COGNITION

PsychologyOswayo Valley High School

an exercise for and about the brain

Cognitive Psychology

One DefinitionThe study of higher mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking.

Three ConceptsLearningThinkingRemembering

“I think, therefore I am”

Introduction

Introduction

Step #1 - LearningThe transforming of information so the nervous system can process it; a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency that results from experience

Cognitive Processes

It is the “input” stage

Introduction

Step #2 - ThinkingThe maintaining of information over a period of time; the changing and reorganizing of stored information to create new information

Cognitive Processes

It is the “processing” stage

Introduction

Step #3 – RememberingThe process of obtaining information that has been stored

Cognitive Processes

It is the “output” stage

Learning

Classical Conditioning

DefinitionA learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus

Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

John B Watson(1878-1958)

Learning, Classical Conditioning

Key Terms/Concepts

Neutral Stimulus: a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of the unconditioned response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training

Unconditioned Response (UCR): an organism’s automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus

Learning, Classical Conditioning

Learning, Classical Conditioning

Key Terms, cont’d

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a once-natural event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Response (CR): the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus

Learning, Classical ConditioningP

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The Case of Little Albert

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up and I’ll guarantee to take

any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might

select—doctor, lawyer, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,

tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”

(1930, John B. Watson)

Learning, Classical Conditioning

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition of a classically conditioned response generally occurs gradually

Time of the CS before the UCS

Generalization: process in which a response spreads from one specific stimulus to other similar stimuli

Learning, Classical Conditioning

Principles of Classical Conditioning, cont’d

Extinction: the gradual loss of an association over time when the conditioned response is repeatedly presented without the unconditional stimulus

Spontaneous recovery: the sudden reappearance of an extinguished response

Learning, Classical Conditioning

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Flooding: exposure to harmless stimulus until fear response to that stimulus is extinguished

Systematic Desensitization: a pleasant, relaxed state is associated with gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli

Learning, Classical Conditioning

Applications of Classical Conditioning, cont’d

Counter-conditioning: a pleasant stimulus is paired repeatedly with a fearful one, counteracting the fear

Pleasant Response

Taste Aversion

coulrophobia

Operant Conditioning

DefinitionLearning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in learning

B F Skinner(1904-1990)

Learning, Operant Conditioning

Key Terms/Concepts

Reinforcement: stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated

Positive: something good is added after the action

Negative: something bad is taken away after the action

Primary reinforcer: satisfies a basic biological need

Secondary reinforcer: paired with a primary and through classical conditioning has acquired value and reinforcement

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a fixed number of

responses

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Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after varying number of

responses

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time has

passed

Variable Interval

Reinforcement of first response after varying

amounts of time

Learning, Operant ConditioningKey Terms/Concepts, cont’d

Reward: not the same as reinforcer; something given in recognition

Punishment: the process of weakening a response by following it with unpleasant consequences

something desired can be taken away something undesired can be added

Punishment does not in itself teach acceptable behaviorPunishment tends to work only when guaranteedPunishment can create anger and hostilityPunishment may be imitated as a way of problem-solvingPunishment is sometimes accompanied by unseen benefits that maker the behavior more, not less, likely to be repeated

Learning, Operant ConditioningKey Terms/Concepts, cont’d

Shaping: the process of gradually refining a response by successively reinforcing closer approximations of it; technique in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the behavior before giving the reward

Chaining: learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next

Social Learning

DefinitionProcess of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others; also known as modeling or observational learning

Albert Bandura(1925-)

Learning, Social Learning

Cognitive Learning

DefinitionAn approach to the study of learning that emphasizes abstract mental processes and previous knowledge

Learning, Cognitive Learning

Key Terms/ConceptsLatent Learning: learning that is not obvious but goes on under the surface; it remains hidden until needed

(Tolman, 1930)

Learning, Cognitive Learning

Key Terms/Concepts, cont’d Cognitive Map: a mental image of where one is located in space

Expectancies: beliefs about our ability to perform on action and to get the desired reward

Reinforcement Value: the preference for certain types of reinforcement over other types

