DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY€¦ · psychology, both locally and internationally. Papers written for the Department of Industrial Psychology must therefore meet all the requirements

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

GUIDE FOR WRITING PAPERS IN

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

2014

Reviewed by Prof R du Preez & Y-L de Bruijn

April 2014

Guide for writing papers in Industrial Psychology - 2014 _________________________________________________________________________________

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page:

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED WHEN WRITING A PAPER 1

2.1 Step 1: Make sure that you know what is required 1

2.2 Step 2: Obtain an overview of the topic 2

2.3 Step 3: Draw up a preliminary framework 2

2.4 Step 4: Obtain and study relevant literature 2

2.5 Step 5: Finalise the structure of your paper 3

2.6 Step 6: Write your paper 4

Transitions between sentences 7

3. TYPICAL STRUCTURE OF A PAPER 8

3.1 Title page (not numbered) 8

3.2 Declaration (page number i) 9

3.3 Abstract (page number ii) 10

3.4 Table of contents (page number iii, ii, iv, etc) 10

3.5 Introduction (page number 1 of the paper starts here) 11

3.6 The body 11

3.7 Summary and concluding remarks 11

3.8 References 12

3.9 Appendix or appendices 12

4. LITERATURE CITATIONS AND THE LIST OF REFERENCES 12

5. ADDITIONAL TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS 27

5.1 Spelling 27

5.2 Tenses 27

5.3 Numbers and decimal fractions 28

5.4 Tables and figures 28

5.6 Final preparation and typing of paper 33

6. EVALUATION OF A PAPER 33


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1. INTRODUCTION

For the purposes of this guide, a paper refers to a scientific article, work or document on a particular topic.

As a training technique, the main objective of writing a paper is to enlarge your knowledge base. However,

this training technique has many additional, perhaps equally important, advantages that include that you:

are exposed to a wide range of opinions, models and theories - much more than one would usually

find in a single book;

learn how to identify, trace and obtain relevant literature;

learn how to analyse, evaluate, order, assimilate and integrate scientific material; and

learn how to communicate in a scientific manner.

The purpose of this guide is to assist you in writing papers for your Industrial Psychology courses. It

conforms in to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.) (2009). The

editorial style described in the publication manual is followed by most publications in the field of

psychology, both locally and internationally. Papers written for the Department of Industrial Psychology

must therefore meet all the requirements set out in the publication manual. Please note that the

Department may refuse to evaluate a paper that does not meet any of these requirements. The

referencing conventions referred to in this guide, constitute the minimum knowledge regarding APA

referencing conventions. You are encouraged to consult the Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association (6th

ed.) (2009) for more detail regarding the use of this style or visit

http://www.apastyle.org for an electronic tutorial, FAQ and further assistance.

2. STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED WHEN WRITING A PAPER

Usually the topic of your paper is on something that you do not know much about. Accordingly, you need a

structure and a framework to guide your writing. In order to have a proper framework, you need to have

consulted the best available references in the particular domain. However, in order to identify these

references, you need a preliminary framework that can guide you to these references, which can only be

compiled after you have obtained an overview of the topic. It is thus evident that in order to write a paper,

you need to follow certain logical steps. Consequently the following approach is recommended for writing

the paper:

2.1 Step 1: Make sure that you know what is required

Write down the topic and give it some preliminary thought. Make sure that you know exactly what is

required of you: it may be a critical evaluation of something; a comparison of certain phenomena; or you

may be required to be creative and to develop something new; or you may merely have to describe the

dynamics of something. It may be a simple topic or it may be a double-barrelled topic, comprising the

interaction between two or more concepts. If you are uncertain, do not hesitate to ask your lecturer. In

fact, it is required of you to first discuss your preliminary planning with your lecturer before you start writing

the paper.

http://www.apastyle.org/


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2.2 Step 2: Obtain an overview of the topic

The purpose of this important step is to obtain information that can be used to compile a preliminary

framework for your paper. Some important issues to address when obtaining an overview of the topic are:

What are the evergreen/timeless sources and references?

What broad theoretical approaches exist towards the topic?

What is the current practical status of the topic?

What are the latest trends in addressing the topic?

How does this topic relate to other topics in the field?

