN (10) : 81-224-2311-6ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2311-2

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'To My MotlUr

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tlU 600ft is t!eaicatea

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PREFACE

This volume II contains a large number of data tables and graphs in Part A whereas in Part B essential information on other engineering disciplines viz. civil, mechanical, electrical, instrumentation and general matters were given for Chemical Engineering students as well as for professionals. Some of the information on other engg. areas and finance were written by experienced senior engineers and finance executives from industry to make this volume more interesting. This volume was also reviewed by Professor U.P. Ganguly (retd.) of Chemical Engg. Deptt. of IIT, Kharagpur. I thank to all who have assisted in this work.

Kolkata D. SEN

THIS PAGE ISBLANK

CONTENTS

Preface (vii)

PART I : DATA TABLES AND GRAPHS 1-135

PART U : OTHER INFORMATION

1. Civil Engineering Information 137

2. Mechanical Engineering Information 140

3. Electrical Engineering Information 151

4. SpeCifie Requirement of Electrical Equipment 160

5. Process Instrumentation 183

6. Instrumentation-Practical Guide 190

7. General 196

8. Glossary of Thrms in Chemistry and Others 198

Index 212

THIS PAGE ISBLANK

PART IData Tables and Graphs

THIS PAGE ISBLANK

Table 1 : Chemical and physical Data of Various Elements

Symbol Atomic Den- Melting Boiling BrinellMass sity6) Point Point at Hardness

760 Torr12C = 12 g/cm3 °C °C HB

(20°C)

Aluminium....... Al 26.98 2.70 659 2447 16

Antimony....... Sb 121.75 6.69 630.5 1637 30

Arsenic....... As 74.92 5.721) 815 613 –

Barium....... Ba 137.34 3.61 710 1637 42

Beryllium....... Be 9.01 1.85 1283 2477 60

Boron....... B 10.81 2.33 2030 3900 –

Cadmium....... Cd 112.40 8.64 321 765 35

Calcium....... Ca 40.08 1.54 850 1487 13

Carbon3)....... C 12.01 2.20 3800 – –

Cerium....... Ce 140.12 6.77 797 3470 21

Chromium....... Cr 52.00 7.20 1903 2642 70

Cobalt....... Co 58.93 8.90 1492 2880 125

Copper....... Cu 63.54 8.96 1083 2595 50

Fluorine....... F 19.00 1.70 –219.6 –188 –

Gold....... Au 196.97 19.30 1064.8 2707 –

Iodine....... I 126.90 4.932 113.6 182.8 –

Iron....... Fe 55.85 7.87 1536 3070 45

Lead....... Pb 207.19 11.34 327.4 1751 3

Magnesium...... Mg 24.31 1.74 649.5 1120 –

Manganese...... Mn 54.94 7.43 1244 2095 –

Mercury....... Hg 200.61 13.55 – 38.9 356.7 –

Molybdenum.... Mo 95.94 10.22 2620 4800 160

3

TABLES

4 REFERENCE BOOK ON CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Nickel....... Ni 53.71 8.91 1455 2800 70

Nioblum....... Nb 92.91 8.55 2468 ~4900 250

Phosphorus..... P 30.97 2.694) 44.25) 281 –

Potassium....... K 39.10 0.86 63.2 753.8 0.037

Rhodium....... Rh 102.91 12.50 1960 3960 110

Silicon....... Si 23.09 2.33 1423 2355 –

Silver....... Ag 107.87 10.50 961.3 2180 20

Sodium....... Na 22.99 0.97 97.8 890 0.07

Sulphur....... S 32.06 2.07 115.2 444.6 –

Tantalum....... Ta 180.95 16.60 2996 5400 30

Titanium....... Ti 47.90 4.51 1668 3280 160

Uranium....... U 233.03 19.10 1130 3930 –

Vanadium....... V 50.94 6.12 1890 ≈ 3380 260

Bismuth....... Bi 203.98 9.79 271 1560 9

Tungsten....... W 183.85 19.27 3390 5500 250

Zinc........ Zn 65.37 7.13 419.5 907 35

Tin....... Sn 113.69 7.29 231.9 ~2687 4

Zirconium....... Zr 91.22 6.50 1855 ≈ 4380 160

Chlorine Cl 35.46 2.496 –101.6 –34.6 –

Helium He 4.00 0.137 –272.2 –268.9 –

Hydrogen H 1.008 0.069 –259.1 –252.7 –

Krypton Kr 83.70 2.818 –169 –151.8 –

Neon Ne 20.183 0.674 –248.6 –245.9 –

Nitrogen N 14.00 12.57 –209.8 –195.8 –

Oxygen O 16.00 1.105 –218.4 –183 –

Radium Ra 226.05 5.0 960 1140 –

(1) For the rhombic modification. (2) At 25°C. (3) For graphite. (4) For black phosphorus. (5) Forwhite phosphorus. (6) At. 20°C (7) At 0°C and H2O = 1

Source : D ANS Lax, Chemists and Physicists Pocket Book, 3rd edn 1967 except B.H.

Table 2 : Groups of chemicals

There are about 70, 000 chemicals in use through out the world. The chemicals can beclassified in three groups as below :

Group A

1. Adhesive chemicals

2. Pesticides

3. Fertilisers (agro chemicals)

4. Basic chemicals

5. Bulk drugs

DATA TABLES AND GRAPHS 5

6. Catalytic chemicals

7. Cosmetics and detergents

8. Dyes and Pigments

9. Lab. reagents

10. Fine chemicals

Group B

11. Perfume chemicals

12. Food preservatives (additives)

13. Food Processing Chemicals

14. Heavy chemicals

15. Intermediates

16. Leather chemicals

17. Metal Processing chemicals

18. Organic chemicals

19. Oil and drilling chemicals.

20. Paper processing chemicals.

Group C

21. Petrochemicals

22. Plastic Polymers

(straight, addition and condensation)

23. Pharma chemicals

24. Speciality chemicals

25. Textile processing chemicals

26. Printing and Writing ink

27. Optical whiteners

28. Oils & fats

29. Rubber chemicals

30. Photographic chemicals.

N. B. Some chemicals have overlapping existence in other groups.


Tabl

e 3

: P

hysi

cal

Dat

a of

var

ious

Ele

men

ts a

nd C

ompo

unds

Sub

stan

ceF

or-

Mol

ecul

arD

ensi

tyB

oilin

gH

eat

ofS

peci

ficM

eltin

gC

ritic

alC

ritic

alm

ula

Wei

ght

kg/m

3kg

/m3

Poi

ntV

apor

-H

eat

Cp

Poi

ntTe

mpe

r-P

ress

ure

12C

=12

gase

ous

liqui

d76

0 To

rris

atio

nkc

al/

kgat

ure

°Ckc

al/

kgde

g C

°C°C

kp/c

m2

Hyd

roge

n...

....

H2

2.01

60.

0971

(–2

53)

–252

.810

8.4

3.42

4–2

59.2

–239

.913

.2

(18)

Oxy

ge

n..

....

...

O2

32.0

01.

4311

95 (

–195

)–1

83.0

50.9

0.22

–218

.8–1

18.3

51.8

(48)

Nitr

ogen

....

....

N2

28.0

21.

2581

2 (–

196)

–195

.847

.30.

25–2

10.0

–146

.934

.5

Air.

....

....

....

...

28.9

61.

2952

0 (–

146)

–191

.447

0.24

0–2

13.0

–140

.738

.5

Chl

orin

e...

....

.C

l 270

.91

3.21

1574

(–4

0)–3

4.1

68.8

0.11

4–1

01.0

144

78.5

Wa

ter.

....

....

..H

2O18

.01

0.80

410

00 (

4)10

0.00

539

1.00

70.

000

374.

222

5.6

Hyd

roch

loric

HC

l36

.47

1.63

1194

(–8

6)–8

5.0

105.

80.

19–

114.

251

.584

.7a

cid

....

....

....

Hyd

roge

nH

2S34

.08

1.54

964

(– 6

0)–6

0.2

131.

00.

24–

85.7

100.

491

.9su

lph

ide

....

...

Sul

phur

SO

264

.07

2.93

1460

(–1

0)–1

0.0

93.1

0.14

5–

75.5

157.

580

.4

dio

xid

e..

....

...

Am

mo

nia

....

..N

H3

17.0

30.

7765

0 (–

10)

–31.

028

8.8

0.50

– 77

.413

2.4

115.

2

Car

bon

mon

oxid

e.C

O28

.01

1.25

079

1(–

191)

–191

.651

.60.

243

– 20

5.1

– 14

0.2

35.7

Car

bon

diox

ide.

....C

O2

44.0

11.

9896

0 (–

6)

–78.

513

70.

202

– 56

.631

.075

.3

See

not

es t

o Ta

ble

1 fo

r Ta

bles

3 t

o 15

Sou

rce

: C

hem

ists

and

Phy

sici

sts

pock

et b

ook-

D A

ns L

ax 3

rd e

dn.

1967

.

Whe

re t

he l

iqui

d-st

ate

dens

ity s

how

n do

es n

ot r

efer

to

20°C

, th

e re

leva

nt t

empe

ratu

re i

s in

dica

ted

in b

rack

ets.

Whe

re t

he h

eat

of e

vapo

ratio

n do

es n

ot r

efer

to

the

boili

ng p

oint

at

760

Torr

(76

0 m

m H

g),

the

rele

vant

tem

pera

ture

is

adde

d in

bra

cke

ts.

Spe

cific

hea

t at

con

stan

t pr

essu

re C

p. W

here

the

inf

orm

atio

n sh

own

does

not

ref

er t

o 20

°C f

or l

iqui

ds o

r 25

°C f

or v

apou

rs o

r ga

ses,

the

rele

vant

tem

pera

ture

is

give

n in

bra

cket

s.


Tabl

e 4

: P

hysi

cal

Dat

a of

Var

ious

Hyd

roca

rbon

s

Sub

stan

ceM

ole-

Den

sity

Boi

ling

Hea

t of

Spe

cific

Mel

ting

Crit

ical

Crit

ical

For

mul

acu

lar

Poi

ntE

vapo

ra-

Hea

t C

pP

oint

Tem

per-

Pre

ssur

e

Wei

ght

760

Torr

tion

kca

l/kg

atur

e

Nor

mal

Par

affin

s12

C =

12

kg/m

3°C

kca

l/kg

deg

C°C

°Ckp

/cm

2

Me

tha

ne

....

....

..C

H4

16.0

40.

7171

–164

121.

90.

532

–184

–82.

547

.3

Eth

an

e..

....

....

CH

3—C

H3

30.0

71.

3561

–88.

511

6.7

0.41

9–1

72.1

32.1

50.0

Pro

pa

ne

....

....

...

CH

3—C

H2—

CH

344

.10

2.02

1–4

4.5

101.

80.

399

–189

.996

.843

.5

n-B

uta

ne

....

..C

H3—

CH

2—C

H2—

CH

358

.12

2.70

31–0

.592

.10.

406

–135

152.

038

.6

i-B

uta

ne

....

...

CH

3

CH

3C

H—

CH

358

.12

2.67

31–1

0.2

87.5

0.39

–145

133.

737

.7

n -

Pen

tane

....

CH

3—(C

H2)

3—C

H3

72.1

562

636

.15

85.4

0.54

3–1

30.8

197.

234

.1

2-M

eth

yl b

uta

ne

(iso

pen

tan

e)3

3

CH

—C

H—

CH

—C

H3

2

| CH

72.1

562

5(15

)28

.081

.50.

541

–159

.619

4.8

34.4

n-H

exa

ne

....

....

..C

H3—

(CH

2)4—

CH

386

.18

664(

15)

68.8

800.

532

–93.

523

4.7

31.9

2-M

ethy

l pe

ntan

e..

32

23

3

CH

—C

H—

CH

—C

H—

CH

| CH

86.1

866

9(15

)63

.276

.5 (

60)

0.52

3–1

53.7

224.

930

.9

n-H

epta

ne..

....

....

CH

3—(C

H2)

5—C

H3

100.

2168

498

.375

.60.

525

–90.

526

7.2

28

n-O

cta

ne

....

....

..C

H3—

(CH

2)6—

CH

311

4.23

702

125.

871

.90.

522

–57.

029

6.2

25.5

n-N

onan

e...

....

....

CH

3—(C

H2)

7—C

H3

128.

2671

814

0.6

68.8

0.52

–51.

032

2.0

23.7

(1)

kg/n

m3

(at

0°C

and

760

Tor

r)


CH

2—C

H2

CH

2—C

H2

|CH

2—C

H2

CH

2—C

H2

CH

2—C

H2

CH

2—C

H2

CH

2

C

H2—

CH

2

|CH

2—C

H2

—C

H2

CH

2—C

H2—

CH

2

|

CH

— 2C

H2—

CH

2

CH

2—C

H2

CH

2

C

H— 2

CH

2—C

H2

|CH

2—C

H2

—C

H—

CH

22

CH

2—C

H2—

CH

—C

H2

2

|

Tabl

e 5

Mol

e-B

oilin

gH

eat

ofS

peci

ficM

eltin

gC

ritic

alC

ritic

alcu

lar

Poi

ntE

vapo

ra-

Hea

t C

pP

oint

Tem

per-

Pre

ssur

eS

ubst

ance

For

mul

aW

eigh

tD

ensi

ty76

0 To

rrtio

nkc

al/

kgat

ure

12C

= 1

2kg

/m3

°Ckc

al/

kgde

g C

°C°C

kp/c

m2

Nap

hthe

nes

) (C

yclo

para

ffins

)

Cyc

lob

uta

ne

....

....

..

56

.11

703

(0)

–7.5

103

0.31

– 80

Cyc

lop

en

tan

e..

....

..70

.14

745

49.5

940.

43–9

3.3

238.

646

.1

Cyc

loh

exa

ne

....

....

84.1

677

380

.886

0.49

76.

428

141

.9

Cyc

loh

ep

tan

e..

....

....

98.1

981

211

80.

44–1

2

Cyc

loo

cta

ne

....

....

..11

2.12

834

148.

514

.3

Aro

mat

ic H

ydro

carb

ons

Ta

ble

5A

Be

nze

ne

....

....

..C

6H6

78.1

187

980

.294

.20.

413

5.5

288.

949

.9

Met

hyl

benz

ene

C6H

5CH

392

.14

872(

15)

110.

885

0.41

–95

319.

941

.6(t

olue

ne).

....

....

.

1, 2

-Dim

ethy

lbe

nzen

e

(O-X

ylen

e)..

....

....

C6H

4(H

3)2

106.

1788

114

3.6

830.

414

–27.

935

8.0

37.3

m-X

ylen

e...

....

...

C6H

4(C

H3)

210

6.17

866

139

820.

410

–49.

335

337

.7


Mol

e-B

oilin

gH

eat

ofS

peci

ficM

eltin

gC

ritic

alC

ritic

alcu

lar

Poi

ntE

vapo

ra-

Hea

t C

pP

oint

Tem

per-

Pre

ssur

eS

ubst

ance

For

mul

aW

eigh

tD

ensi

ty76

0 To

rrtio

nkc

al/

kgat

ure

12C

= 1

2kg

/m3

°Ckc

al/

kgde

g C

°C°C

kp/c

m2

p-X

ylen

e...

....

...

C6H

4(C

H3)

210

6.17

861

138.

481

0.40

613

.334

337

.2

Eth

yl b

enze

ne..

..C

6H5—

CH

2—C

H3

106.

1786

713

6.1

81.1

0.41

5–9

4.4

346.

438

.1

1, 3

, 5-

Trim

ethy

lbe

nzen

e

(Me

sity

len

e).

....

....

..C

6H3(

CH

3)2

120.

286

416

4.4

77.5

0.42

–52.

738

834

.3

n -P

ropy

lben

zene

....

.C

6H5—

CH

2—C

H2—

CH

312

0.12

862

159.

676

.099

.236

333

.1

Dip

he

nyl

....

....

..C

6H5—

C6H

515

4.2

989(

77.1

)25

5.9

740.

295

7052

842

.7

Con

dens

ed A

rom

atic

sTa

ble

6

Nap

htha

lene

....

...12

8.18

976(

85.3

)21

875

0.30

680

478.

541

.9

1, 2

, 3,

4-T

etra

phyd

-13

2.21

973

207

79.3

0.40

–35

rona

phth

alen

e (T

etra

line)

......

..

Cis

-Dec

ahyd

rona

ph-

138.

2589

419

371

.0 (

120)

0.41

–51

thal

ene

(Dec

alin

)....

.

Ant

hrac

ene.

....

.17

8.24

1252

(0°

)34

20.

2821

8

Phe

nant

hren

e...

178.

2410

41 (

131.

1)33

20.

3110

1

H H

H H


Tabl

e 7

Mol

e-D

ensi

tyB

oilin

gH

eat

ofS

peci

ficM

eltin

gC

ritic

alC

ritic

alcu

lar

kg/m

3P

oint

Eva

pora

-H

eat

Cp

Poi

ntTe

mpe

r-P

ress

ure

Sub

stan

ceF

orm

ula

Wei

ght

760

Torr

tion

kca

l/kg

atur

e12

C =

12

°Ckc

al/

kgde

g C

°C°C

kp/c

m2

Mon

o-ol

efin

es

Eth

yle

ne

..

....

....

CH

2 =

CH

228

.05

1.26

'–1

03.9

125

0.37

1–1

709.

551

.7

Pro

pyle

ne .

....

..C

H =

CH

2—C

H3

42.0

864

7 (–

79)

– 47

104.

70.

363

–185

91.8

47.1

But

ylen

e-(1

) ..

....

....

CH

2 =

CH

—C

H2—

CH

356

.11

607

(9.8

)–

6.1

96.1

0.38

– 19

014

6.4

37.5

Isob

utyl

ene

....

....

..56

.162

6.8(

–6.6

)–6

.692

.80.

38–1

46.8

144.

040

.0

Pen

tene

-(1)

...

....

...

CH

2 =

CH

—C

H2—

CH

2—C

H3

70.1

463

7 (1

8)39

.575

0.53

0–1

66.2

202.

641

.7

Hex

ene-

(1)

CH

2 =

CH

—(C

H2)

3–C

H3

84.1

667

9 (1

5)63

.479

.50.

50–1

39.0

230

31.5

Hep

tene

-(1)

...

....

...

CH

2 =

CH

—(C

H2)

4—C

H3

98.1

970

598

.50.

49–1

19.4

262

28.7

Dio

lefin

es

Tabl

e 8

Pro

padi

ene

.....

CH

2 =

C =

CH

240

.07

652

(–25

)32

125

0.35

–146

120.

853

.5

But

adie

ne-

CH

2 =

CH

—C

H =

CH

254

.09

650

(–6)

4.75

108.

00.

561

(0)

–108

.915

244

.1(1

, 3)

...

....

...

Pen

tadi

ene-

CH

2 =

CH

—C

H =

CH

—C

H3

68.1

268

3.0

(15)

42.1

0.36

– 87

.5(1

, 3)

...

....

...

68.1

268

134

.392

.1 (

25)

0.58

(25

)–1

20

(1)

kg/n

m3

(at

10°C

and

760

Tor

r)

Sou

rce

: C

hem

ists

and

Phy

sici

sts

pock

et b

ook-

D A

ns L

ax 3

rd e

dn.

1967

2-M

ethy

l bu

ta-

dien

e (1

, 3)

(Iso

pren

e)

CH

2 =

C—

CH

= C

H2

C

H3


Tabl

e 9

Mol

e-D

ensi

tyB

oilin

gH

eat

ofS

peci

ficM

eltin

gC

ritic

alC

ritic

al

cula

rkg

/m3

Poi

ntE

vapo

ra-

Hea

t C

pP

oint

Tem

per-

Pre

ssur

e

Sub

stan

ceF

orm

ula

Wei

ght

760

Torr

tion

kca

l/kg

atur

e12

C =

12

°Ckc

al/

kgde

g C

°C°C

kp/c

m2

Ace

tyle

nes

Ace

tyle

ne

..

....

....

CH

CH

≡26

.04

618

(–81

.8)

–83.

619

80.

403

–81.

835

.563

.7

Met

hyl

acet

ylen

e ..

.3

CH

—C

CH

≡40

.07

713

(–55

)–

27.5

0.36

2–

105

127.

9

Eth

yl a

cety

lene

...

..3

2C

H—

CH

—C

CH

≡54

.09

668

(0)

18–1

37

Dim

ethy

l3

2C

H—

CC

—C

H≡

54.0

965

027

.211

90.

552

–32.

321

5.5

acet

ylen

e ..

.

Hal

ogen

ated

Hyd

roca

rbon

s

Tabl

e 10

Met

hyl

chlo

ride

.....

CH

3Cl

50.4

92.

3071

–23.

710

20.

193

–97.

714

2.8

68.2

Met

hyl

fluor

ide

......

CH

3F34

.03

1.54

51–7

8.2

124

0.26

–141

.844

.559

.9

Met

hyle

ne c

hlor

ide.

.C

H2C

l 284

.93

1336

40.7

78.7

0.27

6–9

623

762

Chl

orof

orm

...

....

...

CH

Cl 2

119.

3814

8260

.760

.60.

237

–63.

526

2.5

56.7

Car

bon

CC

l 41

53

.82

1592

76

.74

6.6

0.2

03

–2

2.9

28

3.1

46

.5te

tra

chlo

rid

e .

....

.

Tric

hlor

o-m

onof

luor

oC

FC

l 313

7.37

1494

(17

.2)

24.9

43.6

0.21

1–1

1119

8.0

44.6

met

hane

(Fre

on 1

1) .

......

...

Dic

hlor

o-di

fluor

oC

F2C

l 212

0.91

1486

(–3

0)–

29.8

400.

137

–111

115.

540

.9m

etha

ne(F

reon

12)

....

.....

(1)

kg/n

m3

(at

0 an

d 76

0 To

rr)


Tabl

e 10

(co

ntd.

)

Mol

e-D

ensi

tyB

oilin

gH

eat

ofS

peci

ficM

eltin

gC

ritic

alC

ritic

alcu

lar

kg/m

3P

oint

Eva

pora

-H

eat

Cp

Poi

ntTe

mpe

r-P

ress

ure

Sub

stan

ceF

orm

ula

Wei

ght

760

Torr

tion

kca

l/kg

atur

e12

C =

12

°Ckc

al/

kgde

g C

°C°C

kp/c

m2

Chl

oro-

trifl

uoro

met

hane

(Fre

on 1

3)C

F3C

l10

4.47

927

–81.

536

0.15

–181

.028

.739

.4

Eth

yl c

hlor

ide.

....

.C

2H5C

l64

.52

917

(6)

13.1

91.3

0.38

2–1

42.5

189

56.8

Eth

ylen

e di

chlo

ride

(1,2

)...

....

.C

H2C

l—C

H2C

l98

.96

1253

83.7

84.1

0.31

(30

)–3

5.5

288

54.8

Eth

ylen

e di

chlo

ride

(1,1

)...

....

.C

HC

l 2–C

H3

98.9

611

84 (

15)

57.3

57.3

0.21

–96.

625

051

.7

1,1-

Dic

hlor

oet

hyle

neC

H2

= C

Cl 2

96.9

412

1837

650.

28–1

22.5

1,1,

1-T

ichl

oro-

eth

an

e..

....

..C

Cl 3—

CH

313

3.41

1311

(25

)74

0.25

7–3

2.6

1,1,

2-T

richl

oro-

eth

an

e..

....

...

CH

Cl 2—

CH

2Cl

133.

4114

4311

3.7

67–3

5.5

Tric

hlor

oe

thyl

en

e..

....

....

.C

Cl 2

= C

HC

l13

1.39

1470

(15

)86

.957

.80.

277

–83

Tetr

achl

oro

eth

an

e..

....

....

..C

HC

l 2—C

HC

l 216

7.85

1603

(15

)14

6.4

55.0

0.27

(16

)–4

2.5

Tetr

achl

oret

hy-

len

e

....

....

..C

Cl 2

= C

Cl 2

165.

8316

24 (

15)

121.

150

.00.

210

–23.

5

Flu

roro

be

nze

ne

....

....

..C

6H5F

96.1

110

2485

.177

0.36

4–4

0.5

286.

546

.1

Chl

oro

benz

ene

....

....

...

C6H

5Cl

112.

5611

12 (

15)

132

77.6

0.31

–45

359.

246

.1


Tabl

e 11

Mol

e-D

ensi

tyB

oilin

gH

eat

ofS

peci

ficM

eltin

gC

ritic

alC

ritic

alcu

lar

kg/m

3P

oint

Eva

pora

-H

eat

Cp

Poi

ntTe

mpe

r-P

ress

ure

Sub

stan

ceF

orm

ula

Wei

ght

760

Torr

tion

kca

l/kg

atur

e12

C =

12

°Ckc

al/

kgde

g C

°C°C

kp/c

m2

Alc

ohol

s

Met

hano

l (m

ethy

lal

coho

l)..

...

CH

3OH

32.0

479

5 (1

5)64

.726

30.

596

–97.

923

9.4

82.6

Eth

anol

(et

hyl

alco

hol)

....

.C

2H5O

H46

.07

794

(15)

78.3

202

0.57

2–1

14.5

234.

165

.1

Gly

col..

....

..H

O. C

H2—

CH

2. O

H62

.07

1113

197.

419

40.

563

–12.

4

n-P

ropy

la

lco

ho

l....

..C

2H5C

H2O

H60

.10

804

97.4

180

0.56

0–1

26.2

263.

751

.8

i-Pro

pyl

alc

oh

ol..

....

CH

3CH

(OH

)CH

360

.10

785

82.4

160

0.57

6–8

9.5

243.

554

.9

Gly

ceri

ne

....

....

.C

H2O

H. C

HO

H. C

H3O

H92

.10

1261

290

197

0.65

18

n-B

utyl

alc

oh

ol..

....

..C

3H7C

H2O

H74

.12

810

117.

514

10.

560

–89.

328

9.7

45

i-B

uty

la

lco

ho

l....

....

(CH

3)2C

HC

H2O

H74

.12

803

108

138

0.55

2–1

0827

7.6

49.8

n-A

myl

alc

oh

ol..

....

.C

5H11

OH

88.1

582

4 (1

5)13

812

30.

553

–78.

531

5

i-Am

yl a

lcoh

ol(C

H3)

2CH

CH

2CH

2OH

88.1

580

8 (2

5)13

1.5

120

0.56

030

6.6

Cyc

loh

exan

ol(H

exal

in).

.....

...

100.

1693

8 (3

6.6)

160

108

0.41

823

Phe

nol

....

...

C6H

5OH

94.1

110

71 (

25)

182.

212

20.

333

40.8

419.

262

.5

o-C

reso

l....

...

C6H

4(O

H)C

H3

108.

1410

4719

110

30.

5032

422

51


Tabl

e 12

Mol

e-D

ensi

tyB

oilin

gH

eat

ofS

peci

ficM

eltin

gC

ritic

alC

ritic

alcu

lar

kg/m

3P

oint

Eva

pora

-H

eat

Cp

Poi

ntTe

mpe

r-P

ress

ure

Sub

stan

ceF

orm

ula

Wei

ght

760

Torr

tion

kca

l/kg

atur

e12

C =

12

°Ckc

al/

kgde

g C

°C°C

kp/c

m2

Ald

ehyd

es,

Ket

ones

Ace

ton

e..

....

....

CH

3CO

CH

358

.08

791

56.2

125

0.51

5–9

5.6

235.

048

.6

Die

thyl

ket

one.

....

C2H

5CO

C2H

586

.13

816

(25)

101.

790

.80.

55 (

50)

–39.

9

Fur

fura

l ...

......

96.0

911

6016

1.7

108

0.41

8 (5

0)–3

6.5

Met

hyl

furf

ural

.....

110.

1111

07.2

(18

)18

7.0

Tabl

e 13

Eth

ers

Dim

ethy

lC

H3—

O—

CH

346

.07

2.11

1–2

4.9

111.

60.

33–1

4012

6.9

53.7

ethe

r ..

....

..

Me

thyl

eth

yl

eth

er.

....

...

CH

3—O

—C

2H5

60.1

072

6.0

(0)

6.4/

724

298

0.32

164.

744

.8

Die

thyl

eth

er..

...

C2H

5—O

—C

2H5

74.1

271

434

.686

0.37

1—

116.

419

3.4

37.2

168.

210

89 (

99.3

)28

7.0

83

(1)

kg/n

m3

(at

0°C

and

760

Tor

r) (

2) 6

.4 a

t 72

4 To

rr

HC

CH

||| |

HC

. O. C

. CH

O

−−

CH

CH

||||

CH

. C. O

. CC

HO

3

−− −−

Dip

heny

lene

oxi

de

....

....

....

..


Tabl

e 14

Mol

e-D

ensi

tyB

oilin

gH

eat

ofS

peci

ficM

eltin

gC

ritic

alC

ritic

alcu

lar

kg/m

3P

oint

Eva

pora

-H

eat

Cp

Poi

ntTe

mpe

r-P

ress

ure

Sub

stan

ceF

orm

ula

Wei

ght

760

Torr

tion

kca

l/kg

atur

e12

C =

12

°Ckc

al/

kgde

g C

°C°C

kp/c

m2

Est

ers

For

mic

aci

det

hyl

este

r...

....

HC

OO

C2H

574

.08

912

(25)

54.1

97.2

0.48

–80.

523

5.3

48.4

Ace

tic a

cid

ethy

l es

ter.

....

..C

H3C

OO

C2H

588

.11

901

77.1

87.6

0.46

–83.

625

0.1

39.3

But

yric

aci

det

hyl

este

r...

...

C3H

7CO

OC

2H5

116.

1687

2 (2

5)12

1.2

74.7

0.45

–97.

929

2.8

31.3

Tabl

e 15

Sul

phur

and

Nitr

ogen

Com

poun

ds

Met

hyl

amin

e...

.C

H3N

H2

31.0

676

9 (–

79)

–7.5

5119

8.6

0.41

6–9

2.5

156.

976

.0

Eth

yl a

min

e...

...

C2H

5NH

245

.08

742

(–33

.5)

16.6

149

0.69

–83.

318

3.2

57.4

An

ilin

e..

....

....

....

C6H

5NH

293

.13

1013

(30

)18

4.4

107

0.49

–6.5

425.

654

.1

O-T

olui

dine

....

.C

H3

. C

6H4

. N

H2

107.

1699

6 (4

5)20

0.5

90.5

0.45

43.5

395.

531

.8

Nitr

o-be

nzen

e..

C6H

5NO

212

3.11

1204

210.

994

.70.

365.

7

Pyr

idin

e..

....

....

.C

H—

CH

CH

= C

HH

CN

79.1

098

8 (1

5)11

5.5

102

0.42

–41.

834

6.8

57.9

Thi

ophe

ne..

....

..H

C—

CH

||||

HC

—S

—C

H84

.14

1067

(16

.8)

84.0

900.

35–2

9.8

317.

349

.3

(1)

At

719

Torr


Table 16 : Density, Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity of Pure Water at differentTemperatures as per DIN 51 550

Temperature °C Density Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosityg/cm3 Centipoise (cP) Centistokes (cSt)

0 0.99984 1.792 1.792

5 0.99996 1.520 1.520

10 0.99970 1.307 1.307

15 0.99910 1.138 1.139

20 0.99820 1.002 1.0038

25 0.99705 0.890 0.893

30 0.99565 0.797 0.801

35 0.99403 0.719 0.724

40 0.99221 0.653 0.658

45 0.99022 0.598 0.604

50 0.98805 0.548 0.554

55 0.98570 0.505 0.512

60 0.98321 0.467 0.475

65 0.98057 0.434 0.443

70 0.97778 0.404 0.413

75 0.97486 0.378 0.388

80 0.97180 0.355 0.365

85 0.96862 0.334 0.345

90 0.96532 0.315 0.326

95 0.96189 0.298 0.310

100 0.95835 0.282 0.295

Table 17 : Conversion of Baume Scale (+°Bé) into density ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ (kg/dm 3) for liquidsheavier than water at 15°C.

+°Bé Density Kg/dm3 +°Bé Density Kg/dm3

0 1.000 34 1.308

1 1.008 35 1.320

2 1.014 36 1.332

3 1.022 37 1.345

4 1.029 38 1.357

5 1.037 39 1.370

6 1.045 40 1.383

7 1.052 41 1.387

8 1.060 42 1.410

9 1.067 43 1.424


10 1.075 44 1.438

11 1.083 45 1.453

12 1.091 46 1.468

13 1.100 47 1.483

14 1.108 48 1.498

15 1.116 49 1.514

16 1.125 50 1.530

17 1.134 51 1.540

18 1.142 52 1.563

19 1.152 53 1.580

20 1.162 54 1.597

21 1.171 55 1.615

22 1.180 56 1.634

23 1.190 57 1.652

24 1.200 58 1.672

25 1.210 59 1.691

26 1.220 60 1.711

27 1.231 61 1.732

28 1.241 62 1.753

29 1.252 63 1.774

30 1.263 64 1.796

31 1.274 65 1.819

32 1.285 66 1.842

33 1.297

The Baumé Scale is a measurement of density for liquids heavier (+°Bé) or lighter (–°Bé) thanwater.

If n is the hydrometer reading in °Bé and ρh, ρi are the densities in kg/dm3 of liquids respectivelyheavier and lighter thatn water, then at 15°C

ρh = 144.30/(144.30 – n) and ρi = 144.30/(144.30 + n).

°API (American Petroleum Institute) are used in the U.S.A. for indicating the density of fuelsand oils:

Density (g/cm3) = 141.5/(°API + 131.5).

Source : Borsig pocket book 3rd edn. 1970.

Table 18 : Standard oxidation-reduction potentials, E° and equilibrium constants, K

Elements/Compounds E° K

Li → Li+ + e– 3.05 4 × 1050

Cs → Cs+ + e– 2.92 1 × 1049

Rv → Rv+ + e– 2.92 1 × 1049

K → K+ + e– 2.92 1 × 1049


1/2 Ba → 1/2 Ba+ + e– 2.90 5 × 1048

1/2 Sr → 1/2 Sr++ + e– 2.89 4 × 1048

1/2 Ca → 1/2 Ca++ + e– 2.87 2 × 1048

Na → Na+ + e– 2.712 4.0 × 1045

1/3 Al + 4/3 OH– → 1/3 Al (OH)–4 + e– 2.35 3 × 1039

1/2 Mg → 1/2 Mg++ + e– 2.34 2 × 1039

1/2 Be → 1/2 Be++ + e– 1.85 1 × 1031

1/3 Al → AL+++ + e– 1.67 1 × 1028

1/2 Zn + 2OH– → 1/2 Zn(OH)=4 + e– 1.216 2.7 × 1020

1/2 Mn → 1/2 Mn++ + e– 1.18 7 × 1019

1/2 Zn + 2NH3 → 1/2 Zn(NH3)4++ + e– 1.03 2 × 1017

Co(CN)6 → Co(CN)6– – – + e– 0.83 1 × 1014

1/2 Zn → 1/2 Zn++ + e– .762 6.5 × 1012

1/3 Cr → 1/3 Cr+++ + e– .74 3 × 1012

1/2 H2C2O4(aq) → CO2 + H+ + e– .49 2 × 108

1/2 Fe → 1/2 Fe++ + e– .440 2.5 × 107

1/2 Cd → 1/2 Cd++ + e– .402 5.7 × 106

1/2 Co → 1/2 Co++ + e– .277 4.5 × 104

1/2 Ni → Ni++ + e– .250 1.6 × 104

I + Cu → CuI(s) + e– .187 1.4 × 103

1/2 Sn → 1/2 Sn++ + e– .136 1.9 × 102

1/2 Pb → 1/2 Pb++ + e– .126 1.3 × 102

1/2 H2 → H+ + e– 0.000 1

1/2 H2S → 1/2 S + H+ + e– –0.141 4.3 × 10–3

Cu+ → Cu++ + e– –0.153 2.7 × 10–3

1/2 H2O + 1/2 H2SO3 → 1/2 SO=4 + 2H+ + e– –0.17 1 × 10–3

1/2 Cu → Cu++ + e– –0.345 1.6 × 10–6

Fe(CN)6 → Fe(CN6)– – – + e– 0.36 9 × 10–7

I → 1/2 I2(S) + e– –0.53 1 × 10–9

MnO=4 → MnO–

4 + e– –0.54 1 × 10–9

4/3 OH– + 1/3 MnO2 → 1/3MnO–4 + 2/3 H2O + e– –0.57 3 × 10–10

1/2 H2O2 → 1/2 O2 + H++ e– –0.682 3.5 × 10–12

Fe++ → Fe+++ + e– –0.771 1.1 × 10–13

Hg → 1/2 Hg2++ + e– –0.799 3.7 × 10–14

Ag → Ag+ + e– –0.800 3.5 × 10–14

H2O + NO2 → NO–3 + 2H+ + e– –0.81 3 × 10–14


1/2 Hg → 1/2 Hg++ + e– –0.854 4.5 × 10–15

1/2HNO2 + 1/2 H2O → 1/2 NO–3+ H+ + e– –0.94 5.0 × 10–16

1/2 Hg2++ → Hg++ + e– –0.910 2 × 10–16

NO + H2O → HNO2 + H+ + e– –0.99 2 × 10–17

1/2 ClO–3 + 1/2 H2O → 1/2 ClO–

4 + H+ + e– –1.00

Br– → 1/2 Br2 + e– –1.065 1.3 × 10–18

H2O + 1/2 Mn++ → 1/2 MnO2 + 2H+ + e– –1.23 2 × 10–21

Cl– → 1/2 Cl2 + e– –1.358 1.5 × 10–23

7/6 H2O + 1/3 Cr+++ → 1/6 Cr2O7= + 7/3 H+ + e– –1.36 1 × 10–23

1/2 H2O + 1/6 Cl– → 1/6 ClO3– H+ + e– –1.45 4 × 10–25

1/3 Au → 1/3 Au+++ + e– –1.50 6 × 10–26

4/3 H2O + 1/5Mn++ → 1/5 MnO4 + 8/5 H+ +e– –1.52 3 × 10–26

1/2 Cl2 + H2O → HClO + H+ + e– –1.63 4 × 10–28

H2O → 1/2 H2O2 + H+ + e– –1.77 2 × 10–30

Co++ → Co+++ + e– –1.84 1 × 10–31

F– → 1/2 Fe + e– –2.65 4 × 10–44

Note : Values at 25°C, std. press of gases at 1 atmosphere and standard conc. of 1M.


8642

8642

8642

8642

8642

–50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 20 40 60 80 100 110

100

10

1

0.1

0.01

0.001

–50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 20 40 60 80 100 110

Temp. °C

Nap

htha

lene

Dip

heny

l

Pheno

l

M-X

ylene

Wate

r

Tolu

ene Eth

y l A lco

hol

Benzene

Acetone

D iethyletherPrussic A

c idSO 2

Ch lorine

NH 3

H 2S

Hcl

CO 2

Temperature (°C)Vapour Pressure tem p. relation of Chem ical Com pound

Pre

ssur

e P

(at

a)

Graph-G-1


Graph-G-2

100

60 80 100 150100

Temp. °C

Temperature (°C )Vapour pressure tem p. relation of chem ical com pounds

200 300 400 500

864

2

864

2

864

2

864

2

864

2

10

1

0.1

0.01

0.00160 80 100 150 200 300 400 500

H 2S

NH 3 Chlorine

SO 2

Prussid

acid

D iethyl e

ther

Acetone

Ethyl

alco

hol

Water

Tolu

ene

Benze

ne

m-X

ylene

P hen o

l

Nap

h aha

lene

Dip

heny

l

Mer

cury

Sul

phur

Ant

hrac

ene

Ars

enic

Zin

c

Pre

ssur

e P

(at

a)


0 .6 0

0 .5 8

0 .5 6

0 .5 4

0 .5 2

0 .5 0

0 .4 8

0 .4 6

0 .4 4

0 .4 2

0 .4 0

0 .3 8

0 .3 6

0 .3 4

0 .3 2

0 .3 00 2 00 4 00 6 00 8 00 1 00 0 1 20 0 1 40 0 1 60 0 1 80 0

C H 4

C H 4

C O 2

C O 2

H 2O

H O2

O 2 O 2H 2

A ir

N 2

N 2

H 2A ir

G a s Tem p era tu re (°C )N B A s p er la tes t b as e va lue s fo r cp

M e an a nd tru e sp ec ific hea t o f ce rta in G as esG a s p re ss ure p = 76 0 m m h g

= C p true sp ec ific h ea t b etw e en 0 an d t°C = C p m m ea n s pe cific he at be tw ee n 0 a nd t°C

----------------------------------------

G raph-G-3

Spe

cific

hea

t, K

cal/n

m/d

eg C

3

Source: Borsig pocket book 3rd edn. 1970.


Graph G-4Maximum Water vapour content of Gases

For ideal gases 3sn nid

n d 2 n s s

PP P Tf [(g/m dry gas (S.T.P.)]

T R (P P ) T V (P P )= − = −

− −

1 00 0

7 005 004 003 00

2 00

1 00

7 0

5 0

3 0

2 0

1 0

75

432

1 2 3 4 5 7 1 0 2 0 3 0 5 0 1 00 2 001 5 5 00

10 .70 .5

0 .40 .30 .2

0 .1

E xa m ple :A g a s s a tu ra ted w ate rv ap o u r h a s a tem pe ra tu reo f 3 0 °C , th e p re ss u re b e in g2 0 a ta . T h e w ate r va p ou r co n ten tf is th ere fo re 1 .7 5 g /n m d ryg as (S .T.P.)

3

P to ta l p re s su re o f g as -w a te r v ap o u r m ixtu re

T te m p era tu re o f g a s-w ate rv ap o u r m ixtu re (°K )

Pn 1 .03 3 a ta

T n 2 73 .1 5°K

Ps s a tu ra tio n p re ss u re o f w a te rv ap o u r a t T °K

Vs s pe c ific v o lu m e o f w a te rv ap o u r a t T °K , p a ta

Z rea l g as fac to r o f m ix tu re a tT a n d P

F or rea l g as e s, th e v a lu e rea d , m a ne ly fid s ho u ld b e in u ltip lied b y Z (p ,t)

frea l = Z fid

Wa

ter

Va

pour

fid

(g/

nm

)3

5 0°C

6 0 °C70 °C

10°C

C en tre P (a ta )

Source : Borsig pocket book 3rd edn. 1970


Table 19 : Density and Concentration of Ethyl Alcohol-Water Mixtures

Density at 15°C

kg/l4°C

Wt. % of Density at 15°C

kg/l4°C

Wt. % of

ethyl alcohol ethyl alcohol

0.9954 2 0.9134 520.9920 4 0.9089 540.9887 6 0.9044 560.9858 8 0.8999 580.9830 10 0.8952 600.9804 12 0.8906 620.9779 14 0.8859 640.9755 16 0.8813 660.9731 18 0.8766 680.9707 20 0.8719 700.9682 22 0.8671 720.9656 24 0.8623 740.9628 26 0.8575 760.9599 28 0.8527 780.9568 30 0.8478 800.9536 32 0.8428 820.9501 34 0.8378 840.9465 36 0.8327 860.9427 38 0.8276 880.9488 40 0.8223 900.9348 42 0.8169 920.9307 44 0.8113 940.9265 46 0.8056 960.9222 48 0.7997 980.9178 50 0.7935 100

Table 20 : Density and Concentration of Aqueous Solutions of Ammonia

Density Concentration Density Concentrationat 20°C Kg/l Wt.% Mol/l at 20°C Kg/l Wt.% Mol/l

0.998 0.0465 0.0273 0.930 17.85 9.75

0.990 1.89 1.10 0.920 20.88 11.28

0.980 4.27 2.46 0.910 24.03 12.84

0.970 6.75 3.84 0.900 27.33 14.44

0.960 9.34 5.27 0.890 30.69 16.04

0.950 12.03 6.71 0.880 34.35 17.75

0.940 14.88 8.21


Table 21 : Density and Concentration of Aqueous Solutions of Caustic Soda

Density Concentration Density Concentrationat 20°C kg/l Wt.% Mol/l at 20°C kg/l Wt.% Mol/l

1.000 0.159 0.041 1.270 24.65 7.824

1.010 1.045 0.264 1.280 25.56 8.178

1.020 1.94 0.494 1.290 26.48 8.539

1.030 2.84 0.731 1.300 27.41 8.906

1.040 3.75 0.971 1.310 28.33 9.278

1.050 4.66 1.222 1.320 29.26 9.656

1.060 5.56 1.474 1.330 30.20 10.04

1.070 6.47 1.731 1.340 31.14 10.43

1.080 7.38 1.992 1.350 32.10 10.83

1.090 8.28 2.257 1.360 33.06 11.24

1.100 9.19 2.527 1.370 34.03 11.65

1.110 10.10 2.802 1.380 35.01 12.08

1.120 11.01 3.082 1.390 36.00 12.51

1.130 11.92 3.367 1.400 36.99 12.95

1.140 12.83 3.655 1.410 37.99 13.39

1.150 13.73 3.947 1.420 38.99 13.84

1.160 14.64 4.244 1.430 40.00 14.30

1.170 15.54 4.545 1.440 41.03 14.77

1.180 16.44 4.850 1.450 42.07 15.25

1.190 17.35 5.160 1.460 43.12 15.74

1.200 18.26 5.476 1.470 44.17 16.23

1.210 19.16 5.796 1.480 45.22 16.73

1.220 20.07 6.122 1.490 46.27 17.23

1.230 20.98 6.451 1.500 47.33 17.75

1.240 21.90 6.788 1.510 48.38 18.26

1.250 22.82 7.129 1.520 49.44 18.78

1.260 23.73 7.475 1.530 50.50 19.31

Table 22 : Densities of Solid and Liquid materials in kg/dm 3, g/cm 3

Densities of Solid and Liquid Substances (at 15 to 20°C) in relation to water = 1Akrite cutting alloy 9.0 Delta Metal 8.6Alum 1.71 Dolomite 2.1 to 2.9Aluminium (700°C) 2.38 Dynamo sheet ironAluminium (1000°C) 2.30 (high-alloyed, 4% Si) 7.6Aluminium bronze 7.7 Feldspar 2.5 to 2.6Aluminium (cast) 2.56 FerromanaganeseAluminium (hammered) 2.75 (with 80% Mn) 7.5

Aluminium (pure) 2.70 Fluorspar 3.15


Antimony 6.69 Foundry coke 1.6 to 1.9

Anthracite 1.4 to 1.7 Glass 2.4 to 3.9

Arsenic, grey (metallic) 5.72 Gold (at 1100°C) 19.25

Barium 3.6 to 3.8 Gold (at 1300°C) 19.0

Bell metal 8.8 Gold (cast) 19.25

Benzene (at 0°C), liquid 0.88 Gold (coined) 19.50

Beryllium 1.86 Greases (at 15°C) 0.92 to 0.94

Blast-furnace slag 2.6 to 3.0 Grey cast iron 7.0 to 7.25

Boron (amorphous) 2.34 High-temperature Cr-Ni

Boron (crystalline) 3.33 resistance metal 8.4

Bronze (with 6–20% 8.7 to 8.9 Iodine 4.95

tin content) Iron oxide 5.25

Brown coal 1.2 to 1.5 Iron (pure) 7.87

Brown coal (in bulk) 0.7 Iron (pure, at 1550°C) 7.207

Brown hematite 3.4 to 4.0 Iron (pure, at 1600°C) 7.158

Cadmium 8.64 Iron (pure, at 1700°C) 7.057

Cast iron (cf. grey cast Lead 11.34

iron) Lead (at 327°C) 10.65

Cast steel 7.85 Lead (at 731°C) 10.19

Caustic potash, 11% Lead (rolled) 11.4

solution 1.1 Marsh gas (fire damp)1 0.56

Cerium 6.8 Mild steel 7.70 to 7.85

Charcoal 0.3 to 0.5 Moulding sand 2.1 to 2.2

Chromium 7.14 Petrol (at 15°C) 0.68 to 0.72

Cr-Ni Steel (stainless) 7.85 Potassium 0.87

Cr Steel (stainless) 7.7 White lead 6.7

Density of Solid and Liquid Materials

Air (760 Torr, 0°C) 1.00 Kaolin 2.2

Bearing metal, white Kidney Iron ore 4.9 to 5.3

metal 7.1 Limestone 2.5 to 2.8

Bog iron ore 2.6 Magnesite 3.0

Brass (cast) 8.4 to 8.7 Magnesium 1.74

Brass (drawn) 8.5 to 8.8 Magnetite 4.9 to 5.2

Carbon, diamond 3.51 Manganese 7.3

Carbon dioxide Mercury 13.55

gaseous1 1.52 Mineral oils 0.90 to 0.93

(1) Reforred to air = 1 (at 760 Torr and 0°C)Source : Borsig pocket book 3rd edn. 1970.