Strategies: techniques for problem-solving

(Gould)

Learning, Cognitive Learning

Principles of Cognitive Learning Acoustic Codes: recording the memory as a sequence of sounds

Visual Codes: forming a mental picture

Semantic Codes: making sense of the letters by figuring out what they might mean

OTTFFSSENT

Learning, Cognitive Learning

Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Selective Attention: concentrating on one sensation among many outputs while not completely blocking out others; information that… Relates to a basic need Is of personal interest Is unusual or novel

Feature Extraction: focusing on the significant characteristics of the information selected for attention

Learning, Cognitive Learning

Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Elaboration: the process of attaching a maximum number of associations to an item to be learned so that it can be retrieved more easilyIn 1925, lawyer William Jennings Bryan prosecuted John Scopes for teaching evolution and won the case. In1919, many states were won over to the cause of the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited the sale of liquor. Fourteen years later the Twenty-First Amendment repealed the Eighteenth.In 1925, lawyer William Jennings Bryan prosecuted a young high school teacher named John Scopes who wanted to give students information about evolution. The trial took on the atmosphere of a circus. It became a free-for-all, with shouting by “liberated” (for that time) college students and young reporters who reflected antireligious feeling that was then erupting in the country. The teacher was found guilty, so Bryan won the case, but he was mocked so much during the trial that some people believe that this led to his death five days later.

Learning, Cognitive Learning

Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Mnemonic Devices: unusual associations made to aid memory

Method of LocationMaterial to be Learned: grocery list (milk, eggs, celery, etc.)

Method of Locations: imagine a familiar location and place the items to be remembered in various areas of that location. It is usually effective to enlarge the items in a bizarre way.

How the information is stored: The sink is filled with milk that overflows onto the floor. Giant eggs roll along the tabletop. On the chairs, sitting at attention, are giant celery stalks; they prevent the eggs from falling.

Learning, Cognitive Learning

Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d

AcronymMaterial to be Learned: The planets

Acronym: Take the first letter of each item on a list and make a word

How the information is stored:

My MercuryVery VenusEducated EarthMother MarsJust JupiterShowed SaturnUs UranusNine NeptunePlanets Pluto

Learning, Cognitive Learning

Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d

Narrative ChainingMaterial to be Learned: A part of the brain: the cerebellum, which controls balance

Narrative Chaining: Tie together the material to be learned into a story

How the information is stored: He hit me in the cerebellum with a brick, and I was thrown off balance….

Learning, Cognitive Learning

Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Principle Learning: learning in which an overall view (principle) of the material to be learned is developed so that the material is better organized

Drill and Practice: “repetition aids learning”

Funnel Approach: learning general concepts before moving on to specific details

learning by association

learning through reinforcement

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Picture Credits

Exercising Brainhttp://thm-a01.yimg.com/image/eff5a4c1adb9efd4

Brain (with vessels)http://www.alzheimer.ca/english/alzheimer_brain_mini_site/images/02a.jpg

Descarteshttp://math.usask.ca/conicsdemo/DEMO/extensions/images/descartes.jpeg

Pavlovhttp://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/05pavlov.jpg

Watsonhttp://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch01_psychology_and_science/01watson.jpg

Pavlov – before, during afterhttp://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NCMaterial/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/PAVLOV.gif

Pavlov - diagramhttp://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/05pavlovsdog.jpg

Pavlov cartoonhttp://www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/pavlov_conditioning_dogs.gif

Little Alberthttp://cdn-www.cracked.com/articleimages/dan/scientific/albert

Marlboro Manhttp://i44.photobucket.com/albums/f5/atanudotcom/marlboro.jpg

Michelin Tire Adhttp://aroundthesphere.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/michelin-baby-in-tire-ad.jpg?w=450&h=299

Picture Credits

Rat with Flaghttp://www.activityvillage.co.uk/rat_with_flag.gif

Honeybeehttp://honeybeesdisappearing.com/images/honeybees_disappearing_2.jpg

Shylockhttp://www.toptenz.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/shylock-classic1.jpg