Sources that may be used to obtain an overview of the paper topic include:

introductory textbooks;

textbooks prescribed for the course;

specialist dictionaries (e.g. the dictionary of psychology);

popular scientific journals;

review articles in scientific journals [most important source of empirical results];

conference programmes;

experts who are working in the relevant field;

masters and doctoral student’s theses and dissertations; and

your lecturers.

2.3 Step 3: Draw up a preliminary framework

A preliminary structure is a rough, but ordered outline of the main points, issues, and questions that you

think should be addressed by the paper. Such a preliminary framework enables you to conduct a more

directed search for appropriate references, as opposed to a blind search. It is required that you provide

your lecturer with such a preliminary framework before you commence with writing the paper. The

preliminary framework should be subject driven and NOT source driven.

2.4 Step 4: Obtain and study relevant literature

Once you have a broad outline of your paper, you are in a position to search for specific literature relevant

to the individual subsections of your paper. The following are some of the many sources that may be used

to obtain books and articles relevant to these headings and subheadings that you've decided on for your

paper:

the subject librarian in the library;

the library's online electronic journals and other indexing systems (e.g. Psyclit, Emerald,

Ebscohost, SABINET and ScienceDirect);

Psychological Abstracts;

reference lists in relevant books and journal articles;

Internet (Google Scholar)


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Quantitative as well as qualitative considerations are important when searching for appropriate literature.

Quantitative considerations apply to the number of books and/versus the number of journal articles

referred to in your paper. Depending on the level of your course, the nature of the topic, and the learning

objectives involved, different lecturers may require different ratios between books and journal articles.

Accordingly, make sure that you know what is required of you in this regard. Qualitative considerations, on

the other hand, pertain to the balanced use of firstly the so-called evergreen literature (i.e. timeless,

authoritative, standard, widely recognised sources), secondly original and authentic literature, as opposed

to so-called "second-hand" sources, and thirdly contemporary literature. Again, make sure that you know

what is required by the lecturer.

2.5 Step 5: Finalise the structure of your paper

After you have obtained and studied relevant literature, you are in a position to finalise the structure of your

paper. This framework, with possible minor changes if necessary, should ultimately also serve as the table

of contents of your paper. Do not have one subsection.

It is important to formulate all intended sections and subsections of your final framework in a logical and

systematic way. In order to avoid confusion, your paper should normally not contain more than three levels

of headings, although the APA style guide does allow for up to five levels. Below is an example of the

correct numbering system for a thesis and seminars.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY (level 1 heading) (for thesis with chapters)

Or if chapters is not used (seminars)

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Apparatus and Procedure (title case)

See the use of capital letters

3.1.1 Participants (bold)

3.1.2 Measurement instruments (bold)

3.1.2.1 Job description questionnaire (bold and italics)

See the use of sentence case (not capital the i)


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For the purposes of writing a paper, the (a), (b), (c) notation system is only used to indicate a series of

items within a paragraph. Please note that (a) the i, ii, iii, iv numbering convention is not used, and (b)

headings are not underlined. Finally, at this stage you should also decide how many paragraphs or

pages will be allocated to each section, keeping the required paper length in mind as well as the fact that

more important or central considerations should always be allocated more space in the paper. In other

words, do not allocate too many pages to your introduction and your conclusion, or to peripheral issues.

Remember to never have two consecutive headings in other words you must have text

between headings.

Never have a table or figure directly below a heading. You must have an introductory

section.

Be consistent with the use of bold.

Do not only use one sub-heading.

If you make use of RefWorks it is your responsibility to edit it to adhere to these guidelines.

Be careful with electronic generation of headings, content pages and reference lists. If you

are not very precise with regards to the marking of these, some headings and references

will be omitted when the content page is updated.

2.6 Step 6: Write your paper

Good writing does not come easily, even to experienced writers. The quality of your final paper will be

determined mainly by the amount of effort that you put into it. When writing the paper, keep the following

important requirements in mind:

Firstly, write coherently and logically. Your paper should be well organised at all levels. Careful

organisation at the paragraph and sentence level is also necessary to give a smooth and logical flow to

your arguments. This is also referred to as thematic flow.