Carbon, graphite 2.25 Molybdenum 10.2

Carbonic acid Nickel 8.85

(0°C, liquid) 0.94 Nickel (1500°C) 7.76

Carbon monoxide 0.97 Ni Steel with minimum

Carbon, soot 1.75 expansion (36% Ni) 8.13

Caustic potash, 31% solution 1.3 Ni Steel with high initial

Caustic potash 63% solution 1.7 permeability (50% Ni) 8.19

Caustic soda, 9% NaOH 1.1 Ni-Mn Steel (nonmagnetic,

Caustic soda, 18% NaOH 1.2 15% Ni, 5% Mn) 8.03

Caustic soda, 37% NaOH 1.4 Niobium 8.56

Caustic soda, 47% NaOH 1.5 Nitric acid 1.513

Cobalt 8.71 Oxygen1 1.10

Cabalt magnet steel (hardened) 7.75 Oxygen (liquid –182.8°C) 1.142

Coke in lumps 0.6 Palladium 11.9

Common salt solution, Petroleum 0.79 to 0.82

14% NaCl 1.1 Phosphorus, red 2.20

Common salt solution Phosphorus, yellow 1.83

26% NaCl 1.2 Phosphor bronze 8.8

Copper (at 1100°C) 7.92 Platinum 21.4

Copper (at 1600°C) 7.53 Pig iron, dark grey 7.58 to 7.73

Copper, cast 8.63 to 8.80 Pig iron, light grey 7.20

Copper, rolled 8.82 to 8.95 Pig iron, white 7.0 to 7.13

Cupola-furunace slag 2.8 to 3.0 Quicklime 2.8 to 3.2

Fireclay 1.8 to 2.2 Rhodium 12.5

Hydrochloric acid, 10% 1.05 Sand, dry 1.4 to 1.6

Hydrochloric acid, 20% 1.10 Sandstone 2.2 to 2.5

Hydrochloric acid, 30% 1.15 Sea-water (at 4°C) 1.026

Hydrochloric acid, 40% 1.20 Slaked lime 1.2 to 1.3

High-speed steel Sodium 0.98

Cr-Co-W base 8.3 to 9.3 Town gas 0.38 to 0.45

Bismuth 9.82 Silicon, graphitic 2.00

Cast steel 7.8 Silver 10.51

Cement 2.7 to 3.0 Silver (at 970°C) 9.32

Cement, set 2.3 Silver (at 1302°C) 9.00

Cinnabar 8.09 Spiegel with 10% Mn 7.60

Clay, dry 1.8 Sulphur dioxide 2.23

Clay, fresh 2.4 to 2.6 Sulphur, monoclinic 1.96

Coal tar 1.1 to 1.26 Sulphur, rhombic 2.07

Cruicible steel 7.85 Sulphuretted hydrogen

(1) Referred to air = 1 (at 760 Torr and 0°C)


Ferrosilicon, 7.5% Si 7.35 (760 Torr, 0°C)2 1.19

Ferrosilicon, 20% Si 6.70 Sulphuric acid

Ferrosilicon, 46% Si 4.87 (760 Torr, 0°C)1 2.15

Ferrosilicon, 95% Si 2.32 Tantalum 16.6

Hard coal 1.2 to 1.5 Thomas slag 2.6 to 3.2

High-speed steel, Tin (cast) 7.2

tungsten carbide base 13.5 to 14.5 Tin (at 232°C) 6.99

Hydrogen 0.089 Tin (rombic) 5.75

Hydrogen (liquid, Tin (tetragonal) 7.28

–252.5°C) 0.070 Titanium 4.50

Nitrogen 0.97 Tungsten 19.1

Nitrogen, liquid Uranium 19.1

(–196°C) 0.811 Vanadium 6.07

Nitric oxide Water vapour

(760 Torr, 0°C) 1.04 (760 Torr, 0°C)1 0.62

Nitrous oxide 1.53 Welding steel 7.8

Open-hearth slag 2.5 to 3.0 Widia (tungsten carbide)

Peat 0.4 cutting metal 14.4

Rock salt 2.28 Zinc 7.14

Siderite 3.7 to 3.9 Zinc (at 419°C) 6.92

Silicon, crystalline 2.34 Zirconium 6.49

Table 23 : Properties of Anhydrous Ammonia

Wt./gallon (US) at 15.6°C – 5.14 1b

B.P. at 760 mm Hg – –33.35°C

Freezing pt. at 760 mm Hg – –77.7°C

Heat of Fusion – 108.19 cal/gm

Heat of vaporisation at

760 mm Hg – 327.4 cal/gm

Critical temperature – 132.4°C

Critical pressure – 111.5 atm. abs.

Dielectric constant of vapour

at 0°C and 1 × 106 cps – 1.0072

Vapour for liquid at –34°C

and 4 × 108 cps – 22

Solid at –90°C and 4 × 108 cps – 44.01

Viscosity, liquid at –33.5°C – 0.266 cp

(1) Referred to air = 1 (at 760 Torr and 0°C)


Vapour at –78.5°C – 0.00672 cp

Vapour at 0°C – 0.00926 cp

Vapour at 20°C – 0.01080 cp

Vapour at 100°C – 0.01303 cp

N.B. Dielectric constant refers to frequency in cycles per sec.

Table 24 : Acetic anhydride, specification

Purity = 99% wt. (min)

Phosphate = 1.0 ppm (max)

Chloride = 1.0 ppm (max)

Sulphate = 1.0 ppm (max)

Al = 1.0 ppm (max)

Iron = 1.0 ppm (max)

Nonvolatiles = 30 ppm (min)

Colour (pt-cobalt) index = 10

Permanganate time = A ml. sample will not reduce more than0.1 ml of 0.1N KMnO4 in 5 mins.

Sp. gravity (20/20°C) = 1.08–1.085

N.B. Process of manufacture of Acetic anhydride:

1. Ketone process

2. Acetaldehyde process

3. Mehyl acetate carbonylation.

Table 25 : Leather Chemicals

1. Synthetic tanning agents

2. Vegetable tanning agents

3. Chrome extracts

4. Fat liquors

5. Acrylic binders

6. Casein binders

7. Pigment dispersants

8. Lacquer and Lacquer emulsions

9. Drum dyes

10. Dye solutions.


Table 26 : Molecular diameter of common gases

CO2 = 0.28 nmCH4 = 0.44 nmCCl4 = 0.69 nmOxygen = 0.28 nmWater Vapour = 0.315 nmNitrogen = 0.3 nmCO = 0.28 nmHydrogen = 0.24 nm

Table 27 : Battery grade Sulphuric acid

Specification (IS)

H2SO4 conc. = 29.7% wt.) - min

ImpuritiesIron as Fe = 0.0006% wt.Chlorides = 0.0003% wt.Arsenic = 0.0001% wt.Selenium = 0.0006% wt.Manganese = 0.00003% wt.Copper = 0.001% wt.Zinc = 0.001% wt.Ash = 0.02% wt.

Table 28 : H 2SO4 and SO3 content in sulphuric acid at 15.5°C

Sp. gravity H2SO4 100 parts (wt.) (wt.) SO3 part 1 lit contains

contain H2SO4 wt. part Kg of H2SO4

(1) (2) (3) (4)

1.885 99.31 81.08 1.8261.8390 99.12 80.9 1.8231.8395 98.77 80.63 1.817

1.84 98.72 80.59 1.8161.8405 98.52 80.43 1.8141.8410 98.20 80.16 1.808

1.61 69.06 57.49 1.1411.63 71.27 55.18 1.1621.64 72.12 58.88 1.1821.65 72.96 59.57 1.2041.66 73.81 60.26 1.2251.68 75.92 61.971.71 77.7 63.421.72 79.37 64.791.74 81.16 65.061.80 87.69 71.58


1.82 91.11 74.371.828 93.03 75.941.832 94.32 76.991.50 60.17 49.121.52 62.00 50.611.54 63.81 52.091.56 65.59 53.541.58 67.35 54.98

Table 29 : Sp. gravity of aq. soln. of Sulphuric acid at 15.5°C

% H2SO4 (wt.) Sp. gravity

55% 1.449

60% 1.502

65% 1.558

70% 1.615

75% 1.674

80% 1.732

85% 1.784

90% 1.819

95% 1.839

97% 1.841

98% 1.841

Table 30 : OIeum

% Free SO3 (wt.) Sp. gravity at 15.5°C

10% 1.888

20% 1.920

30% 1.959

Table 31 : Heats of soln. of SO 3 in water

n (moles of H2O) Heat of soln. kcal

1 21.3

2 28.04

3 31.31

5 34.14

1600 40.34


Table 32 : Benzene Physical Properties

Formula = C6H6

Mol. wt = 78.115

B.P = 80.1°C

F.P = 5.5°C

M.P = 5.533°C

Density at 20°c = 0.87901

nD 20 = 1.50112

Critical density = 0.0309 gm/cc

Critical press. = 48.9 bar

Critical temp. = 288.9°C

Flash point = – 11°C

Ignition temp. = 595°C

Explosive limit = 1.4% (lower)

= 6.7% (higher)

Heat of fusion = 125.9 j/gm

Heat of combustion = 3275.3 kg/mole

Gross heating value = 41932 j/gm

Spec. electrical conductivity = 3.8 × 10–14 per cm per ohm

V.P. at 273°K = 3.466 KPa

Specific heat at 273°K = 1.492 j/gm

Heat of vaporisation = 448 cal/gm

Viscosity = 0.906 j/gm

Benzene water azeotrope

mix. (B.P = 69.25°C) Benzene = 91.17% wt

water = 8.83 wt.

Benzene is available in 3 grades viz Industrial grade (ASTM D 836–84), Refined benzene535(ASTM D 2359–69) and Refined benzene -485- nitration grade ASTM D835–85

Azeotropes of benzene:

Component BP°C Azeotrope, BP°C wt% benzene

Cyclohexane 80.75 77.56 51.9

Methyl

cyclopentane 71.8 71.5 9.4

n heptane 98.4 80.1 99.3

Table 33 : Physical properties of Toluene

Mol. wt. = 92.13

B.P (100 KPa) = 110.635°C

Critical temp. = 320.8°C

Critical Press. = 4.133 Mpa


Critical compressibility = 0.26

Density at 100 KPa & 25°C = 0.863 gm/cc

Surface tension at 100 Kpa & 25°C = 20.75 m N/m

Viscosity at 100 KPa & 25°C = 0.586 Mpa sec.

Thermal conductivity at

100 KPa & 18°C = 0.1438 W/m°K

LCV – gas = 40.97 Kj/gm

– liquid = 40.52 Kj/gm

Flash point = 4°C


Explosion limit – upper = 27% (vol)

– Lower = 6.75% (vol)

Refractive index ND20 = 1.497.

Table 34 : Reagent grade benzene (American chem. society)

Colour (APHA) – not more than 10

Boiling range – within±1°C of 80.1°C

F.P – not below 5.2°C

Residue after evaporation – not more than 0.001% wt.

Thiophene – not more than 0.005% wt.

Water – not more than 0.05% wt.

Substance darkened by H2SO4 to pass test safety.

Permissible exposure limit (TLV) = 1 ppm (1 hr.)

(OSHA-71)

Benzene should be free from non-aromatics (for 5.5°C FP, maxm allowable is0.01% wt).

Packing in steel drums for transportation

Table 35 : Physical properties of Naphthalene

Density at 20°C = 1.1789 gm/cm3

Ref. index (99.5°C) = 1.5829

Heat capacity at 25°C = 1.294 kj/kg

Heat of fusion = 148 kj/kg

Heat of vaporisation = 352 kj/kg

V.P. at 70°C = 0.525 KPa

V.P. at 88°C = 1.33 KPa

V.P. at 101°C = 40 KPa

Critical temp. = 475°C

Critical press = 41.9 KPa/cm2



Flash point (closed cup) = 80°C

Dielectric constant at 20°C = 2.47

Lower limit of explosion = 0.88% (vol)

Higher limit of explosion = 5.9% (vol)

Odour threshold limit = 0.004 mg/m3

LD50 = 1100–2400 mg/kg rat, orl

N.B. Phthalic anhydride is produced by catalylic gas phase oxdn. of naphthalene.

Table 36 : Nitration grade Toluene specification

ASTM D841 Test ASTM Code

Density at 20°C, gm/ml = 0.869–0.873 D891

Colour (Hazen) = < 20 D1209

Boiling range = ± 1°C D850, D1078

Acidity = –

Colour after acid treatment = < no.2

Sulphur content = nil

Table 37 : Physical Characteristics of Pure Gases

Substance Molar Standard Gas Specific Heat Molarweight Density Constant in Standard State Volume

M ρn 1 R Cp Cv Vn

1

kgk mol

kg

n m3

L

NM

O

QP

mkpkg °K [kcal/kg deg C]

3n m k mol

Chlorine ............... 70.914 3.214 11.956 0.120 0.0895 22.064

Oxygen ............... 32.000 1.42895 26.495 0.2184 0.1562 22.394

Nitrogen .............. 28.016 1.25046 30.262 0.2482 0.1774 22.405

Hydrogen ............ 2.016 0.08989 420.551 3.403 2.417 22.427

Nitric oxide ......... 30.008 1.3402 28.254 0.2384 0.1722 22.391

Carbon monoxide 28.011 1.25001 30.268 0.2486 0.1775 22.408

Hydrochloric acid 36.465 1.6392 23.251 0.191 0.136 22.246

Carbon dioxide. .. 44.011 1.9769 19.264 0.1957 0.1505 22.263

Sulphur dioxide .. 64.066 2.9262 13.234 0.1453 0.1143 21.894

Nitrous oxide ...... 44.016 1.9804 19.262 0.2131 0.1680 22.226

Water vapour ...... 18.016 (0.80378) 47.060 0.443 0.332 (23.45)

..... (100°) (100°)

Ammonia ............ 17.032 0.77142 49.779 0.491 0.374 22.078

Methane .............. 16.043 0.7168 52.847 0.515 0.390 22.381


Acetylene ........... 26.038 1.1747 32.561 0.3613 0.2904 22.166

Ethylene ............. 28.054 1.2604 30.221 0.385 0.308 22.258Ethane ................ 30.070 1.3566 28.195 0.413 0.345 22.166

Propylene ........... 42.081 1.9149 20.148 0.340 21.976

Propane .............. 44.097 2.00963 19.227 0.360 0.313 21.943

n-Butane ............. 58.214 2.73204 14.587 0.382 21.275

n-Pentane ........... 72.151 3.21901 11.751 0.384 20.877

Benzene ............. 78.114 3.48505 10.853 0.229 0.272

... (100°) (100°)

Hexane ............... 86.178 3.84483 9.838 0.384

Air Hydrogen ...... 28.964 1.2928 29.272 0.240 0.171 22.401

Sulphide .............. 34.082 1.5362 24.876 0.23 – 22.186

(1) nm3 = normal cubic metre, i.e. at 0°C and 760 Torr

Note :

R individual gas constant = 847.84

M [mkp/kg °K]

Cp – Cv = 1.987

M

ρn standard density = 3n

M kg

V nm

Adiabatic exponent x = Cp/Cv

Molar volume Vn in stnadard state nm3/kg mol.

Standard state is at 0°C and 760 Torr

For liquids the data refer to the vaporised state,

Source : Borsig pocket book 3rd edn.

Table 38 : Density and Concentration of Aqueous Hydrochloric Acid soln.

Density Concentration Density Concentrationat 20°C Wt. % Mol/l at 20°C Wt. % Mol/l

kg/l

1.000 0.3600 0.09872 1.105 21.36 6.472

1.005 1.360 0.3748 1.110 22.33 6.796

1.010 2.364 0.6547 1.115 23.29 7.122

1.015 3.374 0.9391 1.120 24.25 7.449

1.020 4.388 1.227 1.125 25.22 7.782

1.025 5.408 1.520 1.130 26.20 8.118

1.030 6.433 1.817 1.135 27.18 8.459

1.035 7.464 2.118 1.140 28.18 8.8091.040 8.490 2.421 1.145 29.17 9.1591.045 9.510 2.725 1.150 30.14 9.5051.050 10.52 3.029 1.155 31.14 9.863


1.055 11.52 3.333 1.160 32.14 10.231.060 12.51 3.638 1.165 33.16 10.601.065 13.50 3.944 1.170 34.18 10.971.070 14.50 4.253 1.175 35.20 11.341.075 15.49 4.565 1.180 36.23 11.731.080 16.47 4.878 1.185 37.27 12.111.085 17.45 5.192 1.190 38.32 12.501.090 18.43 5.510 1.195 39.37 12.901.095 19.41 5.829 1.198 40.00 13.141.100 20.39 6.150

Table 39 : Density and Concentration of Aqueous Nitric Acid soln.


kg/l

1.000 0.3333 0.05231 1.300 48.42 9.9901.020 3.982 0.6445 1.320 51.72 10.831.040 7.530 1.243 1.340 55.13 11.721.060 10.97 1.845 1.360 58.78 12.681.080 14.31 2.453 1.380 62.70 13.731.100 17.58 3.068 1.400 66.97 14.881.120 20.79 3.696 1.420 71.63 16.141.140 23.94 4.330 1.440 76.71 17.531.160 27.00 4.970 1.460 82.39 19.091.180 30.00 5.618 1.480 89.07 20.921.200 32.94 6.273 1.500 96.73 23.021.220 35.93 6.956 1.504 97.74 23.331.240 39.02 7.679 1.508 98.76 23.631.260 42.14 8.426 1.513 100.00 24.011.280 45.27 9.195


Table 40 : Density and Concentration of Aqueous Solutions of Sulphuric Acid


kg/l

1.000 0.2609 0.02660 1.460 56.41 8.397

1.020 3.242 0.3372 1.480 58.31 8.799

1.040 6.237 0.6613 1.500 60.17 9.202

1.060 9.129 0.9865 1.520 62.00 9.603

1.080 11.96 1.317 1.540 63.81 10.02

1.100 14.73 1.652 1.560 65.59 10.43

1.120 17.43 1.990 1.580 67.35 10.85

1.140 20.08 2.334 1.600 69.09 11.27


1.160 22.67 2.681 1.620 70.82 11.70

1.180 25.21 3.033 1.640 72.52 12.13

1.200 27.72 3.391 1.660 74.22 12.56

1.220 30.18 3.754 1.680 75.92 13.00

1.240 32.61 4.123 1.700 77.63 13.46

1.260 35.01 4.498 1.720 79.37 13.92

1.280 37.36 4.876 1.740 81.16 14.40

1.300 39.68 5.259 1.760 83.06 14.90

1.320 41.95 5.646 1.780 85.16 15.46

1.340 44.17 6.035 1.800 87.69 16.09

1.360 46.33 6.424 1.820 91.11 16.91

1.380 48.45 6.817 1.824 92.00 17.11

1.400 50.50 7.208 1.828 93.03 17.34

1.420 52.51 7.603 1.832 94.32 17.62

1.440 54.49 8.000 1.838 95.00 –

Table 41 : Density and Concentration of Aqueous Solutions of Caustic Potash

Density Concentration Density Concentration

at 20°C Wt. % Mol/l at 20°C Wt. % Mol/l

kg/l kg/l

1.000 0.197 0.0351 1.280 29.25 6.67

1.020 2.38 0.434 1.300 31.15 7.22

1.040 4.58 0.848 1.320 33.03 7.77

1.060 6.74 1.27 1.340 34.90 8.34

1.080 8.89 1.71 1.360 36.74 8.91

1.100 11.03 2.16 1.380 38.56 9.48

1.120 13.14 2.62 1.400 40.37 10.07

1.140 15.22 3.09 1.420 42.16 10.67

1.160 17.29 3.58 1.440 43.92 11.28

1.180 19.35 4.07 1.460 45.66 11.88

1.200 21.38 4.57 1.480 47.39 12.50

1.220 23.38 5.08 1.500 49.10 13.13

1.240 25.36 5.60 1.520 50.80 13.76

1.260 27.32 6.14 1.535 52.05 14.24


Table 42 : Specification of lactic acid

Pharma Food chemicals Edible grade

Assay % 88 94–105 80

Sulphites % 0.02 0.25 0.05

Arsenic, ppm 4 3 0.2

Chloride % 0.008 0.2 0.02

Iron, ppm 10 10 10

Heavy metals, ppm 33 10 10

Ash % 0.1 0.1 0.1

Calcium % 0.02 – –

Uses(i) Buffered lactic acid-sod. lactate is used in confectionary.

(ii ) In cheese making.

(iii ) For Antimicrobial treatment of meat and poultry.

N.B. In Europe lactic acid specification is laid down in EEC council directives. It is coded inFood Chemicals code in U.S.A. for edible grade lactic acid.

PropertiesLactic acid produced synthetically is optically inactive (recemic), where as when produced by

fermentation using specific microorganism, optically active lactic acid is produced. It forms L(+)lactic acid and D(–) lactic acid due to optical rotation in the molecule. The acid is mono hydroxycarboxylic acid with an asymetrical carbon atom.

COOH COOH

HO C H HO C OH

CH3 CH3

L (+) lactic acid D(–) lactic acid

Lactic acid is very hygroscopic and is obtained as 90% conc. solution (wt.). Pure acid is whitecrystalline solid produced by careful distillation and undergoes internal esterification to produce lactoγ lactic acid. M.P. of isomers is 52.7–52.8°C and B.P. of anhydrous lactic acid is 125–140°C at 27.9Kpa and its M.P. is 18–33°C and molecular wt. is 90.08. Lactic acid products viz. α, β, γ and δhydroxy carboxylic acids have M.P. of 23–33°C, B.P. 119–123°C at 1.6–2 Kpa, density at 25°C is1.206 and R.I. is 1.4392.

Table 43 : Sodium Chloride dataSource : Salt lagoons for sea water and salt mines

Impurities : Salt lagoons (1–10% CaSO4 and others) and

Mined salt (1–4% CaSO4 and others-CaCl2 Mgcl2)


Physical data (Sodium chloride)

Density = 2.165 gm/cc

Refractive index ND20 = 1.544

sp. heat = 0.853 J/gm

Heat of fusion = 517.1 J/gm

M.P. = 800.8°C

Heat of soln. = 3.757 Kj/mol

Uses– Leather tanning to prevent bacterial decomposition.

– Textile dyeing for dye fixation and die standardisation.

– Soap making for separation of soap.

– Pulp and paper for precipitation of water proofing compounds and generation of Cl2

bleach.

– Ceramics for surface vitrification of heated clays.

– Rubber manufacture for salting out of rubber from latex.

– Refrigerant cooling media (saltice mixture).

– Oil well operation to prevent foamability of drilling mud chemicals.

– Pigment as a grinding agent.

Table 44 : Spec. of Sod. nitrite

USP Food grade Tech-grade

Sod. nitrite, wt% min 97 97 97

Loss or drying wt% max 0.25 0.25 –

Heavy metals (as Pb) wt% max 0.002 0.002 –

Arsenic (as As)– ppm max – 3 –

Pb as Pb, ppm (max) 10 –

Sod. Sulphate, wt% max – – 0.2

Sod. Chloride, wt% max – – 0.2

Insolubles, wt% max – – 0.5

Remarks : Sod. nitrite and an acid – reacts to form NOX.

Packaging norms –Multiwal plastic bag or fibre drum for Hazardous chemical and anappropriate oxidiser to be indicated.

Toxicity – Inhalation of salt dust, liquid mist or direct injestion can cause acute toxiceffect leading to death. Sod. nitrite can cause meglobinemia inchildren. Oral limit is 10 ppm. B.P. loss and irritation of throat and nosedue to sod. nitrite poisoning.


Table 45 : Analysis of Sponge iron

Total Fe = 88% min

Metalisation = 86

Carbon = 1.4

Sulphur = 0.02

Residue = 0.10

Total gangue = 6

Size : 5mm = 5% (max), +16 mm = 10%

Table 46 : Physical properties of isocyanuric acid

Formula = NHCONHCONHCO

Mol. wt. = 129.08

Phy. form = Crystialline, white solid

Decomposition point = 330°C.

Bulk density = 0.6 – 0.85 cm/cc

pH of 1% soln. = 3.5 – 5.1.

Solubility at 25°C = 0.3 gm/100 gm mole.

Manufacture – By heating urea above its M.P.

Uses – Chlorine stabiliser for chlorine compounds based disinfectants or otherdisinfectants for swimming pool stabilisation, laundry bleaching agent, plasticiser,varnish (elec) etc.

Table 47 : Properties of MEA, DEA & TEA

Mol. wt. M. p°C B. p°C Density Heat of Sp. Heat Viscosity20°C vaporisation MPa.s

kj/kg.

MEA 61.08 10.35 170.3 20°C 848 2.72 23

DEA 105.1 27.4 268.5 1.0012 638.4 2.73 389(30°C)

TEA 149.2 21.6 336.1 1.248 517.8 2.33 930

Uses :MEA – For intermediates in the preparation of surfactants (Textiles, detergents, leather

chemicals for dressing, dyeing and finishing and emulsions. Drilling and cutting oils,medicinal soaps and high quality soaps from stearic acid, lanonic and oleic acid orcarpolytic acid used as cosmatics, polishes, shoe creams, ethanol amines soaps withwax and resins and used as impregnating material, protective coatings for textile andleather goods. Ethyl amine soaps from alkyl benzene sulphonic acids are used asdetergents (having better biodegradibility. MEA is also used in paints.

DEA – As corrosion inhibitor in coolant for auto engines. It is also made from coconut fattyacids and oleic acid are also used industrially, liquid detergents are also based on TEA.TEA is also used as cement milling additive.


Table 48 : Physical properties of ethylene

Formula = CH2 = CH2

Mol. wt. = 28.052

Lower/higher limits of inflamability = 2.75/28.6%

Ignition temperature = 425–527°C

Critical temperature = 9.9°C

Critical pressure = 5.117 MPa

M.P. = –169°C

Density at 0°C = 0.34 gm/cc

Gas density at STP = 1.263 gm/lit

Heat of fusion = 119.5 Kj/Kg.

Heat of combusion = 47.183 Kj/Kg.

Heat of vaporisation at B.P. = 488 Kj/Kg.

Table 48A : Adhesives

1. Classified as natural and synthetic adhesives.

2. Natural adhesives are resinous secretions of certain trees viz. guar gum, suitable for lightbonding press.

3. Synthetic adhesives are made from several polymerisable resins viz. epoxy, vinyl, acetate,urethene and acrylic structural resins.

4. Adhesives function in two ways. Firstly, initially in liquid state, have to wet the adehereants andthe adhesive in second stage to form the bondline which must be solid high molecular wt.polymer that is able to carry out and transfer mechanical forces to seal the adhereants. Thesecond stage is called “curing”.

5. There are three types curing processes for synthetic adhesives:

(i) Adhesive is applied in liquid state and allowed to dry or cool for solidification for bonding.

(ii ) Adhesive is applied as a solution containing a carrier liquid or an emulsifier containingemulsifying agent and the carrier liquid which evaporates leaving behind high molecularweight polymer.

(iii ) Adhesives containing a low viscisity fluid having reactive group that undergoesPolymerisation in bondline between adhereanants to build the molecular wt. suitable tocarry load of adhereants. This curing process is commonly used in structural adhesivesviz. epoxy. vinyls, urethene and acrylic adhesives.

6. Adhesion of adhesives is due to :

(i) mechanical interlocking due to pressure,

(ii ) Electrostatic attraction between polar groups in the adhesive as well as in adherantssurface and

(iii ) Formation of chemical bonds across the interface due to presence of chemically reactivegroup.


7. Reaction of Epoxy adhesive in two parts viz. curing agent (active H) and epoxy resin :

8. Properties format for adhesives :

(i) Physical form.

(ii ) Closed assembly time at 20°C.

(iii ) Setting process.

(iv) Processing condition.

(v) Coverage.

(vi) Shelf life at 20°C.

(vii) Working life.

(viii ) Performance.

(ix) Application.

Table 49 : pH test indicators to determine end pt. in titration

pH range colour change

Litmus = 4.5 – 8.3 Red to blue

Methyl orange = 3.1 to 4.4 Orange red to yellow

Methyl red = 4.2 to 6.3 Red to yellow

Phenolphthalein = 8.3 to 10 Colourless to red

Phenol red = 6.6 to 8.2 Yellow to red

Alizarin red = 5.0 to 6.8 Yellow to red

Congo red = 3.0 to 5 Blue to red

Bromocresol green = 4.0 to 5.6 Yellow to blue

Buffers – Mix of either weak acids with their salts of strong bases or strong acids with theirsalt of weak bases.

Table 50 : Physical data – Liquefaction and Fractionation of Air

Constituents Conc. B.P. at atm. Latent heat Critical Sp. Gr. ofvol% press, 0°C B.T.U/1b mole temp. 0°C liq phase

N2 78.08 –195.8 2399 –117 0.808

O2 20.95 –183 2938 –83 1.14

Ar 0.932 –185.7 2800 –120.2 1.39

CO2 0.03 –78.5 10853 31.0 1.562

He 5.24 –268.9 39.3 — 0.126

H2 <lppm –252 391.9 — 0.708

Hydrocarbons <1.5 ppm — — — —


Table 51 : n-pentane specification

Grade-1 Grade-2 Remarks

Purity, % 99 90 Grade-1=0.5% isopentane and0.5% isomers and homologues

Sp. gravity, 15.6°C 0.63 0.63

Distillation range 35.5–36.5°C 34.5–38°C Grade-2 = 8% isopentane and

2% isomers.

Residue, % max 0.005 0.005

Acidity neutral neutral

The mixed pentanes in grade-2 can be separated into constituents by selective adsorption overmolecular sieves crystalline zeolites when n-pentanes pass through pores in molecular sieves poreopenings. The n-pentane is then recovered from adsorbed molecular sieves by desorption using apurge material gas.

Table 52 : Metallurgical coke specification

Reactivity = 24% (max) - by CRI method

Ash = 14% (max)

Volatility = 1.25% (max)

Sulphur = 1% (max)

Moisture = 5% (max)

Strength – M-10 = 10% (max)

– M-40 = 75% (max)

Size of coke :

+ 40 – 80 mm = 90% min

+ 65 mm = 30% ± 15%

+ 80 mm = 5% (max)

– 40 and + 80 = 10% max

Shatter index-Related to hard coke. It should not be less than 90 (min. requirement formetallurgical coke).

Table 53 : Butadiene Specification

Group : Unsaturated C-4 hydrocarbon

Formula: 1, 3-butadiene, CH2 = CH–CH=CH2

B.P. at 0.1013 Mpa = –4.411°C

M. wt. = 54.092

MP at 0.1013 Mpa = –108.902

Critical temperature = 152.0°C

Critical press = 4.32 Mpa

Critical density = 0.245 gm/c.c.

Liq. density at °C = 0.6452 gm/c.c.

Liq. density at 25°C = 0.6194 gm/c.c.


Gas density (air = 1) = 1.9

Liq. viscosity at 4°C = 0.2 m.Pa.S

Enthalpy of vapour at 25°C = 20.88 Kj/mol

Enthalpy of combustion of

gases at 298°K, 0.1013 Mpa = 2541.74 Kj/mol

Vapour press at 20°C = 0.2351 Mpa

Vapour press at 40°C = 0.4288 Mpa

Explosion Limits

Upper Lower

22% (Vol.) 1.4 % (Vol.) at 0.4904 MPa, 30°C

(density 2400 gm/m3)

16.3% 1.4% (density at 31 gm/m3)

(density = 365 gm/m3)

Uses of butadiene: PBR, SBR/latex, chloroprene adipic acid by BASF process, acrylonitrilebutadiene rubber, chloroprene rubber, Azeotropic extraction by liq-liq extraction and hexamethylenediamine production.

Table 54 : Vacuum Scales, Comparative Data

Torr ata % Vacuum Torr ata % vacuum Torr ata % vacuum

760 1.033 0 62 0.0844 91.84 4.2 0.00571 99.450

720 0.9785 5.26 58 0.0788 92.37 4.0 0.00544 99.475

680 0.9243 10.53 54 0.0734 92.89 3.8 0.00516 99.502

640 0.8699 15.71 50 0.0679 93.42 3.6 0.00489 99.527

600 0.8155 21.05 46 0.0625 93.96 3.4 0.00462 99.555

575 0.7816 24.34 43 0.0584 94.34 3.2 0.00435 99.580

550 0.7476 27.63 40 0.0544 94.74 3.0 0.00408 99.608

525 0.7136 30.92 37 0.0503 95.13 2.8 0.00381 99.632

500 0.6796 34.21 34 0.0462 95.53 2.6 0.00353 99.660

475 0.6456 37.50 32 0.0435 95.79 2.4 0.00326 99.685450 0.6116 40.79 30 0.0408 96.05 2.2 0.00299 99.710425 0.5777 44.08 28 0.0381 96.32 2.0 0.00272 99.738400 0.5437 46.39 26 0.0353 96.58 1.8 0.00245 99.762380 0.5164 50.00 24 0.0326 96.84 1.6 0.00217 99.790360 0.4892 52.63 22 0.0299 97.11 1.4 0.00190 99.840340 0.4621 55.26 20 0.0272 97.37 1.2 0.00163 99.845320 0.4349 57.89 19 0.0258 97.50 1.0 0.00136 99.868300 0.4080 60.53 18 0.0245 97.63 0.9 0.00122 99.882280 0.3806 63.16 17 0.0231 97.76 0.8 0.00109 99.897260 0.3534 65.79 16 0.0217 97.89 0.7 0.000952 99.907

240 0.3262 68.42 15 0.0204 98.03 0.6 0.000816 99.922


220 0.2991 71.05 14 0.0190 98.16 0.5 0.000680 99.935

200 0.2718 73.76 13 0.0177 98.29 0.4 0.000544 99.947

190 0.2582 75.00 12 0.0163 98.42 0.3 0.000408 99.960

180 0.2447 76.32 11 0.0149 98.55 0.2 0.000272 99.975

170 0.2311 77.63 10 0.0136 98.68 0.1 0.000136 99.987

160 0.2175 78.95 9.6 0.01305 98.74 0.08 0.000108 99.990

150 0.2039 80.26 9.3 0.01264 98.78 0.06 0.0000816 99.992

140 0.1903 81.58 9.1 0.01223 98.82 0.04 0.0000544 99.995

130 0.1767 82.90 8.5 0.01155 98.88 0.02 0.0000272 99.9974

120 0.1631 84.21 8.0 0.01087 98.93 0.01 0.0000136 99.9987

110 0.1495 85.53 7.5 0.01019 99.015 0.008 0.0000108 99.99895

100 0.1359 86.84 7.0 0.00952 99.080 0.006 0.0000081 99.99921

95 0.1291 87.80 6.5 0.00884 99.145 0.004 0.0000054 99.99934

90 0.1223 87.75 6.0 0.00816 99.145 0.004 0.0000027 99.99974

85 0.1155 88.82 5.5 0.00748 99.280 0.0018 0.0000024 99.99976

80 0.1087 89.47 5.0 0.00680 99.345 0.0016 0.0000022 99.99979

75 0.1019 90.13 4.8 0.00668 99.262 0.0014 0.0000019 99.999816

70 0.0952 90.79 4.6 0.00625 99.398 0.0012 0.0000016 99.999842

66 0.0897 91.32 4.4 0.00598 99.422 0.001 0.0000013 99.999868


Table 55 : Temperature and Density of Dry and Saturated Air, partial Pressure(saturation press) of Water Vapour, Water-Vapour Content of Saturated Air, at 760

mm Hg

Water-Vapour Content of Temperature Density of Partial Pressure Saturated Air

Dry Air Saturated of Water Vapour per m3 of per kg dry airAir in Saturated Air this air in this

saturated air

°C kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m2 Torr g/m3 g/kg dry air

–20 1.396 – 12.6 0.927 1.06 0.76–15 1.369 – 19.44 1.429 1.62 1.17–10 1.342 – 28.5 2.093 2.30 1.72

–5 1.317 – 39.8 2.929 3.37 2.56+0 1.293 1.290 62.5 4.600 4.88 3.8

5 1.270 1.267 89.0 6.550 6.82 5.510 1.248 1.242 125.1 9.200 9.37 7.615 1.226 1.218 173.8 12.800 12.78 10.620 1.205 1.194 238.3 17.530 17.18 14.425 1.185 1.170 322.9 23.75 22.87 20.030 1.165 1.146 432.5 31.80 30.13 27.1


35 1.146 1.122 573.3 42.20 39.6 36.440 1.128 1.097 752.0 55.4 51.1 48.7

45 1.110 1.070 977.1 71.9 65.3 64.7

50 1.093 1.044 1257.8 92.50 82.7 86.2

(1) at saturation pressure see page 45.

Table 56 : Properties of Water in Saturated State

Temperature °C Pressure ata Enthalpy Specific Volume Densitykcal/kg m3/kg kg/m3

0 0.0062 0.0 0.001 000 1000

5 0.0089 5.0 0.001 000 1000

10 0.0125 10.0 0.001 000 1000

15 0.0174 15.0 0.001 001 999

20 0.0238 20.0 0.001 002 998

25 0.0323 25.0 0.001 003 997

30 0.0433 30.0 0.001 004 996

35 0.0573 35.0 0.001 006 993

40 0.0752 40.0 0.001 008 992

45 0.0977 45.0 0.001 010 990

50 0.1258 50.0 0.001 012 988

60 0.2031 60.0 0.001 017 982

70 0.3177 70.0 0.001 023 978

80 0.4829 80.0 0.001 029 972

90 0.7149 90.0 0.001 036 965

100 1.033 100.0 0.001 044 959

110 1.461 110.1 0.001 052 952

120 2.025 120.3 0.001 060 943

130 2.754 130.4 0.001 070 934

140 3.685 140.6 0.001 080 926

150 4.850 150.9 0.001 091 918

160 6.802 161.3 0.001 102 909

170 8.076 171.7 0.001 114 898

180 10.23 182.2 0.001 128 887

190 12.80 192.8 0.001 142 876

200 15.86 203.5 0.001 157 865

210 19.46 214.3 0.001 173 853

220 23.66 225.3 0.001 190 840

230 28.53 236.4 0.001 209 827

240 23.14 247.7 0.001 229 815


250 40.56 259.2 0.001 251 800

260 47.87 271.0 0.001 276 784

270 56.14 283.0 0.001 302 763

280 65.46 295.3 0.001 332 750

290 75.92 308.0 0.001 366 731

300 87.61 321.1 0.001 404 712

310 100.6 334.6 0.001 448 690

320 115.1 349.0 0.001 499 667

330 131.2 364.2 0.001 562 640

340 149.0 380.7 0.001 641 610

350 168.6 398.9 0.001 746 572

From VDI Steam Tables, 6th Edn. 1963

Table 57 : Oxygen index (OI) of manmade/natural fabrics

OI index

Acrylic = 0.182

Acetate = 0.186

Rayon = 0.197

Nylon = 0.201

Polyester = 0.206

P.P. = 0.186

Wool = 0.252

Cotton = 0.201

Treated (flame retardant)

Cotton = 0.270

Note : 1. Higher OI index means a less flammable material. Material (untreated) which barelyburns is having a OI of 0.201.

2. There are 3 types textile flame retardants viz. syn. Polymer, antimony flame retardantsand halogenated flame retardents.

Table 58 : Coefficient of Thermal conductivity λλλλλ and Density of some Substances

Insulating and Building ρ γ kcal/m h deg C, at

Maetrials kg/m3 100°C 300°C 600°C 800°C

Asbestos 540 0.167 0.18 0.186 0.19

Boiler scale (high calciumsulphate) 2000 to 2500 0.5 2.0 – –

Boiler scale (high silicate) 300 to 1000 0.07 0.15 – –

Brickwork 1420 to 1460 0.22 0.31 0.4 0.45

Diatomite filter bricks 700 0.17 0.2 0.245 0.27


Firebricks 1800 to 2000 0.76 0.87 0.95 1.2

Glass fibre 90 0.045 0.085 – –

Glass wool 100 0.051 0.087 – –

Lightweight refractory bricks 900 0.189 0.229 0.28 0.31

Mineral wool 200 to 220 0.046 0.066 0.08 0.1

Oil film (burnt on) – 0.1 – – –

Pumice 600 0.15 0.2 0.25 –

Sand 1200 to 1650 0.3 – – –

Slag (liquid) 3500 – 4.2 at – –1400°C

Slag (Solid) 2700 0.66 0.82 1.02 1.2

Slag wool 180 to 200 0.045 0.076 0.1 –

Sterchamol 23 380 0.07 0.099 0.139 0.168

Vitreous porcelain 2300 to 2500 0.9 – – –

Table 59

Metals and Alloys ρ λ, kcal/m h deg C, at

kg/m3 100°C 200°C 400°C 600°C

Aluminium, 99.5% 2 700 185 196 220 245

Austenitic steel 7 850 12 11.5 10 9.5

Brass (30% Zn) 8 500 93 97 101 –

Copper 8 930 325 320 315 –

Carbon steel 7 850 42 38 36 –

Cr- Mo steel 7 850 28 26 22 18

Cr-Ni-Mo steel 7 850 14 13 12 10

Electron metal 1 820 120 115 115 –

Grey cast iron 7 250 32 to 50 30 to 40 – –

Mercury 13 596 9 at 0°C – –

Molybdenum steel 7 850 32 30 26 –

Nickel 8 800 46 45 42 –

Silumin, cast 2 650 133 – – –

Silver 10 500 360 at – 160°C to + 100°C

Steel, cast 7 650 28 26 25 –

Tin 7200 to 7500 54 – – –

Zinc 7 100 95 90 80 –

Scale on steel: at 900° 1000°C 1100°C 1200°

λ = 1.25 1.4 1.6 1.8



Table 60 : Thermal expansion, co-eff. of various materials

Material Linear Thermal

Expansion Coefficient

× 10–6

m/m°C At°C

A Refractory Bricks

Bauxite bricks 5.2 to 6.5 20 to 1000

Carborundum bricks 4.4 to 5.4 20 to 1000

Chromite bricks 9.3 to 9.1 20 to 1000

Corundum bricks 5.6 to 7.0 20 to 1000

Fireclay bricks (firebricks), commercial 5.5 to 6.8 20 to 1000

Ganister bricks 5.0 to 6.3 20 to 1000

Magnesite bricks 13.7 to 14.5 20 to 1000

Magnesia ramming mix 13.9 to 14.5 20 to 1000

Silica bricks 12.7 to 15.4 20 to 1000

Silicon carbide bricks 4.7 0 to 900

Sillimanite bricks 4.9 20 to 1000

Zirconium oxide bricks 5.0 to 5.7 20 to 1000

Other Materials

Bakelite 29.5 0 to 100

Glass, Thuringia 9.3 to 9.8 0 to 100

Glass, Jena 3.5 0 to 100

Marble 11.7 15 to 100

Porcelain 3.9 to 5.0 0 to 600

Porcelain 4.7 to 5.9 0 to 1200

Quartz glass 4.8 0 to 1000

Wood, along grain 3.7 to 5.4 0 to 35

Wood, across grain 54.4 to 34.0 0 to 35

Fluids

Coal tar 500 to 700

Lubricating oil 600 to 700

Mercury 181

Mineral oil 650 to 1200

Petroleum 900 to 1000

Examples : (1) Aluminium bar: L0 at 20 °C = 1.650 m

β = 28.5 × 10–6 m/m °C. What is L at 600 °C?

L = 1.650 [1 + 28.5 × 10–6 (600 – 20)] = 1.677 m.

(2) Firebrick lining: V0 at 0 °C = 1.0 m3


β = 6.2 × 10–6 m/m °C. What is V at 1000 °C?

V = 1.0 [1 + 3 × 6.2 × 10–6 × 1000] = 1.019 m3.

Table 60 : Thermal Expansion Coefficients of various materials (contd.)

Material Linear ThermalExpansion Coefficient

x 10–6

m/m °C At °C

B Metals

Aluminium, 99.5% 24.0 20 to 100

Aluminium, 99.5% 28.5 20 to 600

Brass 19.0 0 to 100

Brass 21.6 0 to 500

Constantan 15.2 0 to 100

Constantan 16.8 0 to 500

1– Copper 16.2 0 to 100

2– Copper 18.1 0 to 500

Grey cast iron 10.4 0 to 100

Grey cast iron 12.8 0 to 500

Iron, pure 11.7 0 to 100

Iron, pure 22.2 900 to 1000

Magnesium 24.5 0 to 100

Magnesium 29.8 0 to 500

Mercury 181.0

Nickel 13.0 0 to 100

Nickel 16.8 0 to 1000

Silumin, cast (Al–Si alloy) 22.0

Silver 19.7 0 to 100

Silver 22.1 0 to 800

Steel, chromium–mdyldenum 11.3

Steel, high–grade 12.0 0 to 100

Steel, high–grade 14.1 0 to 500

Steel, nickel 5 to 12 0

Steel, special 11.7 0 to 100

Steel, special 13.8 0 to 500

Steel, stainless 9.2


Steel, welding 12.2 0 to 100

Steel, welding 14.0 0 to 500

Zinc 16.5 0 to 100


Graph G-5

300

200

200

150

100

5030

020

0

100 50 30 24 10 7.5 5 3 2

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.25

-10

050

100

150

1500

1000

500

300

200

100

50 25 15 10 8 5 4

Vis

cosi

ty in

feed

-pip

e, fu

el p

ump

and

filte

r(F

ilter

ape

rtur

e -0

.125

mm

,p=

0.5

kp/c

m)

∆2

Boi

ler

fuel

oil

No.

4 (A

ST

M)

No.

5 (

AS

TM

) N

o. 6

(A

ST

M)

Upp

er li

mit

for

fuel

val

ues

Die

sel O

il

Pet

role

umG

as o

ilD

iese

l Oil

No.

10

(AS

TM

)N

o. 2

0 (A

ST

M)

No.

40

(AS

TM

)

5000

3000

1000

500

300

100

80 60 40

5000

3000

1000 50

0

300

100 80 60 40

Redwood Seconds

Degree Engler

Tem

pera

ture

(°F

)

Tem

pera

ture

(°C

)

Centistokes (m/s 10)2–6

Saybalt SecondsKinematic Viscosity of Heavy Fuel O ils





32.2

32.0

31.8

31.6

31.4

31.2

30.8

30.6

30.4

30.2

30.0

0.1

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.01

0.00

60.

004

0.00

20.

001

29.8

29.7

29.6

29.5

29.4

29.3

29.2

29.1

29.0

Gra

ph G

–7G

as c

onst

ant o

f Moi

st A

ir

Vs

W. V

apou

r co

nten

t

ζ ps

(f)

P–

(f)

ζ ps

X =

0.6

22

kg w

ater

vap

our

kg d

ry A

irX

[

]

m kpkg °k

R [ ]

m kpkg ok

R [ ]

Dry

air

Wat

er–v

apou

r29

.27

47.0

62R

=

mkp

/kg

grd

Breakin ordinate

N.B. kp stands for kgf (kilopond)



0 20 40 60 80 100 200 400

Wall th ickness (mm )γ stands for the density of insultating matieral

Graph G–8Thermal Insulation th ickness for Insulating materia ls

Heat loss 450 Kcal/m /h, correspondingto an overall coeffic ient of heat transferof 15 kcal/m h deg C and an excesstem perature of 30 deg C. For a differentheat loss q. m ultip ly the wall th icknessby 450 q.

3

2

Example : t = 1100°C, t = 50°CInsulating layers selected from the table1. 200 mm fireclay:2. 200 mm light d iatom ite :3. 400 mm slag wool.The layer of fireclay must be of such thicknessthat the subsequent layer can accept thetem perature

1 2

500 800 1000 1500 1900 2000

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

100

0

t = 50°C2

t = 1100°C1 γ = 2200 kp/m 3

fireclay = 1800 kp/m

γ

3

Diatom

ite= 750–800 kp/m

γ

3

Diatom

ite = 600 kp/m

γ

3

lig ht dialomite

= 300 kp/m

γ

3

asbestos fibre= 275 kp /m

γ

3

mine ra l w

oo l

s lag , glass woo l


Fig. 1. Open Cycle Gas Turbine Generator Diagram.


Table 61 : Bulk Weight storage volume of Bulk Materials(rough estimation)

1m3 1ton 1m3 1tonweighs occupies weighs occupies

kg m3 kg m3

Aluminium chips 750 1.33 Echte 1800 0.55

Aluminium ingots 1500 0.67 Geislingen (fine) 1820 0.55

Blasting sand 1350 0.74 Kahlenberg 1620 0.62

Calcined pyrites: Kalaa–Djerda 1750 0.57

fine (Hamborn) 1170 0.85 Echte (fine) 1800 0.56

Cast iron chips 2500 0.4 Klippenfloz (coarse) 1760 0.57

Cast iron scrap 3300 0.3 Lenglern (coarse) 1400 0.72

Cement 1200 0.8 Minette 1580 0.63

Charcoal 200 5.00 Peiner 1850 0.54

Clay bricks: Pegnitz (fine) 1470 0.68

heaped 1200 0.8 Phosphate (fine) 1570 0.64

stacked 1400 0.7 Porta (coarse) 1720 0.58

Coke: Steinberg 1470 0.68

Blast–furnace coke 420 2.39 Pig iron 3300 0.3

Broken coke l, ll* 486 2.05 stacked 4000 0.25

Broken coke III, IV* 514 1.95 Sinter 1000 1.0

Coke breeze* 595 1.69 to 1800 0.56

Concentrates 1900 0.53 Moulding sand 1500 0.67

Dolomite 2000 0.5 Slag:

Fire–clay 1500 0.8 Blast–furnace, 600 1.6

Fluorspar 2200 0.45 Cupola furnace

Insulating bricks 700 1.43 Open–hearth furnace 2100 0.48

Limestone 1700 0.59 Basic converter 2000 0.5

Loam 1500 0.67 Rolling mill 3000 0.33

Magnesite 2200 0.45 Soft coal:

Ore, high–grade: Raw 580 1.72Afrau 2150 0.47 Briquettes, heaped 770 1.30Buchenberg 2240 0.445 Briquettes, stacked 1030 0.97Brazil 3540 0.28 Dust 500 2.0

Itabira 3930 0.25 Steel chips 1500 0.67Kiruna 3100 0.32 Hard coal:Königszug 2560 0.39 Coking coal'Malaespera roasted 2500 0.4 unstamped 800 1.25

Spathic iron ore stamped 950 1.05

Rif fine 2720 0.37

UVW


Run–of–mine 860 1.16

Roasted spathic Lump coal 790 1.27

iron ore (Bilbao) 2100 0.48 Nuts, I, II 760 1.32

Roasted spathic Nuts, III, IV, V 735 1.36

iron ore (Siegen) 2500 0.40 Fines 840 1.19

Hematite (Brazil) 2800 0.36 Dust 600 1.67

Crude siderite 2400 0.42 Silica bricks 1700 0.59.

Wabana 2270 0.44 Rolling–mill scale 1000 1.0

Ställberg 2980 0.34 to 1800 0.53

Ore, low grade: ––

Bulten 1790 0.56 110% water, 80%

Dogger 1820 0.55 grain size < 2mm

Source : Borsig pocket book 3rd edn. 1970, *German and British coke sizes are different.

Table 62 : Henry’s law constant

Chemical/gas Henry's law constant at 20°C

Oxygen 4.3 × 104

Nitrogen 8.6 × 104

Hydrogen sulphide 5.15 × 102

Sulphor dioxide 38 × 102

Ammonia 0.76 × 102

Ozone 3.9 × 104

Carbon dioxide 1.51 × 103

Benzene 2.4 × 102

Toluene 3.4 × 102

Carbon tetrachloride 1.29 × 103

Chloro–form 1.7 × 102

Tichloroethylene 1.1 × 103

Vinyl Chloride 3.55 × 105

Pentachlorophenol 0.12 × 102

1–4 dichlorobenzene 1.9 × 102

Note: 1. Henry's law, Pa = Ha × Xa where

Pa = Partial Pr. of solute in soln.

Xa = Conc. of solute a in soln.

Ha = Henry's law constant for item a.

2. Larger the Ha, greater will be the equilibrium concentration (Ya) in air and constituentshaving larger Henry's law constant are, therefore, easier to remove by air stripping. At equilibrium,Ya = Xa


Table 63 : Fouling factor for various cooling water

10 4− °.m Kw

2

C. W. Velocity < 0.9m/sec >0.9m/sec

C. T. circulating water 2 2

Stream water 4 2

Brackish water (Salty water) 4 2

Sea water 1 1

Table 64 : Molecular sieve specification

Major component = SiO2

Grain size, nm = 1 – 5

True density, kg/m3 = 2600

Apparent density, kg/m3 = 400 – 1500

Packing density, kg/m3 = 600 – 900

Micropore vol. cm3/gm = 0.25 – 0.30 to 0.30 – 0.40

Specific surface area, m2/gm = 500 – 1000

Specific heat capacity = 0.92

Thermal conductivity = 0.13

Pore size, nm = 0.2 – 0.3

Mol sieve formula:

M2/n0 : Al2O3 : XSiO2 : yH2O where M = metal ion and n its valency

Table 65 : Filtering media for water vapour and others in gaseous state

Mol. Sieve Silica gel Active Carbon(Wide pore dia) (wide pore)

Mazor Component SiO2Al2O3 SiO2 C

Grain size, nm 1–5 1–5 3–10

Apparent density, kg/m3 1100–1500 1100 600–700

True density kg/m3 2600 2200 2200

Packing density kg/m3 600–900 400–800 300–500

Micropore Vol. Cm3/g 0.25 – 0.30 0–30 – 0.45 0.20–0.30

(<50nm)

Micropore Vol. cm3/g 0.30 – 0.4 0.25 – 0.10 0.30 – 0.50

(>50nm)

Spec. heat capacity kj–1k–1 0.92 0.92 0.76 – 0.84

Spec. surface area, m2/gm 500–1000 250–350 1000–1500

(Contd.)


Thermal Conductivity, Wm–1k–1 0.13 0.20 0.1

Regeneration temperature °C 200–300 120–150

*Heat reqd/kg of

water removed, kj/kg 12000 8000 –

Table 66 : Galvanic series of metals and graphite

Metal Active End

1. Magnesium

2. Magnesium alloys

3. Zinc

4. Aluminium

5. Cadmium

6. Steel or iron

7. Cast iron

8. Chromium iron

9. Nickel

10. 18–8 Stainless steel

11. 18–8–3 Stainless steel

12. Pb – Tin solders

13. Pb

14. Tin

15. Brases

16. Copper

17. Bronzes

18. Cu–Nickel Alloys

19. Silver solder

20. Silver

21. Graphite

22. Gold

23. Platinum

Metal–noble end

Criteria of selection of metals to limit Galvanic corrosion:

(i) The metals selected should be in the same or at least adjacent group in the Galvanicseries.

(ii) Insulating materials fittings, inserts or nipples may be used to isolate components in thedesimiliar metal component of the Galvanic series.


Table 67 A : Microorganisms used for fermentation

Item Microorganism name

Lactic Acid L. Buchneri

Lacto bacillus urevis L. fifidus

Ethanol S. Cerevisiae, Zynosores

Salicylic Acid Corynobacterium Species

Poly Alcohols Onmophillic Yeasts

(Erythritol, arabitol)

Glycerol S.Cerevisiae and Others related

Methane Methano–coccus

Lipids Yeasts, Molds, Algae and Bacteria

Hydrogen Bacteria, Algae

Vit.C (Sorbitol) Acetobacter Species

Vit. B12 Propionibacterium

Biotin Streptomyces

Antibiotics Various Microorganism

Lysine Mutants of Corynebacterium

Table 67 B : Micro organisms (bio fertilisers) used for seed inocculation and nitrifyingbacteria in soils

1. Legume (Soyabean groundnut and pulses) seeds inocculation is done by Rhizobiummicrobe which increases yield by 10–25%.

2. Nitrifying microbes : Rhizobium, Azetobacter, Azospivillum

3. In India NAFED is the agency for biofertiliser production; culture is obtained from agriculturaluniversities who are also doing R and D work.


Tabl

e 68

A :

Sta

te V

aria

bles

of

Sat

urat

ed S

team

PTs

v′

v′′

ρ′′

i′i′′

rP

Tsv

′v′

′ρ′

′i′

i′′r

ata

Cm

3/k

gm

3/k

gkg

/m3

k

cal/k

gat

aC

m3 /

kgm

3 /kg

kg/m

3

k

cal/k

g

0.0

16.

70

.00

10

01

31

.60

.00

76

06.

76

00

.25

93

.51

62

00

.40

.00

115

80

.12

62

7.9

26

20

3.9

66

7.3

46

3.4

0.02

17.2

0.00

1001

68.2

70.

0146

517

.260

4.8

587.

61

720

3.4

0.00

1162

0.11

908.

405

207.

166

7.8

460.

7

0.04

28.6

0.00

1004

35.4

60.

0282

028

.760

9.8

581.

11

820

6.1

0.00

1167

0.11

258.

885

210.

166

8.2

458.

10.

0635

.80.

0010

0624

.19

0.04

134

35.8

612.

957

7.1

19

208.

80.

0011

710.

1068

9.36

521

3.0

668.

545

5.5

0.08

41.2

0.00

1008

18.4

50.

0542

141

.161

5.2

574.

12

021

1.4

0.00

1175

0.10

169.

846

215.

866

8.8

450.

0

0.10

45.5

0.00

1010

14.9

50.

0668

845

.461

7.0

571.

62

221

6.2

0.00

1184

0.09

250

10.8

122

1.1

669.

344

8.2

0.15

53.6

0.00

1014

10.2

10.

0979

253

.562

0.4

566.

92

422

0.8

0.00

1192

0.08

490

11.7

822

6.1

669.

644

3.5

0.20

59.7

0.00

1017

7.79

40.

1283

59.6

623.

056

3.4

26

225.

00.

0011

990.

0784

312

.75

230.

866

9.9

439.

1

0.30

68.7

0.00

1022

5.32

80.

1877

68.6

626.

655

8.0

28

229.

00.

0012

070.

0728

513

.73

235.

267

0.0

434.

8

0.40

75.4

0.00

1026

4.06

80.

2458

75.4

629.

355

3.9

30

232.

80.

0012

150.

0679

914

.71

239.

567

0.1

430.

6

0.50

80.9

0.00

1030

3.30

10.

3030

80.8

631.

555

0.7

32

236.

40.

0012

220.

0637

115

.70

243.

567

0.1

426.

6

0.60

85.5

0.00

1033

2.78

20.

3594

85.4

633.

354

7.9

34

239.

80.

0012

290.

0599

216

.69

247.

467

0.0

422.

6

0.80

93.0

0.00

1039

2.12

50.

4705

93.0

636.

254

3.2

36

243.

00.

0012

360.

0565

317

.69

251.

166

9.9

418.

8

1.00

99.1

0.00

1043

1.72

50.

5798

99.1

638.

453

9.4

38

246.

20.

0012

430.

0534

918

.69

254.

766

9.7

415.

0

1.20

104.

30.

0010

471.

454

0.68

7610

4.3

640.

353

6.0

40

249.

20.

0012

500.

0507

419

.71

258.

266

9.5

411.

3

1.4

108.

70.

0010

511.

259

0.79

4410

8.9

641.

953

3.0

45

256.

20.

0012

660.

0449

022

.27

266.

566

8.7

402.

2

1.6

112.

70.

0010

541.

111

0.90

0111

2.9

643.

453

0.5

50

262.

70.

0012

830.

0401

924

.88

274.

166

7.7

393.

6

1.8

116.

30.

0010

580.

995

1.00

511

6.6

644.

652

8.0

55

268.

70.

0012

990.

0363

127

.54

281.

366

6.5

385.

2

2.0

119.

60.

0010

600.

9015

1.10

911

9.9

645.

852

5.9

60

274.

30.

0013

150.

0330

530

.25

288.

266

5.2

377.

0

2.5

126.

80.

0010

670.

7315

1.36

712

7.2

648.

252

1.0

65

279.

50.

0013

310.

0302

833

.02

294.

766

3.8

369.

1

3.0

132.

90.

0010

730.

6165

1.62

213

3.4

650.

251

6.8

70

284.

50.

0013

470.

0278

935

.85

300.

966

2.3

361.

4

3.5

138.

20.

0010

780.

5335

1.87

413

8.8

651.

951

3.1

80

293.

60.

0013

790.

0239

941

.69

312.

665

9.0

346.

4

(Con

td.)


4.0

142.

90.

0010

830.

4706

2.12

514

3.6

653.

450

9.8

90

301.

90.

0014

110.

0209

347

.78

323.

665

5.5

331.

9

4.5

147.

20.

0010

880.

4213

2.37

314

8.0

654.

750

6.7

10

030

9.5

0.00

1445

0.01

846

54.1

633

4.1

651.

731

7.6

5.0

151.

10.

0010

920.

3816

2.62

115

2.1

655.

950

3.8

110

316.

60.

0014

800.

0164

260

.89

344.

064

7.7

303.

7

6.0

158.

10.

0011

000.

3213

3.11

215

9.3

657.

949

8.6

12

032

3.2

0.00

1516

0.01

467

68.1

835

3.7

643.

028

9.3

7.0

164.

20.

0011

080.

2778

3.60

016

5.6

659.

549

3.9

13

032

9.3

0.00

1555

0.01

315

76.0

536

3.1

637.

527

4.4

8.0

169.

60.

0011

140.

2448

4.08

517

1.3

660.

948

9.6

14

033

5.1

0.00

1597

0.01

183

84.5

737

2.4

631.

625

9.2

9.0

174.

50.

0011

210.

2189

4.56

817

6.4

662.

148

5.7

15

034

0.6

0.00

1644

0.01

066

93.8

238

1.6

625.

124

3.5

10.0

179.

00.

0011

270.

1980

5.05

018

1.2

663.

248

2.0

16

034

5.7

0.00

1695

0.00

962

104.

039

0.8

618.

322

7.5

11.0

183.

20.

0011

320.

1808

5.53

018

5.5

664.

147

8.6

18

035

5.4

0.00

1822

0.00

781

128.

041

0.2

603.

019

2.8

12.0

187.

10.

0011

380.

1664

6.01

018

9.7

664.

947

5.2

20

036

4.1

0.00

201

0.00

622

160.

943

1.5

582.

215

0.7

13.0

190.

70.

0011

430.

1541

6.48

919

3.5

665.

647

2.1

22

037

2.1

0.00

238

0.00

444

225.

046

3.6

545.

581

.9

14.0

194.

10.

0011

480.

1435

6.96

819

7.2

666.

346

9.1

22

437

3.6

0.00

261

0.00

389

257.

047

8.5

530.

852

.3

15.0

197.

40.

0011

530.

1343

7.44

720

0.6

666.

846

6.2

P=

ab

solu

te p

ress

ure

T s=

satu

ratio

n te

mpe

ratu

re

v=

Spe

cific

vol

ume

ρ=

1/v

dens

ity

i=

enth

alpy

r=

i'' –

i' =

lat

ent

heat

of

evap

orat

ion

Indi

ces

:'

for

boili

ng s

tate

In t

he w

et s

team

ran

ge

v =

v'

+ x

. (v

" –

v')

" fo

r dr

y sa

tura

ted

stat

ei

= i

' +

x. r

*Fro

m V

DI

Ste

am T

able

s by

Ern

st S

chm

idt

and

R.

Old

enbo

urg.

6th

Edn

. 19

63


Tabl

e 68

B :

Ent

halp

y at

Sup

erhe

ated

Ste

am a

nd W

ater

, K

cal/k

g

PTe

mpe

ratu

re,

°CP

Tem

pera

ture

, °C

ata

25

02

60

27

02

80

29

03

00

31

03

20

ata

33

03

40

35

03

60

37

03

80

39

04

00

171

0.3

715.

071

9.8

724.

572

9.3

734.

173

8.9

743.

71

748.

675

3.4

758.

376

3.1

768.

077

2.9

777.

878

2.8

270

9.5

714.

371

9.1

723.

972

8.7

733.

573

8.3

743.

22

748.

075

2.9

757.

876

2.7

767.

677

2.5

777.

478

2.4

370

8.7

713.

571

8.4

723.

272

8.1

732.

973

7.8

742.

63

747.

575

2.4

757.

376

2.2

767.

277

2.1

777.

178

2.0

470

7.9

712.

871

7.7

722.

572

7.4

732.

373

7.2

742.

14

747.

075

1.9

756.

876

1.8

766.

777

1.7

776.

778

1.6

570

7.1

712.

171

7.0

721.

972

6.8

731.

773

6.6

741.

65

746.

575

1.4

756.

476

1.3

766.

377

1.3

776.

378

1.2

670

6.4

711.

371

6.3

721.

272

6.2

731.

173

6.1

741.

06

746.

075

0.9

755.

976

0.9

765.

977

0.9

775.

978

0.9

770

5.6

710.

671

5.6

720.

572

5.5

730.

573

5.5

740.

57

74

5.4

75

0.4

75

5.4

76

0.4

76

5.4

77

0.4

77

5.5

78

0.5

870

4.8

709.

871

4.8

719.

972

4.9

729.

973

4.9

739.

98

744.

974

9.9

755.

076

0.0

765.

077

0.0

775.

178

0.1

970

4.0

709.

171

4.1

719.

272

4.2

729.

373

4.3

739.

49

744.

474

9.4

754.

575

9.5

764.

676

9.6

774.

777

9.7

10

703.

170

8.3

713.

471

8.5

723.

672

8.7

733.

873

8.8

10

743.

974

8.9

754.

075

9.1

764.

176

9.2

774.

377

9.3

1170

2.3

707.

571

2.7

717.

872

3.0

728.

173

3.2

738.

311

743.

474

8.4

753.

575

8.6

763.

776

8.8

773.

977

9.0

12

701.

570

6.7

712.

071

7.1

722.

372

7.5

732.

673

7.7

12

742.

874

7.9

753.

075

8.1

763.

376

8.4

773.

577

8.6

13

700.

670

6.0

711.

271

6.5

721.

772

6.8

732.

073

7.2

13

742.

374

7.4

752.

675

7.7

762.

876

7.9

773.

177

8.2

14

699.

870

5.2

710.

571

5.8

721.

072

6.2

731.

473

6.6

14

741.

874

6.9

752.

175

7.2

762.

476

7.5

772.

777

7.8

15

698.

970

4.4

709.

771

5.1

720.

372

5.6

730.

873

6.0

15

741.

274

6.4

751.

675

6.8

761.

976

7.1

772.

377

7.4

16

698.

070

3.5

709.

071

4.4

719.

772

5.0

730.

273

5.5

16

740.

774

5.9

751.

175

6.3

761.

576

6.7

771.

977

7.0

17

697.

170

2.7

708.

271

3.6

719.

072

4.3

729.

673

4.9

17

740.

274

5.4

750.

675

5.9

761.

176

6.3

771.

577

6.7

18

696.

270

1.9

707.

471

2.9

718.

372

3.7

729.

173

4.4

18

739.

674

4.9

750.

275

5.4

760.

676

5.8

771.

177

6.3

19

695.

370

1.0

706.

771

2.2

717.

772

3.1

728.

473

3.8

19

739.

174

4.4

749.

775

4.9

760.

276

5.4

770.

777

5.9

20

694.

370

0.2

705.

971

1.5

717.

072

2.4

727.

873

3.2

20

738.

674

3.9

749.

275

4.5

759.

776

5.0

770.

277

5.5

22

692.

469

8.4

704.

271

0.0

715.

672

1.1

726.

673

2.1

22

737.

574

2.9

748.

275

3.5

758.

976

4.2

769.

477

4.7

24

690.

369

6.6

702.

670

8.4

714.

271

9.8

725.

473

0.9

24

736.

474

1.8

747.

275

2.6

758.

076

3.3

768.

677

3.9

26

688.

269

4.7

700.

970

6.9

712.

771

8.5

724.

172

9.7

26

735.

374

0.8

746.

275

1.7

757.

176

2.5

767.

877

3.2

28

686.

069

2.7

699.

170

5.3

711.

271

7.1

722.

972

8.5

28

734.

273

9.7

745.

275

0.7

756.

276

1.6

767.

077

2.4

(Con

td.)


30

683.

769

0.7

697.

370

3.6

709.

771

5.7

721.

672

7.3

30

733.

073

8.7

744.

274

9.8

755.

376

0.7

766.

277

1.6

35

677.

468

5.2

692.

469

9.3

705.

871

2.1

718.

272

4.2

35

730.

173

5.9

741.

774

7.4

753.

075

8.6

764.

176

9.6

40

670.

267

9.1

687.

269

4.6

701.

670

8.3

714.

872

1.0

40

727.

273

3.2

739.

174

4.9

750.

775

6.4

762.

076

7.6

45

259.

267

2.4

681.

468

9.5

697.

170

4.3

711.

171

7.7

45

724.

173

0.3

736.

474

2.4

748.

375

4.1

759.

976

5.6

50

259.

227

0.9

675.

068

4.0

692.

370

0.0

707.

271

4.2

50

720.

872

7.3

733.

673

9.8

745.

975

1.8

757.

776

3.6

60

259.

227

0.8

282.

967

1.5

681.

469

0.5

698.

870

6.6

60

713.

972

1.0

727.

873

4.4

740.

874

7.1

753.

375

9.4

70

259.

227

0.8

282.

829

5.1

668.

867

9.6

689.

269

8.1

70

706.

471

4.2

721.

672

8.7

735.

574

2.2

748.

775

5.1

80

259.

227

0.8

282.

829

5.0

307.

866

7.1

678.

568

8.7

80

698.

070

6.7

714.

872

2.5

729.

973

7.0

743.

975

0.6

90

259.

227

0.8

282.

729

4.9

307.

732

1.0

666.

267

8.1

90

688.

869

8.5

707.

571

6.0

723.

973

1.5

738.

874

5.9

10

025

9.2

270.

728

2.6

294.

830

7.5

320.

733

4.7

666.

31

00

678.

668

9.6

699.

670

8.9

717.

572

5.7

733.

574

1.0

110

259.

227

0.7

282.

629

4.7

307.

332

0.4

334.

365

3.2

110

667.

367

9.8

691.

070

1.2

710.

771

9.6

727.

973

5.8

12

025

9.2

270.

728

2.5

294.

630

7.1

320.

233

4.0

348.

71

20

654.

766

9.0

681.

669

3.0

703.

471

3.0

722.

073

0.4

13

025

9.3

270.

728

2.5

294.

530

7.0

320.

033

3.6

348.

21

30

638.

865

7.0

671.

568

4.1

695.

570

6.0

715.

772

4.7

14

025

9.3

270.

728

2.4

294.

430

6.8

319.

733

3.3

347.

71

40

363.

564

2.1

660.

567

4.5

687.

169

8.6

709.

071

8.8

15

025

9.3

270.

728

2.4

294.

330

6.7

319.

533

3.0

347.

21

50

362.

738

0.4

647.

466

4.0

678.

269

0.6

702.

071

2.4

16

025

9.3

270.

728

2.3

294.

230

6.6

319.

333

2.7

346.

71

60

362.

037

9.2

630.

665

1.9

668.

768

2.2

694.

670

5.8

18

025

9.4

270.

728

2.3

294.

130

6.3

318.

933

2.1

345.

91

80

360.

737

7.1

396.

462

0.0

645.

666

3.5

678.

469

1.5

20

025

9.4

270.

728

2.2

294.

030

6.1

318.

633

1.6

345.

22

00

359.

637

5.3

393.

141

6.8

610.

863

9.6

660.

267

5.7

22

025

9.5

270.

728

2.2

293.

830

5.9

318.

333

1.1

344.

52

20

358.

637

3.8

390.

741

1.0

443.

660

9.0

637.

665

8.3

25

025

9.6

270.

728

2.1

293.

730

5.6

317.

933

0.5

313.

62

50

357.

337

1.9

387.

640

5.7

428.

047

1.4

585.

662

3.0

30

025

9.8

270.

828

2.1

293.

530

5.3

317.

332

9.6

342.

33

00

355.

636

9.4

384.

139

9.9

117.

843

9.5

470.

452

3.4

35

035

4.2

367.

538

1.3

396.

241

2.1

430.

045

1.2

477.

7

40

035

3.0

365.

937

9.3

393.

340

8.2

424.

444

2.1

462.

3

45

035

2.1

364.

637

7.6

391.

140

5.3

420.

343

6.3

453.

9

50

035

1.3

363.

637

6.2

389.

140

2.7

416.

943

1.8

447.

8


Tabl

e 68

C :

Ent

halp

y of

Sup

erhe

ated

ste

am a

nd W

ater

, kc

al/k

g

PTe

mpe

ratu

re,

°CP

Tem

pera

ture

, °C

ata

41

04

20

43

04

40

45

04

60

47

04

80

ata

49

05

00

51

05

20

53

05

40

55

05

60

178

7.7

792.

779

7.7

802.

680

7.7

812.

781

7.7

822.

81

827.

883

2.9

838.

084

3.1

848.

385

3.4

858.

686

3.8

278

7.4

792.

379

7.3

802.

380

7.3

812.

481

7.4

822.

52

827.

683

2.7

837.

884

2.9

848.

085

3.2

858.

486

3.5

378

7.0

792.

079

7.0

802.

080

7.0

812.

181

7.1

822.

23

827.

383

2.4

837.

584

2.6

847.

885

3.0

858.

186

3.3

478

6.6

791.

679

6.6

801.

780

6.7

811.

881

6.8

821.

94

827.

083

2.1

837.

384

2.4

847.

685

2.7

857.

986

3.1

578

6.3

791.

379

6.3

801.

380

6.4

811.

581

6.5

821.

65

826.

883

1.9

837.

084

2.2

847.

385

2.5

857.

786

2.9

678

5.9

790.

979

6.0

801.

080

6.1

811.

281

6.3

821.

46

826.

583

1.6

836.

884

1.9

847.

185

2.3

857.

586

2.7

778

5.5

790.

679

5.6

800.

780

5.8

810.

981

6.0

821.

17

826.

283

1.4

836.

584

1.7

846.

985

2.1

857.

386

2.5

878

5.2

790.

279

5.3

800.

480

5.5

810.

681

5.7

820.

88

825.

983

1.1

836.

384

1.4

846.

685

1.8

857.

086

2.3

978

4.8

789.

979

5.0

800.

080

5.1

810.

381

5.4

820.

59

825.

783

0.8

836.

084

1.2

846.

485

1.6

856.

886

2.1

10

784.

478

9.5

794.

679

9.7

804.

881

0.0

815.

182

0.2

10

825.

483

0.6

835.

884

0.9

846.

285

1.4

856.

686

1.9

1178

4.1

789.

279

4.3

799.

480

4.5

809.

781

4.8

820.

011

825.

183

0.3

835.

584

0.7

845.

985

1.1

856.

486

1.6

12

783.

778

8.8

793.

979

9.1

804.

280

9.4

814.

581

9.7

12

824.

983

0.1

835.

384

0.5

845.

785

0.9

856.

286

1.4

13

783.

378

8.5

793.

679

8.7

803.

980

9.1

814.

281

9.4

13

824.

682

9.8

835.

084

0.2

845.

585

0.7

855.

986

1.2

14

783.

078

8.1

793.

379

8.4

803.

680

8.8

813.

981

9.1

14

824.

382

9.5

834.

884

0.0

845.

285

0.5

855.

786

1.0

15

782.

678

7.7

792.

979

8.1

803.

380

8.5

813.

681

8.8

15

824.

182

9.3

834.

583

9.7

845.

085

0.2

855.

586

0.6

16

782.

278

7.4

792.

679

7.8

803.

080

8.2

813.

481

8.6

16

823.

882

9.0

834.

283

9.5

844.

785

0.0

855.

386

0.6

17

781.

878

7.0

792.

279

7.4

802.

680

7.9

813.

181

8.3

17

823.

582

8.8

834.

083

9.3

844.

584

9.8

855.

186

0.4

18

781.

578

6.7

791.

979

7.1

802.

380

7.5

812.

881

8.0

18

823.

282

8.5

833.

783

9.0

844.

384

9.6

854.

986

0.2

19

781.

178

6.3

791.

679

6.8

802.

080

7.2

812.

581

7.7

19

823.

082

8.2

833.

583

8.8

844.

084

9.3

854.

685

9.9

20

780.

778

6.0

791.

279

6.5

801.

780

6.9

812.

281

7.4

20

822.

782

8.0

833.

283

8.5

843.

884

9.1

854.

485

9.7

22

780.

078

5.3

790.

579

5.8

801.

180

6.3

811.

681

6.9

22

822.

282

7.4

832.

783

8.0

843.

384

8.7

854.

085

9.3

24

779.

378

4.6

789.

979

5.1

800.

480

5.7

811.

081

6.3

24

821.

682

6.9

832.

283

7.6

842.

984

8.2

853.

585

8.9

26

778.

578

3.8

789.

279

4.5

799.

880

5.1

810.

481

5.8

26

821.

182

6.4

831.

783

7.1

842.

484

7.7

853.

185

8.5

28

777.

878

3.1

788.

579

3.8

799.

280

4.5

809.

981

5.2

28

820.

582

5.9

831.

283

6.6

841.

984

7.3

852.

785

8.0

30

777.

078

2.4

787.

879

3.2

798.

580

3.9

809.

381

4.6

30

820.

082

5.4

830.

783

6.1

841.

584

6.8

852.

285

7.6

35

775.

178

0.6

786.

179

1.5

797.

080

2.4

807.

881

3.2

35

818.

682

4.1

829.

583

4.9

840.

384

5.7

851.

185

6.5


40

773.

277

8.8

784.

378

9.9

795.

480

0.9

806.

381

1.8

40

817.

382

2.7

828.

283

3.7

839.

184

4.6

850.

085

5.5

45

771.

377

7.0

782.

678

8.2

793.

879

9.3

804.

981

0.4

45

815.

982

1.4

826.

983

2.4

837.

984

3.4

848.

985

4.4

50

769.

477

5.1

780.

878

6.5

792.

279

7.8

803.

480

9.0

50

814.

582

0.1

825.

783

1.2

836.

884

2.3

847.

885

3.4

60

765.

477

1.4

777.

378

3.1

788.

979

4.7

800.

480

6.1

60

811.

881

7.5

823.

182

8.8

834.

484

0.0

845.

685

1.2

70

761.

376

7.5

773.

677

9.6

785.

679

1.5

797.

480

3.2

70

809.

081

4.8

820.

582

6.3

832.

083

7.7

843.

484

9.1

80

757.

176

3.5

769.

877

6.1

782.

278

8.3

794.

380

0.3

80

806.

281

2.1

818.

082

3.8

829.

663

5.4

841.

284

6.9

90

752.

875

9.4

766.

077

2.4

778.

878

5.0

791.

279

7.3

90

803.

480

9.4

815.

382

1.3

827.

283

3.1

838.

984

4.8

10

074

8.2

755.

276

2.0

768.

777

5.2

781.

778

8.0

794.

31

00

800.

580

6.6

812.

781

8.8

824.

883

0.7

836.

784

2.6

110

743.

575

0.8

757.

976

4.8

771.

677

8.2

784.

879

1.2

110

797.

580

3.8

810.

081

6.2

822.

382

8.4

834.

484

0.4

12

073

8.5

746.

275

3.7

760.

976

7.9

774.

778

1.5

788.

11

20

794.

680

1.0

807.

381

3.6

819.

882

6.0

832.

183

8.2

13

073

3.3

741.

474

9.2

756.

876

4.1

771.

277

8.1

784.

91

30

791.

679

8.1

804.

681

1.0

817.

382

3.6

829.

883

6.0

14

072

7.9

736.

574

4.7

752.

576

0.1

767.

577

4.6

781.

61

40

788.

579

5.2

801.

880

8.4

814.

882

1.2

827.

583

3.8

15

072

2.2

731.

373

9.9

748.

275

6.1

763.

777

1.1

778.

31

50

785.

379

2.2

799.

080

5.7

812.

281

8.7

825.

283

1.5

16

071

6.2

725.

973

5.0

743.

675

1.9

759.

876

7.5

774.

91

60

782.

178

9.2

796.

180

3.0

809.

781

6.3

822.

882

9.3

18

070

3.4

714.

372

4.5

734.

174

3.1

751.

775

9.9

767.

91

80

775.

578

3.0

790.

379

7.4

804.

481

1.3

818.

082

4.7

20

068

9.4

701.

871

3.2

723.

873

3.7

743.

175

2.0

760.

52

00

768.

677

6.5

784.

279

1.7

799.

080

6.1

813.

182

0.0

22

067

4.0

688.

270

1.1

712.

872

3.8

734.

074

3.6

752.

72

20

761.

576

9.8

777.

978

5.8

793.

480

0.8

808.

181

5.2

25

064

6.0

665.

568

1.0

695.

070

7.7

719.

473

0.2

740.

42

50

750.

175

9.3

768.

177

6.5

784.

779

2.6

800.

480

7.9

30

057

8.0

615.

064

1.1

661.

167

7.8

692.

470

5.8

718.

13

00

729.

674

0.4

750.

576

0.2

769.

477

8.3

786.

879

5.1

35

051

1.4

552.

059

1.0

620.

064

3.2

662.

467

9.0

693.

93

50

707.

472

0.0

731.

774

2.7

753.

276

3.1

772.

678

1.7

40

048

5.6

513.

054

5.7

577.

160

4.9

629.

665

0.5

668.

24

00

684.

269

8.7

712.

172

4.5

736.

274

7.3

757.

876

7.8

45

047

3.1

494.

551

8.7

545.

157

1.3

597.

462

0.9

641.

94

50

660.

767

7.2

692.

370

6.2

719.

173

1.3

742.

875

3.7

50

046

4.9

483.

550

3.5

525.

354

8.6

572.

259

5.2

617.

25

00

637.

765

6.4

673.

268

8.4

702.

771

5.7

728.

173

9.8


Tabl

e 68

D :

Ent

halp

y of

Sup

erhe

ated

Ste

am a

nd W

ater

, kc

al/k

g

PTe

mpe

ratu

re,

°CP

Tem

pera

ture

, °C

ata

57

05

80

59

06

00

61

06

20

63

06

40

ata

65

06

60

67

06

80

69

07

00

71

07

20

186

9.0

874.

287

9.4

884.

788

9.9

895.

290

0.5

905.

81

911.

191

6.5

921.

992

7.2

932.

693

8.0

943.

594

8.9

286

8.8

874.

087

9.2

884.

588

9.7

895.

090

0.3

905.

62

911.

091

6.3

921.

792

7.1

932.

593

7.9

943.

294

8.8

386

8.5

873.

887

9.0

884.

388

9.6

894.

890

0.2

905.

53

910.

891

6.2

921.

592

6.9

932.

393

7.8

943.

294

8.7

486

8.3

873.

687

8.8

884.

188

9.4

894.

790

0.0

905.

34

910.

791

6.0

921.

492

6.8

932.

273

7.6

943.

194

8.5

586

8.1

873.

487

8.6

883.

988

9.2

894.

589

9.8

905.

15

910.

591

5.9

921.

292

6.6

932.

193

7.5

942.

994

8.4

686

7.9

873.

287

8.4

883.

788

9.0

894.

389

9.6

905.

06

910.

391

5.7

921.

192

6.5

931.

993

7.3

942.

894

8.3

786

7.7

873.

087

8.2

883.

588

8.8

894.

189

9.5

904.

87

910.

291

5.5

920.

992

6.3

931.

893

7.2

942.

794

8.1

886

7.5

872.

887

8.1

883.

388

8.6

894.

089

9.3

904.

68

910.

091

5.4

920.

892

6.2

931.

693

7.1

942.

594

8.0

986

7.3

872.

687

7.9

883.

288

8.5

893.

889

9.1

904.

59

909.

891

5.2

920.

692

6.0

931.

593

6.9

942.

494

7.9

10

867.

187

2.4

877.

788

3.0

888.

389

3.6

899.

090

4.3

10

909.

791

5.1

920.

592

5.9

931.

393

6.8

942.

294

7.7

1186

6.9

872.

287

7.5

882.

888

8.1

893.

489

8.8

904.

111

909.

591

4.9

920.

392

5.7

931.

293

6.6

942.

194

7.6

12

866.

787

2.0

877.

388

2.6

887.

989

3.3

898.

690

4.0

12

909.

491

4.8

920.

292

5.6

931.

093

6.5

942.

094

7.5

13

866.

587

1.8

877.

188

2.4

887.

789

3.1

898.

490

3.8

13

909.

291

4.6

920.

092

5.5

930.

993

6.4

941.

894

7.3

14

866.

387

1.6

876.

988

2.2

887.

689

2.9

898.

390

3.7

14

909.

091

4.4

919.

992

5.3

930.

893

6.2

941.

794

7.2

15

866.

187

1.4

876.

788

2.0

887.

489

2.7

898.

190

3.5

15

908.

991

4.3

919.

792

5.2

930.

693

6.1

941.

694

7.1

16

865.

987

1.2

876.

588

1.8

887.

289

2.6

897.

990

3.3

16

908.

791

4.1

919.

692

5.0

930.

593

5.9

941.

494

6.9

17

865.

787

1.0

876.

388

1.7

887.

089

2.4

897.

890

3.2

17

908.

691

4.0

919.

492

4.9

930.

393

5.8

941.

394

6.8

18

865.

587

0.8

876.

188

1.5

886.

889

2.2

897.

690

3.0

18

908.

491

3.8

919.

392

4.7

930.

293

5.7

941.

194

6.7

19

865.

387

0.6

875.

988

1.3

886.

789

2.0

897.

490

2.8

19

908.

291

3.7

919.

192

4.6

930.

093

5.5

941.

094

6.5

20

865.

187

0.4

875.

788

1.1

886.

589

1.9

897.

290

2.7

20

908.

191

3.5

919.

092

4.4

929.

993

5.4

940.

994

6.4

22

864.

687

0.0

875.

488

0.7

886.

189

1.5

896.

990

2.3

22

907.

891

3.2

918.

792

4.1

929.

693

5.1

940.

694

6.1

24

864.

286

9.6

875.

088

0.4

885.

789

1.2

896.

690

2.0

24

907.

491

2.9

918.

392

3.8

929.

393

4.8

940.

394

5.9

26

863.

886

9.2

874.

688

0.0

885.

489

0.8

896.

290

1.7

26

907.

191

2.6

918.

092

3.5

929.

093

4.5

940.

194

5.6

28

863.

486

8.8

874.

287

9.6

885.

089

0.4

895.

990

1.3

28

906.

891

2.3

917.

792

3.2

928.

793

4.3

939.

894

5.3

30

863.

086

8.4

873.

887

9.2

884.

789

0.1

895.

590

1.0

30

906.

591

1.9

917.

492

2.9

928.

493

4.0

939.

594

5.1

35

862.

086

7.4

872.

887

8.3

883.

888

9.2

894.

790

0.2

35

905.

791

1.2

916.

792

2.2

927.

793

3.3

938.

894

4.4

40

860.

986

6.4

871.

987

7.4

882.

888

8.3

893.

889

9.3

40

904.

991

0.4

915.

992

1.5

927.

093

2.6

938.

194

3.7


45

859.

986

5.4

870.

987

6.4

881.

988

7.5

893.

089

8.5

45

904.

190

9.6

915.

292

0.7

926.

393

1.9

937.

594

3.1

50

858.

986

4.4

870.

087

5.5

881.

088

6.6

892.

189

7.7

50

903.

290

8.8

914.

492

0.0

925.

693

1.2

936.

894

2.4

60

856.

886

2.4

868.

087

3.6

879.

288

4.8

890.

489

6.0

60

901.

690

7.3

912.

991

8.5

924.

192

9.8

935.

494

1.1

70

854.

886

0.4

866.

187

1.7

877.

488

3.1

888.

789

4.4

70

900.

090

5.7

911.

491

7.0

922.

792

8.4

934.

193

9.7

80

852.

785

8.4

864.

186

9.9

875.

688

1.3

887.

089

2.7

80

898.

490

4.1

909.

891

5.5

921.

392

7.0

932.

793

8.4

90

850.

685

6.4

862.

286

8.0

873.

887

9.5

885.

389

1.1

90

896.

890

2.6

908.

391

4.1

919.

892

5.6

931.

393

7.1

10

084

8.5

854.

486

0.2

866.

187

1.9

877.

888

3.6

889.

41

00

895.

290

1.0

906.

891

2.6

918.

492

4.2

930.

093

5.8

110

846.

485

2.4

858.

386

4.4

870.

187

6.0

881.

988

7.7

110

893.

689

9.4

905.

391

1.1

916.

992

2.8

928.

693

4.5

12

084

4.3

850.

385

6.3

862.

386

8.3

874.

288

0.1

886.

11

20

892.

089

7.9

903.

890

9.6

915.

592

1.4

927.

393

3.1

13

084

2.2

848.

385

4.3

860.

486

6.4

872.

487

8.4

884.

41

30

890.

389

6.3

902.

290

8.2

914.

192

0.0

925.

993

1.8

14

084

0.0

846.

285

2.2

858.

586

4.6

870.

687

6.7

882.

71

40

888.

789

4.7

900.

790

6.7

912.

691

8.6

924.

593

0.5

15

083

7.9

844.

185

0.4

856.

686

2.7

868.

887

4.9

881.

01

50

887.

189

3.1

899.

290

5.2

911.

291

7.2

923.

292

9.2

16

083

5.7

842.

084

8.4

854.

686

0.8

867.

087

3.2

879.

31

60

885.

589

1.6

897.

690

3.7

909.

891

5.8

921.

892

7.8

18

083

1.3

837.

884

4.3

850.

785

7.1

863.

486

9.7

876.

01

80

882.

288

8.4

894.

690

0.7

906.

991

3.0

919.

192

5.2

20

082

6.8

833.

584

0.2

846.

885

3.3

859.

886

6.2

872.

62

00

878.

988

5.2

891.

589

7.7

904.

091

0.2

916.

492

2.6

22

082

2.3

829.

283

6.0

842.

884

9.5

856.

186

2.6

869.

12

20

875.

688

2.0

888.

489

4.7

901.

190

7.4

913.

691

9.9

25

081

5.3

822.

582

9.7

836.

784

3.6

850.

485

7.2

863.

92

50

870.

687

7.2

883.

789

0.2

896.

790

3.1

909.

591

5.9

30

080

3.2

811.

081

8.7

826.

283

3.6

840.

984

8.0

855.

13

00

862.

186

9.0

875.

888

2.6

889.

389

6.0

902.

790

9.2

35

079

0.5

799.

080

7.3

815.

482

3.3

831.

083

8.6

846.

13

50

853.

486

0.7

867.

887

4.9

881.

988

8.8

895.

790

2.5

40

077

7.4

786.

779

5.6

804.

381

2.7

820.

982

9.0

836.

94

00

844.

685

2.2

859.

786

7.1

874.

488

1.6

888.

789

5.8

45

076

4.1

774.

178

3.7

793.

080

1.9

810.

781

9.2

827.

54

50

835.

684

3.6

851.

485

9.3

866.

787

4.2

881.

688

8.9

50

075

0.9

761.

677

1.8

781.

779

1.2

800.

480

9.4

818.

15

00

826.

683

5.0

843.

285

1.2

859.

186

6.9

874.

588

2.1


Table 68 E : Enthalpy of Superheated Steam, kcal/kg

P Temperature, °C

ata 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800

1 954.4 959.9 965.4 970.9 976.4 982.0 987.5 993.1

2 954.3 959.7 965.2 970.8 976.3 981.8 987.4 993.0

3 954.1 959.6 965.1 970.6 976.2 981.7 987.3 992.9

4 954.0 959.5 965.0 970.5 976.1 981.6 987.2 992.8

5 953.9 959.4 964.9 970.4 975.9 981.5 987.1 992.7

6 953.7 959.2 964.8 970.3 975.8 981.4 987.0 992.6

7 953.6 959.1 964.6 970.2 975.7 981.3 986.9 992.4

8 953.5 959.0 964.5 970.0 975.6 981.2 986.7 992.3

9 953.3 958.9 964.4 969.9 975.5 981.0 986.6 992.2

10 953.2 958.7 964.3 969.8 975.4 980.9 986.5 992.1

11 953.1 958.6 964.1 969.7 975.2 980.8 986.4 992.0

12 953.0 958.5 964.0 969.6 975.1 980.7 986.3 991.9

13 952.8 958.3 963.9 969.4 975.0 980.6 986.2 991.8

14 952.7 958.2 963.8 969.3 974.9 980.5 986.1 991.7

15 952.6 958.1 963.6 969.2 974.8 980.3 985.9 991.6

16 952.4 958.0 963.5 969.1 974.6 980.2 985.8 991.5

17 952.3 957.8 963.4 969.0 974.5 980.1 985.7 991.3

18 952.2 957.7 963.3 968.8 974.4 980.0 985.6 991.2

19 952.0 957.6 963.1 968.7 974.3 979.9 985.5 991.1

20 951.9 957.5 963.0 968.6 974.2 979.8 985.4 991.0

22 951.7 957.2 962.8 968.3 973.9 979.5 985.2 990.8

24 951.4 957.0 962.5 968.1 973.7 979.3 984.9 990.6

26 951.1 956.7 962.3 967.9 973.5 971.1 984.7 990.4

28 950.9 956.4 962.0 967.6 973.2 978.9 984.5 990.1

30 950.6 956.2 961.8 967.4 973.0 978.6 984.3 989.9

35 950.0 955.6 961.2 966.8 972.4 978.0 983.7 989.4

40 949.3 954.9 960.5 966.2 971.8 877.5 983.1 988.8

45 948.7 954.3 959.9 965.6 971.2 976.9 982.6 988.3

50 948.0 953.7 959.3 965.0 970.6 976.3 982.0 987.7

60 946.7 952.4 958.1 963.8 969.5 975.2 980.9 986.6

70 945.4 951.1 956.9 962.6 968.3 974.0 979.8 985.5

80 944.2 949.9 955.6 961.4 967.1 972.9 978.7 984.5

90 942.9 948.6 954.4 960.2 966.0 971.8 977.6 983.4

100 941.6 947.4 953.2 959.0 964.8 970.6 976.5 982.3

110 940.3 946.1 952.0 957.8 963.6 969.5 975.3 981.2

120 939.0 944.9 950.7 956.6 962.5 968.4 974.2 980.1

(Condt.)