Secondly, write concisely and clearly. Do not just aim at being possible to understand, but at being

impossible to misunderstand. Consider each sentence of your paper separately to determine whether it is

understandable, unambiguous, and grammatically correct according to the grammatical rules of South

African English (see comments regarding the language function on your computer). When writing a paper,

further avoid:

using contractions (avoid can’t, don’t, hasn’t, etc.); write words in full: cannot, do not, etc.;

using absolutes (e.g. “This is definitely the best way to do it”); rather say “It would seem as if

researchers prefer this way to do it”.);

attributing human characteristics to inanimate sources (e.g. “This theory looks at…”; “This theory

says….”);


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using racist language or sexist language (i.e. do not use “he” to refer to both sexes) and avoid

stereotypes (i.e. “men who work on motor cars” should rather be “people who work on motor cars);

using the passive voice (e.g. “The subjects were asked to complete the questionnaire”); use active

verbs (e.g. “The researchers asked the subjects to complete the questionnaire”); and

making sudden shifts in verb tenses; use consistent verb tenses.

Thirdly, good scientific language is precise. Use words in their exact sense, consulting a dictionary

regularly. Weigh every significant word carefully, trying various alternatives to ensure that you use those

words that convey your ideas exactly.

Fourthly, good scientific language is direct and simple. Short words and sentences are often better than

long ones, since they are easier to understand. However, be careful that your paper does not appear too

cryptic. Avoid the excessive use of bullets and point-form writing.

Lastly, good scientific language is impersonal. For example, do not write "I prefer theory xyz", or "We

analysed the topic", or "In this paper I discuss ..., etc. Instead, write "Theory xyz is preferred", "The topic

was analysed", and "In this paper, the construct is discussed… (i.e. do not refer to yourself in the first

person). Some further pointers in terms of academic writing follow:

Verbs in Academic Writing

In the same way that a story needs active, dynamic verbs to keep the plot moving, academic essays too

will benefit from the correct use of verbs to help you present your ideas. The tables below list useful verbs

that are very common in academic texts. You are likely to come across more verbs for the different

categories in your reading. Add to each list as you notice how published authors use them in your

textbooks and journal articles. Being familiar with these words will help you use them effectively in your

writing. Attempt to not use the same word repeatedly such as … found! Important: Note that the words in

each list are not mere synonyms of one another. There are shades of differences in their meaning, and you

must make sure that you select the appropriate one for your own context.

Showing change or

difference

Increase: broaden; enlarge; exceed ; expand; improve; maximize;

optimize

Decrease: decline; deteriorate; erode; minimize; narrow; reduce;

worsen

Difference or Varying: alter; contrast; convert; deviate; differ;

differentiate; distinguish; diverge; evolve; modify; revise; transform

Shows stability maintain ; sustain

Shows keeping within a

certain range / keeping

under a certain level

Confine; inhibit; prohibit; restrict


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Shows in-depth study Analyse; examine; investigate; observe; survey

Stating, Restating or

Emphasising

Ideas/Concepts

Stating: acknowledge; argue; attribute; comment; propose; establish;

identify; mention; note; observe; state

Restating: elaborate; expand

Emphasising: emphasise; stress

Describes phenomenon or

data

Describes phenomena: define

Describes data: approximate; demonstrate; indicate; levels off; reflect

Stating position Positive: advocate; hold the view that; hypothesize; propose

Negative/contradict: deny ; dispute; negate; reject

Showing uncertainty or an

extrapolation of information

Uncertainty: predict ; speculate

Extrapolation of information: deduce ; imply; infer; project

Show components Comprise; consist; constitute; incorporate

References:

Nation, I. S. P. (1990). Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. New York: Newbury House.

Academic Word List. http://www-ub.massey.ac.nz/~wwlang/staff/awl/headwords.shtml

Academic Phrasebank of the University of Manchester http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/index.htm

Verbs signalling that the author is making a claim:

Argue Assert Believe Claim

Emphasise Insist Observe Remind us

Report Suggest Demonstrate Declare

Stress Allege Maintain

Verbs signalling that the author is agreeing:

Acknowledge Endorse Admire Extol

Agree Praise Reaffirm Corroborate

Support Verify Approve Consent

Concede

Verbs signalling that the author disagrees:

Complain Complicate Contend Contradict

Deny Deplore Disavow Question

Refute Reject Renounce Repudiate

Dispute Doubt Challenge Contest

Disprove

http://www-ub.massey.ac.nz/~wwlang/staff/awl/headwords.shtml


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Verbs signalling that the author is making recommendations

Advocate Encourage Plead Warn

Call for Exhort Recommend Suggest

Demand Implore Urge Propose

Advise Put Forward

Some further verbs that could assist you include (ECU University):