130 937.7 943.6 949.5 955.4 961.3 967.2 973.1 979.0

140 936.4 942.4 948.3 954.2 960.2 966.1 972.0 978.0

150 935.1 941.1 947.1 953.0 959.0 965.0 970.9 976.9

160 933.9 939.9 945.9 951.9 957.9 963.8 969.8 975.8

180 931.3 937.4 943.4 949.5 955.5 961.6 967.6 973.7

200 928.7 934.9 941.0 947.1 953.2 959.3 965.5 971.6

220 926.1 932.4 938.6 944.8 950.9 957.1 963.3 969.4

250 922.3 928.6 934.9 941.2 947.5 953.7 960.0 966.2

300 915.8 922.3 928.8 935.3 941.7 948.2 954.6 961.0

350 909.3 916.0 922.7 929.4 936.0 942.6 949.2 955.7

400 902.8 909.7 916.6 923.4 930.3 937.0 943.7 950.4

450 896.2 903.4 910.5 917.5 924.5 931.4 938.3 945.2

500 889.6 897.0 904.3 911.6 918.7 925.9 933.0 940.0

Table 68 F : Specific Volume of Superheated Steam and Water, m 3/kg

P Temperature, °C

ata 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440

1 2.406 2.501 2.596 2.690 2.785 2.880 2.974 3.069 3.163 3.258 3.352

2 1.198 1.246 1.294 1.342 1.390 1.437 1.485 1.532 1.580 1.627 1.674

3 0.796 0.828 0.860 0.892 0.924 0.956 0.988 1.020 1.052 1.033 1.115

4 0.595 0.619 0.643 0.668 0.692 0.716 0.740 0.764 0.788 0.812 0.835

5 0.474 0.494 0.513 0.533 0.552 0.572 0.591 0.610 0.629 0.648 0.668

6 0.393 0.410 0.426 0.443 0.459 0.475 0.492 0.508 0.524 0.540 0.556

7 0.336 0.350 0.364 0.379 0.393 0.407 0.421 0.434 0.448 0.462 0.476

8 0.293 0.305 0.318 0.330 0.343 0.355 0.367 0.380 0.392 0.404 0.416

9 0.259 0.271 0.282 0.293 0.304 0.315 0.326 0.337 0.348 0.359 0.369

10 0.232 0.243 0.253 0.263 0.273 0.283 0.293 0.303 0.313 0.322 0.332

12 0.192 0.201 0.209 0.218 0.227 0.235 0.243 0.252 0.260 0.268 0.276

14 0.163 0.171 0.178 0.186 0.193 0.201 0.208 0.215 0.222 0.229 0.236

16 0.141 0.148 0.155 0.162 0.168 0.175 0.181 0.187 0.194 0.200 0.206

18 0.125 0.131 0.137 0.143 0.149 0.155 0.160 0.166 0.172 0.177 0.183

20 0.111 0.117 0.123 0.128 0.133 0.139 0.144 0.149 0.154 0.159 0.164

22 0.100 0.105 0.111 0.116 0.121 0.126 0.130 0.135 0.140 0.144 0.149

24 0.091 0.096 0.101 0.106 0.110 0.115 0.119 0.123 0.128 0.132 0.136

26 0.083 0.088 0.092 0.097 0.101 0.105 0.110 0.114 0.118 0.122 0.126

28 0.076 0.081 0.085 0.089 0.093 0.097 0.101 0.105 0.109 0.113 0.116

30 0.070 0.075 0.079 0.083 0.087 0.091 0.094 0.098 0.101 0.105 0.108

35 0.001 0.062 0.066 0.070 0.073 0.077 0.080 0.083 0.036 0.089 0.092

40 0.001 0.053 0.057 0.060 0.063 0.066 0.069 0.072 0.075 0.078 0.080

45 0.001 0.046 0.049 0.053 0.056 0.058 0.061 0.064 0.066 0.069 0.071(Condt.)


50 0.001 0.001 0.043 0.046 0.049 0.052 0.054 0.057 0.059 0.061 0.063

60 0.001 0.001 0.034 0.037 0.040 0.042 0.044 0.046 0.048 0.050 0.052

70 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.030 0.033 0.035 0.037 0.039 0.041 0.043 0.044

80 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.025 0.028 0.030 0.032 0.033 0.035 0.037 0.038

90 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.023 0.026 0.027 0.029 0.031 0.032 0.034

100 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.020 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.030

110 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.017 0.019 0.021 0.023 0.024 0.025 0.027

120 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.017 0.019 0.020 0.022 0.023 0.024

130 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.015 0.017 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.022

140 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.013 0.015 0.016 0.018 0.019 0.020

150 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.013 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018

160 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.012 0.013 0.015 0.016 0.017

180 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.009 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.015

200 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.009 0.010 0.012 0.013

220 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.007 0.009 0.010 0.011

250 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.006 0.008 0.009

300 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.007

350 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.005

400 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003

450 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003

500 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Table 69 : Proximate Analysis of Bituminous Coals(various countries)

Net Volatile CO2Calorific Ash Water Matter Max.

Fuel Value % % % %kcal/kg

Bituminous Coals:

Aachen

Dry steam coal (nuts) 7580 6.0 4.0 10–13 19.25

Medium volatile coal

(nuts) 7530 6.0 4.0 24–30 19.1

Lower Silesia

Medium volatile coal 7000 5–7 2–8 25–33 18.7

Lower Saxony

Dry steam coal 6500–7000 5–10 5–9 6–12 19.25

Low volatile coal 6900–7200 8–11 4–8 12–19 18.9

Medium volatile coal 6600 11–15 1–3 28–31 17.95

(Condt.)


Upper Bavaria

Sub-bituminous coal 5370 11.0 10.0 35–40 18.25

Upper Silesia

Gas and open-burning coal 6800–7100 4–9 3–7 30–35 18.8

Ruhr

Gas and open-burning coal 7000–7600 4–6 2–5 30–36 18.65

Medium volatile coal 7500–7900 4–7 2–5 22–30 18.75

Low volatile coal 7500–7900 3–7 2–6 13–17 19.25

Dry steam coal 7100–7400 7–9 2–7 10–15 19.25

Saxony

Gas and open-burning coal 6700 5–6 8 30–36 18.6

Saar

Gas and open burning coal 7000 3–7 3–5 38 18.9

Belgium

Low volatile coal 7600 5–7 4–6 14–18 18.85

Dry steam coal 7500 7–9 3–6 8–10 19.15

China

Chihli Kaiping 7423 13.3 0.6 26

Chihli Penchihu 7508 11.2 0.7 24 19.1

Great Britain

Cumberland 7400–7600 5.5–8.0 2.5–3.5 30–36

Derbyshire 6500–7500 2.0–7.0 4.5–12 31–39

Durham 6700–7600 3.0–10.0 2–8 25–35 18.55

Midland 6700–7600 3–7 2–10 31–37

North Wales (Ruabon

seven–feet) 7770 2.9 3.7 35.5

South Wales (Cardiff) 7500–8000 3–8 1–3 15–25



Tabl

e 70

: D

etai

l of

Sol

id F

uels

(ba

sed

on g

erm

an c

oals

)

Bitu

min

ous

Coa

l

B

row

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oal

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cite

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oals

thra

cite

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Vol

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Mat

ter

%1–

46–

88–

1313

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19–3

030

–35

35–4

036

–50

40–5

050

–60

60–7

070

–85

Car

bon

cont

ent %

95–9

792

–24

90–9

387

–92

84–9

082

–88

78–8

674

–82

70–7

662

–70

55–6

540

–50

Hyd

roge

n co

nten

t%0.

4–1

3.8

4.3

4.3–

4.7

4.7–

5.4

5.4

5.4–

5.8

5.6–

6.0

5.7–

6.5

6–6.

76

5.5

Net

cal

orifi

c79

5083

0084

0084

5083

5081

0079

0074

00–

6400

–60

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5400

–43

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e kc

al/k

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0068

0064

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0053

00

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t max

.%19

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19.1

18.9

18.8

18.6

18.5

18.5

18.6

19.0

19.5

20.0

–20

.6

20.7

20.5

Wat

er c

onte

nt %

12–

77–

99–

1820

–40

40–6

025

–75

15–5

0

Ash

con

tent

%5–

103–

55–

66

6–7

76–

75–

65

1–20

0–2

Net

cal

orifi

c72

0078

0075

0076

0075

0074

0072

0065

0048

0022

0015

00–

2000

–

valu

e kc

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0038

00

Den

sty

kg/m

370

0–90

013

5012

8012

7512

7012

4012

2011

50–

600–

400–

1200

900

950

Mea

n sp

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of d

ry c

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0.20

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260.

267

0.28

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d 10

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l/kg

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ivity

at 3

0 °C

, kc

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20.

180.

170.

180.

190.

200.

220.

250.

30.

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14–

°C0.

3

Clean Coal Raw Coal


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970


Table 71: Distillation of Coke oven tar (HTC) to med. soft pitch

Sl. No. Name of Fractions Boiling range °C Wt% of crude tar

1. Crude benzol/light oil 99–160 0.6

2. Naphtha 168–196 2.9

3. Naphthalene oil 198–230 14.6

4. Wash oil or

Benzole absorbing oil or 224–286 2.8

Light creosote oil

5. Anthracene oil and 247–355 8

Heavy creosote oil

6. Heavy oil 323–372 9.5

7. Residue (medium soft pitch) – 56.6

8. Liquor and losses – 5

N.B. Low temperature carbonisation of coal (600–800°C) yields more tar (75–135 lit/te)

Table 72 : Densities of Bituminous substances

kg/m3

Coal 1300–1500

Foundry Coke 1600–1900

Anthracite 1350–1400

Lignite 1200–1300

Raw coal 700–900

Heavy charcoal 330–500

Graphite 500

Crude oil (M. E) 880–890

Pitch 1100

Coal tar 1100

Table 73 : Densities of Fuels and Grease

Fuel kg/m3

ATF 707–773

L.P.G 890

Naptha 718

Petrol 739.3

Kerosene 810

N.G 83

Diesel oil 850

Grease 998.4


Paraffin Wax 800.1

Residual Fuel oil 944

LSHS 949

Light Fuel Oil 920

Table 74 : Power plant energy requirement

1. About 10,000 B. T. U/Kwh or 2,500 kcl/kwh is required in steam power plant.

2. Incremental B. T. U requirement in by–product Power generation is 4,250 B. T. U/kwh.

Equation for heat to power BTU/kwh = 3412

Boiler eff . × Generation eff .3. Theoretical energy required in steam Power Plant is 859 kcal/kwh.

4. Energy required in gas turbine (NG firing) generators with auxiliary boiler = 3500–3700kcal/kwh.

Table 75 : Range of heat output in burners

Chemical process industries = 12600 kcal/hr – 1.26 m. kcal/hr

Industrial plants = 5.04 – 20.16 m. kcal/hr.

Petroleum refineries = 1.008 – 15 m. kcal/hr.

Power plants = 30.24 m. kcal/hr.

Table 76 : Energy equivalent

1 MT coal = 7 × 106 kcal

1 Barrel of crude oil (US) = 1.462 × 106 kcal = 0.21 MT coal

1 MT furnace oil = 10.7 × 106 kcal = 1.53 MT coal

1 SM3 NG = 8.905 × 103 kcal

1 KWH (Hydropower) = 39.7 × 103 kcal = 0.4 kg coal.

= 0.076 gallon (US) crude oil

= 10.4 cft NG.

Table 77 : Non I B R boilers and others

Capacity = 600 – 800 kg/hr at atmosphere press.

Vol. of Helical Coil in boiler = 22 lit

Hot water generation can be by wood or coal

Flue gas exit temperature = 230 – 250°C

Operation press. limit below 1.5 kg/cm2g.

Tubes projecting = 2 – 3 mm

**Chimney = Maxm. two boilers/chimney

CO2 in exit smoke = 12 – 13.5%

Fuel oil consumption for oil fired boiler = 12 – 14.5 kg steam/lit fuel oil

Refractory curing = 48 – 60 hrs.

Soot blowing = at regular interval

**Oversized chimney should be avoided as it reduces draft and increases tendency to back fire.Chimney height is specified by central pollution board limit of chimney for large boilers.


Table 78 : Light Reflection factors for paints

Colour Reflection factor

ρ

White 0.80

Light Grey 0.66

Primrose yellow 0.65

Pale pink 0.50

Pale blue 0.44

Light green 0.45

Medium Grey 0.42

Sky blue 0.34

Olieve green 0.21

Medium brown 0.17

Cordial red 0.19

Dark grey 0.17

N.B. Absorption factor is 1 – ρ

Table 79 : Composition of green paste, baked for electrodes in submerged arcsmelting furnace for charge chrome industry.

F. C = 85 – 87% wt

Volatile matter = 13 – 14

Moisture = 1 (max)

Ash = 0.5

Plasticity = 20 – 30%

Solidification setting temperature = 300°C

Solidification completion temperature = 700°C

The green paste consisting 75% anthracite or petro. Coke and 25% tar pitch is put into C.R sheets, 1–2mm thick and 1100–2500 mm long. The outer casing melts on heat of furnace.

Continuous self Baked electrode properties

Density = 1–4 gm/cc

True density = 1–2 gm/cc

Porosity = 25 – 30%

Resistivity = 60–122 ohm/mm2 /m (usually above 80)

Current density allowed = 5–7 amps/cm2

N.B. The arc initially supplies melting heat and followed by resistance heating.


Table 80 : Velocity for heat transfer media

Velocity range Remarks

Dowtherm A Temperature 230–276°C

Dowtherm G 1.23 m/sec

Dowtherm LF 1.88 m/sec Temperature range 100–300°C

Dowtherm J

Table 81 : Heat Transfer Media (HTM)

Type Temperature range Fluid life

Silicones – 40 –376 °C 10 years

(poly dimethyl siloxanes)

Organic dowtherm, A230 230–400 °C 3–12 years

(diphenyl oxide eutectic)

Organic dowtherm SR1 –40 – 165 °C 3–12 years

(inhibited by MEG)

Table 82 : Pitch types and softening points

Types of Pitch Softening Point

Refined or base tar Below 50°CSoft pitch 50 – 60°CMedium soft pitch 60 – 75°CMedium hard pitch 75 – 110°CHard pitch above 110°C.

1. Electrode binder pitch usually contains 8–10% quinoline insoluble matter and 30–35%toluene insoluble matter.

2. Pitch is a complex hetrogeneous mix of H resins (2.8 –14.4%) vol and M resins (3.8 –28.2%) vol.

3. Modern trend is to use tar–bitumen mixer as binder. BS 1964 mentions type A–surfacedressing tar and type B for tar macadam.

4. For road construction, hot blown bitumen at 60–78 °C is used. Molten bitumen is blownwith hot air at 50–60°C to remove volatile matters.

Table 83 : Chromite ore analysis for charge chrome

Cr2O3 = 40 – 48% wt

Feo and Fe2O3 = 15 – 21

SiO2 = 3 – 5

Al2O3 = 14 – 17

MgO = 9 – 12

Cao = 0.3 – 2.9

P2O5 = 0.023

L O I = 3Cr

Fe ratio = 1.8 – 2.0


Table 84 : Analysis of quartzite

SiO2 = 98% wt (min)Al2O3 = 0.5 – 1.5 (max)Fe2O3 = 0.5 – 1.5 (max)Phosphorus = 0.005 (max)as P2O5

MgO = 0.2 – 0.5

N.B. quartzite is available in different grades suitable for refractory, ceramic and Pottery, fluxesand other uses.

Table 85 : Analysis of alloying material– Ferrochrome

Chromium = 60 – 67%Carbon = 0.05 (max)Phosphorous = 0.05 (max)Manganese = 0.75 (max)Sulphur = 0.04 (max)Aluminium = 0.1% (max)

Size = 50 – 125 mm. with ± 10% over size upto 150mm

Also 10–30 mm size (over size = 40 mm)

Table 86 : Hardness scale for mineralsMoh scale

Talc 1

Rocksalt or gypsum 2

Calcite 3

Flourite 4

Apatite 5

Feldspas 6

Quartz 7

Topaz 8

Corrundum 9

Diamond 10

P.S. Greater is the no, higher the hardness.

Table 87 : Analysis of magnesite

MgO = 45 – 48% wt.

SiO2 = 3 – 5

CaO = 0.8 – 1.4

Fe2O3 = 1 – 3

Al2O3 = 1 – 2

L. O. I = 47 – 49


Table 88 : Limestone Analysis

CaO = 48 – 54% wt

MgO = 1 – 3

SiO2 = 2 – 6

Al2O3 + Fe2O3 = 1 – 3

Total insoluble = 4 – 7

L.O.I. = 40 – 44

Size = 20 – 60 mm

Table 89 : Dolomite Analysis

CaO = 22 – 25% wt

MgO = 18 – 20.5

SiO2 = 4 – 6

Al2O3 = 1 – 2

Phosphorous = 0.02

Sulphur = 0.05

Type = amorphous

Table 90 : Analysis of bentonite

Na = 1.7 – 1.9% wt

K = 0.09 – 0.11

Fe = 7.6 – 7.9

Al2O3 = 18.5 – 20

CaO = 1.5 – 1.70

TiO2 = 1.2

SiO2 = 53 – 56

L.O.I. = 7 – 8

N.B. The above is for pelletisation

Table 91 : Analysis of Porcessed Bauxite

Al2O3 = 50 – 68% wt

Fe2O3 = 3.0 (max)

TiO2 = 2 – 4 (max)

SiO2 = 3 – 4

CaO = 1 (max)

MgO = 1 – 2


Table 92 : Analysis of Kiselghur

SiO2 = 73 – 88%

Al2O3 = 2.4 – 9

Fe2O3 = 0.9 – 3

CaO = 0.87 – 3.5

MgO = 0.28 – 1.21

Organic matter and = 4.8 – 7.7combined water

Table 93 : Physical data of Hydrogen

Density at STP = 0.084 kg/m3

Heat of vaporisation of liq H2 = 445.6 joules/gm

Lower heating value = 28547 Kcal/kg.

Higher heating value = 33875 kcal/kg

Conductivity at STP = 1.897 mW cm–1 K–1

Flammability limits, lower = 4% (vol) in air

Flammbility limits, higher = 75% (vol) in air

Detonability limits in air :

Lower = 18.3% (vol)

Higher = 59% (vol)

Limiting O2 index = 5% (vol)

Auto ignition temperature in air = 858°K

Min. energy for ignition in air = 0.02 mj

Flame temperature in air = 2318°k

Maxm. burning velocity in air at STP = 3.46 m/s

Detonation velocity in air at STP = 2–15 km/s

Energy of explosion = 2.02 gm TNT equiv/m3 (STP)

Table 94 : Electrolysis of water for pure H 2 through H 2 Cell

Eth = Theoretical min. decomposition potential atstd conditions = 1.48v

Ac = Actual cell voltageE2 = Anodic over voltageE3 = Cathodic over voltageE4 = Voltage drop due to resistance of electrolyte in H2 cell.

Electrolyte in cell = pure water with 26–30% NaoH or KoHCombination of E2 + E3 = 0.37v to 0.57v.

Ac = 1.48 + 0.37 = 1.85v.Cell current density = 2 – 3 KA/m2

Specific Power consumption = 4–5 kwh/m3 at STPH2 gas purity at cathode = 99.8% H2 (vol)

O2 gas purity at anode = 99.6% O2 (vol)


N.B. 1. H2–cell of std manufacture is to be used.

2. Process suitable when power cost is lower

3. H2 generated can be used for H2 Plasma generation:

H2 dissociation500 K°

→ 2 H+ H.T (3000–3500 °K)

Use: Oxy–hydrogen welding torches.

Table 95 : Hydrogen Burner

Special design feature must be included in hydrogen burner due to differences in combustionproperties, flame speed, flame stability, density and heating values than the conventional gas(e.g NG) burners. The geometry of H2 burners, are therefore different. The flame speed reqd. forH2 air mixture in 7 times higher than that of rich methane N.G due to flash back phenomenonover a wide range of such mixtures (H2–air) . As such secondary and primary air ratio is higher.

Most recent Hydrogen burners are of H2 – air premix burners or nozzle mix burners withhigh mix velocities. Flameless Pt or Palladium H2 burners have working press. of 10 KPa.

Table 96 : Units of hardness in water

Unit of measurement for hardness of water is milli equivalent per lit (mval/l) or the calciumequivalent of the compounds. units:

1 mval/l = 28 mg CaO/lit or 50 mg CaCO3/lit

1°dH (German Hardness) = 10 mg CaO/lit

1°eH (English Hardness) = 14.3 mg CaCO3/lit

1 ppm (American Hardness = 1 mg CaCO3/lit

1 °fH (French Hardness) = 10 mg CaCO3/lit

Therefore,

1 mval/lit = 2.8°dH 5.0°fH 3.5°eH 50ppm

1°eH(0.286 mval) = 0.8°dH 1.43°fH 1.0°eH 14.3 ppm

1 ppm (0.02 mval) = 0.056°dH 0.1°fH 0.07°eH 1.0 ppm

Table 97 : W. H. O drinking water standard

pH = 6.5 – 8.5

Colour index = 15 APHA

Conductivity = – µs/cm

Total solid = – mg/1

Total hardness*

(as CaCO3) = 500 mg/1

Alkalinity as

CaCO3 = – mg/1

Chloride as C1– = 250 mg/1

Sulphate as SO4= = 400 mg/1

Flouride as F– = 1.5 mg/1

COD = nil mg/1

(Contd.)


NO2 as N = –

NO3 as N = 0.01 mg/1

NH4 as N = nil

Total coliform

Bacteria = – MPN/100 ml

Sodium as Na = 200 mg/1

Iron as Fe = 0.3 mg/1

Calcium as Ca = mg/1

Magnesium as Mg = – mg/1

Zinc as Zn = 5000 µg/1

Arsenic as As = 0.05 µg/1

Lead as Pb = 0.05 µg/1

Copper as Cu = 1000 µg/1

Manganese as Mn = 50 µg/1

Potassium as K = 2 mg/1

N.B*. Includes non carbonate hardness

US mineral water std. minerals. = > 500 ppm

EU mineral water std. minerals. = > 1000 ppm

Table 98 : Allotropic forms of iron

Pure iron – Alpha iron is stable below 906°C with a body centered cubic structure. It isferromagnetic upto curie point (768°C).

Gamma iron – This is stable between 906°C and 403°C with non–magnetic face–centeredcubic structure. Occurs as + 3 oxdn. stage. Suitable for longitudinal recordingon tapes and disc.

Delta iron – Delta iron has body centered cubic structure above 1403°C.

Iron is 4th abundant element found in nature. It has 9 isotopes. It has oxidation stages of Fe+2,Fe+3, Fe+4 and Fe+6. Fe+3 oxide exists as hydrated form (red brown powder) with M.P of 1565°C.Hydrated iron oxides are more magnetic.

N.B. Gamma–Fe2O3 iron does not crystallise directly as needles because in crystal latticeprocess curic symmetry. Such particles can be synthesised only in a round about way as statedbelow:

Fe+2 + 2OH– = Fe (OH)2 Oxdn.

O2→ FeOOH needle shaped yellow crystals. ...(1)

2 FeOOH dehydration

250 Co→ Fe2O3 + H2O

Reductionwith H C2 400o

→ Y Fe3O4 ...(2)

Y Fe3O4 Oxidation

O2→ Y Fe2O3 ...(3)

84 REFERENCE BOOK ON CHEMICAL ENGINEERINGC

PS

25C°

Tabl

e 99

: C

hara

cter

istic

s of

sol

vent

s us

ed i

n pl

astic

s em

ulsi

ons

Sol

vent

Mol

.Wt

BP

°CS

olub

ility

par

amet

erH

.B.

inde

xR

elat

ive

evap

orat

ion

Fla

shV

isco

city

MA

C

rate

Poi

nt °

F a

t

Ace

tone

58.0

85

61

05.

911

60

15

0.35

10

00

Cyc

lohe

xane

84.1

68.

22.

27

20

40

1.06

30

0

O–d

ichl

oro

147.

0110

.03.

11

51

74

1.27

50

benz

ene

M E

K72

.10

80

9.3

5.4

57

23

50.

422

00

Tolu

en

e9

2.1

311

0.6

8.9

3.3

24

04

40.

591

00

Na

pth

a–

7.6

2.5

27

54

8–

50

0

Isop

ropy

l60

.09

11.5

8.7

30

07

02.

414

00

alc

oh

ol

Eth

yl a

ceta

te88

.10

9.1

5.2

61

54

50.

444

00

Hex

ane

86.1

77.

32.

11

00

0–

25

0.29

50

0

Hep

tane

100.

27.

42.

23

86

25

0.47

50

0

Ben

zene

80.1

N. B

.O

ther

ind

ustr

ial

orga

nic

solv

ents

– B

utyl

alc

ohol

and

Eth

yl a

ceta

te.

Zyl

ol (

b.p

138°

C),

coa

l ta

r na

phth

a, (

b.p

149–

177°

C),

Pet

rol,

Die

sel,

Ben

zol,

But

yl a

ceta

te a

nd E

thyl

alc

ohal

.

pC 25

°C


Table 100 : International Specifications of iron oxide

ISO ASTM DIN

Black ironoxide 1248 D769 ISO1248

Red ironoxide 1248 D3721 55913T1

Yellow iron oxide 1248 D768 ISO1248

Brown iron oxide 1248 D3722 ISO1248

FeO Content – D3872 –

Table 100 A : Rustproof Lubricating Oil

Lube oil (light) – 97.5 – 87%

Lard oil – 2 – 10

Lecithin – 0.5 – 3

or

White oil – 98%

Naphthalene – 2

Table 100 B : Percentage Excess Air Requirement in Furnaces

Type Fuel oil firing NG fired

Natural draft 25 – 15% (vol) 20 – 10% (vol)

Forced draft 15 – 10 10 – 5

Forced draft 10 – 5 5

(preheated air)

Table 101 : Solvents for plastics and Synthetic rubbers

Plastics Solvent

Polypropylene O–chloronaphthalate

Polybutylene Toluene

Cis 1,4 Poly butadiene Benzene

Poly–isobutylene Benzene, cyclohexane

Polyethyl acrylate Acetone

Poly n–butyl methacrylate M E K

P V C Cyclohexane, Benzene, Tetra Hydrofuran

P V A Ketones (low m.wt Carbolic esters)

Poly methyl methacrylate Benzene/MEK

M M A Xylenes

Polystyrene Benzene/MEK/Cyclohexane

XLPE —

PET meta cresol, orthocresol chlorophenol

Polyacrylonitrile Dimethyl formaldehyde

Melamine formaldehyde —


Phenol formaldehyde

Styrene acrylonitrile

Poly urethane

Polyethylene or Polythene

P B R rubber

A B S rubber

S B R rubber

Urea formaldehyde

Nylon – 6/66 Glacial acetic acid-Formic acid

Acetal (Poly formaldehyde)

Nitrile rubber

Cellulose nitrate

Ethylene Glycol terephthalate

(Polyester satd. resin)

Shellack Ethyl alcohol

Table 102 : Me lting Point of Pure Ceramic Oxides

M.P.°C

Al2O3 = 2050MgO = 2800CaO = 2600SiO2 = 1780ZrO2 = 2700Cr2O3 = 2265FeO = 1360Fe3O4 = 1600MgO Al2O3 = 21352MgO SiO2 = 18903MgOSiO2 = 1810

ZrO2SiO2 = 1775

Table 103 : Electrical resistivity of ceramic materials

Insulators E. Resistivity, Ohm–cm

L. V. Porcelain 1012–1014

Stealite Porcelain 1014

Mullite Porcelain 1013–1014

Zircon Porcelain 1014

Alumina Porcelain 1016–1014

Cordierite Porcelain 1013–104

Silica 1019

Semiconductors(Contd.)


Selenium Carbide 10

Boron Carbide 0.5

Ferric Carbide 10–2

Table 104 : ASTM codes for refractory bricks

1. Fireclay (ASTM C27) and high Alumina (50–99%) bricks

2. Basic bricks/refractories (ASTM C455) viz chrome bricks, chrome magnesite bricks(30% Mgo) and magnesite bricks.

3. Insulating bricks or fire bricks (ASTM C 155)

4. Mullite refractories (ASTM C467). It contains Al2O3 = 56–79%.

5. Silica bricks, type A or B (ASTM C416)

6. Castable refractories (ASTM C401). Among other uses it is used in molten steel pouringpits.

7. Dolomite refractories (ASTM C435)

8. Zircon refractories (ASTM C545)

ASTM specification gives US Federal spec and use. The list for refractories gives softening temperature and thermal strength and stability are as per ASTM C605 and C436.

Table 105 : Explosive limits and F. P of organic chemicals and Veg. oils.

Explosive Limits, %vol. Flash Point, °CLower Higher

Benzene 1.1 7.2 –11

Glycerine 160

Ethyl alcohol 3.5 19 13

Dibutyl Phthalate – – 157

Butyl acetate 1.4 7.6 22

Acetone 2.1 13 –17

Ethyl acetate 2.2 11

Toluene 1.3 7.0 4.4

Xylene 1 6.0 17

Linseed oil – 224

Castor oil 229.4

Petro naphtha 37

(B. R = 149 – 177°C)


Table 105 A : Swedish limits of Coliform bacteria and pesticides and herbicidesin drinking water sources

Classification Limit Remarks

1. Ground water wells MPN = 0/100 mlpesticides = Niland herbicides

2. Surface water MPN = 0/100 ml(city or county Pesticides and = nilwater works–Govt herbicides

3. Bottled drinking MPN = 0/100ml Sand filtration andwater (spring water quality tested. Oftenor natural water) carbonated to make it

sparkling.

4. Surface water (Private MPN = 10 or greater Not allowed by Govtwater works) Pesticides = Nil

and herbicides

N.B. Finished drinking water is also subjected to test for heterotropic bacteria after incubation2 (test for health reasons) which shall be less than 10/1 and 7 days incubation for esthetic andtech. reasons i.e. smell and appearance.

Cryptospora is micro fungi and other microbal organisms.

Source: Stephen Gerth of a Swedish engg. firm

Table 106 : Thermal conductivity of Refractory bricks

Type of bricks % Porosity Thermal conductivityWm–1°K–1

371°C 1000°C

Alumina bricks

28% Al2O3 22 0.84 1.72

42% Al2O3 19 1.21 1.42

72% Al2O3 22 1.55 1.42

Mullite bricks 23 0.92 1.26

Silica bricks 23 1.34 1.76

Magnesium bricks 20 6.86 2.76

Zircon bricks 17 2.76 2.38

Chrome magnesite bricks 22 1.72 1.80


Table 107 : Mechanical Properties of Refractory materials

Name of bricks Compressive Flexural Modus ofStrength Strength Elasticity

MPa MPa GPd

Solid bricks 10–25 5–10 5–20

Silica refractories 15–40 30–80 8–14

Fire Clay bricks 10–80 5–15 20–45(10-44% Al2O3)

Silica refractories 15–40 30–80 8–14(96-97% SiO2)

Corundum refractories 40–200 10–150 30–124(75–90% Al2O3)

Zircon refractories 30–60 80–200 35–40

Stonewares 40–100 20–40 30–70

Whitewares 30–40 20–25 10–20

Elec. Porcelein 350–850 90–145 55–100

Capacitor Ceramics 30–1000 90–160

N.B. Sulphate lye instead of mollases is used in tempering water for mixing with groundedmaterial for refractory bricks to get good green strength.

Table 108 : Angle of repose

Degree

Coke 35°Bitnminous coal 50°Anthracite coal 27°

Lignite 2712

to 45°

Slack coal 30 – 45°Coal Ash 40°Iron ore (soft) 35°Earth (loose) 30 – 45°Sand (dry) 32°Sand (moist) 27°Clay (moist) 20 – 25°Gravel 36°Gravel (wet) 25°Rock lumps 38°Cement 40°Wheat 28°Maize 27 – 30°Barley 27°Oats 28°

(Contd.)


Clay soil (dry) 40 – 50°B. F slag 35 – 40°powder lime (dry) 50°Limestone 30 – 45°Pit coal 30 – 45°Soft coal 35 – 50°Top soft 27 – 40°Ballast 35 – 40°Ores 30 – 40°

Rock salt 35 – 50°

Table 109 : Flash point (F. P) of petroleum products

Petrol or gasoline = – 7°C

Diesel = 54°C – 64°C

Naphtha = 38° to 43°C (Naphtha for thinner use = 51°C)

Kerosine = 46° – 64°C

Fuel oil (distillate) = 66 – 74°C

Residual fuel oil = 115°C

White oil = 176°C

A T F = 38°C – 60°C

Remarks : As per Petroleum Act 1934, class A Petroleum Products have F.P. below 23°C,class B Petroleum products, F.P. ranges between 23°C to below 65°C and class C petroleumproducts have F.P. ranging from 65°C to below 93°C.

2. Flash point is defined as the lowest temperature at which vapour arising from oil samplewill ignite momentarily or flash on appln. of flame under test condition.

Table 110 : Dry cleaning oil (Stoddard solvent) specification

F. P = 38°C

Colour = Water white

90% distillation pt = 190.5°C

Cu strip test = Slight decolouration

Doctor test = – ve

Table 111 : Properties of Gasoline (Petrol), Methanol and Ethanol

Item Gasoline Methanol Ethanol

Sp. Gravity 0.70 – 0.78 0.796 0.794

Liq. density, Kg/m3 698 781 789

Vapour pressure

PSI, 100°F (Reid) 7 – 15 4.6 2.5

PSI, 77°F 0.3 2.31 0.85

Boiling point, °F 80 – 44 149 173

(Contd.)


Freezing point °F –70 –144 –173

Water solubility

H2O in Fuel 88 ppm – –

Fuel in water 240 ppm – –

Dielectric Constant 1.8 – 2.6 32.6 24.3

Viscosity, 100°F, cSt 0.37 0.47 0.85

Specific resistivity 2 × 1016 0.14 × 106 0.3 × 106

Molecular wt varies 32 46.1

CH

ratio 5.6 – 7.4 3.0 4.0

Fuel, vol.% of vaporised

Stoichiometric mixture 2.1 12.3 6.5

Air/Fuel stoichiometric ratio 14.2–15.1 6.4 9.0

Lower heating value kcal/kg 10508 4782 6394

Heat of vaporisation kcal/kg 83 281 220

Flammability limit % vol. in air 1.4–7.6 6.7 – 36.0 43.19

Specific heat kcal/kg°C 0.48 0.60 0.60

Auto ignition temp, °C 232–482 470 362

Flash point, °C – 7 11 21

Temperature °C, at which – 30 10 15vaporisation is similar toflammable mixture

Octane rating 87 – 98 99 –101 98 – 101

N.B. All industrial grade ethanol is denatured with 5% methanol to avoid drinking.

Table 112 : Blended gasoline fuels for automobiles

1. Blends of gasoline with 10–20% methanol or ethanol are used in automobiles in somecountries. In U.S.A it is called Gasohol or Arconol.

2. Volumetric fuel consumption for blended gasoline in automobiles will be higher (60% morefor methanol) requiring higher capacity fuel tanks.

3. Modified carburator for fuel injection and Air/fuel ratio controller on signal from an exhaustgas analyser is reqd.

4. Alkonol is blended gasoline with 25% C2–C4 alcohols and is having better technicaladvantages viz increased volatility, improved hydrocarbon solubility, more water toleranceand higher heats of combustion.

5. Emission of NOX is reduced by 30% for methanol/ethanol based gasoline.

6. Fuel grade ethanol must be 190° proof.

7. Blended gasoline with methanol can contain maximum 0.2% water.

8. Gasoline is also blended with 5% benzene and is available in Europe.

9. In India, a 5% ethanol blending with gasoline is being considered.


Table 113 : Naphtha composition Refinery

Flash point = 38 – 43°C

Boiling range = 149 – 177°C

Density, gm/cc = 0.718

Sulphur = 0.30

Hydrocarbons :

Aliphatic vol% = 43

Naphthenes vol% = 46

Benzine = 1.4

Aromatics = 11

Toluene = 9.3

Xylenes = 0.5

N.B. Sulphur content varies according to sulphur in crude oil.

Table 114 : Petroleum Coke Analysis

F. C = 79 – 92% wt

V. m = 3.5 – 18

Ash = 0.05 – 1.5

Sulphur = 0.2 – 4

Moistre = 0.1 – 5

Calorific value = 8450 – 9000 kcal/kg

Table 115 : Mosquito spray oil

A P I gravity = 27 – 35F. P = 130°F (min)Viscosity = 35 – 40 SSU at 100°F10% distillation pt = 430° – 450°F50% distillation pt = 510° – 558°F

90% distillation pt = 630°F

Table 116 : Aviation Turbine Fuel (superior Kerosene) Specification

Boiling range = 150 – 280°C

Flash point = 38°CFreezing point = – 40°CV. Pat 38°C = 21 KPaDensity 38°C = 773 – 840 Kg/m3

Paraffins = 63% (Vol)Cyclo Paraffins = 18.6Aromatics = 18 – 25Single C ring = 14 – 16Double C ring = 1.4


More than 2 C ring = 0.11Sulphur = 0.3Lower cal. Value = 4.8 Mj/Kg

N.B. Sulphur content depends on crude.

Table 117 : White oil Specification

Specification:

Flash point = 176°C

Kinematic Viscosity at 21°C, = Min. 10

cSt Max. 35

Freezing Point (C. Cup) = –150°C

Pour point = 12°C

Saponification value = 1.0

Iodine Value = 1.5 (max.)

White oil is manufactured from lube oils, refined with Sulphuric acid; Sulphuric acid reactswith unsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons and refined to a high purity.

Uses : Food, cosmetics and medicinal preparations and dry cleaning of garments. Tech.grades are often used as lubricants and synthetic textile fibres lubrication during spinning. Batchingoil hydraulic and recoil oils insecticide spray oils, ointment, food packaging and baking

Table 118 : Kerosene oil Specification

Flash Point = 51.8°CCharcoal value or smokepoint per kg of oil consumed = 20 mgDistillation 10% point = 420°F.Distillation end point at = 625°F.Calorific Value = 11120 – 11676 kcal/kg.

CH

= 5.25

Sulphur = 0.125Kinamatic Viscosity = 2.2 (min)Ignition temperature = 255°CA P I degree gravity = 35 (min)

Low% of aromatic unsaturated hydrocarbons are desirable to maintain lowest possiblelevel of smoke during burning.

Table 119 : Smoke point of Kerosene oil

From Paraffin hydrocarbon crude = 73 mmFrom naphthaline hydrocarbon crude = 24 mmFrom aromatic hydrocarbon crude = 7.5 mmFormula for smoke pt. = 0.48P + 0.32N + 0.20A where P, N and A are

% of paraffins, naphthalene and aromatics incrudes processed in a refinery.

N.B. Smoke point is defined as the maxm. flame height in mm at which K, oil will burn withoutsmoking.


Fig. 1


Table 120 : Pyrolysis gasoline

Typical specification

API gravity/Sp. gravity 0.868

RVP (ASTM D–86 distillation) psi

Antioxidant (amine type) 10 ppmw (max)

RONC 100

(Resarch Octane no)

MONC 88

Induction Period 500 mins (with 10 ppm amine type oxidant)

(ASTM D525)

Existing gums 3.5 mg/100 ml (max)

(ASTM D381) (after heptane wash)

Sulphur 1000 ppmw (max)

(ASTM D1320)

Dien value 1 (max)

(UOP – 326)

Other properties : It is an excellent source of BTX.

The Pyrolysis gasoline contains 60% BTX. It also contains other unsaturates and diolifines(5%). Total aromaties C6–C9 is 73%. The pyrolysis gasoline is usually treated to remove diencontent (by shell process or Francair de Petrole (France) process. Toluene content varies from 42–46% and ethyl benzene 25–27%. Separation process : pure Benzene, Toluene and Xylene fractionsfrom P. G is done using Udex process (UOP. Dovv) using tetra ethylene glycol.

Table 121 : Detail Naptha Composition (Refinery)

Component %W

WC3 hydrocarbons 2.0

C4 hydrocarbons 7.0

C5 hydrocarbons 11.0

cyclo pentadiene and isoprene 4.5

branched C6 hydrocarbons and 1.5

cyclic C5 hydrocarbons

methyl cyclopentane

methyl cyclo pentadiene etc. 3.0

Benzene 32.0

Component %WW

Cyclic C6 hydrocarbons 1.0

1–1 dimethyl cyclopentane .5

n–Heptane 1.5


methyl cyclohexane 1.0

Toluene 17.0

n. C8 dimethyl cyclohexene 0.5

other C7, C8 and C9 non–aromatics 1.0

ethyl benzene 1.0

m – p xylene 2.5

o – xylene 1.5

Styrene 2.5

C9 H12 1.5

Dicyclopentadiene 2.0

Indene 1.0

Napthalene 1.0

Other high boiling components 4.0

100

Ref. B. C. E March'65 P 159

Table 122 : Diesel oil Specification(ASTM D396)

No. 2

Parameters

Flash Point, °C 38

90% recoverable, 282°C (min)

338°C (max)

Kinematic Viscosity, cSt at 40°C 1.9 (min)

3.4 (max)

Reboiler bottom carbon

residue on 10% distillation 0.35% (max)

Carbon residue (Conradson) ≤ 3.0 (max)

Sulphur, %wt 0.5 (max)

Cu strip corrosion (3hr at 50°C) No. 3

Max. density, kg/m3 876

Pour point °C ≤ 6

Ash % wt ≤ 0.05

Water –Do– ≤ 0.3

N.B. In addition it contains metals, Al, Na, V and Silicon.


Table 123 : Hydrogen Zeolite or Hydrogen Cation Exchanger resin specification

Capacity = 26 kg/cft (based on 0.204 kg of

salt per kg of hardness

Colour = light yellow or tan

Mech. eff. = 20 – 50 %

size = 0.4 – 0.6 mm dia

Maxm pH = 11

Min pH = none

Min SiO2, ppm = none

Maxm. temperature = 120°C

This type of cation exchanger resin will also remove dissolved ferrous ion and manganous ionby ion exchange. No contact with air before or during exchanger operation. The ion exchange resinis usually styrene based.

Table 124 : Heavy and Light oil specification

HFO LFO

Density at 15°C Kg/m3 ≤ 940 ≤ 920

Kinematic Viscosity mm2/s

30°C (SI unit) 180

50°C 125 – 180

Kinematic viscosity

at 40°C cSt 2.8 – 14

Net calorific value Mj/kg 41304

Pour point °C ≤ 30 ≤ 6

Flashpoint (closed °C ≥ 66 ≥ 60

pensky–martens)

Sulphur w/°% ≤ 4.0 ≤ 2.0

Ash w/°% ≤ 0.1 ≤ 0.05

Water w/°% 1.0 0.3

Water before engine w/°% ≤ 0.3 ≤ 0.2

Aluminium and Silicon ppm ≤ 5 and 10 ≤ 25

Sodium ppm ≤ 10 Nil

Vanadium ppm ≤ 200 ≤ 100

Asphaltenes w/w% ≤ 0.38 NA

Carbon residue (Conradson) w/w% ≤ 9.0 ≤ 3.0

Total sediment potential w/w% ≤ 0.1 ≤ 0.1

CCAI number – ≤ 870 NA

Note – HFO is also suitable for heavy D. G set. LFO falls under diesel oil category.


Table 124 A : Fuel Oil analysis

Sp. Gravity = 0.92

Kin. Viscosity = 1.70 centistokes (max)

Ash = 1.0% vol (max)

Sulphur = 4.5% wt (max)

F.P. = 60°C

G.C.V. = 10, 000 kcal/kg

Table 125 : Residual Fuel oil analysis

Distillation range

F. P = 115°C 5% at 264°C

Pour Pt. = – 31.6°C 90% at 490°C

Sulphur = 0.58% 95% at 529°C

Water = 0.1% – 0.7% Explosive limit = 5%

Carbon residue = 5.58% Gross Calorific Value = 11000 kcal/kg

Ash = 0.016

In addition, it contains various metals in small quantities ranging from 0.05 – 0.09% (A1, Ca,Cu, Lead, Magnesium, Manganese, Nickel, Potassium, Silicon etc).


Table 126 : Types and Application of refrigerants

Refrigerant Name of Refrigerant Temp. range °C ApplicationNo.

R – 717 Ammonia –60 to +10 Med. and Large installations withreciprocating, screw and turbinecompressors.

R – 11 Trichloro–monofluoro –10 to +20 Suitable both for water chillersMethane and refrigeration with turbine

compressors.

R – 13 Chloro trifluoro methane –100 to –60 Low temp, cascade system withreciprocating compressors.

R – 12 Dichlorodifluoro methane –40 to +20 Refrigeration systems and heatpumps with reciprocating, rotary,screw and turbine compressors.

R – 13 B1 Bromotriflouro methane –90 to –30 Low temp system withreciprocating compressors.

R – 22 Difluoro Monochloro –70 to +20 All systems with compressors.methane

R – 114 Dichlorotetra fluoro- –20 to +20 Heat pumps with all types ofmethane compressors.

R – 170 Ethane –110 to –70 Low temp cascade system withturbine compressors, Vol.refrigerent effect = 1811 Kj/m3

R – 290 Propane –60 to –20 Large capacity refrigeration withturbine compressors. Vol. refrigerent effect = 2238 Kj/m3

R – 1270 Propylene –60 to –20 Large capacity refrigeration withturbine compressors. Vol. refrigerent effect = 2238 Kj/m3

R – 1150 Ethylene –90 to –25 Refrigeration effect = 481.3 Kj/kg

R – 744 Carbondioxide –15 to +25 Vol. refrigeration effect = 434kcal/m3

R – 40 Methyl Chloride –15 to +25 Vol. refrigeration effect = 307

kcal/m3

R –134 a 1, 1, 1, 2 Tetrafluorine –15 +30 Small and med. installations.

Table 127 : Secondary cooling liquids (refrigerants as per evaporation temp)

Cooling Media Evaporating Temperature °C

Brine soln – 15

Brine soln with CaCl2 – 40

MgCl2 in Brine soln – 25

K2CO3 in Brine soln – 25

Ethanol Water mix – 20

Ethylene Glycol Water Mix – 25

Use depends on toxicity on materials


Table 127 A : Ge latine (Type A) specification

Gel strength – 50 – 300

Viscosity, mpoise – 20 – 70

Isoelectric pt. – 7 – 9

Ash – 0.3 – 2%

pH – 3.8 – 5.5

N.B. Gelatine is formed by hydrolysis of collagen protein from green cattle bones into singlechains and is a mixture of proteins of varying molecular wt. Pigskin gelatine gives ediblegelatine.

Table 128 : Cooling Conditions required in Industry and Trade

Most suitable temperatures and ralative humidity values for cooling and airconditioning of tradeand industrial premises.

Trade of Industry Temperature Relative Remarks*°C Humidity %

1. Food industry and Brewing

Bakeries

Fresh bread storage + 8 to + 10 – –

Bread (to prevent staling) – 25 to – 30 – –

Flour + 2 to + 4 – –

Macaroni, spaghetti, etc. + 8 to + 10 – –

Ready-to-sell goods + 6 to + 8 – –

Breweries

Beer storage cellars + 1 to + 1.5 90 ML

Beer fermenting cellars + 3.5 to + 6 – St L

Beer, top-fermented, in cellar + 5 to + 8 – ML

Beer in barrels for transport + 6 to + 8 – ML

Draught beer in public houses,etc. (Pilsner) 10 + 6 – –

Draught Beer in public houses,etc. (Munich) to + 7 – –

Yeast rooms + 12 to +16 – StL

Hops stores ± 0 to – 2 75 ML

Malting floors + 9 to + 10 85 ML

Wort cooling, cool to + 5 – –

Ice, lce-cream

Ice-cream hardening room – 25 to – 30 – –

Ice-cream storage room – 18 to – 22 – –


Ice-cream container – 8 to – 12 – –

Artificial ice-cream storage room – 4 to – 6 – –

Butcher's Shops

See under meat-packing Plants

Margarine Factories

Stores for finished margarine – 10 75 to 80 D

Source : Rules for Refrigeration Machines 5th edn. 1958

Cooling Conditions required in Industry and Trade (contd.)

Most suitable temperatures and relative humidity values for cooling and airconditioning in tradeand industrial premises.

Trade or Industry Temperature Relative Remarks°C Humidity %

Dairies

Milk ± 0 to + 2 – ML

Cooling room for evening milk + 10 – ML

Cream ripening room + 14 to + 18 – –

Butter-making room + 12 to + 15 – –

Butter, short-term storage + 1 to + 4 75 to 80 StL

Butter, long-term storage – 10 to – 20 80 to 85 D

Dried milk + 10 70 to 75 ML

Curds + 1 75 to 80 ML

Cheese, soft ± 0 to + 2 80 to 85 ML

Tilsit cheese + 2 90 ML

Emmentaler cheese + 10 to + 12 80 to 85 ML

Cheese-ripening room (Swiss) + 15 80 to 85 ML

Cheese store-room (Swiss) +1.5 to + 4 70 ML

Bottled milk-room + 10 to + 12 – –

Meat–packing Plants and Butcher's Shops

Precooling room + 6 to + 8 85 to 90 StL

Rapid-cooling room ± 0 to + 1 90 to 95 vary St L

Cold-room ± 0 to + 1 85 to 90 St L

Rapid-freezing room – 25 to – 35 90 to 95 vary St L

Frozen-meat store –18 to – 20 90 D

Salting room + 6 to + 8 – –

Cold-room for offal ± 0 to + 1 75 to 80 ML


Thawing room + 5 to + 8 90 ST L

Cold-room for sausages, smoked + 1 to + 5 80 to 85 ML

Cold-room for preserved meat,smoked ham and bacon + 10 to + 12 70 ML

Cold-room for salted bacon ± 0 70 to 80 ML

Cold-room for fats + 2 to + 4 75 to 80 M or St L

Cold-room for tinned meats ± 0 to +2 75 to 80 –

Work-room + 10 – M or St L

Fish–Industry

Cold-room, fish packing in ice = 0 to + 1 90 to 100 –

Rapid-freezing room – 25 to – 40 90 to 95 –

Salted fish – 2 to + 1 85 to 95 ML

Pickled herrings – 2 to – 4 90 to 95 –

Tinned fish = 0 to + 1 75 to 80 –

Smoked fish – 6 to – 8 – D

Table 128 : Cooling Conditions required in Industry and Trade

Most suitable temperatures and relative humidity values for cooling and airconditioning in tradeand industrial premises.


Eggs

Cold-room – 0.5 to + 0.5 75 to 85 StL

according to

packing

Cool-room + 6 to + 8 – StL

Egg mixture, frozen in tins – 18 – –

Egg powder ± 0 to + 1 below 75 ML

Game and Poultry

Game, frozen – 8 to – 10 85 to 90 ML

Poultry, fresh – 1 to + 0.5 85 to 90 ML

Freezing room – 30 to – 35 85 to 90 –

Store-room – 25 85 to 90 D

Chocolate, Biscuit and Sweet Factories

Store-room for chocolate + 4 to + 6 – –


Sundry

Artificial ice-rinks, atmosphere + 15

Artificial ice-rinks, ice – 5 – –

Mortuaries, freezing rooms – 10 to – 15 – –

Mortuaries, cold-room ± 0 to – 5 – –

2.Chemical and Other Industries Pharmacies (Chemists' Shops)

Store-rooms + 20 to + 27 30 to 35 –

Serum and vaccine storage – 6 to + 8 85 in glass tubes

Dye-works and large soaplaundries + 20 to + 24 65 to 75 –

Precision-engineering workshopsand measuring apparatus + 20 50 –

StL = Rapid air-change

M L = Moderate air-change

D = Dark

Cooling Conditions required in Industry and Trade (Contd.)


Film-Developing and Copying Businesses

Exposure + 22 to + 23 30 –

Developing and fixing + 22 to + 23 60 to 65 –

Copying rooms + 20 to + 22 50 to 55 –

Drying rooms + 24 to + 25 50 –

Rubber Factories

Fresh-water temperature forcooling of mills, calenders,kneading machines and sprayers + 2 to + 10 – –

Refrigeration of rubber blocks,brine-bath temperature – 15 to – 20 – –

Air-conditioning of work-rooms + 22 to + 24 50 to 70 –

Processing of rubber thread toproduce elastic textile articles + 20 55 –

Rubber-goods stores + 10 to + 14 65 –

Synthetic Fibre Works

(artificial wool and rayon factories)(Viscose process)

Preageing + 18 to + 25 – StK

Ageing + 12 to + 18 – ML


Sulphiding rooms + 20 to + 22 70 –

Rayon spinning + 20 80 to 90 –

Rayon twisting + 20 70 to 80 –

Cooling of Processing Machinery

and Equipment

Agitators and Mixers + 10 to + 16 – –

Stuff grinders + 20 to + 25 – –

Sulphiding drums + 20 to + 25 – –

Xanthate kneaders + 25 to + 30 – –

Paper Mills, Printing Works

Binding, sizing, cutting anddrying of paper – 15 to + 23 60 –

Printing shop – 15 to + 23 60 to 70 –

Lithographic shop – 15 to + 24 60 –

Store-rooms – 15 to + 20 35 to 40 –

*StL = Rapid air-change

StK = No-draught cooling

M L = Moderate air-change

D = Dark

Table 128 : Cooling Conditions required in Industry and Trade (Contd.)

Trade of Industry Temperature Relative Remarks

°C Humidity %

Scent and Perfume Works

Processing rooms Up to + 20 55 to 60 –

Raw-material stores Approx. + 10 – –

Bottling Approx. + 10 – –

Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Works

Work-rooms + 20 to + 22 65 –

Store-rooms + 16 to + 28 50 –

Soap Works

Work-rooms + 21 to + 23 65 to 70 –

Stores and basements + 15 to + 19 60 –

Despatch rooms + 20 to + 22 60 –


Tobacco Factories

Moistening rooms + 22 to + 24 92 to 93 –

Store-rooms + 18 to + 20 60 to 65 –

Unbaling rooms + 22 to + 24 80 –

Packing rooms + 20 to + 22 60 –

Textile Industry

Cotton, preparation + 20 to + 25 50 to 60 –

Cotton, spinning + 20 to + 25 60 to 70 –

Cotton, weaving + 20 to + 25 70 to 80 –

Wool, preparation + 20 to + 25 65 to 70 –

Wool, spinning + 20 to + 25 60 to 80 –

Wool, weaving + 20 to + 25 60 to 80 –

Silk, spinning + 22 to + 25 65 to 70 –

Silk, weaving + 22 to + 25 60 to 80 –

Matches

Work-rooms + 22 to + 23 50 –

Store-rooms –15 50 –

Table 129 : Storage Temperature and Relative Humidity for cold storage Goods

Temperature Relative Air-flow*)°C Humidity %

Fruit

Apples, depending on variety – 1 to + 3 90 to 95 M

Oranges ± 0 to + 2 85 M

Pineapples + 4 85 –

Apricots – 1 to + 1 85 M

Bananas + 11.5 85 M

Pears – 1 to + 2 90 to 95 M

Dates, Figs, fresh – 2 to + 0 75 –

Strawberries, Raspberries – 1 to + 1 90 M

Red currants ± 0 to + 1 90 M

Chestnuts + 1 85 to 90 –

Cherries ± 0 to + 1 85 to 90 M

Melons + 2 to + 7 80 to 85 –

Mirabelle plums ± 0 85 M

Nuts ± 0 to + 2 75 to 80 M

Grapefruit ± 0 to + 10 85 M


Peaches ± 0 85 to 90 M

Plums ± 0 to + 2 85 M

Cranberries + 2 to 4 90 M

Gooseberries ± 0 to + 1 85 to 90 M

Grapes – 0.5 to + 2 80 to 85 M

Lemons + 2 to + 5 80 to 85 M

Frozen fruit and fruit-juice – 18 to – 23 – –

Dried fruit – 1 to + 4 70 to 75 –

Vegetables

Artichokes ± 0 85 to 90 M

Cauliflowers ± 0 to + 2 85 to 90 M

Beans, green + 1 to + 7.5 85 to 90 M

Beans, dried + 0.7 70 –

Peas, green ± 0 80 to 90 –

Peas, dried + 0.5 75 –

Vegetables (contd.) Temperature Relative Air-flow*)°C Humidity %

Mushrooms, fresh ± 0 to + 2 80 to 85 MD

Cucumbers + 2 to + 7 75 to 85 –

Carrots + 0 to + 1 80 to 95 –

Potatoes ± 3 to + 6 85 to 90 M

Cabbage ± 0 to + 1 85 to 90 M

Olives, fresh + 7 to + 10 85 to 90 M

Radishes ± 0 to + 1 85 to 90 –

Rhubarb ± 0 to + 1 85 to 90 M

Salad (lettuce) ± 0 to + 1 85 to 90 –

Pickled cabbage + 3 – –

Celery ± 0 to –0.5 95 to 98 –

Asparagus ± 0 to + 2 85 to 90 –

Spinach ± 0 to + 1 90 –

Tomatoes, green + 10 to + 20 85 to 90 M

Tomatoes, ripe + 1 to + 5 80 to 90 M

Onions +1.5 80 St

Tinned vegetables + 2 to + 4 70 to 75 –

Frozen vegetables – 18 to – 24 – –

Sundry Goods

Cereals + 7 – –


Honey + 1 75 –

Rice +1.5 65 –

Wine + 10 85 –

Spirits + 3 – –

Tobacco (bales) + 1 75 –

Tabacco Plants + 1 85 –

Cut flowers + 2 – –

Seeds – 2 to – 10 70 –

Furs + 2 to – 2 90 –

Woollen goods + 2 to + 5 80 –

Hides + 1 to + 2 95 –

Blood – 3.9 75 –

*St = Strong air–flow

M = Moderate air–flow

D = Dark

Source : Rules for Refrigeration machines 5th edn. 1958.

Table 130 : Cooling MediaCalcium Chloride Solution (C aCl2)

Baume Density CaCl2 CaCl2 Begins Spec.Heat Dynamic°Bé kg/l content, content, to ± 0 °C Viscosity

15 °C kg/100 kg kg/100 l freeze kcal/kg at 0°Csolution water °C deg C η.104

kg.s/m2

0.1 1.00 0.1 0.1 0.0 1.003 1.81

3.0 1.02 2.5 2.6 – 1.2 0.968 1.87

7.0 1.05 5.9 6.3 – 3.0 0.915 2.02

12.0 1.09 10.5 11.7 – 6.1 0.851 2.27

13.2 1.10 11.5 13.0 – 7.1 0.836 2.34

14.4 1.11 12.6 14.4 – 8.1 0.822 2.43

16.7 1.13 14.7 15.9 – 10.2 0.795 2.61

20.0 1.16 17.8 21.7 – 14.2 0.758 2.93

22.1 1.18 19.9 24.9 – 17.4 0.737 3.18

24.1 1.20 21.9 28.0 – 21.2 0.717 3.51

26.1 1.22 23.8 31.2 – 25.7 0.700 3.89

28.0 1.24 25.7 34.6 – 31.2 0.685 4.34

29.8 1.26 27.5 37.9 – 38.6 0.671 4.90

32.3* 1.286 29.9 42.7 – 55.0 0.654 5.80


33.4 1.30 31.2 45.4 – 41.6 0.645 6.46

35.1 1.32 33.0 49.3 – 27.1 0.633 7.53

36.7 1.34 34.7 53.2 – 15.6 0.621 8.82

39.1 1.37 37.3 59.5 0.0 0.604 11.13

Table 131 : Sodium Chloride Solution (N aCl)

Bé Density NaCl NaCl Begins Spec.Heat Dynamickg/l content, content, to at ± 0 °C Viscosity15 °C kg/100 kg kg/100 l freeze kcal/kg at 0 °C

solution water °C deg C η.104

kg.s/m2

0.1 1.00 0.1 0.1 0.0 1.001 1.80

3.0 1.02 2.9 3.0 – 1.8 0.956 1.84

7.0 1.05 7.0 7.5 – 4.4 0.914 1.91

12.0 1.09 12.3 14.0 – 8.6 0.867 2.12

13.2 1.10 13.6 15.7 – 9.8 0.857 2.19

14.4 1.11 13.9 17.5 – 11.0 0.848 2.28

15.6 1.12 16.2 19.3 – 12.2 0.839 2.37

16.7 1.13 17.5 21.2 – 13.6 0.830 2.48

17.8 1.14 18.8 23.1 – 15.1 0.822 2.61

18.9 1.15 20.0 25.0 – 16.6 0.814 2.74

20.0 1.16 21.2 26.9 – 18.2 0.806 2.88

21.6*) 1.175 23.1 30.3 – 21.2 0.794 3.10

22.1 1.18 23.7 31.3 – 17.2 0.791 3.20

23.1 1.19 24.9 33.1 – 9.5 0.784 3.36

24.4 1.203 26.3 35.7 0.0 0.776 3.57

*Eutectic

From: Rules for Refrigeration Machines, 5th Edition, 1958.

Table 132Cooling Media

Ethylene Glykol Solutions

Density Glykol Begins Specific Heat Dynamic Viscositykg/l at content to at η.104 kg.s/m2 at15°C kg glycol/ freeze ± 0 °C – 10 °C O°C – 10°C

100 kg °C kcal/kg deg Csolution

1.005 4.6 – 2 0.98 – 2.0 –

1.010 8.4 – 4 0.97 – 2.3 –

1.015 12.2 – 5 0.95 – 2.6 –


1.020 16.0 – 7 0.93 – 2.9 –

1.025 19.8 – 10 0.92 – 3.2 –

1.030 23.6 – 13 0.90 0.90 3.6 5.2

1.035 27.4 – 15 0.89 0.88 4.0 5.8

1.040 31.2 – 17 0.87 0.87 4.5 6.8

1.045 35.0 – 21 0.85 0.85 5.0 7.8

1.050 38.8 – 26 0.84 0.83 5.7 8.8

1.055 42.6 – 29 0.82 0.81 6.3 9.8

1.060 46.4 – 33 0.80 0.79 7.0 11.0

Table 133 : Methylene Chloride (CH 2Cl2)*

Density Temperature Specific Heat Dynamic Viscositykg/l t °C kcal/kg deg C η.104 kg.s/m2

1.340 10 0.276 0.49

1.360 0 0.275 0.54

1.395 – 20 0.273 0.66

1.430 – 40 0.272 0.88

1.470 – 60 0.270 1.24

1.525 – 90 0.268 2.25

From: Rules for Refrigeration Machines, 5th Edition, 1958.

*Source : DKV Work Sheet 1–48, Refrigeration 15 (1963) No. 5.

Table 134 : Typical parameters of a 15MW Gas turbine (NG fired) generating setwith waste heat boiler (As per ISO condition)

Rated output of generator : 19.2 MW 15 MW 10 MW

Heat rate, kcal/KWH : 3350 3570 4140

Thermal efficiency, % : 25.7 24.0 20.8

Fuel consumption (NG) NM3/hr: 7200 5950 4600

(Ncv = 9001 kcal/NM3)

Steam Prodn :

(a) Without auxiliaryfixing in boiler, MT/hr 42.6 34 20

(b) with auxiliaryfiring, MT/hr: 48 48 48

Steam Press :

Steam Press at condition, a 48 48 48kg/cm2 a

– do – at condition, b 48 48 48kg/cm2a

(a) Steam temperature at conditiona, °C 380 ± 5 380 ± 5 380 ± 5


(b) Steam temperature at conditionb, °C 380 ± 5 380 ± 5 380 ± 5

N.G. Consumption rate

with auxiliary firing

in boiler, NM3/hr. 400 950 1920

Utilities requirement for G T G :

Cooling water = 80 M3/hr

Cooling water temp = 33°C

Instrument air 7 kg/cm2g, amb = 150 NM3/hr.

Table 135 : Critical humidity of fertilisers at 20°C.

% R.H

Urea = 80

C A N = –

Ammon. Sulphate = 81

M A P = 91.7

Ca. nitrate = 55.4

Pot. nitrate = 92.1

Ammon. Nitrate = 66.9

D A P =

S S P = usually < 75%

T S P =

Ammon. chloride = 79.3

N P K = < 75%

Nitrophosphate = < 75%

N.B. Critical humidity or hygroscopic point of fertilisers is defined as relative atmospheric humiditybelow which it will remain dry at a given temp and above which it will absorb moistre fromatmosphere at the same temp.

Table 136 : Spec. of Grade B liq. ammonia

Anhydrous ammonia = 99.5 % wt min.

Moisture = 0.5 % wt max.

Nitrogen = 81.9% wt min.

Oil = 10 ppm max.

Table 137 : Urea Prills (uncoated) spec. as per Fertiliser control order 1969–70.(G O I notification May 71)

Moisture = 1.0% (max) – wt.Biuret = 1.5% (max)Total nitrogen = 46% (min)IS Sieve analysis = – 200 + 100 mesh = 80% (min)

N.B. IS std : IS 5406 – 1969


Table 138 : Tech. grade urea specification IS 1781–1971

Moisture = 0.5% (max) – wt

Total nitrogen = 46% (min)

Biuret = 0.8% (max)

Free ammonia = 100 ppm

Residue on ignition = 0.002%(ash)

Iron as Fe = 0.0002%

pH of 10% soln = 7 – 9.5

Alkalinity value = 2.0

*Buffer value = 4.0

M. P = 130 – 132°C

*No firm value and is subject to agreement between purchaser and seller.

Table 139 : Usual specification of Fertiliser Grade urea prills (uncoated) andTech grade urea

F. Grade Tech, Grade

Total nitrogen 46.3% (min.) wt 46.4% wt

Moisture 0.3% 0.3%

Biuret 0.3% 0.2%

Free ammonia 100 ppm (max) 20

Iron 1 ppm (max) 1

Ash 20 ppm 10

Prill size 90% between –

1 – 2.4mm

Table 140 : Temp limits of nonmetal parts in phosphoric acid manufacture

Temp°F

Teflon = 500

PVC = 140

Polyethlene = 120

Saron = 150

Karbate = Boiling H3PO4

Soft rubber = 150

Hard rubber = 160and

Butyl rubber = 160Hary 41 = 250Pentan = 250C/graphite = 500Duncon = 200


Table 141 : Conversion factors for Fertilisers

Nutrient Multiply by Type of fertilisers

1 kg Nitrogen 4.854 Ammon. Sulphate

2.222 Urea

4.0 Ammon. Chloride

3.03 Ammon. Nitrate

1 kg P2O5 6.25 S S P

– T S P

2.857 Di–Calcium Phosphate

5 – O Bone meal (raw)

1 kg K2O 1.666 Muriate of Potash

2.0 Potassium Sulphate

Table 142 : Typical analysis of single super phosphate

Water = 5.3% water of constitution,

2.61% water of crystallisation,

11% Hygroscopic water.

P2O5, water soluble = 18% of which 6% is present as free acid corresponding to 8.30% H3PO4.

P2O5, ammon. citrate = 0.40%

soluble

P2O5, insoluble = 0.46%

CaO = 26.6%

SO3 = 31.30%

A12O3 = 0.25%

Fe2O3 = 0.48%

F = 1.10%

SiO2 = 1.25%

MgO = 0.14

N.B. A high rate of water solubility to total P2O5 of the fertiliser is associated with high proportionof free acid in the product.

Table – 143 : Analysis of rock phosphate

Phosphorous 32.24% wt.

Iron 0.11

Alumina 0.28

CO2 4.35

Chloride (as C1–) 0.07

Flouride (as F–) 3.85

Silica 4.15

Calcium (as CaO) 50.97


SO3 1.35

Sodium (as Na2O) 0.48

Potassium (as K2O) 0.40%

Colour off white.

N.B. 1. Rock Phosphate composition varies according to country or origin (Israel, Morocco,Jordon, Egypt, U. S. A. and Rajasthan (India)

2. The analysis given above is for Israel R. P.

Table 144 : Nitrogen soln appln for Fertiliser use

Ammonia slon. = 30% wt NH3.

Water = 70%

Total nitrogen = 24.6%

Sp. Gravity = 0.895

V.P at 40°C = 11 PSIG.

N.B. Anhydrous liquid ammonia purity = 99.9% wt

and oil = 5 – 10 ppm.

Table 145 : N G consumptions in 600te/day Ammonia and 1167 te/dayUrea plant complex, India.

Ammonia Plant NG feed NG fuel other

Reformer 516 NM3/te 515 NM3/te –

Import Steam – – 0.58/te

40 ata 385°C)

Power(incl. C. T) 192 Kwh/teAuxiliary boiler 66 NM3/te

(105 ata, 505°C)

Urea Plant

NG Ammonia @ for ammonia, 0.6 te/te 633 NM3/te

Steam, 1.66 te/te 46 NM3/te (steam)

Power = 98 kwh/te (excl.C.T) 87 NM3/te

766 NM3/te

Steam @ 1.66 te/te

40 ata, 385°C urea steam

Captive Power

NG 469 NM3/Mwh

N.B. NCV for NG feed = 10624 Kcal/ NM3 and Fuel = 9600 NM3/te


Table 146 : ENERGY PROFILE IN AMMONIA PLANTPlant, size 48.6849 MMSCFD (H 2+CO)

ENERGY REOUIREMENT MKCAL/MT

Feed stock NG 5.47

(N. C. V. = 10303.66 Kcal/Nm3)

Fuel NG 4.77

(N. C. V. = 9440.32 Kcal/Nm3)

P. G. As Fuel 0.162

(Credit).

TOTAL 10.24

ENERGY BALANCE

Product Ammonia = 4.568*

Stack Losses = 0.578

Colling water = 4.853

Export steam = NIL

Wall Losses = 0.241

TOTAL = 10.24

*Theoritical requirement = 4.46 MKcal/MT

Table 147 : Other Flocculating agents

Silica soln, 0.5% SiO2

Bentonite

Kieselghur

Certain clay

Precipitated CaCO3

Activated Carbon Powder

Alginates

Acrylic Polymer – solid or liq. – 1%

Table 148 : V iscosity and film thickness of inks

Printing Process Printing ink viscosity Printing film thickness(Poise) in micron

Lithography 50 – 500 1 – 2

Letter Process 20 – 2000 3 – 5

Flexography 0.1 – 1 6 – 8

Rotogravure 0.1 – 0.5 8 – 12

Letter set 30 – 3000 1.5 – 3

Screen 1 – 100 26 – 100

N.B. Higher viscosity inks are solid paste types.


Table 149 : Mud chemicals for oil exploration

1. Chrome lignite

2. Lignosulphonate

3. Resinated Lignite

4. Causticised Lignite

5. Sulphonated ashphalt

6. Carboxymethyl Cellulose

7. Diasclal M

8. Extreme Press. Lubricant.

9. Pregelatinised starch

10. Spooling fluid.

Table 150 : Auto ignition Temp of fuels and gases (°C)

Petrol (regular) = 257 H2 = 557.22

Petrol (92 octane) = 390 H2S = 260

Kerosine = 229 Co = 664.44

Diesel Oil = 256 NH3 = 651

Coal gas = 598 Methanol = 463.88

Naptha = 260 Acetylene = 299.44

Lube oil = 377 Sulphur = 232.22

Heavy Fuel Oil = 407 Acetone = 537.77

Benzene = 581 Ethylene = 490

Table 151 : Plant air safety standardsT L V or Maxm. permissible conc.

of gases and vapours in air.

Gas T L V (ppm)

CO 50

H2S 10

NH3 50

CO2 5000

SO2 5

NO2 50

C12 1

Chloroform 50

Pyridine 10

Toluene 200

Benzene and other Aromatic hydrocarbons 25

CS2 20

HCL 5


HNO3 10

N2 3

HF 0.1

H3PO4 200

Methanol 2

Xylene 435 mg/NM3

CCL4 10

Trimethylene benzene 120 mg/NM3

Note: 1. T L V in wt. ratio and for 8 hrs exposure limit.

2. Silica dust T L V = 5 million particles/cft.

3. TLV–abbreviated form, stand for threshhold limit value.

4. Methanol ingestion as low as 28–57 gm can cause death. Blindness is incurred fromsmaller Quantity. It is absorbed through skin also.

Table 152

Preservatives concentration in processed foods

Preservative Conc in ppm

Benzoic acid and its salt (benzoate) 500 – 1000

Sulphur dioxide and sulphites 200 – 2000

Sorbic acid and sorbates 500 – 2000

Lactic acid 5000 – 30,000

4 hydroxy benzoic acid esters 500 – 1000

Thio bendazole 10 – 12

Acetic acid and acetates 200 – 600

CO2 2000 – 3000

Nitrites

Nitrates 50 – 100

Formic acid and formatas 3 – 6

N.B. 1. Concentration varies depending on type of processed foods.

2. Flavouring agent, MSG (mono sodium gluconate) in ppm range also used for processedfoods.

Table 153 : Com position of molasses

Sugar = 85.50%

Moistre = 13.37

Ash = 0.66 (Sulphated ash = 14 – 15%)

Total reducing sugar as

invert sugar = 45.5%


Table 153 A : Analysis of Lime

CaO = 81.60% wt

MgO = 2.7

SiO2 = 4.36

L O I = 10.67

Available Ca(OH)2 = 85 – 86.5%

Acid insolubles = 2.4%

MgO = 1 – 2%

Table 154 : Smoke, flash and fire points of refined vegetable oils.

FFA Smoke Point Flash Point Fire Point % °C °C °C

Coconut oil 0.20 194 288 329

Soyabin oil 0.039 214 316 343

Rape seed oil 0.08 217 317 344

Table 155 : Empirical physical data for vegetable oils

(i) d25 = density of oil = 0.8475 + 0.0003 × Sap. value + 0.00014 × Iodine value

(ii) Thermal conductivity of oil, W m–l k–1 = 0.181 – 0.00025 t (where t = °C)

(iii) Refractive index ND40 = 1.4643 – 0.00066 × Sap. Value

0.00066 × acid value

–Sap. value

(iv) Dielectric constant of all veg. oils = 3 – 3.2 at 25 – 30°C These oils have poor conductanceof electricity.

(v) Heat of combustion (J/gm) = 47645 – 4.1868 × Iodine value

– 38.31 × Sap. value.

Table 156 : Fatty acid conc. in oils, fats and milk

% saturated % unsaturatedBuffalo milk 63.56 (wt) 36.4(wt)

Cow milk 59.5 40.5Coconut oil 90 10Rape seed oil 11.4 88.6Groundnut oil 10.9 79.1Cottonseed oil 29.3 70.7Sunflower oil 6 94Soyabin oil 13.9 86.1Hydrogenated oil 95 5Rice Bran oil 11 89Tisi oil 10 90Kusum oil 7.8 92


Table 157

2. Types of milk

(i) Toned milk – combination of animal milk, soya or ground nut protein and homogenised.Double toned milk contains more water.

(ii) Filled milk – It is a combination of skim milk, butter oil and whey and homogenised.

(iii) Synthetic milk – Made from Soyabean products, homogenised.

(iv) Whole milk – Carbohydrate = 38.9

Fats = 27.8

Protein = 27.8 Expressed in gm/100gm dry matter

Ash = 5.6

Calcium = 936

Phosphorous = 738 Expressed in mg/100gm dry matter

Sodium = 396

Potassium = 1360 µgm.

Total solids = 12.6 gm/100gm dry matter

Table 158 : Vegetable oil specification

Sap. Value Iodine Value NSM Solidifying Refractive% Temp °C index ND40

Sun flower oil 188–194 125–144 0.4 – 1.4 –16 1.466–1.468

Sesame oil 187–193 136–138 0.9 – 2.3 –6– (–3) –

Linseed oil 188–196 170–204 1.5 10 – 21 1.475 – 1.48

Safflower oil 180–194 136–152 0.3 – 2 –13– (–)25 1.467–1.469

Soyabin oil 188–195 120–136 0.5–1.5 (–) 15 – 8 1.465–1.469

Ground nut oil 184–191 89–105 0

Rice bran oil 183–194 92–109 3.5 – 5.0 –10 1.466–1.469

Note. NSM – Non-saponifiable matter.

Table 159 : Physical Data of common Plastics

PVC LDPE HDPE PP PP(with 20%

talcum reinforced)

Density, gm/cc 0.56 0.92 0.954 1.04 0.908M.P. °CThermal conductivity,w/m°K 0.16 0.35 0.50 0.44 0.22Vicat soft. temperature 70–90 <40 75–70 105 105–100°C, B/50Melt flow rate – 0.1–22 0.4–8 2.3 3.2gm/10 min, 190/2Thermal expansion 7.8×10–5 2.5×10–4 2×10–4 1.10×10–4 1.6×10–4

(20–80°C), co-eff. K


Tensile strength 70–110 8–10 20–30 38–42 40–60at 23°C, N/mm2

Elongation, % – 20 12 – 12

Flexural strength

Hardness, Ball – 15 50 80–85 75–85indexation (30 secs)N/mm2

Table 160 : Den sity of Plastics (gm/cc) Pelletised/amorphous

Polypropylene = 0.90 – 0.91LDPE = 0.92HDPE = 0.95 – 0.96Polystyrene = 1.05 – 1.06P V C = 1.31 – 1.38P E T = 1.37 – 1.38Urea Formaldehyde = 1.5 – 1.6Methyl Methacrylate (MMA) = 1.18Poly acrylonitnile (PAN) = 1.17 – 1.20Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) =Acetyl Polycarbonate (APC) =A B S rubber = 1.05S B R rubber = –Polybutadiene = –P V A = 1.10 – 1.14Polyamide (Nylon–6) = 1.13Polyamide (Nylon–66) = 1.14Melamine formaldehyde = 1.45 – 1.55Phenol formaldehyde = 1.32 – 1.36Polyesters (Terene, Dacron) = 1.54 – 1.60P U R = 1.11 – 1.25Poly Acetals = 1.41Celluloid (Cellulose nitrate) = 1.38Epoxy resin = 1.11 – 1.4Silicones (asbestos filled) = 1.6 – 1.9P T F E = 2.2.Phenol Formaldehyde withwood flour filler = 1.4Phenol Formaldehyde withmineral filler = 1.9Poly Carbonate = 1.2Poly Styrene copol withbutadiene = 1.04PMM copol with acrylonitrile = 1.4PP with 20% talcum powder = 1.04


Table 161 : Specific heat and Thermal conductivity of Plastics (Polymers)

Plastics Specific heat Thermal conductivityat 20°CKJ/Kg°K W/m°K

Polypropylene (PP) 1.7 0.22

Polypropylene (20% talcum) 1.04 0.44

L D P E 2.1 0.32

H D P E 1.8 0.40

Polystyrene 1.3 0.16

P V C – 0.16

P E T – –

Melamine formaldehyde (MF) 1.2 –

Urea formaldehyde (UF) – –

Methyl methacrylate (MMA) 1.5 0.18

Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) – –

Poly acrylonitrile (PAN) – –

Acetyl Polycarbonate (APC) – –

A B S rubber 1.5 0.18

S B R rubber – –Polybutadiene – –P V A – –P T F E 1.0 0.23Nylon – 6 (Polyamide) 1.7 0.29Nylon – 66 (Polyamide) 1.7 0.23Polyesters 1.2 0.6P U R – –Poly acetates 1.4 0.3Celluloid – –Epoxy resin – –Silicone resin – –

Phenol formaldehyde – –

Phenol formaldehyde with 1.3 0.35wood flour

Phenol formaldehyde with 1.0 0.70mineral filterPoly carbonate 1.2 0.21PS with copoly butadiene 1.3 0.18PMM copoly with acrylontrile – –Urea formaldehyde with cellulosefiller 1.3 0.36

Polyninyl alcohol – –


Table 162 : Burning Characteristics of Thermo Plastics

Plastics Mode of burning Burning ratecm/min

Polyethylene melts, drips 0.8 – 3.0

Polypropylene melts, drips 1.8 – 4

P V C Difficult to ignite Self extinguishingWhite smoke

A B S Burns 2.5 – 5.0

S A N Melts and chars 1 – 4.0

P S Softens, bubbles 1.3 – 6.3with black smoke

Acrylic Plastic Burns and drips 1.4 – 4.0

Nylons Burns and drips Self extinguishingand frothing

Cellulose acetate Burns and drips 0.8 – 4.3butyrate

Cellulose acetate Burns with yellow 1.3 – 7.6flame.

Acetal burns with bluish flame 1.3 – 2.8Poly butylene burns 2.5

N.B. 1. Test methods as per ASTM D – 635 – 77

2. Flame retardant thermoplastics, during moulding stage, flame retardant chemicals areadded to the charge. For LDPE, the charge is made up of 90.5% LDPE, 6% chlorinated(70% Cl2) Paraffin and 3.5% antiomony trioxide, For Polypropylene charge formulation is94.5% pp, 3.5% Bis –dibromo Propylether of tetra bromobisphenol A and 2% antimonytrioxide. Different thermo–plastics have different charge formulation.

Table 163 : Glass transition and melting temps of thermoplastics

Thermoplastics Tg°C Tm°C

H D P E –115°C 137

Polystyrene (PS) 100 240

PVC 81 212

Nylon 6 53 265

Polyester 69 265

Natural rubber – 73 28

(Polyisoprene)

P T F E 45 220

Poly propylene 65 170

N.B. 1. Tg (glass transition temp) – Lower temp limit for rubber

Tm (melting transition temp – upper temp limit for amorphors plastics viz PMMA or PS)


2. Between Tg and Tm semicrystalline Polymers tend to behave as a strong leathery materials.

3. Glass transition temp. of a material is the ability of the material to crystalize and if soit is the crystalite m.p. In case of an amorphous polymer, GTT will define whether thematerial is glasslike or rubber at a given temp A regular molecular structure means thematerial is likely to crystalize.

Table 164 : Process for Ethylene manufacture

Ethylene is usually made from petro Naphtha by steam cracking : Naphtha + steam Heat

500 600 C− °steam cracking at 750–875 °C in cracking furnace having radiant type coils.

Formationof cracked gases ethylene, Benzene, Toluene, cyclohexane, cyclo

pentane etc Cooling

of cracked gases exit cracking furnace separation of individual products.

Process parameters – The cracking reactions are highly endothermic and naphtha/steam ratio incracking furnace is 0.40–0.75.

CH

ratio for Ethane = 0.25 – 0.6

CH

ratio for Propane = 0.30 – 0.6

CH

ratio for gas oils = 0.60 – 1.10

Heats of formation in cracking reactions

H2 = 0

CH4 = –5646.3 Kj/Kg

C2H6 = –348.1

C2H4 = 1345.3

C2H2 = 8540.7

Table 165 : Physical Propertices of some plastics

Phenol Melamine Epoxy glassFormaldehyde Formaldehyde film filled

Sp. gravity, gm/cc 1.37 – 1.46 1.47 – 1.52 1.6 – 2.00

Sp. heat 0.35 – 0.4 0.4 0.19

Tensile strength PSI × 10–3 5 – 9 5 – 13 5 – 26

Compressive strength 25 – 31 33 – 40 18 – 40PSI × 10–3

Flexural yield strength PSI × 10–3 7 – 14 9 – 16 8 – 30

Dielectric strength KV/in 200 – 400 270 – 300 300 – 400

Solvent at room temp none none none


Table 166 : Data on c ombustible gases, fuels and organic chemicals

Item Approx. Flash Limits of inflammabilityIgnition point by Volume %temp °C °C lower upper

1 2 3 4 5

Paraffin hydrocarbons

Methane 632 Gas 5 15

Ethane 42 Gas 3.22 12.45

Propane 481 Gas 2.37 10.10

n-Butane 543 Gas 1.86 8.41

Isobutane Gas 1.80 8.44

n-Pentane 275 –40 1.40 7.80

n-Hexane 284 1.25 6.90

n-Heptane 233 –4 1.0 6.0

Octane 230 13 0.84 3.20

Olefines

Ethylene 490 Gas 2.75 28.60

Propylene 458 Gas 2.0 11.10

Butadiene 429 – 2.0 11.5

Butylene 1.98 9.65

Acetylene 305 Gas 2.50 80.0

Gases

Carbon monoxide – Gas 12.5 74.2

Hydrogen – Gas 4.0 74.2

BF gas – Gas 35 73.5

Coal gas – Gas 5.3 33

Natural gas – Gas 4.3 13.5 – 15

Oil gas – Gas 4.75 32.5

Producer gas – Gas 20.70 73.7

Water gas – Gas 6.0 70.0

Ammonia 651 Gas 15.5 26.60

H2S 292 –11 4.3 45.5

Petroleum Products

Kerosine 255 46 – 64 1.40 7.5

Gasoline regular 280 –7 1.50 7.6

White oil 40

Diesel oil 390 54 – 64 1.10 6.0

Source : Perry’s Hand book 3rd edn.


1 2 3 4 5

Naphtha 232 – 277 38 – 43

Fuel oil 66 – 74

Residual fuel oil 115

Organic Chemicals

Benzene 580 –11 1.35 6.75

Toluene 552 4 1.27 6.75

O-xylene 496 17 1.0 6.0

Stryene 490 30 1.10 6.10

m-xylene –

p-xylene

Naphthalene 55.9 80 0.90 –

Anthracene 422 –18 63 –

Acetone 561 – 2.55 12.80

Methanol – 11 6.72 36.5

Ethanol – 13–21 3.28 18.35

Example : Calculate the lower limit of inflammability of natural gas of composition.

CH4 = 92% (vol)

C2H6 = 5.5%

C3H8 = 2.5%

Formula : n1/N1 + n2/N2 + n3/N3 +... = 1 ...(1)

Where, n = percentage volume (or mole) of each constituent in gas. N = Lower/higher limites ofinflammability for each constituent as pure constituent vol% or mole%. 1, 2, 3 .... Subscript is foreach constituent.

Let x = Lower limit of inflammability of the mixture

Now, x92/5 + x5.5/3.22 + x2.50/2.37 .... = 1.

or, 18.4x + 1.71x + 1.05x = 1

x = 1

21.16 × 100 = 4.72% (vol).

Note : Higher pressure of mixture of gases increases the higher limit of imflammability. At lowerlimit gases burn with explosive violence and at higher limit gases burn in long flame.

Table 167 : Colour-Change Temperatures of Heat-Sensitive Dyes(Thermocolours) and Heat–Sensitive Pencils (Thermochromes)

Thermocolours ThermochromesDye Colour-change At Pencil Colour-change At

No. From To °C No. From To °C

1 Pink Blue 40 2815/65 Light pink Blue 65

2 Light geen Blue 60 2815/75 Light pink Light blue 75


3 Yellow Violet 110 2815/100 Pink Ultramarine 100

4 Purple Blue 140 2815/120 Light grey Light blue 120green

5 White Brown 175

6 Green Brown 220 2815/150 Light green Violet 150

7 Yellow Red– 290 2815/200 Blue Black 200brown

8 White Brown 340 2815/260 Dark green Black 260

9 Violet White 440 2815/300 Green Olive 300

10 Pink White 500 2815/350 Brown Orange 350

(via brown) 2815/450 Pink Black 450

11 Blue Violet 580 2815/510 Light Yellow 510yellow orange

12 Olive Light 650 2815/600 Dark blue White 600green green

Manufacturers : Thermocolours – BASF Germany

Thermochromes – A. W. Faber, Germany

Source : Borsig pocket book 3rd edn 1970

Table 168 : A verage Melting Temperatures of Seger Cones and temper coloursof Steel

Cone Melting Temper Cone Melting Temper Cone Melting TemperNo. Temp. °C Colour No. Temp. °C Colour No. Temp. °C Colour

022 600 Red 02 a 1060 19 1520

021 650 heat 01 a 1080 20 1530

020 670 commen- 1 a 1100 26 1580

019 690 ces 2 a 1120 Light 27 1610

3 a 1140 yellow 28 1630

4 a 1160 29 1650

5 a 1180 30 1670

018 710 31 1690

017 730 Dark red 32 1710 Full

016 750 33 1730 white

6 a 1200 34 1750 heat

015 a 790 Dark 7 1230 35 1770

014 a 815 cherry- 8 1250 Yellow/ 36 1790

013 a 835 red 9 1280 White 37 1825

10 1300 38 1850

39 1880

40 1920

012 a 855 Cherry-red 41 1960


011 a 880 Cherry 42 2000

red 11 1320

12 1350

010 a 900 Light 13 1380

09 a 920 cherry- 14 1410 White-

08 a 940 red 15 1435 hot

16 1460

17 1480

07 a 960

06 a 980

05 a 1000 Yellow

04 a 1020 18 1500

03 a 1040

Source : Borsig pocket book 3rd edn 1970

Table 169 : Typical specification of domestic L P G burner

Big burner Small burner

Heat out put 1740 kcal/hr 1340 kcal/hr

Gas flow 151 gm/hr 117 gm/hr

Cylinder Pressure 10 kg/cm2g

Pressure at burner after regulator 0.03 kg/cm2g.

Burner to conform ISI standard 4246

LPG heating value = 11523 kcal/ kg.

Table 170 : Some pigments used in paint industry

White pigment – TiO2, ZnO

Black pigment – Carbon black, lamp black

Red pigment – Red iron oxide, azo red, oxy naphthonic acid,naphthol red etc.

Violet pigment – Carbazole, molybdate violet

Blue pigment – Prussion blue, chinese blue

Yellow pigment – Yellow iron oxide, chrome yellow, cadmiumyellow, hansa yellow and benzedine yellow.

Orange pigment – Chrome orange, benzedine orange, dinitroaniline orange.

Green pigment – Chrome green, thalocyanine green, pigmentgreen B.

Brown pigment – brown oxide, Van duke brown.

Metallic pigment – Aluminium powder (leafing and non leafingtype)

N.B. Pigments can be opaque, transparent and special purpose.


Table 171 : Ingradients in synthetic detergents

It is a mixture of several ingredients as stated below:

1. Surfactants Syn. soap (anionic) viz Linear alkyl benzene sulphonate

2. Builders – Sodium silicate/Sod. carbonate.

3. Bleaching agents – Sod. perborate/organic peroxyacid salts with bleaching activator andcatalysts stabilisers. Photo bleachers (zinc or Al pthalocyanine tetra sulphonate) is oftenused in expensive detergents.

4. Auxiliary agents –

(a) Enzymes – proteolytic enzymes for stain removal.

(b) Foam boosters – fatty acids amides (Calcium binding agent)

(c) Filters – Sod. sulphate.

(d) Whitening agents

(e) Fragnances.

Total Composition–Syn. detergent = 20%, Sod. tripolyphosphate = 30%, Sod. perborate = 10%, Silicates= 10% (corrosion inhibitor), Sod. carboxymethyl cellulose = 2%, auxiliary agents = 1%,Sod. sulphate = 15% (inert filler) and water = 12%.

Table 172 : Liq. soap for hand wash (IS – 4199)

Sod dodecylbenzene sulphonate = 15%

Water = 84

Water soluble blue colouring = 1% or as reqd.

agent (food grade)

Perfume (Rose or Lavender) = as reqd.

Table 173 : Specification of Hard Al sheets for Raschig Rings(BS – 1470 – 318)

Aluminium = 99.5% wt (min.)

Cu = 0.05 (max)

Si + Fe = 0.5 (max)

Tensile strength is 13 kg/mm2 (min)

Table 174 : Porcelain Raschig Rings specification

Compressive strength = 2500 kg/cm2 (min)

Tensile strength = 300 kg/cm2 (min)

Bending strength = 300 kg/cm2 (min)

Torsional strength = 300 kg/cm2 (min)

Modulus of elasticity = 65 104 kg/cm2 (min)

Hardness = 7 – 8 (Moh's scale)

Sp. gravity = 2.3

Sp. heat = 0.23

absorption = 0.4% (maxm)


Table 175 : Porcelain R/R composition

SiO2 = 76.3% wt

Al2O3 = 16.98

Fe2O3 = 0.88

CaO = 0.18

MgO = 0.22

Na2O3 = 1.4

Pot. oxide = 3.04

TiO2 = 0.32

Ignition loss = 0.2

Table 176 : Specification of H. P. Steam turbine condensate

Conductivity, µs/cm at 20°C for – 0.3boiler circulating water

Conductivity, µs/cm at 20°C for – 0.2boiler circulating waterfor once through boiler

Silica, mg/kg – 0.02

Total Fe, mg/kg – 0.02

Copper, mg/kg – 0.003

Sodium + Potassium, mg/kg – 0.01

Source : VGP (1962)

Table 177 : Latent heats of substances at B. P at atmospheric pressure

B. P, °C Latent heat, kcal/kg

H2O 100 538

HCl –84.3 99

SO2 –10.1 95

NH3 –33.4 327

HNO3 86 115

CO2 –56.6 81

CS2 46.3 84

CH3OH 64.7 263

Acetic acid 11.3 96.6

C2H5OH 78.3 204

Acetone 56.1 125

Aniline 183 104

Naphthalene 218 75.5


Table 178 : Analysis of Vermiculite

MgO = 24 – 28 %

Al2O3 = 11 – 19

SiO2 = 36 – 44

Fe2O3 = 4 – 8

Alkalies = 5

N.B. Asbestos for steam pipe insulation is hydrated magnesium silicate.

Table 179 : Composition of solid, liquid and gaseous Fuels

Solid Fuels Net Ash Water Volatile CO2Calorific Matter max.

Valuekcal/kg % % % %

Coffee husks 3300 2 15 70

Cocoa shells 2600–3900 7–24 7–9 60–65

Coconut shells 3500–4500 2–3 10–15 60–70

Tannin bark (pressed) 1200–1550 1.5–4 55–60 28–36

Fruit refuse

Olive refuse 4300 4.4 11.4

Oil-cake 3900–4200 5–10 7–10

Oil-shale 2550 45–50 1–15 30–40

Petroleum coke 8100 1.5 2.0 7.1

Coal-tar pitch (as binder) 8500 0.2–0.5 0 55–65

Peat, fresh ≈170 0–5 85–90 60–72 19.9

air-dry 2600–3000 1–2 37–45 38–40 19.15

compressed 3600–4300 3–12 14–17 50–60 19.8

N.B. Peat refers to decomposed vegetable.

Liquid and Gaseous Fuels

Liquid Fuels ρ at Composition % Net CO2 Viscosity15°C cal. value max. °Engler

kg/dm3 kcal/kg % at/°CC H2 O2 S

Gas oil 0.85 86.64 12.88 0.22 0.26 9994 15.5 2.6/20

(Diesel oil) 0.89

Fuel oil 0.92 86.5 12.2 1.0 0.3 9950 17.3 5/80

Pacura 0.95 87.0 11.4 1.1 0.5 9850 16.1 6/80

Mexican 0.96 83.3 10.9 2.2 3.6 9650 15.5 11/80crude oil


Lignite-tar oil 0.93 84.0 11.0 4.3 0.7 9600 16.16 2.8/20

Coal-tar oil 1.08 89.5 6.5 3.4 0.6 9000 18.06 3/20

Fuel tar 1.12 90.4 6.0 3.2 0.4 8980 18.25

Gaseous Fuels ρ Composition % Net CO2kg/dm3 cal. max.

value %kcal/

CO H2 CH4 Cn Hm CO2 N2 O2 m3

Coke-oven gas(Ruhr gas) 0.49 5.4 56.8 23.9 1.6 2.2 9.3 0.4 4029 10.03

Town gas(mixed gas) 0.59 21.5 51.5 17.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 – 3713 13.78

L T retort browncoal gas 1.60 13.6 5.5 11.9 11.3 4.8 2.9 0.8 3582 15.45

L T retort coal 0.86 3.2 23.8 46.1 14.4 4.5 5.0 0.5 7415 12.36gas

Water gas 0.71 40 50 0.3 – 5.0 4.7 – 2519 20.48

Producer gas 1.16 29 11 0.3 – 5.0 54.7 – 1184 20.60

Blast-furnace 1.29 31 2.3 2.3 – 9.0 57.4 – 1021 24.78gas

Natural Gas(Holland) 0.83 – – 81.3 3.3 0.8 14.0 – 7475 11.80


Table 180 : Material for latent heat storage

M.P°C Density kg/m3 Heat of fusion kcal/kg.

Lithium hydride 682 817 1000Lithium nitrate 249 2402 88NaOH 322 2130 50FeCl3 304 2899 63CaCl2 39 1650 42Sodium metal 97 945 23

Table 181 : Material for sensible heat storage

Spec. heat Density Heat capacityKcal/kg°C kg/m3 Kcal/m3°C

Bricks 0.2 2242 448Magnetite (Fe3O4) 0.18 5125 913Concrete 0.27 2242 609Scrap iron 0.12 7848 946Scrap Aluminium 0.23 2723 625Water 1.0 993 994


Table 182 : Products from saturated Hydrocarbons

1. C1HC + 1100°C → acetylene

2. C1HC + O2 → Synthesis gas

3. C2HC + 700 – 900°C → Olefines, diolefines and aromatics.

4. C3 and C4HCs + catalyst → BTX aromatics.

5. C4HC, catalyst → Olefines and diolefins dehydrogenation

6. n-paraffins + O2 + SO2 → alkane sulphonic acid

7. Cyclo paraffins + O2 → secondary alcohols

8. C1HC + Cl2 → Chlorinated hydrocarbons

9. C1HC + O2 + NH3 → HCN

10. C1HC + S → CS2

11. Cyclohexane + NOCL → Caprolactum

12. n-paraffins + Cl2 + SO2 → alkane sulphonyl chlorides

13. n-paraffins + O2, → Proteins nutrients and microorganism.

Table 183 : Carbon atoms in petro products and vegetable oil

St. run gasoline = C5 – C11

Kerosine = C11 – C16

Diesel oil = C16 – C18

Residual oil = C17 – C30

Lube oil = C17 – C20

Paraffin wax = C20 – C30

Vegetable oils = C8 – C20

Table 184 : Passivation of stainless steels

A. 200/300 series S. S. containing 17% Cr or more

HNO3 (70%) .... 6 – 15 % (Vol)

Water .... Remainder

operating temp .... room

Contact time .... 10 – 30 minutes.

B. S.S. containing Cr less than 17%

(free machining grade, polished surfaces)

HNO3 (70%) .... 18% (vol)

Sod. dichromate, 2H2O .... 2% wt

Water .... Remainder

Operating temp .... room

Contact time .... 10 – 30 minutes.

C. Iron and Steel Chemical Cleaning .... 5% NaOH (wt)


Table 185 : Flushing oil specification

Specific Gravity at 15°C .... 0.9007

Colour (Union) .... 1 – ½

F.P. .... 144°C

Viscosity cSt .... at 37.8°C = 8.982

at 98.9°C = 2.171

Viscosity index .... 31

Pour point .... – 40°C.

N.B. Lube oil circuit needs to be circulated with warm (60–70°C) flushing oil using 140 mesh wiremesh. Check strainer for rust.

Table 186 : Desulphurisation Iron Oxide Catalyst

Bulk density – = 0.70 ton/m3

(with wood shavings)

Fe2O3 – = 61.08 % (wt)

SiO2 – = 8.6

Al2O3 – = 1.35

CaO – = 0.9

Na2O – = 2.08

K2O – = 2.05

Ignition loss = 23.86

Table 186 A : Nomenclature of Pressures

1. Absolute press, is the total press. exerted by a fluid.

2. Differential press, is the algebraic difference in two press.

3. Gage press. is the algebraic difference between total press and the press exerted byatmosphere. It is a special case of differential press.

Pg = pa – ps, where ps is atmospheric press

4. Vacuum is another special case of differential press.

V = ps – pa

5. A negative vacuum and positive gage pressures are identical.

6. U tube manometer is used for measurement of differential press (p2 – p1); for measurementof gage press p1 equals atmospheric press and for measurement of absolute press p2equals zero. In case of measurement of vacuum p2 equals atmospheric press.

Table 187 : Particulate matter diameter ranges

Dust = 10 microns

Dust Cloud = 0.1 – 10 microns

Smoke = 0.001 – 0.1 micron

Mist = 40 – 500 microns

Oil smoke = 0.03 – 1 micron

Fly ash = 3 – 70 microns


Carbon black = 0.04 – 0.2 micronPulverised Coal = 10 – 400 micronsMetallurgical fumes = 0.1 – 100 microns

N.B. 1 micron = 1

1000 mm, Dust particles less than

10 micron in size may cause lung silicosis.

Table 188 : Pore size of filtering media

Active carbon – < 0.2 nm

Active coke – 0.5 – 0.7 nm

Carbon molecular sieve – 0.2 – 0.3 nm

Furnace black – 10 – 25 nm

Carbon black – 1.0 nm

Molecular sieve (Al silicate) – 0.2 – 0.3 nm

Table 189 : Specification of exfoliated perlite

Rock perlite is solidified and ground volcanic lava

1. Chemical composition of exfolialed perlite:

SiO2 = 62 – 73 %

Al2O3 = 13 – 14

MgO = 0.3 – 0.9

CaO = 0.9 – 2.3

FeO = Traces

Fe2O3 = 0.8 – 2.7

Na2O = 1.7 – 3.6

K2O = 2.7 – 4

TiO2 = 0.1 – 0.5

MnO2 = 0.1 – 0.2

2. Physical properties:

(i) Compacted density = 48 – 80 kg/m3.

(ii) Freshly prepared bulk density = 35 – 45 kg/m3.

(iii) Moistre content = 0.5%

(iv) Combustibility = Non-combustible.

(v) Thermal conductivity = 0.0256 – 0.0258 kcal/hr/cm/°C

(vi) Angle of repose = 28° – 29°

(vii) Apparent mean thermal conductivity, (µw/cm/°k) = 270 – 300 µw/cm/°k

(Based on packing density = 44 – 60 kg/m3)

(viii) Temp. range = 77 – 295°k

3. Filler gas over = air or N2

exfolialed perlite.

(i) Filler gas press. over perlite. = 744 – 754 mm Hg


4. Sieve analysis:B.S. mesh % wt

+ 30 10.96–30 + 60 29.60

–60 + 100 21.72–100 + 200 24.57–200 + 300 14.15

Uses: As insulating material for low temp liquid storages e.g., liq. NH3 storage tank at lowpressure.

PART IIOther Information

THIS PAGE ISBLANK

CODES OF CEMENT

Table 1

1. R.H. Cement – Rapid hardening

2. O P C – Ordinary Portland

3. W C – White cement

4. P P C – Portland Puzzolona

5. P B F C – Portland Blast furnace

6. O W C – Oil Well Treatment

7. H P C – Hydrophobic

8. B S S – Cement as per BS standard

9. I S S – Cement as per IS standard

10. 53 Grade – Cement having compressive strength of 53 MPa

Table 2 : Building materials density

kg/m3

Portland cement 1400

Bricks – cl. I 1600

Sand 1440 – 1700

Earth (loose) dry 1200

Clay (dry) 1600

Clay (Plastic) 1760

CIVIL ENGINEERINGINFORMATION

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Table 3 : Safe bearing stresses for the more commonly soilsDIN 1054 (June 1953)

Safe Bearing Stresses kp/cm2

Backfilled earth, not artificially compacted, depending on time since

backfilling and provided that the unmade foundation layer is of

greater solidity.............. 0 to 1

Natural and obviously unmade earth :—

Mud, peat, marshy soil—in general..... 0

Non-cohesive reasonably firm soils :—

Depth of Fine to Medium Sand Coarse Sand to Gravel

Foundations with a minimum foundation width of

below surface 0.4 m 1 m 5 m 10 m 0.4 m 1 m 5 m 10 m

Upto 0.5 m 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 2.0 3.0 4 5

1 m 2.0 3.0 4 5 2.5 3.5 5 6

2 m 2.5 3.5 5 6 3.0 4.5 6 8

Intermediate values may be obtained using a straight-line ratio. In the case of strip foundationsused for normal overground structures, the values shown for a 1 m foundation depth may be adoptedeven though the bottom of such foundations lies less than 1 m below the basement floor, providedthat they are prevented from moving inwards by the normal partition walls of the cellar or by a solidcellar floor.

Cohesive soils : pasty ........ 0 Soft .................. 0.4 Semi-solid ........ 2.0

Consistent........ 1.0 Hard ................. 4.0

Rock containing few fissures, in a firm unweathered condition and with the strata suitablydisposed (if there is major fissuring or the strata lie unsuitably, the values shown should behalved) :

Strata in a continuous sequence ................................................................................. 15

Solid or columnar-formation rock ................................................................................ 30

Table 4 : Combustible Building materials class(DIN 4102)

Class of materials Type

B Combustible

B1 Low inflammable

B2 Moderately inflammable

B3 Highly inflammable

French Equivalent std. for building materials combustibility is NF P92–505. Styrene foamsurface treated with fire retardants is used in aircrafts. Such foam is called styrofoam.

CIVIL ENGINEERING CODES OF CEMENT 139

Table 4A : Building construction as per earthquake resistant design – IS 13920– 1993

1. Normal routine building design codes are for design against non earthquake effects evenif RCC beams, columns and floors are used.

2. Conventional design does not ensure ductility of the structure. The ductility factor dependson proper elongation of steel rods used in the face of maxm. force exerted during anearthquake.

3. The seismic inertia forces are generated at floor levels and are transmitted throughbeams and columns to the ground level at foundation. The failure of columns affects thestability of the building but beam failure is a localised affair.

4. The relevant seismic design code is as per IS 13920–1993 and earthquake zone divisionand stipulations are as per IS–1893.

1. MATERIALS DESIGNATION SYSTEM (GERMANY) DIN 760061. Plain Steels (Engineering Steels)

Those steels are regarded as plain steels in which the Si content does not exceed 0.5%, theMn content 0.8%, the Al or Ti content 0.1% and the Cu content 0.25%. Plain steels may bedesignated on the basis of their Tensile strength or on that of their carbon content, e.g.,

St 37,

where the figure 37 denotes the minmum TS in kp/mm2, or

C 35

where the letter C denotes carbon and the figure 35 the average carbon content multiplied by 100,i.e., 0.35% C × 100.

If a K is added to these designations, this indicates “cold-worked”, corresponding to the z(“bright drawn”) formerly used. For example, C 35 K = 0.35% C, bright drawn.

2. Low-Alloy Steels

These steels are regarded as low-alloy steel in which the upper limit of the total alloy contentdoes not exceed 5%.

The designation of a low-alloy steel consists essentially of:—The carbon indicator,The chemical symbols for the alloying elements in order of the quantitypresent.

The figure representing the percentage content of the individual alloyingelements.These figures are obtained by multiplying the individual percentage contentvalues by 4, 10 or 100.The factor 4 is used for : Cr, Co, Mn, Ni, Si, WThe factor 10 is used for : Al, Cu, Mo, Nb, Ti, VThe factor 100 is used for : C, N, P, S.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGINFORMATION

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In 24 CrMo 54, for example, the meaning would be :

24 = Carbon content = 0.24% × 100,

CrMo = Chemical symbols for alloying elements, namely chromium-molybdenum,

5 = Figure relating to alloying element Cr = 1.25% Cr × 4,

4 = Figure relating to alloying element Mo = 0.4% Mo × 10.

3. High Alloy SteelsHigh-alloy steels are designated in the same manner as low-alloy steels, but are given as X as

prefix to distinguish them from the latter. Since the alloy content values are fairly high, the multiplicationfactor 1 is always used. For example :—

× 10 CrNi 188 = Stainless steel containing 0.10% C, 18% Cr and 8% Ni.

4. Cast MaterialsThe designation of a cast material always commences with the letter G (German guss = cast).

A further letter is used, depending on the cast material, namely S for cast steel (Stahlguss),G for grey cast iron (Grauguss) and T for malleable cast iron (Temperguss).

Thus : GS = cast steel, GG = grey cast iron, GT = malleable cast iron. The figures whichfollow these letters denote the tensile strength in kg/mm2 for grey cast and malleable cast iron while,for plain cast steel, they denote, in combination with the latter C, the C content (%) multiplied by100 and, for low-alloy cast steel, they indicate the alloying elements as under Para 2.

Table 5A : Weight of Square and Round Steel BarsPer Running Foot

Dia or Square RoundSide in inch lb lb

1/8 .053 .042

3/16 .120 .894

1/4 .213 .167

5/16 .332 .261

3/8 .479 .376

7/16 .651 .511

1/2 .851 .658

9/16 1.08 .845

5/8 1.37 1.04

11/16 1.61 1.19

3/4 1.91 1.50

13/16 2.25 1.77

7/8 2.61 2.05

15/16 2.99 2.35

1 3.40 2.63

2 13.6 10.7


3 30.6 24.1

4 54.4 43.8

5 28.1 66.9

6 122.5 96.3

Materials Designation System – DIN 76006 (contd.)Additional symbols indicating the type of melting, treatment state, etc. are used only where

design requirements make a particular type of melting, etc., desirable.

The carbon steels contained in the present selection are in general melted as killed open-hearthsteel whilst the alloy steels are melted in an electric furnace. No additional symbols are required inthese cases.

M A St 45 .6 N

Heart to Designationaccording to strength :

Symbol Stmin. tensile strength

according tocomposition:

Symbol for carbonCarbon indicator

or

Carbon indicatorSymbols for

Alloying elementsAlloy content figures

or

Prefix XCarbon indicator

Symbols forAlloying elements

Alloy content figures

Type of Special Guaranteed Treatmentmelting Properties Values State(Code letters) (Code letters) (Code figures) (Code letters)

B. Bessemer A. Resistant to ageing .1. Yield point A. Annealed

steel .2. Folding or up- B. Treated for bestsetting test machinability

E. Electric steel H. Semi-killed cast .3. Impact value

M. Open-hearth L. Resistant to .4. .1 and .2 required E. Case-hardenedsteel caustic embritt-

element

PP. Puddled steel P. Suitable for .5. .2 and .3 required G. Spheroidisedpressure welding .6. .1 and .3 required

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING INFORMATION 143

SS. Welding steel Q. Suitable for .7. .1, .2 and .3 required H. Hardened

T. Thomas cold-upsetting .8. High-temperature K. Cold-drawn

Steel R. Killed cast strength or creep N. Normalised

Ti. Crucible S. Suitable for limit NT. Nitrided

steel fusion welding .9. Electric or S. Stress relieved

W. Air-refined U. Unkilled cast magnetic U. Untreated

substitute steel Z. Drawable properties V. Hardened and

tempered

Table 5B : Tylor sieve and U.S. sieve data

Sieve opening Tylor mesh Dia. of Wire Equivalent U.S.mm. No. inch. Sieve No. (Approx.)

26.67 – 0.148

22.43 – 0.135

18.85 – 0.120

15.85 – 0.105

13.33 – 0.105

11.20 – 0.092

9.423 –

7.925 2½ 0.088

6.68 3 0.070

5.613 3½ 0.065 –

4.699 4 0.065 4

3.962 5 0.044 5

3.327 6 0.036 6

2.794 7 0.328 7

2.362 8 0.032 8

1.981 9 0.033 10

1.651 10 0.035 12

1.397 12 0.028 14

1.168 14 0.025 16

0.991 16 0.0235 18

0.833 20 0.0172 20

0.701 24 0.0141 25

0.589 28 0.0125 30

0.425 32 0.0118 35

0.417 35 0.0122 40

0.351 42 0.0100 45

0.295 48 0.0092 50


0.246 60 0.0070 60

0.208 65 0.0072 70

0.175 80 0.0056 80

0.147 100 0.0042 100

0.124 115 0.0038 120

0.104 150 0.0026 140

0.089 170 0.0024 170

0.074 200 0.0021 200

0.061 250 0.0016 230

0.053 270 0.0016 270

0.093 325 0.0014 325

0.038 400 0.0010 –

Table 6 : Vibrating screens capacity

Material Wire cloth Capacity-US Tons feed/hr/sq. ft. screening area

Coal 1/4" 5.0

Coal 1/8" 2.0

Coke 1" 1.5

Coke 1/8" 0.5

Crushed stone 3 mesh 2.5

Sand 7.16" mesh 2.0

Sugar 12 mesh 0.5

T S P 20 mesh 0.065

Note : Mesh no. is no. of openings per inch in both horizontal and vertical direction.

Table 7 : Analysis of Steel Balls material for Ball mills

Type = Forged and annealed

Size = 35 mm

C = 0.6 – 1% wt

Cr = 0.1 – 0.6

Mn = 0.4 – 0.9

Mo = 0.05 – 0.2

Silicon = 0.12 – 0.6

Phosphorus and sulphur = 0.035 (max)

Hardness = 731 Brinnel No.


Table 8 : Ultimate Strength of Materials in 1bs. per square inch

Tension Compression Shear Youngs Modulus ofModulus Rigidity

Cast iron 20,000 90,000 15,000 18,000,000 6,500,000

Wrought iron 48,000 40,000 35,000 28,000,000 9,500,000

Steel casting 50,000 ......... ......... 29,000,000 ..............

Mild steel 60,000 65,000 54,000 29,000,000 13,500,000

Steel 80,000 90,000 70,000 30,000,000 14,000,000

Copper, rolled 32,000 ........ 26,000 15,000,000 6,000,000

Brass, cast 24,000 11,000 10,000 9,500,000 4,400,000

Bronze 36,000 ........ 36,000 10,000,000 4,400,000

Phosphor Bronze 56,000 ........ 42,000 14,000,000 5,000,000

Gun metal 36,000 ........ 36,000 9,900,000 4,400,000

Aluminium, cast 14,000 11,500 ......... 9,000,000 ..............

Monel metal, cast 80,000 ......... 60,000 ............. ..............

Hemp rope 5,380 .......... .......... .............. ..............

Leather belting 4,200 .......... .......... .............. ..............

Timber (along grain) 8,000 7,000 500 1,800,000 300,000

Timber (across grain) .......... .......... 2,150 .......... ..........

Brick (l) .......... 3,000 .......... 2,000,000 ...............

Concrete (1 : 2 : 4) 400 4,000 .......... 3,000,000 ................

Granite .......... 12,000 .......... 6,000,000 ...............

Safety factors :

(i) Low tensile steels = 50% of UTS

(ii) High tensile steels = 40–35% of UTS

(iii) Non ferrous materials = 25–39% of UTS

(iv) Plastics = 20–50% of UTS

Table 9 : Copper wire diameter

S WG Dia (mils) S W G Dia (mils)

1 300 27 16.4

2 276 28 14.8

3 252 29 13.6

4 232 30 12.6

5 212 31 11.6

6 192 32 10.8

7 176 33 10

8 160 34 9.2

9 144 35 8.4


10 128 36 7.6

11 116 37 6.8

12 104 38 6.0

13 92 39 5.2

14 80 40 4.8

15 72 41 4.4

16 64 42 4.0

17 56 43 3.6

18 48 44 3.2

19 40 45 2.8

20 36 46 2.4

21 32 47 2.0

22 28 48 1.6

23 24 49 1.2

24 22 50 1.0

25 20

26 18

Note : 1 mil = 1/1000 of an inch.

Table 10 : Wires and Plates thickness data (in inches)

Gage No. Brown and Sharpe (U.S.) B.W.G. B.G. S.W.G.

0 0.325 0.34 0.3964 0.324

1 0.287 0.30 0.3532 0.30

2 0.258 0.284 0.3147 0.276

3 0.229 0.259 0.2804 0.252

4 0.2094 0.238 0.2500 0.232

5 0.182 0.220 0.2225 0.212

6 0.162 0.203 0.1981 0.192

7 0.144 0.180 0.1764 0.176

8 0.128 0.165 0.1570 0.16

9 0.114 0.148 0.1398 0.144

10 0.102 0.134 0.1250 0.128

11 0.091 0.120 0.1113 0.116

12 0.081 0.109 0.0091 0.104

13 0.072 0.095 0.0882 0.092

14 0.064 0.083 0.0785 0.08

15 0.057 0.072 0.0699 0.072

16 0.051 0.065 0.0625 0.064

17 0.045 0.058 0.0556 0.056


18 0.040 0.049 0.0495 0.048

19 0.036 0.042 0.0440 0.04

20 0.034 0.035 0.0392 0.036

21 0.0285 0.032 0.0349 0.032

22 0.0253 0.028 0.0313 0.028

23 0.0226 0.025 0.0278 0.024

24 0.0201 0.022 0.0248 0.022

25 0.0179 0.020 0.0220 0.020

26 0.0159 0.018 0.0196 0.018

27 0.0142 0.016 0.0175 0.0164

28 0.0126 0.014 0.0156 0.0148

29 0.0113 0.013 0.0139 0.0136

30 0.011 0.012 0.0123 0.0124

31 0.0089 0.010 0.0110 0.0116

32 0.0080 0.009 0.0098 0.0108

upto upto upto

40 gage 52 gage 50 gage

Note : 1. Brown and Sharpe is for non-ferrous wires and sheets.2. Birmingham Wire gage (B.W.G.) is for Steel sheets and rods.3. British gage (B.G.) is for Iron and Steel Sheets/hoops.4. Standard Wire gage (S.W.G.) – British.

Table 11 : Weight of rolled Steel Sheets (in Lb./Ft 2)

B.W.G. Weight

No. (Lb/Ft2)

0 13.872

1 12.24

2 11.5872

3 10.5672

4 9.7104

5 8.976

6 8.2824

7 7.344

8 6.732

9 6.0384

10 5.4672

11 4.896

12 4.4972

13 3.876

14 3.3864


15 2.9376

16 2.651

17 2.364

18 1.9992

19 1.7126

20 1.428

21 1.3056

22 1.1424

23 1.020

24 0.8976

25 0.816

40 60 80 100 300

Viscosity Red W ood Seconds

1000 3000 5000

250

200

150

100

Temperature °F

Kinem

atic viscosity of Lubricating oils

50

14

1.4-10.0

0

10

20

30

4050

60

70

80

90

100

120

150

1.6 2 3 4 6 10 20 30 50 100 200

500

SA

E 20

SA

E 30

SA

E 40

SA

E 50

Degrees Engler

Temperature °C

Fig. 1



Table 12 : Lube oil specification (SAE)

Characteristics Engine and cooling Cylinder oiloil, all engines bore 520 mm and above

Density at 15°C 0.87 to 0.93 0.87 to 0.93

Flash pt. not below 200°C 240°C

Engler viscosity, 50°C 6–10 17–25

Pour pt. below –14°C –12°C

Max ash content 0.05 0.05

Max conradson residue 0.25 0.7

Water and impurities nil nil

Acid and alkali content nil nil

Neutralisation no. 0.20 0.20

Hard ashphalt-max nil nil

Asphalt and pitch, max 0.05% 0.05%

Viscosity index not below 80 80

Saponification no, max 0.2 0.3

Table 13 : Carbon content limit of thin walled chem. vessels

Materials Carbon content

Carbon steel – 0.28% (maxm.)

Low alloy steel – 0.2% (min.)

High alloy steel – 0.15% (maxm.)

Table 14 : Extruded brass rod composition

Cu = 56–60% (wt)

Pb = 1 – 1.5%

Fe = 0.3%

Mn = 0.75 – 1

Zinc = rest

Impurities = 0.25%

(Al and Sn)

Table 15 : Wall Thicknes Calculation of Cylindrical Shells and Domed Headsubjected to Internal Pressure

Precise calculation as per AD Pamphlets B 1 and B3 (Pressure Vessels Study Group)

Applicable where Da/Di is <1.2 if Da/Di > 1.2, sec AD Pamphlet B 10.

Cylindrical shell for wall temperatures > 120°C

−

i2

D .ps = + c

K200 . v p *

S+

a2

D .ps = + c

K200 . v p *

S


Domed head a1 2

D .p . âs = + c + c

K400 . . v

S

Di, Da internal and external diameter, respectively, mm

s wall thickness, mm

p maximum permitted working pressure allowing for static head, atü

K strength characteristic, kp/mm2

S safety coefficient in relation to yield point

v joint efficiency of walded seam (welding factor)

v = 1 for seamless sections and welded joints where a higher joint efficiency has been approved for the weld

v = 0.8 for welded joints

v = 0.7 for brazed lap joint seams

(Maximum permitted wall thickness 5 mm)

c1 design allowance 1 mm

c2 wall thickness wear allowance :

for s < 30 mm, c2 = 1 mm, for s > 30 mm, c2 = 0 mm

Calculation factor for domed heads (without cutouts)

Head H/Da βDished head : R = Da r = 0.1 Da 0.2 2.9

Semi-ellipsoidal head : R = 0.8 Da r = 0.15 Da 0.25 2.0

Hemispherical head : 0.5 1.1

H Depth of convexity of whole head,

including wall thickness, mm

Safety Coefficients

Cylinder Headwith without with without

Material Acceptance AcceptanceCert. Cert.

1. Steel, alloy and plain 1.5 1.8 1.5 1.8

2. Cast steel 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.5

3. Grey cast iron, unannealed 9.0 11.0 7.0 9.0

Grey cast iron, annealed 7.0 8.0 6.0 7.0

Grey cast iron, enamelled 7.0 8.0 6.0 7.0

4. Aluminium and aluminium alloys 3.5 4.0 3.5 4.0

5. Copper and copper alloys 3.5 4.0 3.5 4.0

* With wall temperatures below 120°C, –p or + p disapears.

1. SAFETY CODES IN ELECTRICAL HAZARDS NEPA 70-1981NEPA – 70–1981

American national electrical code specifies hazardous locations by class, group and division.The class defines the physical form of combustible materials mixed with air :—

Class – I = Combustible material in the form of gas or vapour

Class – II = Combustible material in the form of dust

Calls – III = Combustible material in the form of fibre including textile flying materials.

The class is then subdivided into the following groups :

Group A = Atmosphere containing acetylene.

Group B = Atmosphere containing H2, gases and Vapours of equivalent hazardsuch as manufactured gases.

Group C = Atmosphere containing ethyl ether vapours, ethylene or cyclopropene.

Group D = Atmosphere containing gasoline, haxane, naphtha, benzene, solventvapour or natural gas.

Group E = Atmosphere containing metal dust including Al, Mg and their commonalloys or other metals having similarly hazardous characteristics.

Group F = Atmosphere containing Carbon black.

Group G = Atmosphere containing flour starch or grain dusts.

The divisions of above groups specifies the probability that an explosive mix is present,examines a hazardous mix is normally present in divisions area but will only accidentally be presentin Division 2 areas.

Division I Hazardous mixtures normally present

Division II Hazardous mixtures can accidentally be present.

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2. NEMA STANDARD FOR EQUIPMENT ENCLOSURESNational Electrical manufactures Association had specified the following standard for classifying

electrical equipment, cables, MCC, etc. and enclosures.

NEMA – 1 : General purpose

NEMA – 2 : Drip tight

NEMA – 3 : Weather Proof

NEMA – 4 : Water tight

NEMA – 6 : Submersible

NEMA – 7 : Hazardous (Class I, Group A B C or D)

NEMA – 8 : Hazardous (Class I, Group A B C or D)

NEMA – 9 : Hazardous (Class II, Group E, F or G)

NEMA – 10 : Explosion Proof (as per US Bureau of Mines regulation)

NEMA – 12 : Other Industrial areas.

3. POWER SYSTEM AND SPECIAL ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FORCHEMICAL INDUSTRY3.1 Introduction

The source of power for industrial establishment is mainly the utilities power grid. The utilitiesare not guaranting quality or continuity of supply as the power distribution system is subject tovarious abnormal conditions like lightning, damage to the transmission lines, line faults etc., whichare beyond the reasonable control of the utilities.

3.2 A.C. Power DisturbancesThe disturbances in a.c. power can be classified as follows:

1. Voltage

2. Wave shape

3. Frequency

The most frequently encountered deviations occur in respect of voltage. In case of voltage,disturbances are of the following nature:

3.3 Steady state valuesThe minimum grid voltage often encountered is much less than the limit specified in the Indian

Standad. The industrial consumer drawing power at extra high voltage often encounters the voltageas low as 85%. The consumer often faces difficulty in maintaining the steady load end voltage evenafter operating on-load tap changer provided on the step down transformer and switching on shuntcapacitor. The condition in case of low or medium voltage consumer is much worse where thereis little or no control available with consumer to improve upon the voltage. The unequal loading onpolyphase lines is often the cause of the voltage unbalance in the low voltage system.

3.4 Outages and InterruptionsThe outages and interruptions of overhead distribution system due to lightning and various

faults are common. Though these can be reduced by proper preventive maintenance regime howevercannot be altogether avoided. Besides due to demand exceeding very much of the generation, the

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING INFORMATION 153

planned outages of power have almost become accepted condition of the power supply in India. Theutilities are quite often resorting to load shedding to the industry. Power outages faced by the industrycan be classified on basis of deviation as

(i) Long duration (hours)

(ii ) Medium duration (minutes) and

(iii ) Short duration (secs).

Irrespective of duration, outages cause disruption of production and actual loss of outagesdepends on type of industry. Besides, such outages may cause safety hazards also.

3.5 Surges and ImpulsesSurges are caused by

(a) Fault clearances

(b) Switching surges

(c) Inrush current transient caused by energising electrical devices like capacitors.

Impulses are associated with lightning, electrostatic discharges etc. and duration of such surgesis less than 0.001 cycles.

The frequency of a.c. supply is often less than specified –3% and in many parts of the country,it remain –4 to –5%. The frequency variation is encountered most depending upon peak load demandvis-a-vis generation available.

As it is impossible to get the ideal power quality and continuity from power supplying utility,the consumer is left with no option but to design his power system utilisation equipment in such away that the effect on the production due to erratic power supply is contained to the minimum andsafety of the plant and personnel is not jeopardized.

3.6 Types of Industrial electrical loadThe industrial load can broadly be classified as under :

Motive power. The major industrial electrical load is constituted of various types of drivemotors, low as well as high tension for driving pumps, compressors, conveyors, elevators etc.,which constitute around 85% of the industrial load. Some of these loads are classified as critical load.Every industry, depending its process requirements, identifies certain drives as critical. The criticalload constitute 5 to 10% of the total requirement in case of continuous process industry. Such criticalloads can be further subdivided as follows.

(a) No Break Load. The quality and continuity of power is required to be maintained throughout the operation. Any failure will adversely affect the production as well as processequipment. These types of drives are mainly used in chemical industry.

(b) Momentary Break. The drives which are required to be restarted immediately on restorationof alternate power supply within few seconds of total power failure for safe shutdownof the plant.

(c) Emergency Operation. Drives like the fire fighting pumps falls under this categorywhich are required to be put in service under emergency conditions.

Electrical Furnaces and Heaters. Depending upon the industry’s requirement this type of loadalso can be grouped under critical and non critical load.


3.7 Process control instrumentation and data processing EquipmentThe electronic equipment are very susceptible to the transients encountered in the power

system like surges, impulses and noises etc. Further, wave shape may also cause malfunctioning ofsuch electronic components. Excessively large impulses or noise burst and inadequate filtering mayresult in component voltage overstress or in the pre-matured triggering of control circuit elementssuch as SCRs and TRIACs. Besides the need to maintain quality supply, failure of power for aduration of few milliseconds may cause failure of process instrumentation and also corrupt theperformance of hardwares and softwares of data processing systems. This will ultimately resultinterruption of process and loss of data which may cause financial loss and safety to personnel. Nobreak power supply is essential for proper and safe functioning of the equipment.

3.8 Control System for Power Distribution and Utilisation EquipmentsContinuous and assured power supply for the control system is essential for the safe operation

of electrical equipment. Further, various types of contactors, relays etc. used in the system dropsin the event of heavy voltage dip.

3.9 Illumination SystemThis also can be subdivided as critical and noncritical depending upon the location. Areas such

as staircase, exits, critical process plant sections, electrical substation etc., fall under critical plantsections where illumination is required to be restored at the earliest for safety of plant and personal.

3.10 Communication and Safety alarm SystemThe communication in modern industrial establishment plays a vital role in safe operation by

maintaining flow of information between various section of staff on site and offsite who are involvedin the operation of plant. Safety alarm systems like fire alarms, toxic gas alarms etc., if worksproperly can save an industrial establishment from disaster. The successful operation of this systemdepends on the assured power supply.

4. CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SUPPLY FOR CRITICAL INDUSTRIAL LOADIt is evident from above that an industrial establishment cannot depend only on primary source

of power supply for safe operation. Besides primary source, standby power sources are required tobe established to meet the requirement of critical loads. The critical load as identified above can befurther classified and power supply for such load shall be provided as detailed below.

4.1 No break or Uninterrupted Power SupplyThis also can be further grouped as

(a) D.C. Supply

(b) A.C. Supply

The electrical control system, part of the process instrumentation, communication, safety alarmsystems and critical lighting etc., are provided with d.c. supply which is most reliable and stablepower supply. The data processing systems etc., and certain critical electrical drives are providedwith a.c. uninterrupted power supply or U.P.S. This is comparatively less reliable vis-a-vis d.c.systems. Though in modern U.P.S. failure is remote but cannot be altogether ruled out.

4.2 The other Emergency Load like Certain critical drives/loads as mentioned in 3.2 to 3.5 areprovided supply from the emergency power generation system immediately after normal supplyfailures for such duration as required for safe shutdown and safety of personnel. The emergencypower is also used as standby power to d.c. and u.p.s power systems.


4.3 In view of severe constraints in getting reliable power from the utilities, many industrialestablishment particularly the large chemical industry have started setting up captive powerplant. The captive plant can be gainfully setup as co-generation plant. Besides supplying reliablepower, this arrangement will make the process energy efficient. Not with standing comparativereliability of captive plant, the emergency standby power supply and uninterrupted powersupply requirement cannot be dispensed with.

4.4 Standby power system shall be independent of site source. System shall be designed to take careof load transfer from prime energy source to standby and also meet the following requirement.

(a) Close voltage and frequency regulation.

(b) Freedom from transient voltage/frequency disturbance and harmonics.

(c) Increased short time overload capability.

(d) Increased reliability and availability.

(e) Close voltage and frequency regulation with wide range rapid load changes.

5. SOURCE OF POWER SUPPLYAs stated earlier, the power required for the industry is normally provided by the utility

undertaking like State Electricity Board or any other licensee.

Captive power generation plant based on cogeneration principle is also being set up by theindustry. This improves the reliability of power supply in addition to making the plant energy efficient.

Normally cogeneration plant meets the power requirement of essential and critical equipmentas far as possible. Balance power is drawn from the utility grid which also remains as standby forfull/critical load requirement in case of failure of cogeneration plant.

Standby power supply is provided by DG sets. Standby supply is required for safety of theplant and personnel providing power to all critical equipment, illumination, fire fighting pumps etc.,as stated at 3.2, 3.4. This becomes the ultimate source of power when normal supply from utilityor captive and or both together fails.

Main supply, Captive power plant and standby DG sets are integrated in such a way that poweris made available during normal and emergency condition of outage of mainand or Capative poweror both together.

5.1 Power System ConfigurationDepending on load requirement, the utility undertaking provides 3 phase AC power to the

industrial consumers at various voltages like 11KV, 22KV, 33KV, 66KV and 132KV. For industryrequiring high load, power may be supplied even at 220KV.

Supply can be provided either by single feeder or duplicate feeder. Depending on power requirementand also criticallity of power in the process of manufacturing duplicate feeder arrangement is a desirableoption from the stand point of reliability. Alternatively, single utility source, supplemented by congenerationor standby DG set will ensure reliability of power supply. Reliability of power should be given highpriority in designing power supply for chemical plant. The utility power supply is stepped down throughpower transformer to the level of main distribution voltage within the plant premises.

The captive generator can be connected to the Main Distribution switch board. If the capacityof this generator is small with respect to the total power requirement, this can be connected to theswitch board which supplies power to critical load and other priority loads; such switch board inthe distribution network shall have alternative supply from the Main Power Supply System withprovision of automatic/manual change over system.


Power System Configuration

Fig. 1

Power System Configuration

Fig. 2


DG set is connected to the switch board which supplies all such critical load like UPS, DCsystem. Fire pumps illumination etc., which are required for safe shutdown of the plant and safetyof personnel. This switch board shall have alternative power supply from either Main Supply orCaptive Power. Normally these critical load will get supply from Main supply/Captive power and inthe event of failure, DG set will start up and feed these loads. Appropriate startup and change overscheme shall be incorporated for smooth change over of power during emergency condition.

Schematic arrangements of power system configuration are as below :

For purpose of simplicity, for the stopping down of supply voltages is not shown in theschematic diagrams in Fig. 1 and 2. Depending of voltage rating of cogenerator and DG set, theseare connected to the appropriately rated switch board.

Distribution network is developed depending on the load requirement of the process equipment.The same may have, besides main distribution voltage, one or two level of voltages suiting to thevoltage rating of the process equipment drives. The detailed network shall incorporate all isolatingand protective devices including further stepdown transformers etc., as per the best electricalengineering practices.

5.2 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMPower received at Main Receiving station is stepped down to the Main Distribution Voltage.

Where load requirement is small like few hundred KVA, the distribution voltage and utilisation voltagemay be same as 415 voltage.

For large power consuming plant, the main distribution voltage may be either of the following.

1. 11000 volts 3 phase 50 Hz.

2. 6600 volts 3 phase 50 Hz.

The entire industrial plant shall be divided into several load centres. These load centres may beprovided power by any of the alternative systems.

(a) Single radial feeder.

(b) Duplicate radial feeder.

(c) Ring main feeder.

Where high reliability is required, duplicate radial feeder system may be adopted though thissystem is costliest. Cheapest is single radial feeder system but least reliable. While designing distributionnetwork, coast reliability analysis may be made so that the system meets the requirement of processoptimally.

The Load Centres shall have substantions where in various types of switchgears, distributionboard, stepdown transformers shall be installed to cater the requirement of power for variouselectrical drives and equipment.

5.3 Utilisation Voltages(a) For any special installation, 240 gvolt single phase AC motor is used.

(b) For auxiliary equipment like heaters, exahust fans, power sockets etc. (i) 415 Volts 3phase or (ii ) 240 Volts 1 phase are used.

(c) Illumination system


240 Volts single phase AC whereas main distribution may be 415 Volt 3 phase 4 wire.

110V DC for panel light.

(d) Electrical Control System

(i) DC 220/110V 2 wire (ii ) AC 115 Volt 2 wire uninterrupted power supply

(iii ) 240Volts 2 wire.

(e) Instrumentation and process control

(i) 26 Volt 2 wire DC.

(ii ) 115 Volt/220 Volt AC phase 2 wire system from uninterrupted.

Possible Network of power supply distribution and utilisation voltage options are given below:

(i) 1100 Volts, 3300 Volts and 415 Volts 3 phase AC.

(ii ) 6600 Volts, 415 Volts 3 phase AC.

(iii ) 415 Volts 3 phase A.C.

A typical Power Distribution and Utilisation Network is given at Fig. 3.


Fig. 3

In case main distribution is at 6600 Volts, 3300 Volts Transformer and Switch Gears will notbe required.


SPECIFIC REQUIRMENTS4.1 PROTECTION AGAINST INGRESS OF DUST, SOLID FOREIGN OBJECTS AND INGRESS OF MOISTURE

The electrical equipment installed in Industrial plant and elsewhere need to be protected againstingress of dust, moisture. The insulation of electrical system will fail if not properly protected andcause flash over, spark etc. Considering the intensity of dust and moisture present in the atmosphere,the degree of protection can be suitably provided to the equipment enclosures. Accordingly theenclosures are classified in the relevant Indian Standard. This covers both rotating machinery andstatic equipment like switchgear and controlgear.

4.2 The enclosures are designated as IPXY. X and Y are numerals. X denotes type of protectionagainst solid particles, dust etc., while Y denotes degree of protection against water. Theclassifications of enclosures are given in IS: 4691–1985. These standard also specifies the testprocedures for verifying the protection provided by the enclosure.

4.3 COMMON ENCLOSURES OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT SPECIALLY ELECTRICAL MOTOR

IP 12 – Enclosure partly enclosed to avoid accidental contact of moving parts by personneland also against dripping water when tilted to 15°.

IP 23 – As above but protected against spraying water.

IP 44 – Protected against ingress of small size particles and splashing water.

IP 54 – Dust protected and protected against splashing water.

IP 55 – Dust protected and protected against waterget.

Switchgears and control gears are normally installed indoor. The common enclosures for indoorinstallation are as follows :

IP 40 – Protected against ingress of solids exceeding 1mm dia.

IP 50 – Dust protected.

Chapter

SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OFELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

4

160

SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 161

Table

Numeral X Numeral Y

Numeral Description Numeral Description

0 Non protected 0 Non protected

1 Protected against solid 1 Protected against drippingsize greater than 50 mm water.and also protected againstaccidental contact ofmoving/live parts bypersonnel.

IP 2 Protected against ingress of 2 Protected against drippingsolid object exceeding 12mm water when tilted upto 15°.and finger contact of live andmoving part.

3 Protected against ingress of solid 3 Protected against sprayingobjects exceeding 2.5 mm dia. water.

4 Protected against ingress of solid 4 Protected against splashingobjects exceeding 1mm dia. of water from any direction.

5 Dust protected. 5 Protected against water jet.Ingress of dust is not totallyprevented but quantity of dustnot sufficient to interfere operation.

6 Protected against heavy seasor water projected by jetsfrom all direction.

7 Protected against immersion.

8 Protected against continuoussubmersion under water.

Note : Ingress of water in all abovecases will not have harmfuleffect.

4.4 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT FOR EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERE AS PER IS CODES4.4.1 The atmosphere in an industrial plant handling petroleum products and explosive gases or

vapours as raw material or manufacturing such explosive intermediate or end product is likelyto be explosive. The electrical equipment installed in such atmosphere should be appropriatelydesigned to avoid ignition of such explosive gases or vapours during the operation of plantmachinery. The electrical equipment are classified in two groups.

Group I – Electrical equipment for mines susceptible to fire damp methane.

Group II – Electrical equipment for explosive atmosphere other than mines.

Group II is further subdivided as IIA, IIB, IIC. The classification is done on the basis offollowing.

a. Maximum experimental safe gap. (MESG)


(between joint surfaces)

Group IIA – MESG > 0.9 mm.

Group IIB – MESG > 0.5 < 0.9 mm

Group II C – MESG < 0.5 mm

Minimum igniting current (MIC) for intrinsically safe apparatus.

Group IIA – MIC ratio above 0.8

Group IIB – MIC ratio between 0.45 and 0.8.

Group IIC – MIC ratio below 0.45.

MIC ratio is determined as ratio of minimum igniting current of the explosive gases or vapoursto that of Laboratory methane. For most of the gases or vapours, it is sufficient to make only onedetermination of either MESG or MIC to classify the gas or vapour.

4.4.2 Broad classification of Gases or vapours based on MIC and MESGGroup II-A

(a) Hydrocarbons

(i) Methane, ethane, Propane, Butane etc.

(ii ) Mixed hydrocarbons like petroleum naphtha, coal tar naphtha, petroleum, diesel, keroseneetc.

(iii ) Benzoids.

(b) Compounds containing oxygen oxides, like methanol ethanol, carbon monoxide, acetone,butanone, acetic acid etc.

(c) Compounds containing halogens like chloromethane etc.

(d) Compound containing nitrogen like Ammonia, Ethylnitrite etc.

(e) Compound containing sulphur like Ethanethiol.

Group-IIB(a) Hydrocarbons like propane, ethylene etc.

(b) Compound containing nitrogen like Acrylonitrile hydrogen cyanide etc.

(c) Compound containing Oxygen like Dimethyle either, Ethylmethyl ether etc.

(d) Mixtures : Coke oven gas.

(e) Compound containing Halogens like Tetrafluoro-ethylene.

Group-IICHydrogen, Acetylene, Carbon disulphide etc.

Detailed list of gases and vapours under all three gas groups are available in IS : 9570-1980.(Chapter 3 Table 22).

4.4.3 Classification based on Maximum Surface TemperatureThe maximum surface temperature shall be below the lowest ignition temperature of explosive

gas or vapour for which the electrical equipment is designed.

Group I – 90°CGroup II – Temperature Class


Maximum surface temperature °C.

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

≤ 450 ≤ 300 ≤ 200 ≤ 135 ≤ 100 ≤ 85

4.4.4 Classification or Hazardous AreaClassification of areas having flammable gases or vapours.

Area where explosive atmosphere is present or likely to be present is called hazardous area.Explosive atmosphee is defined as mixture of air with flammable gases or vapour under normalatmospheric condition if ignited cause combustion throughout unconsummated mixtures.

The hazardous areas are classified as per IS : 5572-1994 as 3 zones.Zone 0 – Vapour space above closed process vessels, storage tanks etc., and areas

containing open tanks of flammable volatile liquid.Zone 1 – Area where flammable gas or vapour concentration is likely to exist in air

under normal operating condition or occur frequently due to leakage or breakdown of process or storage equipment. Examples include:(i) In adequately ventilated room for pump, piping system for volatile flammable

liquid.(ii ) Top of floating roof tank of explosive gases, liquid due to imperfect

peripherial seal.(iii ) Loading or unloading gantries of hazardous product.(iv) Oily waste water sewer/basins.

Zone 2 – The area where any of the following conditions exists:(i) Well ventilated areas where explosive liquid or vapour and gas, remain

confined in closed container and system and can escape only due to breakdown like failure of gasket or packing etc.

(ii ) Where ventilation is provided by mechanical ventilator, the failure of whichcan cause build up of vapour or gas air mixture upto explosive limit.

(iii ) Area connected by trenches, pips or ducts through which flammablevapour or gas can flow.

(iv) Locations adjacent to zone 1 area.

Flammable substances considered for area classification include non liquified gases, liquefiedpetroleum gases and vapour of flammable liquid.

4.4.5 Extent of Hazardous AreaIn open calm, atmosphere, heavier than air vapour disposes, mainly downward and outward;

while lighter than air, upward and outward. Thus from point of source, the horizontal area coveredby dispersed vapour or gas will be circle. Presence of air current will accelerate dispersion of vapouror gas. Areas covered will be different for heavier and lighter gases or vapours as detailed in figure,4, 5.

4.4.6 Classification of Electrical Equipment suitable for Explosive AtmosphereThe electrical equipment are classified as under :

Type of equipment Area for use1. Flame proof enclosure Ex d Zone 12. Pressurised construction Ex p Zone 1


3. Oil immersed Ex O Zone 1

4. Sand filled Ex q Zone 1

5. Intrinsically safe equipment Ex ia/Ex ib Zone 0

6. Increased safety Ex e Zone 2

7. Equipment for type of protection ‘n’ incapableof causing sparks Ex n Zone 2

Keeping is view the categories of equipment, gas groups and temperature classes, these equipmentare marked and designated in the following manner:

(a) Flame proof enclosure for mining Exd I.

(b) Flame proof enclosure suitable for Exd IIB T3 gas group IIB and temperature class T3.

(c) Increased safety equipment for gas Ex eII B T2 group IIB temperature Class T2.

(d) Pressurised construction for gas areas Exp IIA T3 group IIA, Temperature T3.


4.4.7 Brief Technical Features of Electrical Equipment Suitable for ExplosiveAtmosphere

4.4.7.1 Flame proof enclosureThe equipment is installed where surrounding atmosphere is explosive and entry of explosive

gases or vapours inside the enclosure is possible. The enclosure with fully secured covers shallwithstand an internal explosion of flammable gas or vapour without suffering damage and withoutcommunicating the internal flammation to the external explosive atmosphere through any joint orother structural opening.

The construction shall be suitable for the gas group I, IIA, IIB and IIC and temperature classT1, T2, T3 etc. The surface temperature of enclosure during normal operation shall not ignite thesurrounding gas or vapour. The construction shall conform to IS-2148-1981.

4.4.7.2 Pressurised enclosureThe equipment has no internal source of flammable gas or vapour. The enclosure is pressurised

by non flammable safe gas at a pressure above the external atmosphere. Nitrogen is commonly usedfor this purpose. The over pressure is maintained with or without continuous purge of safe gas. Theequipment is energised after purging and the same continues after de-energisation for such time thatthe surface temperature of any internal part of the equipment is adequately cooled. The equipmentshall conform to IS : 7389 Part I-1976. The common example of this type of enclosure is slipringenclosure of wound Rotor AC motor or synchronous motor.

4.4.7.3 Oil immersed equipmentThe electrical equipment like switch gears, control gears and transformers which has to be

installed in explosive atmosphere, shall be made safe by oil immersion so that flammable gases orvapours above the insulating oil or outside the enclosure shall not be ignited. The equipment shallconform to IS 7693-1975.

4.4.7.4 Sand filled equipmentThe electrical apparatuses inside the enclosure shall be fully embedded in a mass of non

combustible material like sand of appropriate particle size so that if arc occurs inside the enclosure,the same shall not cause ignition of the outer explosive atmosphere. The equipment shall conformto IS : 7724-1975.

4.4.7.5 Intrinsically safe equipmentThe intrinsically safe circuit is defined as a circuit in which spark or heat produced during

normal operation or during fault shall not cause ignition of explosive gas or vapour. Intrinsically safeequipment is one in which all circuits are intrinsically safe. The equipment shall conform to IS :5780-1980.

4.4.7.6 Increased safety constructionThe equipment incorporates special measures to provide increased safety against excessive

temperatures and also to prevent occurrences of sparks or areas under normal condition of operation.The equipment shall conform to IS : 6381-1972.

4.4.7.7 Electrical equipment with ‘n’ type protectionThe equipment under this category is standard electrical equipment with special features so that

possibility of ignition of surrounding explosive atmosphere is avoided. The equipment shall not in


normal operation produce an arc or spark and develop surface temperature or hotspot capable ofcausing, ignition of ambient explosive atmosphere with the following exception:

(a) Make-break contact hermatically sealed enclosure.

(b) Spark energy is insufficient to cause ignition.

(c) Enclosed break device meeting the requirement of applicable standard.

The equipment shall conform to IS : 8289-1976.

4.5 BASICS OF EXPLOSION PROTECTIONElectrical systems-IEC and EN standards

Flammable gases, mists and dusts, together with oxygen, form explosive atmospheres. If suchan atmosphere is ignited, an explosion results which may cause serious damage to personae andequipment.

An explosion can only take place if the following factors are jointly active:

1. flammable substance (gas, vapour, mist or dust) in a suitable distribution and concentration.

2. oxygen (from the air) and

3. ignition source.

An explosive atmosphere only occurs if the substance-air mixture lies within a certainconcentration range, the explosion limits. The explosion limits depend on the ambient pressure andthe oxygen concentration of the air.

100 Vol % concentration of air 0 Vol %

mixture too clean ignition range mixture too rich

no combustion lower upperignition limit← → deflagration, no explosion

0 Vol % concentration of combustible 100 Vol %material in air

Explosion Protection

In order to avoid explosions and associated dangers, an operator must incorporate effectiveexplosion protection precautions into his plant.

The principle integrated explosion requires that explosion protection measures be taken in thefollowing order

1. Measures to prevent formation of a dangerous explosive atmosphere.

2. Measures which prevent dangerous explosive atmospheres from igniting.

3. Measures which restrict the effects of an explosion to a safe level.

Also are distinguishes:

Primary explosion protection:

– all measures which prevent the formation of an explosive atmosphere.

Secondary explosion protection:

– all measures which restrict the effects of an explosion to an insignificant level.


Classification of Zones

Hazardous areas are classified into Zones, depending on the composition and presence of anexplosive atmosphere. This enables both selection of suitable equipment and appropriate electricalinstallation.

Gases, vapours, Dust Definition (94/9/EG) explosivemists explosive atmosphere is present

Zone 0 — category 1G Zone 20 — category 1 D permanent, long-term

Zone 1 — category 2G Zone 21 — category 2 D occasional

Zone 2 — category 3G Zone 22 — category 3 D seldom or short-period

G = gases, D = dusts

Classification of zones and use of equipment

Zone 0 – Equipment with certificate of conformity or type test certificate especially approvedfor zone 0

Zone 1 – Equipment with certificate of conformity or type test certificate.

Zone 2 – Equipment complying with the basic requirements of Directive 94/9/EC (Equipmentcertified for Zone 0 and Zone 1 can also be used).

Types of Protection

In areas where explosive atmospheres can occur despite the explosion protection measuresemployed, only explosion-protected electrical equipment may be used. Explosion protected electricalequipment can be manufactured to IEC protection type levels.

Protection type Basic principle Schematic Principal applicationto IEC or EN representationstandard

Flame-proof Parts which can ignite an Switch gear and switch-enclosure explosive atmosphere are ing installations, controld placed in an enclosure which, and display units, controlIEC 60079-1 if there is an ignition of an boards, motors, transfor-EN 50 018 explosive mixture internally, will mers, heating devices,

withstand the pressure and light fittings.prevent the explosion being trans-mitted to the atmosphere aroundthe enclosure.

Increased Additional measures are taken to Terminal and connectionsafety achieve a higher level of safety boxes, control boxes fore and avoid the risk of impermissibly the installation of Ex-IEC 60 079-7 high temperatures and the occurr- components (which areEN 50 019 ence of sparks and arcs internally protected in another pro-

or on external parts of electrical tection class), squirrelequipment, which in normal use cage motors, lightproduce neither sparks, arcs nor fittings.dangerous temperatures.


Pressurised The formation of an explosive at- Switching an controlapparatus mosphere inside an enclosure pre- cabinet, analysis devicesp vented by using a protective gas large motors.IEC 60 079-3 to maintain an internal overpress-EN 50 016 ure relative to the surrounding at-

mosphere, and if necessary, theinterior of the enclosure is per-manently supplied with protectivegas so that here is dilution offlammable mixtures.

Intrinsic The equipment placed in the ha- Measurement and controlsafety zardous area contains only intri- equipment, communi-i nsically safe circuits. A circuit cations equipment, senso-IEC 60 079-11 is intrinsically safe if no sparks rs, actuators.EN 50 020 or thermal effects occur under

established test conditions(including) the normal operatingand certain fault conditions), whichcould lead to the ignition of agiven explosive atmosphere.

Oil immersion Electrical equipment or parts of Transformers, startingo electrical equipment are immersed resistors.IEC 60 079-6 in a protective liquid in such aEN 50 015 way that an explosive atmosphere

above the surface or outside theenclosure cannot be ignited.

Powder fitting Type of protection by which the Electronic devices

q equipment parts that could becomeIEC 60 079-5 an ignition source are fixed inEN 50 017 position and completely surrounded

by finely ground solids. So as toprevent ignition of an externalexplosive atmosphere.

Moulding Parts which can ignite an explosive Switch gear for low powers,m atmosphere are embedded in a cas- control gear and indica-IEC 60 079-18 ting compound so that the explosive ting equipment, displayEN 50 028 atmosphere cannot be ignited. equipment, sensors.

Protection Electrical equipment is not capable Zone 2 All electrical equipmentmethod of igniting a surrounding explosive Several protec- for zone 2, less suitablen atmosphere (in normal operation and tion methods for switch gear andIEC 60 079-15 under defined abnormal operating are subsumed switching installations.EN 50 021 conditions). under the prote-

ction type.

Temperature ClassesIgnition temperature is the lowest temperature of a surface at which an explosive atmosphere

ignites on it. Flammable vapours and gases can be classified into temperature classes according totheir ignition temperature.


The maximum surface temperature of a piece of equipment must always be lower than thatof the ignition temperature of the gas-air mixture or vapour-air mixture in which it is placed.

Temperature Classes to IEC

Temperature class Maximum permissible Ignition temperatures Temperature classIEC/EN surface temperature of of flammable substances NEC 500-3NEC 505-10 the equipment (°C) (°C) CEC 18-052

T1 450 >450 T1

T2 300 > 300 ≤ 450 T2

280 > 280 ≤ 300 T2A

260 > 260 ≤ 280 T2B

230 > 230 ≤ 260 T2C

215 > 215 ≤ 230 T2D

T3 200 > 200 ≤ 300 T3

180 > 180 ≤ 200 T3A

165 > 165 ≤ 180 T3B

160 > 160 ≤ 165 T3C

T4 135 > 135 ≤ 200 T4

120 > 120 ≤ 135 T4A

T5 100 > 100 ≤ 135 T5

T6 85 > 85 ≤ 100 T6

Explosion GroupsExplosion protected electrical equipment is divided into 2 groups:

Group I: Electrical equipment for mining.

Group II: Electrical equipment for all other hazardous areas.

Electrical equipment of group II is further subdivided in group IIA, IIB and IIC, depending onthe danger level of the gas or vapour atmosphere in which they are operated. Equipment of groupIIC is suitable for use in the most dangerous atmospheres.

Example of the Classification of Gases and Vapours into Explosion Groups andTemperature Classes

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

I Methane

IIA Acetone Ethyl alcohol Gasoline Acetaldehyde

Ethane i-amyl acetate Diesel fuel Ethyl ether

Ethyl acetate n-butane Aviation fuel

Ammonia n-butyl alcohol Heating oils


Benzene (pure) n-hexane

Acetic acid

Carbon monoxide

Methane

Methanol

Propane

Toluene

II B Town gas Ethylene

(coal gas)

II C Hydrogen Acetylene

Certification and MarkingOnly appropriately certified and marked units may be used in hazardous areas. Two directives

are valid up to year 2003 for placing on market explosion protected equipment.

EC Directive 79/196/EEC (until 30.06.2003)

EC Directive 94/9/EC (ATEX 100a)

EC Directive 79/196/EEC 94/9/EC

Validity until 30.06.2003 from 01.03.1996

Range of validity for - electrical equipment - all equipment and protectionsystem

equipment in hazardous - gases and vapours - gases, vapours and dustsareas - not for mining - including mining

QM system of manufacturer no requirements “QM certificate” of notified body

Certificate of conformity conformity or inspection manufactures declaration ofcertificate of a notified conformity on the basis of thebody type examination.

Marking laid down by the Directive and the standards

Name or marking of manufacturer, e.g.,

Type marking (e.g.) 6000/562... 6000/562-...

Address – D-Künzelsau

CE mark, no. of testing authority – CE(e.g. PTB) 0102

Test station, no. of certificate (e.g.) PTB No. Ex-91.C.1045 1) PTB 97 ATEX 20311

Mark according to EC Directive 2 2

(free movement of goods)

Group and category of equipment: Group I: M1 or M 2

mining (I) I or II Group II: 1 g/D, 2G/D,3 GD

Other hazardous areas (II)


EN marking EEx/Ex EEx/Ex

Protection types (e.g.) d, e, q,... d, e, q,...

ib or (ib)3 ib or (ib)3

Subclassification for Group II A or B or C A or B or C(only for d and i)

Temperature class for II T1-T6 T1-T6

Electrical data V, A, W, Hz V, A, W, Hz

Ambient temperature,

if other than –20°C... + 40°C, (e.g.) Ta ≤ 50°C Ta ≤ 50°C

(1) With... X special conditions are indicated for use etc.

With... U for Ex components.

(2) New: always present, old: not on Ex components.

(3) Intrinsically safe apparatus: ib/associated apparatus (ib).

Duties of the Manufacturer, Installer and OperatorSafety can only be guaranteed in hazardous areas through close collaboration between operators,

installers and manufacturers of explosion protected plant and components, as well as test stations,authorities and standardising associations.

The manufacturers of explosion protected equipment must be responsible for part testing,certification and documentation, and ensure that each finished device corresponds to the tested typemodel.

The installer must comply with the installation requirements and select and install the electricalequipment in accordance with it use.

The operator is responsible for the safety of his plant. He must assess the explosion hazardand undertake zone classification. He must ensure that the plant is properly installed and tested beforefirst use. He must ensure the correct condition by regular testing and maintenance.


Tabl

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6510

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. 197

0.


Table 16 A : For machine components not insulated

Items Maximum permitted Maximum temperaturetemperature rise °C °C

Commutators and slip rings 60 95

Bearings 45 80

Iron cores with embedded As for the winding As for the windingwindings

Iron cores without embedded Limited only by Limited only by effectionwindings adjacent insulation. adjacent insulation.

All other components Limited only by Limited only by effectionadjacent insulation. adjacent insulation.

1. Source : Mathematical and Technical Tables 1944-After E. Schultz.

2. Maximum temperature rise permitted is above the temperature oil surrounding air/cooling media.

Table 17 : Standards speeds and Synchronous speeds, rev/min inAC machines, 50 hz

No. of poles 2 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24

Rev/min 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500 375 300 250

(28) 32 (36) 40 48 (56) 64 (72) 80

Rev/min 214 188 167 150 125 107 94 83 75

Source : VDE spec. 0530

1. Where possible same speeds apply for DC machines.

2. Values in brackets should be avoided.

Table 18 : Percentage Efficiency of DC Motors at 110, 220 and 440 Volts

Rev/min Output, kW

0.2 0.7 1.0 5 10 50 80 100

2800 68 73 75 82 – – – –

2000 67 74 75 82 84 – – –

1400 66 72 74 82 84 88.5 – –

750 – – – 79 82 88.5 89.5 90

500 – – – 76 80 87 – –

Machines of output above 1000 kW, running at high speeds, show a percentage efficiency ofup to 94%.



Table 18 A : Three-Phase Motors, Percentage Efficiency

Rev/min Output, kW

7.5 15 30 50 100 200 250

3000 83 85 88.5 89.5 90.5 92 92.5

1500 85 87.5 89 90 91 92.5 93

750 83.5 86 88 89.5 91 92 92.5

500 – 85 87 88.5 90.5 92 92.5

Rev/min Output, kW

400 500 800 1000 200

1500 93.5 94 94 94.5 –

1000 94 94 94.5 95 95.5

750 94 94 94.5 94.5 95.5

500 93 93 – – –

Source : Borsig pocket book 3rd Ed. 1970.

Table 19 : Load Capacity in amps of Copper Conductors

Load-Capacity of Three Separately Laid Non-armoured Single-Core Cables in Three-PhaseCurrent System.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Nominal U0 = 0.6 1.75 3.5 6 10 12 17.5 25 35 kVcross- U = 1 3 3 10 5 20 30 45 60 kVsection

of copperconductor Load-Capacity in Amps

mm2

16 140 135 130 110 105 – – – –

25 180 175 170 145 140 135 – – –

35 220 215 210 175 170 165 155 – –

50 270 265 260 220 215 205 190 185 –

70 325 320 310 265 260 250 235 220 –

95 390 385 375 315 305 295 280 265 250

120 445 440 430 360 350 340 320 300 285

150 500 495 485 410 400 390 365 340 325

185 550 545 535 460 445 430 405 385 365

240 625 620 615 520 505 490 465 440 420

300 695 690 680 570 555 540 515 490 465

400 785 780 770 645 630 615 590 565 535

500 855 850 845 705 690 575 650 – –


625 915 – – – – – – – –

800 980 – – – – – – – –

1000 1030 – – – – – – – –

The above values apply to non-armoured cables laid at a centre-distance of approx. 13 mm,allowance being made for lead-sheath losses with resistanceless short-circuiting of the sheath atboth ends of the cable.

It is recommended that only approx. 75% of the load shown in Table 1 and 2 be applied to overheadcables.

Where a number of cables run through the same conduit or cable tube section, or where a numberof cables are laid in superimposed layers in a single trench, the safe load-capacity should bedetermined according to circumstances. This applies also to intermittent operation.

Source: Borsig Pocket Book 3rd Edn. 1970.

Table 20 :

I. Synchronous speed in r.p.m. l in AC machines

r.p.m. Formula = 120 f

p

where f = frequency of supply

p = no. of poles

Actual r.p.m is synchronous r.p.m. less % slip.

N.B. In winter, motor speed improves due to frequency improvement as it remain nearest to rated

50 cycles frequency.

II. Motor H.P.–Voltage

Fractional 110/220V single phase AC and DC

1-150 400 V, 3 phase AC

150-1000 3 KV or 6 KV 3 phase AC

1000 and above 11 KV 3 phase AC

III. Features

1. Online starting of motors is done for medium voltage.

2. Wound rotor motor is used for high starting current.

3. Starting torque in squirrel cage motor is 100-250% of F.L.T. and for slip ring and synchronousinduction motor it is 200-250% of FLT. It is 30-80% of FLT in synchronous salient pole typemotors.

4. Starting current in maximum (6 times F.L.C) in squirrel cage motors, 2-3 times in slip ring andsyn. induction motors and 4 times in syn. salient pole.

Table 21 : Modern substation equipment list

Power transformer, Reactor, Capacitor bank, lightning arrester, Earth pit connectors, Incoming bus,battery bank, switch breakers, current and potential transformers, voltmeter and ammeter, energymeters, software for substation monitoring, PLCC equipment, AC/DC Panel boards, Power andcontrol cables, exhaust fan, Transformer oil filters, cable racks etc.


Table 22 : IS : 9570 – 1980Table 1 : Classification of Flammable Gases or Vapours for Which Group IIA

Apparatus is Required

(Clause 5)

Gas or Vapour Chemical Formula Method of Classification (1) (2) (3)

(i) Hydrocarbons

Alkanes

*Methane CH4 c

Ethane C2H6 c

Propane C3H8 c

Butane C4H10 c

Peptane C5H12 c

Hexane C6H14 c

Heptane C7H16 c

Octane C8H18 a

Nonane C9H20 d

Decane C10H22 a

Cyclobutane CH2(CH2)2CH2 d

Cyclopentane CH3(CH2)3CH2 c

Cyclohexane CH2(CH2)4CH2 d

Cycloheptane CH2(CH2)5CH2 d

Methylcyclobutane CH3CH(CH2)2CH2 d

Methyleyclopentane CH3CH(CH3)3CH2 d

Methyleyclohexane CH3CH(CH2)2CH2 d

Ethyleclobutane C2H5CH(CH2)2CH2

Ethylcyclopentane C2H5CH(CH2)3CH2 d

Ethycyclohexane C2H5CH(CH2)4CH2 d

Decahydronaphthalene CH2(CH2)3CHCHCH2CH2 d(dekalin)

AlkenesPropene (propylene) C2H4 = CH2 a

*Methane (CH4) refers to a gas with negligible impurities.


Table 1 : Classification of Flammable Gases or Vapours for Which Group IIAApparatus is Required —Contd.


Arematic Hydrocarbons

Styrene C6H5CH—CH2 b

Isopropenylbenzene C6H5C(CH3) = CH2 a

(methylstyrene)

Benzoids

Benzene C6H6 c

Toluene C6H5CH3 d

Xylene C6C4(CH3)2 a

Ethylebenzene C6H5C2H5 d

Trimethylbenzene C6H3(CH3)3 d

Naphthalene C10H6 d

Cumene C6H5CH(CH3)2 d

Cymene (CH3)2CHC6H4CH3 d

Mixed Hydrocarbons

Methane (industrial)* a

(calculated)

Turpentine d

Petropleum naphtha d

Coal tar naphtha d

Petroleum (including motor spirit) d

Solvent or cleaning petroleum d

Heating oil d

Kerosene d

Diesel oil d

Motor benzole a

(ii) Compounds Containing OxygenOxides (Including Ethers)

**Carbon monoxide CO c

Dipropyl ether (C3H7)2O a

Alcohols and Phenols

Methanol CH3OH c

Ethanol C2H5OH c

*‘Methane’ (CH4) refers to the gas with negligible impurities. ‘Methane (industrial)’ includes methanemixtures containing up to 15 percent by volume of hydrogen.

**‘Carbon monoxide’ may include a moisture content sufficient to saturate a carbon monoxide-air mixtureat normal ambient temperature.




Propanol C3H7OH cButanol C1H9OH aPentanol C3H11OH aHexanol C6H13OH aHeptanol C7H15OH dOctanol C8H17OH dNonanol C9H19OH dCyclohexanol CH2(CH2)4 CH OH d

Ethylyclohexanols CH3CH(CH2)4CH OH d

Phenol C6H5OH d

Cresol CH3C6H4OH d

4-hydroxy-4-mehtylpentan-2-one

(diacetone alcohol) (CH3)2C(OH)CH2COCH3 d

Aldehydes

Acetaldehyde CH3CHO a

Metaldehyde (CH3CHO)n d

Ketones

Acetone (CH3)2CO c

Butanoae (ethyl methyl ketone) C2H5COCH3 c

Pentane-2-one (propyl methyl C3H7COCH3 a

ketone

Hexane-2-one (butyl methyl C1H9(CO CH2) a

Ketone)

Amyl methyl ketone C5H11CO CH3 d

Pentane-2, 4-dione CH3COCH2COCH3 a

(acetylacetone)

Cyclohexanone CH2(CH2)4CO a

EstersMethyl formate H COO CH3 a

Ethyl formate H COO C2H5 a

Methyl acetate CH3 COO CH3 c

Ethyl acetate CH3 COO C2H5 a

Propyl acetate CH3 COO C3H7 a

Brityl acetate CH3 COO C4H9 c

Amyl acetate CH3 COO C5H11 d




Methyl methacrylate CH2 = C(CH)3 COO CH3 a

Ethyl methacrylate CH2 = C(CH)3 COOC2H5 d

Vinyl acetate CH3COOCH = CH2 a

Ethyl acetoactate CH3COCH2COOC2H5 a

Acid

Acetic acid CH3COOH b

(iii) Compounds ContainingHalogens

Compounds without OxygenChloromethane CH3Cl aChloroethane C2H5Cl bBromoethane C2H5Br dChloropropane C3H7Cl aChlorobutane C4H9Cl aBromobutane C4H9Br dDichloroethane C2H4Cl2 aDichloropropane C3H6Cl2 dChlorobenzene C6H5Cl dBenzyl chloride C6H5CH2Cl dDichlorobenzene C6H4Cl2 dAllyl chloride CH2 = CHCH2Cl b

Dichloroethylene CHCl = CH Cl a

Chloroethylene CH2 = CH Cl e

d, d, d, — Trifluorotoluene(benzotrifluoride) C6H5CF3 a

Dichloromethane (methylene CH2Cl2 dchloride)

Compounds with Oxygen

Acetyl chloride CH3COCl d

Chloroethanol CH2Cl CH2OH d

(iv) Compounds Containing Sulphur

Ethanethiol (ethyl mercaptan) C2H5SH c

Propane-I-thiol (propyl-mercaptan) C3H7SH a(calculated)

Thiophene CH = CH = CH S a

Tetrahydrothiophene CH2(CH2)2CH2S a




(v) Compounds Containing Nitrogen

Ammonia NH3 a

Acetonitrile CH3CN a

Ethyl nitrite CH3CH2ONO a

Nitromethane CH3NO2 d

Nitroethane C2H5NO2 d

Amines

Methylamine CH3NH2 a

Dimethylamine (CH3)2NH a

Trimethylamine (CH3)3N a

Diethylamine (C2H5)2NH d

Triethylamine (C2H5)3N d

Propylamine C3H7NH2 d

Butylamine C4H9NH2 c

Cyclohexylamine CH2(CH2)4CH NH3 d

2-Aminoethanol (ethanolamine) NH2CH4CH2OH d

(mono-ethanolamine)

2-Diethylaminoethanol (C2H5)2NCH2CH2OH d

Diaminoethane NH2CH2CH2NH2 a

Aniline C6H5NH2 d

NN-dimethylaniline C6H5N(CH3)2 d

Amphetamine C6H5CH2CH(NH2)CH3 d

Toluidine CH3C6H4NH2 d

Pyridine C5H5N d


Table 2 : Classification of Gases or Vapours for Which Group IIB Apparatusis Required

(Clause 5)


(i) Hydrocarbons

Propyne CH3C CH b

Ethylene C2H4 c

Cyclopropane CH2CH2CH2 b

1, 3-Butadiene CH2 = CH CH = CH2 c

(ii) Compounds Containing Nitrogen

Acrylonitrile CH2 = CHCN c

Isopropyl nitrate (CH3)2 CHONO2 b

Hydrogen cyanide HCN a

(iii) Compounds Containing Oxygen

Dimethyl ether (CH3)2O c

Ethyl methyl ether CH3OC2H5 d

Diethyl ether (C2H5)2O c

Dibutyl ether (C4H9)2O c

Oxione (ethylene oxide) CH2CH2O c

1, 2-Epoxypropane CH3CHCH2O c

1,3-Dioxolane CH2CH2OCH2O d

1, 4-Dioxane CH2CH2OCH2CH2O a

1, 3, 5-Trioxane CH2OCH2OCH2O b

Butyl glycolate (hydroxyacetic

acid, butyl ester) HOCH2COOC4H3 a

Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol CH2CH2CH2OCHCH2OH d

Methyl acrylate CH2 = CHCOOCH3 a

Ethyl acrylate CH2 = CHCOOC2H5 a

Furan CH = CHCH — CHO a


Crotonaldehyde CH3CH = CHCHO a

Acrylaldehyde (acrolein) CH2 = CH CHO a

(calculated)

Tetrahydrofuran CH2(CH2)2CH2O a

(iv) Mixtures

Coke oven gas d

(v) Compounds Containing Halogens

Tetrafluoroethylene C2F4 a

1-Chloro-2, 3-epoxypropane

(epichlorohydrin) OCH4CHCH2Cl a

Table 3 : Classification of Flammable Gases or Vapours for Which Group IICApparatus is Required

(Clause 5)


Hydrogen H2 c

Acetylene C2H2 c

Carbon disulphide CS2 c

Ethyl nitrate C2H5ONO2

5Chapter

PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION

5.1. DCS CONTROL SYSTEM IN PROCESS PLANTS(i) Upto 90s chemical process plants used mainly pneumatic and electrical control systems.(ii ) Due to advances in subsequent yrs. in process controls, Analog electronics based controls

and distributed control systems (DCS) came up although based on cost with referenceto old pneumatic control system cost, the cost of analog electronics control system isabout 27% more and that for DCS is about 32%. The draw backs of analogue electronicscontrol system are more as regards flexibility, plant data processing and presentationwhich could not be improved significantly.

Data H ighway

ControllersControllers

I/O I/O

CRT

Alarm TyperD isk

CPU

CRT

Printer/Copier

Fig. 3 DCS Example (Distributed Control System)The development in the field of digital control method is a quite interesting concept that is named, as the distributedcontrol system (DCS). This concept is based on distributing the hardware, intelligence and risk as shown in Fig. 3.

In DCS the Computer talks directly to intelligent digital controllers which in turn perform powerful functionsand communicate with the actual process. The system can be termed as some of the Computer functions or intelligenceare distributed to a no. of intelligent units. Functions such as simulation, optimisation and histroical trending mainlyare Computer functions.

183


(iii ) A distributed control system is based on modern technology and main advantages of thiscomputerised control technology are :-(a) Very good flexibility with regard to control configuration, plant data processing and

data presentation.(b) Different sections of a continuous process plants is segregated into various loops

and signals from these section and out put signals from DCS is sent to these loopsmaking effective control. Failure of any loop functions is taken over by a anothercontrol system. In Fig. 3 a DCS system located in control room is shown.

(c) Improved control accuracy, reliability and availability.(d) Possibility to introduce advance control schemes and plant optimisation packages.(e) Labour cost for operation and maintenance cost of DCS are reduced considerably

as computerised control takes over.(iv) Briefly a DCS system contains different controllers for various loops with input signals

coming from a loop is sent by data highway to CPU which process the input data fromcontrollers and appropriate output signal is routed via data highway to controllers whichsends the output signals to the particular loop. The computer monitor displays both input/output signals etc. and alarm typer is also provided. A data logger is also part of thesystem. DCS is digital.

(v) Major international instrumentation companies can carry out and implement DCS in aprocess industry, chemical or otherwise. These cos. are Honeywell, Foxboro, Taylor etc.

Instrument Sym bols in process and instrument (P and I) flow diagrams and abbreviationsin com puterised instrumentation

Central control room Auxiliary location

Accessible tooperator

Behind thepanel

Accessible tooperator

Behind thepanel

Fieldmounted

1. Instrument

Shared hard-ware, shareddisplay-sharedcontrol

Softwarecomputerfunction

Shared logicprogram mablelogic controlPLC

Fig. 1

Process plants of early 90’s design were usuallly provided with pneumatic and electricalinstruments (both field and control room) without any shared distributed control system (DCS) withbasic logic diagram for specific control system using pneumatic-electronic transducers for controllersand pressure/flow etc. were transmitted to controller electronically by an electronic transmiters. Theworking of DCS using basic logic diagrms and computers is given in Fig. 2/2a.

PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION 185

2. Line symbol-all lines should be firm in relation to process:line sym bol

Undefined signal

Connection to process or mech.

Pneumatic S ignal

E lec. S ignal

Capillary tubing

Hydraulic signal

*E lectrom agneticor sonic signalInternal softwarelink softwareor data link

Mech. Link

Y - Relay (time function)Ux - Driving relayAs - A ir supply, 100 PSIGEs - E lectric supply, 24 VDCNs - N itrogen supplyW s - Water supplySS - Steam supplyA - AnalogD - D igita lInput output sequenceE - voltageI - currentO - electron m agnetic or sonicP - PneumaticR - R esistance etc.Sp - Set pointH - H ydraulic

* Include heat, light, neuclear radiation of radio waves D etalied loop: ------ It is a sim plified in P and I d iagram .

The Figs. 2/2a give the idea about how a loop can be combined with symbols. Left side lookas it would appear in detail P and I diagram while on right side as it would be appearing in processflow diagram.

Fig. 2/2(a)

The pressure indicating control loop is controlled by a shared distributed control system (DCS).The set point of this controller is received from a supervisor computer over a shared data high way


that provides soft ware link between the computer and (DCS) system. The control loop tag no. is211 which indicates this is 11th instrument on flow sheet no. 2.

On the measurement side of loop is an electronic (4–20 mA dc out put) pressure transmitterwhich is connected to the process pipe by a ½ inch valve and has a range of 0–300 psig. The outputfrom transmitter is received and identified at the multiplexer of DCS system as analoging input no.17 (A1–17). The controller PIC 211 is found on control no. 2 (C–2) of the DCS system and isprovided with proportional and integral PI Algorithm. DCS system also provides a high pressurealarm function PA and a high rate of pr. rise alarm functions on this measurement.

The analog signal leaving the multiplexer in the out put side is identified as AO–211. The signalis 4–20 mA DC signal which is received by a current to air coverter (PY–211) mounte on the controlvalue. The peneumatic out put signal from I/P converter goes to the diaphragm motor of the controlvalue. Air supply is provided for both valve positioner (P) and I/P converter. Therefore, (a) processfunction diagram which gives a site specific logic diagram Fig. 2. (a) P and I diagram Fig. 2(b) and(c) a hardware diagram giving detail wiring diagram, will constitue the basic drawings for a processplant. Such set of drawings should be provided by the plant designer.

5.3 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT IN FLOWING FLUIDThe formula is :—

Ptotal = Pstat + Pdyn in kg/m2 (mm water-column).

The total pressure at the mouth and the static pressure in the annular slot are measured usinga Prandtl tube. The difference between these two pressures represents the dynamic pressure. If noPrandtl tube is available, the total pressure may be measured with the aid of a simple Pitot tube andthe static pressure by drilling the tube wall. The interior of the bore thus drilled must be satisfactorilydeburred.

The velocity is obtained from :

w =2g

γ Pdyn in m/s.

For cold air, the following is sufficiently accurate :

w = 4 Pdyn in m/s.

The driver power required by a blower is :—

N =totalQ . P

102.

∆η in kW

Where Q is the delivery in m3/s, ∆Ptotal the difference in total pressure up-stream and down-stream of the blower. For planning purposes it is generally sufficient to use, for ∆Ptotal, the staticdelivery pressure ∆Pstat + approx. 20 mm water-column for the dynamic pressure at the bloweroutlet. The efficiency η lies approximately between 60 and 80%.

7.0

0.9

0.8

0.70 1000 2000 3000 m

γγ0

HFig. 3. Relation between density of air at Ht and sea level.


The relationship beween the density γ of the air at ground-level and its density γ0 at sea-levelat the same temperature can be seen from the above curve*) :

When planning a boiler blower or induced-draught plant at a ground-level H2 it should beremembered that the delivery Q in m3/s is greater than would be obtained with an identical boiler at

sea-level in the proportion 0 ,γγ

and the same applies to the delivery pressure; in these conditions the

power consumption increases in a square-law relationship.


5.4 THERMOELECTRIC MEASUREMENTSThe thermoelectric voltage (EMF) in a thermocouple depends on the temerpature difference

between the two junctions and may be used for the purpose of temperature measurement when oneof the temperatures is known.

50

40

30

20

10

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

NiC

r-co

nsta

ntan

Fe-consta

ntan

Cu-consta

ntan

Ni-NiC

r

N i-NiFe

P t-P tR hThe

rmoe

lect

ric v

olta

ge [m

V]

Tem pera tu re [°C ]

Fig. 4.

The graph shows the value of the thermoelectric voltage in millivolts and its variation withtempearture for the thermocouples most frequently encountered in industry (reference temperatureof cold junction +20°C).

The curve provide only approximate values, since the relationship between temperature andthermoelectric voltage is influenced by the alloy used in the wire.

If the temperature at the cold junction (tm) at the time of measurement is different from thereference temperature obtaining during calibration (t

b), the true temperature at the point of measurement

(tw) will be :—

tw = tr + C (tm – tb) in °C. (tr = temperature read)

If the voltage curve rises in direct proportion to the temperature, the factor C is equal to 1 (e.g.,for Ni-NiCr).


Where the curve does not run straight, C depends on the value of the temperature undermeasurement. For Ni-NiFe thermocouples C = 0 and the temperature read (tr) is unaffected bytemperature changes at the reference junction, being identical to the ture temperature (tw).

5.5 KEY POINTS IN SETTING INSTRUMENT CONTROLLERS (PNEUMATIC)Proportional band (P.B.)

Decreasing P.B. (thereby increasing gain) increases the decay ratio thus making the system lessstable. However, frequency of response is increased which is desirable. Increasing the P.B. has anopposite effect.

Reset mode (R.M.)When the reset time is increased the decay ratio is decreased, thus making the system more

stable. Simultaneously, frequency of response increases. Decreasing R.M., has an opposite effect.When the reset time is made maxm., the R.M. is tuned out of controller.

Derivative mode (D.M.)The effect of this mode is most difficult to predict. Starting at Ø and increasing derivative time

is beneficial upto a certain point beyond which increasing D.M. will be detrimental. To check theeffect of increasing the derevative time and set accordingly.

N.B. Critical controllers viz temp. controllers are usually have 3 mode controls.

Table 23 : Moisture content of compressed instrument air

Dew Point Moisture content

°C W/V

0 3800 ppm

–5 2500 ppm

–10 1600 ppm

–20 685 ppm

–30 234 ppm

–40 80 ppm

–60 6.5 ppm

–80 0.3 ppm

Note : For IA, dry air at –40°C dew point is preferable.

Table 24 : Thermocouple element temp. rangesRef. cold junction temp. 0°C

Thermocouple Temperature range (°C)

Iron-constantan 0-815

Chromel-constantan (–) 150-980

Chromel-Alumel (–) 150-1250

Copper–constantan (–) 93-980

Platinum 87-RH 13 0-1645

Platinum 90–Rh10 0-1645


Platinum 70-Rh30/Platinum 94-RH6 0-1800

Tungsten 74–Re 26 (–) 18-2300

Copper–Gold-Cobalt (–) 230 - (–) 18

Ir. 40 - Rh 60 (–) 18 - 2090

Table 25 : Recommended Temperature Range for Thermocouple Extension WiresThermocouple Extension wire Range °F+ – – +

Platinum-rhodium Platinum Copper Copper-nickel 75 to 400

Chromel R Alumel R Chromel R Alumel R 0 to 400

Copper Constantan R 75 to 200

Iron Copper-nickel 75 to 400

Iron Constantan R Iron Constantan R 0 to 400

Copper Constantan R Copper Constantan R –75 to +200

Table 26 : Advantages of Electronic and Pneumatic ControllingElectronic Pneumatic

1. Accuracy, % 0.25 – 0.5 0.5 – 1

2. Control loop Fast action Fast action notpossible

3. Remote transmission Possible only upto a distanceof about 250 ft.

4. Computer control and (PLC) Possible Not available now.Control data processing

5. Final element control Electrically operated or pneumatic control(control value) by Electro-pneumatic

transducer

6. Ease of maintenance Requires less maintenance Maintenance isbut fault detection may simpler.be time consuming.

7. Nature of instrument systems Costlier Less constlier.

N.B. Instrument air (dry) is usually supplied at 7 kg/cm2g at preferably –40°C dew point.


1.0. CONTROL VALVES FOR

Type of control modes

(i) Temperature controllers Percentage proportional-reset-rate(3 mode controllers)Auto reset type

(ii ) Flow controllers Percentage proportional-reset type(2 mode controllers)

(iii ) Ratio controllers Percentage-reset type(2 mode controller)

(iv) Level controllers Proportional-reset type(2 mode controller)

(v) Proportional controller Proportional-reset type(2 mode controller)

N.B. For pneumatic control

2.0 THERMOMETER(i) Locally mounted thermometer upto 8m indistance from impulse pt. shall be dial type

bimetallic. Liq. filled/mercury type may be used for low temperature services.

3.0 THERMOCOUPLES1. Resistance type upto 350°C or less.2. Iron-constantan upto (350°C–450°C)3. Chromel-Alumel upto (450°C–850°C)4. See temp. range of thermocouples in table-24 (instrumentation).

4.0 RECORDERSMultipoint recorder shall be Electric type with maxm. 12 points.

5.0 CONTROLLERS1. Auto-manual change over switches to be provided.

6Chapter

INSTRUMENTATION-PRACTICALGUIDE

190

INSTRUMENTATION-PRACTICAL GUIDE 191

2. Control point of controllers may be 75–80% of full scale range.

3. Reset rate mode to be added for precision control with added sensivity.

6.0 PRESSURE MEASURING ELEMENTS1. Bellow, diaphragm or manometer upto 5 kg/cm2.

2. Spiral or helical type upto above 5 kg/cm2.

3. Diff. pressure measurement shall be made with bellow or diaphragm type instrument forpressure below 2 kg/cm2g.

4. Dial range of pr. gauges shall be twice the operating pressure.

5. Phosphor bronze or A1 brass tubes to be used for air, water, or steam services.

7.0 TRANSMITTERS1. Elec/pneumatic type transmitters for press. and temp. controllers.

2. Flow transmitters will be pneumatic type.

8.0 VALVE POSITIONERSThey are intended to eliminate incorrect positioning of control valve due to hysteresis and

fricition between valve stem and packing material. The positioner in effect, a closed loop controllerthat has the instrument signal as input, diaphragm pressure as output and feed back from valve stem.

They are installed for :

1. Butterfly valve sized 4 inch or above.

2. Temp. control valve above 200°C.

3. Distance from controller to control valve exceeds 50 m.

4. Control valve with extra deep gland packing.

5. Double seated control valve 1 inch and above.

6. Single seated valve 2 inch and above.

7. For services where close control is reqd. or hunting is to be avoided.

8. Where control valve requires valve positioners these shall be force balance type.

9. Vol. Booster and spl. purpose relay may be incorporated into the control loop to overcomelag time or accomplish spl. control function.

10. CONTROL VALVES TYPESIt comprises single or double seated glove valve, and actuator (spring loaded) which operates

on signals from controllers. Control valve can also be available in the diaphragm or butterfly design.The actuator can be pneumatic, electric or hydraulic in action. Controlled air pressure to diaphramdetermines the valve opening either air to open or air to close.

1. All control valves of port sizes 1/2" or smaller shall be single seated. Above ½ inch doubleseated valves are used which however do not give tight sealing.

2. Butterfly control valves to be used in large sized lines and where low press. drop indesireable.


3. 3-way control valves are either combining types of divergent types also.Hand wheels areusually provided.

4. By pass valve for control value of size 1/2" or more.

5. Emergency control valves shall not be provided with by-pass valve.

6. Hand wheels are not provided in emergency control valve.

11. SOLENOID VALVEUsually solenoids are applied to sliding stem of valve; the stem is provided with an armature,

drawn into field of solenoid wiring and current passes through it. It is normally used for emergenceyshut off service. Solenoid force must be sufficient to move the valve plug held by a spring in oppositedirection.

12. CORRECTION FRACTORS FOR ORIFICES

1. Steam orifices KS =sm

sd

ρρ

Where Ks = Correction factor.

ρsm

= Steam density at operating conditon.

ρsd

= do-at design condition

For Rupture disc, the discharge co-efficients are as follows :

Vapour = 0.80 ; Liquid = 0.60.

2. Gas orifices

Kg =T

Tm d d

d m m

ρ ρ× ×ρ ρ

Where Kg = Correction factor.

ρd ρm = Press, at design and operating conditions.

τd, Tm = Temperature at design and operating condition.

ρd, ρm = Gas densities at design and operating condition.

3. Oval flow meter

E2 = E1 – 1 2

1 2

Kµ − µµ × µ

where K = 0.12

µ1, µ2 = viscosities at design and operating condition.

E1 = design

E2 = correction factor.

13. PR. RELIEF VALVES DISCHARGE1. For inflamable gases, the discharge shall be made to a flare stack header with a separator

at bottom with LPG stage ignition system.


2. When it is dangerous to discharge a gas near the relief valves or discharge is poisonous,it should be discharged into atmosphere at least 3m above any service platform within aradius of 15m.

3. Liq. ammonia or hazardous liquids should be discharged in a separator and vapour fromthe separator led to top of the structure with liquid draining to a closed drain.

N.B. The calculated value of relief discharge shall be multiplied by discharge co-efficient asfollows :

Vapour = 0.95; Liquid = 0.40

For Rupture disc, the discharge co-efficents are as follows:

Vapour = 0.80; Liquid = 0.60

1. For relief valves in Liquid Ammonia service

NH3 service, use API Fire service formula for capacity determination.

Calculation for adequacy of discharge capacity of Safety Valves.

600 MT/day liq. ammonia Horton sphere

2. API Fire sizing formula :O = 21000 F A0.82 B.T.U/hr.

where, A = Total wetted surface area (ft2)

F = Environmental factor

Q = Total heat absorption into the wetted surface B.T.U./hr.

Example

Here, Total surface area for 8.5 m radius sphere

= 4π, 8.52 = 908 m2 = 908 × 10.76

= 9770 ft2.

taking wetted perimeter factor of 0.80

A = 9770 × 0.80 = 7816 ft2

A0.82 = 78160.82 = 1569F = 0.75

∴ Q = 21000 × 0.75 × 1569= 24.71 × 106 B.T.U./hr

Now, relief capacity =Q

latent heat of vaporisation

Latent heat of ammonia at –2.2°C from chart in Chemical Engg. handbook (Perry)= 305 Kcal/kg.= 549 B.T.U./lb.

∴ Relief valve cap. W =624.71 10

549

× lbs/hr. = 4.50 × 104 lbs/hr.

= 20460 kg/hr.Safety valve rated capacity provided = 21500 kg/hr therefore, relief valve blow down rate is O.K.


3. Formula for S.V. sizing for sphere

A = W 1

PC ×

Tz

mk

×

Where A = Orifice area, in2

W = Rated capacity in lbs/hr = 21,500 kg/hr = 47300 lbs/hr.

P = Flow pressure PSIA = 3.85 × 14.22 + 14.7 = 69.44 PSIA

M = Mol. wt. = 17 (NH3)

T = Temp°R = –2.2°C = 488°R

Z = Compressibility factor = 1

C × K = 337 (as per crossby data of valve manufacturer)

∴ A =47300 1

69.44 17337

488

×

=681.16

337 0.186×

= 10.866 in2.

Orifice area provided = 11.05 in2; therefore, valve size is adequate.

Note: Usuallly double safety valves are reqd. for maintenance.

Table 27 : Wave lengths of ionising rays

Gamma rays .................. 10–9 µm

X-rays .................. 5 × 10–2 to 5 × 10–6 µm

Visible light .................. 0.35-0.75 µm

Ultra violet rays .................. 0.005 to 0.35 µm

Infrared rays .................. 0.75 to 500 µm

Microwave .................. above : 500 µm

Radio waves-short wave .................. 1 × 102 µm

Long wave .................. 1 × 108 µm

Table 28 : Wave length of visible spectrum of light wave

Wave length

Red = 7000 Angstrom (Å) unit

Orange = 6500 Å

Yellow = 6000 Å

Cyan = 5750 Å

Green = 5500 Å


Blue = 4500 Å

Violet = 4000 Å

N.B. 1. One Angstrom (Å) unit is 1/10,000 of a micron.

2. Red light having longest wave length is of lowest frequency.

3. Violet rays having shortest wave length, makes it rays of highest frequency.

4. Ultra violet radiation wave length-360-380 nm.

Table 29 : Sound decibel levels

Normal level for continuous 8 hrs. = 65 decibel.

Maxm. permissible level for short period = 90 decibel

Note : Sound level or sound press. is measured at 2 m distance from machine emitting sound.Sound level in decibel is 20 times the log to the base 10 of the ratio of effecive value of measurementand a reference sound press. generally. 20 µpa (2 × 10–4 µ bar).


7Chapter

Table 30 : Division of Botanical plant kingdom

Thalophytes - Algae, fungi, bacteria etc.

Bryophytes - Tiver worts or mosses etc.

Pteridophytes - Ferns, sounding rushes, club mosses and qurill worts etc.

Super mytophytes - All seed plants including coniferous and deciduous trees.

Table 31 : International Paper sizes

Sizes mm inches

A0 841 × 1189 33.1 × 46.8

A1 594 + 841 23.4 × 33.1

A2 420 × 594 16.5 × 23.4

A3 297 × 420 11.7 × 16.5

A4 210 × 297 8.3 × 11.7

A5 148 × 210 5.8 × 8.3

A6 105 × 148 4.1 × 5.8

A7 74 × 105 2.9 × 4.1

Table 32 : Sections in patent classifications

Section 1 = Human requirements

Section 2 = Chemistry and metallurgy.

Section 3 = Physics

Section 4 = Fixed constructions

Section 5 = Electricity.

Section 6 = General

Table 33 : Earth Quake record in India

Location Year Reichter Magnitude

Cachar (Assam) 10.1.1869 7.5

Assam 12.6.1897 8.7

GENERAL

196

GENERAL 197

Srimangal 8.7.1918 7.6

Jainthia Hills (Meghalaya) 9.9.1923 7.8

Assam 15.8.1950 8.5

Manipur-Burma (Border) 6.5.1994 6.6

Gujrat Kutch area

and Ahmedabad 26.1.2001 7.9

Table 34 : Fire Classification

A-class : Involves wood, paper, grass and can be cooled down with water. Soda acidextinguisher and sand buckets reqd.

B-class : Involves oils, combustible liquids, paints; can be handled by cutting off O2 supplyand using water-foam. CO2 extinguisher, sand buckets are reqd.

C-class : Involves electrical equipment and wiring. Proper earthing need to be maintened. CO2and CTC extinguisher reqd.

D-class : Involves metal fire, can be tackled by using special dry powder extinguisher, sandbuckets.

E-class : Involves combustible gas fires which can be controlled by stopping gas supply andsorrounding air cooled by water jets.


1. Normal solution–A soln. containing one gm. equivalent wt. of the solute dissolved per lit.

2. Sub normal solution–A soln. contg. a fraction of gm. equivalent wt of the solute dissolvedper lit.

3. Normality factor–It is the ratio between strength in gms/lit and eq. wt. of solute dissolved.

4. Molar soln.–A soln. contg. one gm-mol. wt. of solute dissolved per lit of solution.

5. Molal soln.–A soln. contg. one gm-mol. wt of the solute dissolved in 1000 gms of solvent.

6. Equivalent wt. of acid, base or a salt = Molecular wt.

Total + ve valencies.

7. Gram molecular volume–It is the volume occupied by 1 gm. mol. wt. of any gas and isfound to be 22.4 litres at N T P (G. M. V.) or 1 lb mole of any gas will occupy 359 cftat NTP or 1 kg-mole of any gas will occupy 22.4 m3 at N.T.P.

8. Volatility–The volatility of a component in a mixture of liquid is defined as its partial pressurein the vapour in equilibrium with that liquid divided by its mole fraction in liquid i.e.,Ra = Pa/x1

.

9. N.T.P. or S.T. P.–It is reckoned as 0°C or 273° Kelvin and 760 mm pressure and is callednormal or standard temp and pressure.

10. Atomic wt.–It is the average relative wt. of an atom of an element compared with that ofoxygen atom taken as 16. It is only a number.

Atomic wt. = Equivalent wt. × valency.

11. Molecular wt.–Mol. wt. of a substance is the no. of times its molecule is as heavy as one-sixteenth of oxygen of atom. It is also the sum of wts of all atomic weights in the molecule.

12. Basicity–For acids, it is the no. of replaceable hydrogen in one molecule of acid.

Eq. wt of a acid =Mol. wt.

Basicity

13. Acidity–For caustics, it is the no. of replaceable OH groups in one molecule of base.

8Chapter

GLOSSERY OF TERMS INCHEMISTRY AND OHTERS

198

GLOSSERY OF TERMS IN CHEMISTRY AND OTHERS 199

14. Eq. wt. of a base =Mol. wt.acidity

15. Valency–As per electronic theory of valency it is the no. of electronics in the outer most orbitof an atom, which can be lent, borrowed or shared.

16. Specific heat–Heat reqd. to increase the temp. of unit mass by 1°C.

17. Latent heat of vaporisation–Heat given off when unit mass of the vapour of a substancecondenses to form liquid without change in temp.

18. Heat of fusion–Amount of heat needed to be added to a unit mass of solid to change it toits liquid phase. It is the change in enthalpy between the liquid phase and vapour phase atthe same temp. and press.

19. Solidification temp.–The temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid (equal to its m.p.)

20. Heat of vaporisation–Amount of heat needed to be added to unit mass of liquid to changeit to its gaseous phase without change in temp.

21. Heat of solidification–Amount heat to be removed from unit mass of liquid to change it tosolid phase (Equal to heat of fusion).

22. Heat of crystallisation–It is the amount of heat to be removed from a supersaturated soln.of a salt so as to facilitate crystallisation of the salt. Often seeding is reqd. for start ofcrystallisation.

23. Peptides–A class of chemicals that forms Proteins.

24. N.M.R.–Nuclear magnetic resonance system used in spectrophotometer.

25. Glass transition temp (GTT), plastics–It is the ability of a material to crystallise and whererelevant, it is the crystalline m.p. In case of amorphous polymer G.T.T. will define whetheror not a material is glass like or rubbery at a given temp. Ability of a material to crystalliseis determined by regularity of its molecular structure. Many polymers (excl. co-polymers)have G.T.T. less than M.P.

26. Surface tension–It is the attractive forces between atoms or molecules.

27. Battery rating–Based on 8 hr. rate of discharge, A 320 amp. hr. battery has a normal ratingof 40 amp. hr.

28. Cetene no–For diesel only; indicates smooth burning and easy ignition (usually 40–60°C).

29. Calorie–Amount of heat reqd. to increase the temp of 1 gm of water by 1°C.

30. Heat radiation–It is measured in units of power, W/m2 or W/cm2.

31. Nitrite nitrogen–At concetration of 10–20 ppm in water it may cause meglobinemia in inants.

32. Solubility Product–The product of the concentration of ions of a salt in a solution at adefinite temp. is called solubility product. A reaction becomes possible due to shift of ionicequilibria as per theory of ionisation. If conc. of each ion of Ca++ and SO4 = is 1.5 × 10–2

gm ions per litre than solubility product becomes (Ca++). (SO4)F = 1.5 × 10–2 × 1.5 × 10–2

= 2.25 × 10–4. The effect of electrostatic forces acting between the ions on the solubilityof an electrolyte is very small. In case of slightly soluble electrolytes the influence of theseforces may be neglected. If an ionic equilibrium is shifted towards right or left due topresence of other ions in the soln, then it will be precipitated when the solubility productof the ions exceed, resulting in decrease of ionic conc. of the ions of the salt in soln.


33. Heating value of a fuel (Dry basis) = Gross heating value × 30 30 0.522

29.92 30

−×

34. Geotropic distillation–Normal distillation of binary and terniary systems having normalequilibrium curves for liq. and vapour phases.

35. Periodic table–Mendeleeff’s period table was discovered in 1869 and consists of 0–8 groupof elements arranged in a way which states that properties of elements are a periodicfunction of their atomic weight. There are about 204 elements in the periodic table now. Newelements are being added in Actinide series.

36. Refractive index, nD25–1.5432 of a compound or material denote R.I. determined at 25°Cand value measured is 1.5432 by sodium light of wave length 549 nm. and means opticalrotation. (where ever indicated).

37. B.M.C. index–Bureau of mines (US) co-relation index for carbon black properties viz viscosity,temp. of solidification, alkaline content, sulphur and medium boiling point.

38. Fusel oil–Contains propanol, butyl alcohol, isobutyl alcohol, amyl alcohol etc.

39. Pyrolysis gasoline–It is an excellent source of BTX and obtained in petrochemical processing.

40. General trends in physical properties :

(a) Latent heat of substances decrease with increase of press. and temp.

(b) Heat capacity of a liq increase with increase of temp.

(c) Heat capacity of gases do not greatly affected by small variation in press. at lowerpress. However, at low temp. near normal B.P. the effect is more.

(d) At critical point, heat capacity increases rapidly.

(e) Kopp’s rule : Heat capacity of a solid compound is equal to the sum of heat capacitiesof the constituents materials.

41. Phase Rule–It is applicable when a system is in equilibrium.

For non reactive components/for reactive components

F = C + 2 – P F = N – R + 2 – P

Where P = no. of phases,

C = no. of chemical species which do not enter into reactions.

F = degree of freedom or variance.

R = min. no. of independent reaction.

N = no. of chemical species in the system which enter into reaction.

42. Ossein–Cattle green bones from slaughter houses are cleaned, degreased, dried, sorted andcrushed to 1–1.25 cm size. It is then treated with HCI to remove mineral salts, mainly Cal.phosphates. The residue is ossien.

43. Gelatine–It is formed by hydrolysis of collagen protein into single chains. It is a mixture ofprotein fragments of varying molecular mass. Pigskin gelatine is edible grade.

44. Gum Karaya–Gummy exudation of Stereytia Companulata tree used for varnish, lacquers,ink, polish and paper coating and engraving.

45. Gum rosin–Pine resin. also obtained from distillation of crude turpentine; used in soap,


varnish, paint driers, wax composition, high speed machine lubricant, printing ink andmedicine.

46. Guar gum–Mucilage formed from seeds of guar plant. Used as thinkening agent in paper,foods, pharma and cosmetics.

47. Selexol–Dimethyl ether of polyethylene glycol.

48. Gama acid-2-amino-8-naphthol-6 Sulphonic acid.

49. Pour point–It indicates the temp at which an oil ceases to flow and is important for lowtemp. operation.

50. Deemulsification value of an oil–It is associated with the operation of steam turbines.

51. Acidity of an oil–In mineral oil it is a almost negligible, oxidation of fatty oils gives rise tofree fatty acids. (Inhibitor for oxidation of mineral oils are β naphthol and phenyl ∞naphthalamine. Acidity is indicated in mg KOH/100ml.

52. Aniline point of an oil–It is the lowest temp. at which the oil is completely soluble in an equalvolume of aniline. It indicates action on rubber.

53. Fire point of an oil–It is the temp. at which an oil just commences to burn continuouslywhen ignited. It is approx. 60°F more than open flash point.

54. Iodine value–Iodine value of a vegetable oil indicates extent of unsaturation.

55. Saponification value–For a vegetable oil it indicates hydrolysis and expressed in mg. KOH/100 ml.

56. Flash point of an oil–It is the temp at which it flashes into vapour or condenses when cooled.

57. Oleochemicals–These chemicals include fatty acids, glycerine fatty alcohols, fatty aminesand derivatives, fatty acid methyl esters, castor oil derivatives and soaps. The chemicals aremanufactured from vegetable oils and fats. Some fatty alcohols are listed below which areused to make salts viz F.A. Carboxylates, ether sulphates/sulfides etc.

(i) Fatty alcohol ethers

(ii ) Cetyl alcohol

(iii ) Lauryl alcohol and

(iv) Stearyl alcohol.

Fatty amines are used in road construction, effluent treatment and textile processing.

58. Polyurethane–New raw materials are adiprene and vibrothane.

59. RON. Research Octane No.–It gives the degree of severerity in reforming process in arefinery.

60. Epoxy ring molecule–

61. Curing agents–For epoxy adhesives, it is organic acid anhydrides and aliphatic amines (MDA,DPS and DETA). Common epoxy resin is DGEBA (diglycidyl ether of bisphenol).

62. Latex–Aqueous suspension of minute natural rubber particles which are kept in suspensionby an adsorbed layer of protein. Natural rubber latex contains 30% to 60% solids.

63. Urethane–Common name for ethyl carbamate.


64. Cold Vulcanising–By silicone rubber.

65. Azadirachtin Indica–Active agent in “neem” seeds, leaves and bark.

66. Equivalent wt.–It is the no. of parts by wt. of a substance which combine with or displacedirectly or indirectly 1.008 parts by wt. of hydrogen or 8 parts by wt. of oxygen or 35.5parts by wt. of chlorine.

67. Seasoning of wood by steam heating removes moistre upto 15%. Unseasoned wood containabout 50% moistre.

68. Peat coal–It is the product of the 1st stage of formation of coals. Its carbon content is below65% where as for anthracite, it is 95%. For brown coal or lignites carbon content is about70%. Charcoal is having 100% carbon.

69. Heat of solution–The quantity of heat absorbed or liberated when one mole of a substanceis dissolved is called its heat of solution. The value is –ve if heat is abosrbed and +ve if heatis evolved.

70. Oligomers–An oligomer is composed of molecules containing a few or more species ofatoms or groups of atoms (constitutional units) repeatedly linked to each other. This, ofcourse, does not indicate the absolute degree of polymerisation or molecular wt. whichdifferentiates between an oligomer and a polymer. Physical properties of an oligomer varywith addition or removal of one or more of constitutional units from its molecule.

71. Polymerization–The term polymerization is given to those reactions in which many smallmolecules combine together to produce very large molecules.

The simple compounds from which polymers are made are known as monomers.

Polymers have molecular wt. varying from 10,000 to over 1 million. There are two typesof polymer (i) addition polymer and (ii ) condensation polymer.

Addition polymerization is by addition of monomers to form a single huge molecule. Example-Polyethylene. Polymers made from only one type of monomar are calledHomopolymers.Condensation polymerization involves combination of monomers with theelimination of simple molecules such as H2O or CH3OH.

Example : Polyethelene Terephthalate.

72. Monomers–Simple organic molecule containing a double bond or a min. of two activefunctional groups. The process of transformation of a monomer molecule into a polymermolecule is called polymerization.

73. Steroids–They are compounds mainly of plant or animal origin and composed of a series of4 carbon rings joined together to form a structural unit called cyclopentenoperhydrophenanthrene. There are 64 compounds called stereoisomers with this structure can bepossible. Important members are Sterol, male and female hormones.

74. Radical–An atom or a group of atoms forming part of a compound and behaving like a singleatom in a chemical change. In inorganic chemistry, there are acid and basic radicals and inorganic chemistry there is hydrocarbon radical.

75. Salt Eutectics–For reducing refrigeration plant loads, energy storage tanks, containing euticticsalt (Temp. range –33°C to +23°C) is used. Energy is stored by freezing an eutectic saltwhen latent heat of cyrstallization is released. When load demand increases the eutectic saltmelts absorbing latent heat of fusion of eutectic salt.


76. Optical Glass Polish–It is processed Alumina powder size ranges from 0.05 – 3µ.

77. Synthetic rubbers–These are Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber(NBR), Polybutadiene rubber (PBR), EVA (Ethylene Vinyl Copolymer), EPDM rubber, Siliconrubber, Vinyl Pyridene Latex (V P Latex).

78. Mercerising–By treatment of cotton clothes/yarn with NaOH soln. at 50°–55°C gives cottonincreased strength (10–40%) but results in shrinking (10–15%). By stretching cotton duringcaustic wash followed by water wash cotton shrinking can be reduced greatly and its lusturealso increases.

79. M.P. of synthetic fibres :

Nylon - 6 = 215°C

Nylon - 66 = 250

Polyester = 256

P.U. fibres = 250

PAN = Decomposes

PVA = 230–238

PP = 163–175

CHEMICAL LAWS

80. Avogadro’s Law–Equal volumes of gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressurecontain equal no. of molecules.

81. Raoult’s Law–The partial pressure of any component Pa in a soln. is equal to its V.P. in purestate times the conc. in liquid Pa = Xa × Po. Raoult’s Law is applicatble for solvent and alsostipulates that :

(i) The lowering of freezing point of a soln. on cooling is proportional to the quantity ofthe substance dissolved in a given wt. of the solvent.

(ii ) Equimolecular quantities of various substances dissolved in the same wt. of a givensolvent lower its freezing point by equal no. of degrees.

82. Boyle’s Law–Temp. remaining constant, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to itspressure.

83. Charle’s Law–Pressure remaining constant, the volume of a gas is directly proportional tothe absolute temperature.

84. Gas equation from Boyle’s and Charle’s Law :

1 1

1

P V

T =2 2

2

P V

T

85. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure–If two or more gases which do not interact chemically areenclosed in a closed space, the total pressure exerted by the gaseous mixture is the sum ofpartial pressure, P1, P2, P3 etc., which each gas will exert if present alone in that space orP = P1 + P2 + P3.

86. Graham’s Law of gaseous diffusion–At a specified temp. and pressure the relative rates ofdiffusion of gases through a permeable membrane are inversely proportional to the squareroots of their densities.


Eqns :1

2

r

r =2 1 2

1 2 1

Mor

M

t r

t r=

Where r is the rate of diffusion and

t time of diffusion process.

M is Mol wt. (Mol wt = 2 × v.d.)

87. Law of mass action–The rate of reaction is proportional to the molecular conc. of eachreacting substances.

K = 1

2

K C × D

K A × B=

Where C, D, A and B are products and reactants.

k1, k2 = velocity constants

K = Equilibrium constants.

87A. Gay Lussac Law–Gases react in volumes which bear a simple relation-

(i) to one another and

(ii ) to the vols. of products if gaseous.

88. Le Chatelier Principle–If a system is in equlibrium and is subjected to a change of pressure,temp. or concentration, the equilibrium will then shift in a direction which tends to nullyfythe effect of change imposed.

89. Henry’s Law–The wt. of a gas dissolved in a given volume of a liquid is directly proportionalto the pressure of the gas. The law holds good only for gases of comparatively low solubilityand which do not react chemically with the solvent. It is primarily applicable to solute insoln.

90. Hess’s Law–The thermal effect of a chemical reaction depends only on the initial and finalconditions of the reacting susbtance but not on the intermediate stage or stages of theprocess. The law can also be stated as the thermal effects of a chemical reaction equals thesum of heats of formation of the resulting substances minus the sum of heats of formationof the reactants. This is an important law of thermochemistry.

91. Perfect gas law is PV = NRT.

THERMODYNAMICS

93. Ist law of thermodynamics–The difference between heat and work done in a system is equalto the work transferred to the surrounding outside of the system.

Q1 – Q2 = W.

94. 2nd law of thermodynamics–It states that if the working fluid is to be reduced to its originalstate so that heat-work process could begin all over again, then some heat must be rejectedto the surroundings.

95. Internal energy change–It is equal to the amount of adiabatic work done on the system.


96. Zeroeth law of thermodynamics–The law states that for any isothermal process involvingonly phases in internal equilbm. or alternately if any phase is in frozen metastable equilbm.,then the change in entropy is 0 when T(abs) → 0.

97. Equation of state–It is the relationship between average variables which give completeinformation about state of the systems.

98. Adiabatic process–Where there is no transfer of heat from the system and no heat flow fromexternal sources.

99. Isothermal process–A process which is carried out at constant temp. Gas Constant, R–Aconstant in ideal gas equation of state having a value of 8.31 kj/kg mole°K.

100. Reversible Process–A process is reversible when the thermodynamic potential differencesbetween the system and surrounding are only differential in amount.

101. Steady state process–It is a state in which there is no change in property at a given pointwith respect to time.

102. For a throttling process change in enthalpy is 0 i.e., ∆H = 0 or H1 = H2.

103. Extensive properties of a system depend on quantity of matter with the system e.g., totalvolume.

104. Intensive properties of a system do not depend on quantity of matter e.g., press, temp. sp.volume and density. (macroscopic properties).

OTHERS

105. Avogadro no. N–It is the no. of molecules present in one gm molecular wt. of any gas whichis same for all gases and is determined to be 6.023 × 1023.

106. Atomic no.–It is the number of protons or no. of electrons in the nucleus of an atom ofan element. Electrons carry a unit –ve charge.

107. Atomic wt.–It is the sum of weights of Protons and Neutrons. Each proton carries a unit+ve charge and neutrons do not carry any charge.

108. Electrons–Weight 1

1846 of the of the weight of a hydrogen atom. No. of electrons distributed

in extra nuclear part of an atom is given by 2n2 where n is the orbit no. However, theoutermost orbit can not carry more than 8 electrons and the next inner orbit cannot carrymore than 18 electrons.

109. Isotopes–Forms of the same element having the same atomic no. but different atomicweights due to different nuclear structure.

110. Nano technology–It is the science of creating molecular sized machines that manipulatematter, one atom at a time. The name comes from namometer– one by one billionth of ameter. This started in 1959 when physicist Richard Feyman proposed manipulating matter,atom by atom.

111. Wobble no.–Gives the combustion characteristic of a gas. It is given by eqn. W = gC / d

where Cg is the gross calorific value of the gas and d is the specific gravity.

112. Planck’s Constant = 6.624 × 10–27 erg-sec.


113. Mach no.–It is the ratio of flow velocity to the acoustic velocity.

114. Coffer dam–A wall serving to exclude water from any side normally under water, so asto fascilitate laying of foundations or other similar work usually formed by driving sheetpiles.

115. Refrigeration–Thermoelectric (Peltier effect) is reverse of Seebeck principle.

116. Electrostatic separation is effected by which charge is transferred to and from a particlethrough conductivity or electric differences in particles comprising the mixture. This is calledelectrophoresis.

117. Dielectrophoresis is called to a phenomenon in electrostatic separation when there is noexternal transfer of charge but where polarisation is induced and separation occurs due todifference in polarisation levels.

118. Earthquake factor–The percentage of combined dead and live loads that the tower must bebraced to withstand as a horizontal load is called the earthquake factor. The factor variesfrom place to place. In USA the common value is 0.2 or 20%. In India, the common valueis 0.1 or 10%; However, earthquake requirements is as per IS Code 1893.

119. Ultrasonic sound frequency = 20 KH2.

120. Seasoned wood–contains 15% moistre and only top 2" is dried.

120.(a) Lethal dose, LD50 dose, specify lethal done to 50% of test animals usually rats (oral dose-Pesticidal effect).

121. Decibel–It is the unit of sound press. level. It is 20 times the logarithim to the base 10 ofthe ratio of effective value of the measuring and a reference sound press. level, usually 20µPa (2 × 10–4µ bar).

Another unit in the accoustic engg. is the accoustic ohm which is the ratio of accousticpress. to the flow rate of sound in NS/m2.

122. ELC stainless steels–AISI 304L and AISI 316L contain 0.02% carbon. Such steel duringwelding or heat treatment near 1200°F do not sensitise and chromium carbide do notprecipitate at grain boundaries and all the carbon is retained in solid soln. ELC S.S. has highcorrosion resistance; likewise all austenitic S.S. including AISI 317. Minor carbide precipitationdo not affect the tensile strength but may lead to premature metal failure. Immediate coolingby water after welding reduce carbide precipitation.

123. Cladding of S.S.–Because of its own hardenability, the backing S.S. metal usually cannot becooled rapidly enough to keep all carbon in S.S. in solid soln. Consequently, carbide precipitationin S.S. is inevitable during subsequent cooling. Also rapid cooling might damage the bondbetween the cladding material (S.S.) and the backing steel material because of difference inthermal expansion.

By cladding about 1/4th of the cost of solid vessels can be saved provided the wall thicknessis above 5/8".

124. Flammable dust–Each flammable dust has a maximum explosive pressure when explosioncan occur; plastic particle dust of size < 100 mesh has maximum explosive pressure of 80-120 lb/inch2g. Presence of inerts (8-14%) maximum will not initiate combustion of plasticor flammable dust.


125. Welder/cutter capacity–Electrodes consumption per welder per day = 120 ft (M.S. rods) andoxygen consumption is 280 cft and acetylene consumption rate is 70 cft per gas cutter.

125.(a) Hardy Cross Method–It is used for cooling water network analysis. At steady state, thealgebraic sum of all pressure losses (due to friction) is zero. For analysis, select flow rateand equal velocity or pressure drop criteria and flow pattern-clock wise (+ve) or anticlockwise(–ve). Usually pressure drop criteria is considered. This method can be used in steamnetwork analysis.

126. Urea silo capacity–It is 1.8 te/m2 when pile height is 3.0 meter. When the pile height is 5.0meter, the storage capacity is 4.70 te/m2.

127. Urea Prilling Tower Capacity–It is 0.17–0.19 te/m2 for I.D. Prilling tower and air ratethrough the tower is 1000 NM3/te and air velocity of 0.46–0.48 m/sec. Spinning bucket (holedia 1–1.3 mm) speed in prilling tower is 370–380 r.p.m. for uniform size of urea prills.

128. Urea Prills Coating Mixture–The composition for avoiding caking in storage silo is NaturalParaffin 25% (maxm.), synthetic Paraffin 85% and soyabin oil 5%. Application is done bya spray.

129. Plexiglass–It is poly methyl methacrylate resin.

130. Magnetic drive–It is a German technology in which there is no drive shaft and gland for thepump as impeller is magnetically connected to magnetic drive motor. The advantage is 40%cost saving and less mechanical parts for the pump driven by magnetic drive.

131. Computer basics–1byte = 8 bits (combination of 8 bits) Each byte is a binary digit (0 or 1)and each byte represent an alpha numeric character or two decimal digits usually shorterthan a word.

132. Heat Pump–A vapour compression heat pump, pumps 35 Kw of heat (501.06 Kcal/min)from say 7°C to 55°C will consume 15 Kw of electrical energy and gives out 50 Kw (715.8Kcal/min) using R-12, 22 and R-134 refrigerants.

A thermo electric heat pump using Seebeck effect does cooling of air or water or heat upair or water has low (10%) combined co-efficient of performance.

133. Ultra Violet light irradiation–L.P. quartz tube mercury vapour lamp is used which emit 95%ultraviolet radiation at 2537A0. Often min. 3-4 shots are required for irradiation of drinkingwater. For food items min. 3-4 irradiation treatment is necessary.

134. Magnetic filtration–Electrostatic separation when there is no external transfer of charge toand form a particle.

134.(a) NOISH–Registry of National Institute of occupational safety and health in Washington DC,USA.

135. Wood measure:

(a) Length in ft × width in inch × thickness in inch divided by 144 which gives volume in cft.

(b) Running or board foot in 1 ft. square and 1 inch thick.

(c) 50 cft of Burmateak approx. weights 1 Br. ton (2240 lb).136. Transportation: FOR – Free on rail

FAS – Free along sideC and F – Cost and freight


CIF – Cost insurance and freight

FIO – Free in and out

Teu – Carrying capacity of containers in ships expressed in 20 ftequivalent length.

137. Frozen foods–Refrigeration temperature level = –35 to –45°C.

138. Aluminium–1 te of aluminium ingot requires 4 te of bauxite.

139. Pig iron–1 te of Pig iron requires 1.44 te of iron ore (Fe2O3)–purity = 86.6%.

140. Wind turbine–Min. wind speed required 6-7 miles/hr.

At wind speed 12m/hr, power generated =12KW

At wind speed 15m/hr, power generated =24KW

At wind speed of 22m/hr, power generated =56KW.

Average output of a wind turbine through out the year is only 20% due to variation of windspeeds.

141. Geothermal energy–Geothermal energy is tapped by drilling wells around hot springs. Hotwater contg. NaCl gushes out from under the earth which do not boil as it is under highpress and steam is released from collecting separators and flashed steam is used to drivepower turbine. The exhaust steam from turbine is condensed and sent back to earth corewell by a pump. Cooling water is cooled and recycled with make up water addition. Averagetemperature rise of water is 30°C/KM from surface temperature. Helium extraction from hotwater is possible. Temp. of hot water reservoir below ground level is 150/250°C. Cost ofpower is about 1/4th of thermal power. A 30 MW plant cost is Rs. 60 Crores.

142. Microwave radiation (oven)–Allowable limit 1000 µW/cm2. Different countries have differentlimits ranging from 25-1000 µW/cm2; for Poland it is 200 and for USA and India it is 1000µW/cm2. Microwave radiation can cause damage to human immune system.

143. Electrical field around–765 KV line, of the electric H.T. Power transmission line, field voltagegeneration is 10,000 volts/meter.

144. Use of dry type of transformer–As per ammendment of central electricity rules in 2001 useof dry type of transformer is mandatory for residential and commercial buildings.

145. ASME code for vessels–The relevant code specifies that if a mechanical equipment is underhot/cold cycles within 60000 cycles, then the equipment is permitted through out its lifespan.

146. Osmotic pressure–It is the pressure applied to a salt solution separated by a semipermablemembrane which allows solute to pass through but retains the solvent. The pressure appliedis called osmotic pressure and depends on various factors viz. conc. of solute in soln.differential press. across membrane, and membrane properties. A small qty. of solvent alsopasses.

147. Cryogenic gas–It is defined as the gas whose boiling pt. is less than 116°K. at one atomosphere.

148. Wave power from sea water–The machine (tank and agitator) is placed in sea bed 300 moff coast by filled ballast tanks (usually 9) in 14.5 meters of water and operates by trappingswell of the ocean inside its partly submersed collector vessels. As the swell rises and falls


inside collector, air is pushed and sucked in through the top of structure turning two airturbines connected to 4 AC generators in two pedestals that rise 6 meters above surface;power is transferred through under sea cables. This facility exists; at a U.K. Coast andproduces 2MW power and was commissioned by 1996.

149. Photographic camera–Normal lens can see within 45-60°. A 35 mm camera have about 50mm focal length (distance between optical centre of lens to a pt. when image appears sharpwhen aimed at infinity. A camera lens having less than 40 mm focal length is called wideangle or short lens.

If it is over 80 mm, it is called telephoto long lens having 180° angle of view. Focal lengthof such lens varies between 80-200 mm.

150. Wrought iron–A ferrous material, aggregated from a solidifying mass of pasty particles ofhighly refined metallic iron with which, without subsequent fusion, is incorporated a minutelyand uniformly distributed quantity of slag.

151. Electron flow in a battery–Electric current is the result of flow of electrons and +ve ions.The electrons flow from –ve plate to +ve plate while the +ve ions flow from +ve plate to–ve plate in soln. The direction of conventional current in the external circuit is from +veplate to –ve plate, thus the direction of flow of current is opposite to the direction of flowof electrons in soln.

152. Parkinson’s law–In any organisation, the no. of subordinate staff multiplies at a predeterminableannual rate, irrespective of the quantity of work, the organisation turns out. Major reasonbeing the bureaucratic attitude of the administrator which prevents him from exercising hisinitiative and creativity. The law was discovered in 1957.

153. Third law of thermodynamics–For any isothermal process involving only phases in internalequilibrium or alternately if any phase is in frozen metastable equilibrium, provided theprocess does not disturb the frozen equilibrium, then, lim Τ → 0, ∆S = 0. Internal equilibriumof phase is fixed by its temperature, phase and composition. This is also called Zeroeth Law.

154. Laser–A laser is a device by which a beam of coherent light wave is obtained by pumpingthe atoms of dope (say chromium in ruby crystal) to an excited state by powerful sourceof light. The excited dope atoms cause the vibration of the neighbouring atoms to such anextent that they emit light wave of well defined frequency with two reflecting mirrors placedon both sides of ruby crystals, coherent light wave emission builds up along the axialdirection. All the laser light radiate in phase with each other. In gas lasers two gases areused-one can be put to excited state and in other gas in which laser action is produced.

155. Special Theory of relativity (1905) of Einstein:

(i) There is no way to tell whether an object is at rest or in motion relative to a fixed ether.There is no ether wind.

(ii ) Regardless of the motion of its source, light always moves through empty space withthe same constant speed of 300,000 km/sec.

(iii ) No object could move along with the speed of light. The velocity of light is the ultimate“light barrier”.

Fitzgerald’s contraction formula:


2

2

V1

C−

where C = Vel. of light

V = Vel. of object.

The length of a moving object (spaceship) should be multiplied by the value of the aboveformula to ascertain the extent of contraction. As the spaceship goes faster and faster, itsrealistic mass keeps increasing in the same proportion as its lengths and time is decreasing.

When the moving spaceship has contracted to 1/10th of its length, its realistic mass hasbecome ten times as greater and offering 10 times resistance to rocket motors.

156. Electron speed–It can be speeded to 0.999999 times the velocity of light, consequently themass of electrons has increased to 40,000 times than at rest.

157. Loss of mass–Amount of mass lost in a chemical change in nuclear reaction is transformedto energy by the Einstein’s equation E = mc2 where m = mass lost, c = velocity of lightand E = energy produced from lost mass.

158. Mercerising–Cotton fabric treatment with NaOH at 50-55°C when 10-15% shrinkage occursas well as strength is increased by 10-40%. Usually during caustic wash the cloth is keptstretched. Lustre also increases.

159. OTEC–Ocean thermal energy conversion.

Here sea water’s differential temperature at deep sea (–800 m) which is about 5°C and thesurface water temperature being 25-28°C is used to evaporate liquid NH3 in cooling coilswhich is placed in a closed chamber and sensible heat of deep sea water (5-25°C) or ∆t20°C is used to evaporate liquid NH3 to vapour NH3 and heating fluid temperature drops to10°C which is sent back to suction. The vapour NH3 from cooling coil is used to drive aturbo generator followed by condensation of NH3 in a condenser with cooling water. Indiahas high potential of OTEC power.

160. Capacitance–It is the ratio of charge to the potential difference between conductors.

161. Induction–It is the property of an electric circuit or of two neighbouring circuits where-byan emf is generated (by electromagnetic induction) in one circuit by change of current initself or in the other circuit. It is the ratio of emf to rate of change of current.

162. CNC–Computerised neumerical control (For mechanical workshop machines).

163. DCS–Distributed control system-a system of computerised process control system. A Modernprocess control sequence in place of analogue, pneumatic and electric controls in, say,chemical process plants.

164. Joule’s Law–The quantity of heat produced in an electrical circuit is (i) proportionate thesquare of current (ii ) proportional to the resistance and (iii ) also proportional to the time forwhich the current flow.

H = 2

3

C R

4.186 10

t

×

where H = Heat, Kcal


C = Current, amps

R = Resistance, ohms

t = Time in secs.

165. Infra red imaging system–An infra red camera measures the heat transmitted from facialblood vessels of a person. The picture thus obtained is called thermogram which is comparedwith the person’s photograph and data stored in a computer. The computers recognitionsoftware concentrates on emission from 5 areas of face around eyes and forehead (Otherareas are prone to change by change of air temperature). This method is used for properidentification.

Other use is detection of enemy at dark in night when the camera is put on the weapon ormonitoring by a concealed camera in a space.

166. Reverse osmosis–It is the reverse of osmosis in which the solvent passes through thesemipermiable membrane but retains the solute. Such feature is used in desalineisation of seawater, microfiltration of water cotaining pollutants present in minute quantities viz. pesticide,arsenic etc. This process depends on differential press, across the membrane, solvent,membrane properties etc.

167. DIN stand for German standard and the name symbolyses the cooperative work of Germanstandards institutions.

168. CAS–Chemical abstract system for registration of all articles published on chemicals and isput a registry no. to facilitate quick detection in chemcial abstracts.

169. Kharif season (India)–June to November and Ravi season–March to November.

INDEX

FOR PART I

A

Allotropic fonns of iron, T -98 83

Angle of repose, T-I08 89

Alito ignition temp of fuels and gases, T -150 113

ASTM Codes for refractory bricks, T -104 87

Acetic anhydride specification, T- 24 29

Physical data on liquifaction and fractionation of air. T-50 42

Physical data of alcohols. T-II 13

Physical data of Aldehydes and Ketones, T- 12 14

Physical data of Acetylenes, T -9 11

Physical data of aromatic hydrocarbons, T-5A 8

Specification of Grade B liq. ammonia, T- 136 108

Physical data of condensed aromatics, T- 6 109

Properties of anhydrous ammonia, T - 23 8

Temp and density of dry and saturated air, partial Press. at saturation of water vapour and Water vapour content of saturated air at 760 mrn Hg, T-55 45

Specification of Hard Al sheets for RIR, T- I73 .125

Adhesives, T -48A 41

B

Baume scale (+oBe) conversion into density T- 17 16

Physical properties of Benzene, T- 32 32

Butadiene specification, T-53 43

Analysis of Bentonite, T - 90 80

Analysis of Processed Bauxite, T -91 80

Range of heat output in Burners, T-75 76

Proximate analysis of Bituminous Coals, T-69 71

Burning characteristics of Thennoplastics, T-162 119

Reagent grade Benzene, T-34 33

Bulk wt and storage volume of bulk materials, T-61 65

Composition of green paste for baking for submerged arc smelting furnace, T-79 77

Density of Bituminous substances, T -72 75

Battery grade Sulphuric acid specification, T-27 30

c Co-efT. of thermal conductivity and density

of metals ~d alloys, T-59 48

Co-efT. of thermal conductivity and density of some substances, T-58 47

Groups of chemicals, T -2 4

212

Physical data of various elements and compounds T -3 4

Cooling media data for CaCl2 soln, T- 130 105

Cooling media data for NaCI soln (brine) T- 131 106

Cooling media data for ethylene glycol soln, T - \32 \06

Cooling media data for methylene chloride, T- I33 107

Critical humidity of fertilisers, T-135 108

Conversion factors for N P K fertilisers, T-141 110

Cooling conditions reqd. in trade and industry, T- 128 102

Calorific values and composition of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels, T-179 127

Carbon atoms in Petrolewn Products, T- 183 129

Colour change temps of heat sensitive dyes and heat sensitive pencils, T- 167 122

Chromite ore analysis for charge chrome, T- 83 78

Melting point of pure ceramic oxides, T- 102 86

Molecular dia of common gases, T-26 30

Chemical and Physical data of various elements, T- I 3

Physical data of ethers, T- 13 14

Physical data of esters, T-14 15

Properties of MEA, DEA and TEA, T-47 40

Physical properties of ethylene, T -48 41

D

Density of solid and liquid materials, T-22 25

Density and concentration of aq. soln of Caustic Soda, T-21 24

Density and conc. of aq. soln. of ammonia, T- 20 24

Density and Conc. of ethyl alcohol water mixture, T- 19 24

Density and conc. of aq. soln. of HCl, T- 38 35

Density and cone. of aq. soln. of HN03,

T-39 36

Density and conc. (in wt% and mole/lit) of aq. soln of H 2S04, T-40 36

213

Density and conc. of aq. soln. of Caustic Potash, T-41 37

Dolomite analysis, T -89 80

Ingradients in synthetic detergents, T- 171 125

Data on combustible gases, Fuels and organic compounds, T-I66 122

Desulphurisation iron oxide catalyst, T -186 130

Diesel oil analysis, T- 122 96

Distillation products of coke oven

Tar (HTC) to medium soft pitch, T- 71 75

Density, Kinematic and dynamic viscosity of pure water at different temps, DIN 51550, T-16 16

Density of plastics, T-160 117

Density of Petroleum fuels and grease, T- 73 75

Dry cleaning oil (Stoddard solvent) specification, T-1l0 90

Physical data of dioiefines, T- 8 10

E

Energy equivalent, T-76 76

Electrolysis data of water for pure H2 through Hydrogen ceil, T -94 81

Energy profile in ammonia plant, T- 146 III

Process for ethylene manufacture, T-I64 120

Percentage excess air requirement in furnaces, T-100B 85

Electrical resistivity of ceramic materials, T-103 86

Explosive limits and Flash points of some organic chemicals and vegetable oils, T-105 87

Specification of exfoliated perlite, T-189 131

214

F

Fouling factors for various colling water, T --63 58

Filtering media for water and others in gaseous state, T -6S S8

Details of solid fuds (coals), T-70 73

Flushing oil speci fication , T-185 130

FallY acids concentration in oils, facts and milk, T-1 56 11 5

Fuel oil analysis. T- 124A 98

j·lcavy and light oil analysis, T-124 97

Residual fue l oil analysis. T-125 98

Flash points of PetToleum Products, T - 109 90

Pore sizes of fil tering media, T-ISS 131

Analysis of Ferrochrome. T-85 79

Other flocculation agents, T-147 112

Aviation turbine fuel specification, T-116 92

G

GJass transition and melting temp of Ihennoplastics, T - 163 119

Gelatine (type-A) speci fication, T- 127A 98

Properties of gasoline (Petrol), methanol and ethanol, T - t 11 90

Blended gasoline fuels for automobiles, T-112 91

Pyrolysis gasoline spec ification, T-120 95

Galvanic series of metals and graphite, T-66 59

Physical characteristics of some pure gases, T- 17 34

Layout for gas turbine power generation 55

H

Halogenated hydrocarbons, physical data of T- IO I I

Heat tr:lllsfer media (Temp range and working li fe ). T-81 78

Hardness sca le (Mho) for minerals, T-86 79

Physical data of hydrogen. T-93 81

REFERENCE BOOK ON CHEMICAL ENGiNEERING

Hydrogen burner. T-9S 82

Units of Hardness in water, T-96 82

Hydrogen Zeolite or H2 cation exchanger spe(ific8tion. T-123 97

Products from saturated hydrocarbons, T-182 129

Liquid soap for Handwash, T-I72 125

Henry's law constant at 20°C, T -62 57

International spec . o f Iron oxide. T-IOO 85

Viscosity and filler thickness of inks, T- 148 112

Specification of isocyanuric acid, T -46 40

Analysis of sponge iron, '1'-45 40

K

Kiselghur. T- 92 81

K.erosiene oil specification. T- 1l8 93

Smoke point of Kerosiene oil, T-119 93

L

Latent heats of substances at B.P., atm. press T- I77 126

Material s for latent heat storage, T- 180 128

Light reflection factors for points, T - 78 76

Typical specification of LPG burner (domestic), T- 169 124

Leather chemicals, T-25 29

Spec. of lactic acid for different end uses, T-42 38

Analysis of limestone, T- 88 80

M

Mole(ular sieve specification, T -64 68

Microorganism used for fermentation, T- 67A 60

Mollier diagram (i,s) for steam 94

Metallugicai coke specification, T- S2 48

Solvents for plastics and synthetic rubber, T- 101 85

NDEX

Micro organism used in seed inocculation and nitrifying bacteria in soil, T-67B 60

Mosquito spray oil, T-115 92

Analysis of magnesite, T -87 79

Types of milk, T- 157 115

'15 Characteristics of solvents used in plastics

emu1sion T -99 84

Pitch types and softening points, T -82 78

Temp limits of non-metal parts in phosphoric acid manufacture. T- 140 109

Mud chemicws for oil exploration, T-149 112 Passivation of stainless steel, T- 184 129

Composition of molasses, T-153 114

N

Naphtha composition (Refinery), T-I13 92

Detail Naphtha composition (refinery), T-121 95

Physical data of mono oiefines, T-7 10

Physical data of sllphur and Nitrogen compounds, T-lS 15

Physical properties of NaphthaJine, T-35 33

Nitrogen soln. application for fertiliser use, T-I44 III

Physical data of Naphthenes, T-5 8

Non-J B R boilers, T-77 76

N G consumption in Ammonia-urea complex, T- 145 111

o Oxygen index (0 1) of man-made/natural fabrics,

T- 57 47

p

Pressure, Nomenclature of, T-186A 130

n-Pentane specification, T- 51 43

Petroleum coke analysis, T- 1I4 92

Plant air safety standards (lLV), T-ISI 113

Preservatives conc. in processed foods, T- IS2 114

Density of plastics, T- 160 117

Physical data of common plastics. T- IS9 66

Physical properties of some plastics, T-16S 120

Specific heat and plastics, T- 161

thermal 118

conductivity of

Porcelain RJR specification on, T-174 12S

Porcelain RJR composition, T- 17S 126

Particulate matter diameter ranges, Tl IS7 130

Some pigments used in paint industry, T-l70 124

Power plant energy requirement, T- 74 76

pH test indicators to determine end pt. of titration, T-49 42

Q

Quartzite, analysis of, T-84 79

R

Refractory bricks, tenna1 conductivity of, T-to6 88

Mechanical properties of refractory bricks, T-to7 89

Types and application of refrigerants, T-126 97

Analysis of rock phosphate, T-143 110

Rust proof lubricating oil, T-IOO A 8S

Storage temp and R. H for cold storage goods, T- 129 103

5

Sensible heat storage, materials for, T-181 128

TypicaJ AnaJysis of single super phosphate, T-142 110

H2S04 and SO] content of sulphuric acid at IS.SoC, T-28 30

Specific gravity of. Aq. sulphuric acid at IS.SoC, T-29 31

Specification of sodium nitrite, T-44 39

216

Oleum, % free SO) and specific gravity at 15.5°C, T-30 31

Heats of soln. of S03 in water, T-31 31

Standard oxidation Reduction Potentials (P) and equlibrium constants, K. T -18 17

Physical data of sulphur and nitrogen compounds, T-IS 15

Properties of saturated steam, T --68A 61

Enthalpy of super heated steam upto 400°C, T-68B 63

Enthalpy of super heated steam upto 560°C, T-68C 65

Enthalpy of superheated steam upto 720"<:, T-680 67

Enthalpy of superheated steam upto 800°C, T-68E 69

Specific volume of superheated steam uplO 440°C T -68F 69

Sodium Chloride data, T--43 39

Secondary cooling liquids as per evaporating temp. T-127 89

Specification of H. P steam turbine condensate T-176 123

Average melting temp of segar cones, T- 168 123

Solvents for plastics and synthetic rubber, T-101 85

T

Toluene, physical properties of, T-33 32

Nitration grade Toluene, T-36 34

Typical parameters or a 15 MW gas turbine generator (N. G fired), T-134 107

Thermal Expansion co-efT of various materials, T-60 49

u Urea priUs spec. as per FeO. 1969-70.

T-I17 lOR

REFERENCE BOOK ON CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Tech. grade urea specification (18-1781-71), T-138 109

Usuit specification of Fertiliser grade and technical grade urea, T-139 109

V

Vegetable oils, Smoke, flash and fire points of refined, T-154 115

Analysis ofVenniculite, T-178 127

Velocity of heat transfer media (lITM), T-80 78

Vegetable oil specification, T-IS8 116

Vacuum scales comparative data, T-54 44

Empirical physical data for refined 'leg oils, T-155 116

w WHO drinking water standard. T -97 82

White oil specification, T -I t 7 93

Properties of Water at saturated state, T-56 46

Gnphs

G-I V.P temp relation of chemical compounds 20

G-2 v.p temp relation of chemical compounds 22

G-3 Mean and hue specific heats of gases 22

G-4 Maxm water vapour content of gases 23

G-5 Kinematic viscosity of heavy fuel oils 51

G--6 Kinematic viscosity of oils 52

0-7 Gas constant of moist air 'IS water Vapour content 53

G-8 Thermal insulation thickness for insulating materials 54

Fig.! Layout for gas turbine power generation S5

G-9 Mollier (i, s) diagram for steam 94

INDEX

FOR PART II

A

Acidity Ch. 8, item 13 198

Load capacity in amps of copper conductors, T-19 174

Aniline point Ch. 8, item 52 201

A S M E code for mechancial vessels under alt. heat Icold cycles Ch. 8, item 145 208

Atomic wt. Ch. 8, it~m 107 205

Atomic no. Ch. 8, item 106 205

Azadirachtin Indica, Ch. 8, item 65 201

B

Basics of explosion protection 168

IEC and EN standards, Ch. 4.5 168

Ball mills, analysis of steel balls, T-7 144

DIN code for combustible building materials, T-4 138

Basicity Ch. 8, item 12 138

Division of Botanical plant kingdom, T-30 196

BMC index Ch. 8, item 37 200

Building construction as per IS code for earthquake resistant design, T -4A 139

Building material density, T-2 137

C

Calculation of adequacy of discharge capacity Ch. 6 item 6.97 of safety valves 193

Cetene no. Ch. 8, item 28 199

Civil engineering information, 137

Codes of cement, T-1 137

Coffer dam Ch. 8, item 114 206

Safe bearing stress for common soils as per DIN 1054, ;[-3 138

Computer basics Ch. 8, item 131 207

D

Deemulsification value (of Lube oil) item 50 201

Sound Decibel levels, T-29 195

Percentage efficiency of DC Motors, T-18 173

Dielectro-phoresis Ch. 8, item 117 206

E

Earthquake factor, Ch. 8, item 118 206

Earthquake record in India, T-33 196

Electrical engioneering information Ch. 3

- Safety codes, NEPA 70=1981 151

- NEMA std. for equipment enclosure 151

- Power system and special electrical equipment read. for chemical industry, Ch. 3 item 3 152

- Classification of power supply for critical industrial load, Ch. 3 item 4 154

217

218

- Source of power supply, Ch. 3 item 5 155

- Power distribution system, Ch. 3 item 5.2 157

- Special requirement of electrical equipment for protection against dust, moistre etc. Ch: 4 item 4.1 160

- Common enclosure of electrical equipment specially electrical motors, Ch. 4 item 4.3 160

- Common enclosure for switch gears, motorls Ch. 4.3, 160

- Electrical equipment for explosive atomosphere as per IS codes, Ch. 4 time 4.3 161

- Electrical equipment sub division, Ch. 4.4.1 161

- Broad classification of gases and vapours . based on MIC and MESG, Ch. 4.4.2. 162

- Classification of group-IIA flammable gases and vapoures as per IS-9570 1960 T-22 177-180

- Classification of group lIB gases and vapours IS 9570-1980, T-22 181

-- Classification of flammable gases and vapours Group II C as per IS 9570-1980, T-22 182

- Classification based on maximum surface temperature, Ch. 4.4.3 162

- Classification of Hazardous area, Ch. 4.4.4 163

- Extent of Hazardous area, Ch. 4.4.5 163

- Classification of electrical equipment suitable for explosive atmosphere, Ch. 4.4.6 163

- Brief technical feature of electrical equipment for explovie atmosphere, Ch. 4.4.7 165 Electrical system IEC and EN standard for explosion protection item 6, Ch. 4 166

Maximum temperature (DC) and maximum temperature rise (DC), in Elec. Machines T-16 172

Maximum temperature for components not insu1afed, T-16A 173

REFERENCE BOOK ON CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Motor HP-voltage relation, T -20 175

Features for starting currents in AC motors, T-20 175

Modern substation equipment, T -21 175

Standard speeds and synchronous speeds In AC machines, T-17 173

Synchronous speed in AC Machines and slip, T-20 175

Electron flow in a battery Ch. 8, item 151 209

Electrical field around HT power transmission line Ch. 8, item 143 208

Special theorey of relativity (1950) of Einstein, Ch. 8 item 155 209

ELC steel Ch. 8, item 122 206

F

Fire classification, T -34 197

Fire point Ch. 2 item 53 201

Flash point Ch. 8, item 56 201

Flammeable dust Ch. 8 item 124 206

Frozen foods Ch. 8 item 137 208

Fusel oil Ch. 8 item 38 200

G

Geotropic distillation, Ch. 8 item 34 200

Geothermal energy Ch. 8 item 141 208

Glass transition temperature Ch. 8, item 25 199

H

Hardy-cross method, Ch. 8, item 125 207

Heat pump Ch. 8, item 132 207

International paper sizes, T -31 196

Process instrumentation, Ch. 5

- DCS control system in process plant, Ch. 5.1 183

- Instrument symbols in P and I dia and symbols in computerised instrumentation Ch. 5.2 184

INDEX

- Press. measurement in flowing fluid, Ch. 5.3 186

- Thermo electric measurement, Ch. 5.4 187

..:. Key points in setting instrument controllers (pneumatic) Ch. 5.5 188

Instrumentation practical guide, Ch. 6 190

Iodine value Ch. 8, item 54 201

Wave length of ionising rays T-27 194

Moistre content of compressed instrument air, T-23 193

Temperature ranges for thermocouple extension wires, T-25 189

Thermocouple element temperature, ranges, T-24 188

Advantages of electronic and pneumatic controlling, T-26 189

K

Kopp's rule Ch. 8, item 40 e 200

L

Lethal dose LD5o ' Ch. 8, item 120 A 206

M

Mechanical engineering information, Ch. 2 140

- Material designation system (DIN 76006) 140

- Taylor and US sieve data, T-5B 143 - Vibrating screen capacity, T -6 144

- Ultimate strength of material in PSI, T-8 145

- Copper wire diameter, T -9 145

- Wires and plate thicknesses, T-10 146

- Wt. of rolled steel sheets, T -11 147

- Lube oil specification (as per SAE), T-12 149

- Carbon content of thin walled chemical vessels, T-13 149

- Extruded brass rod composition, T -14 149

- Wall thickness calculation of cylindrical shells and domed heads, T -15 149

Magnetic filtration Ch. 8 item 134 149

Magnetic drive Ch. 8 item 130 207

Mercerising Ch. 8 item 78 203

219

Microwave radiation limits Ch. 8 item 142 208

M.P. of synthetic fibres Ch. 8 item 79 203

N

Nano technology Ch. 8 item 110 205

NOISH Ch. 8 item 134 a 207

o Oleo-chemicals Ch. 8 item 57 201

Oligomers Ch. 8 item 70 202

OTEC Ch. 8 item 159 210

Optical glass Polish Ch. 8 item 76 202

Osmotic pressure Ch. 8 item 146 208

p

Parkinson Law Ch. 8 item 152 209

Sections in patent classification, T -32 196

Peat coal Ch. 8, item 68 202

Phase rule Ch. 8, item 41 200

Photo graphic camera Ch. 8, item 149 209

Plexiglass Ch. 8, item 129 207

Polymerisation Ch. 8 item 71 202

Pour point Ch. 8 item 49 201

R

Reverse osmosis Ch. 8 item 166 211

RON Ch. 8 item 59 201

S

Spectram of light wave, wave length of visible, T-28 194

Wave length of ultra violet radiation wave T-28 (4) 195

Steroids Ch. 8, item 73 202

Salt eutectics Ch. 8, item 75 202

Documents

Reference Book on Chemical Engineering Vol.2 - D. Sen