Add

Admit

Affirm

Allude to

Ask

Assume

Caution

Concentrate

Conclude

Condone

Consider

Contend

Convey

Declare

Define

Defy

Demonstrate

Describe

Determine

Discuss

Establish

Examine

Explain

Explore

Express

Focus on

Formulate

Highlight

Hypothesise

Identify

Illustrate

Imply

Include

Indicate

Infer

List

Mention

Note

Object

Oppose

Postulate

Prove

Presume

Point out

Reason

Reveal

Say

Show

State

Stress

Survey

Write

Transitions between sentences

Signal that you are going to present a list:

Firstly; secondly To begin with Next Finally; Lastly

(Try to avoid lists if you can – they are often an excuse not to think through the connection between ideas)

Signal that you are adding to something in the previous data:

Also And Besides Furthermore

In addition Indeed In fact Moreover

So too As well as Above all What is more

Signal that you are elaborating on the previous idea:

Actually by extension In short that is In other words To put it in another way

Ultimately Namely After all

Signal that you going to give examples

For example For instance Specifically As an illustration

Such as to take a case in point


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Signal that ideas are alike

Likewise Similarly Equally Correspondingly

Along the same lines In the same way

Signal that you are contrasting ideas or changing direction

However But By contrast Conversely

Despite the fact that Even though Although In contrast

Nevertheless Nonetheless On the contrary On the other hand

Regardless Whereas While Yet

Instead Besides

Signal that you are conceding a point

Admittedly Granted of course Although it is true

Signal cause and effect or expressing a result

As a result Consequently Hence Since

Accordingly Then So Because

Signal that your argument is strong enough to reach a conclusion

Therefore Thus In conclusion Hence

Consequently In brief To summarise In short

3. TYPICAL STRUCTURE OF A PAPER

The structure of a paper usually comprises the following components:

Title page

Declaration

Abstract

Table of contents (with page numbers);

Introduction

The body (comprising appropriate headings and subsections with page numbers)

Conclusion or summary

References

Appendix or appendices

The requirements for each are briefly described below.

3.1 Title page (not numbered)

The outside page of the cover serves as the title page of your paper on which the following information

must be provided:


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Top left-hand corner: your lecturer's name.

Middle of page: the complete title of the paper, as provided by the lecturer.

Bottom right-hand corner: the student's initials and surname, student number, the course and the

paper submission date.

3.2 Declaration (page number i)

It is expected that all students provide and sign a declaration which states that he/she understands what

plagiarism is and that it is wrong. The department may refuse to mark a paper if this declaration is not

provided. Please note that the page number (i in the case of the declaration) and all other page numbers in

the paper must be positioned in the upper right hand corner of each page, in the space between the top

edge of the paper and the first line of text. The following declaration should be used and should be signed!

I herewith declare this work to be my own, that I have acknowledged all the sources I have consulted in the

assignment/essay itself and not only in the bibliography, that all wording unaccompanied by a reference is

my own, and that no part of this assignment/essay has been directly sourced from the internet without

providing the necessary recognition.

I acknowledge that if any part of this declaration is found to be false I shall receive no marks for this

assignment/essay, shall not be allowed to complete this module, and that charges can be laid against me

for plagiarism before the Central Disciplinary Committee of the University.

I acknowledge that I have read the Guidelines for Writing Papers in Industrial Psychology and have written

this paper accordingly, and that I will be penalised for deviating from these guidelines.

Signed: ……………………………… Date: …………………………

In Afrikaans it reads:

Hiermee verklaar ek dat hierdie werk my eie is, dat ek alle bronne wat ek geraadpleeg het in die seminaar

self vermeld en nie net in die bibliografie nie, dat alle bewoording wat nie vergesel word van ‘n

bronverwysing nie my eie is, en dat geen deel van hierdie seminaar/opstel direk van die internet verkry is

sonder om erkenning te verleen nie.

Ek erken dat indien dit blyk dat indien enige aspek van hierdie verklaring vals is, ek geen punt vir hierdie

seminaar/opstel sal verdien nie, nie toegelaat sal word om hierdie module te voltooi nie, en by die Sentrale

Dissiplinêre Komitee van die Universiteit aangekla kan word van plagiaat.

Ek bevestig dat ek die dokument “Guidelines for Writing Papers in Industrial Psychology” gelees het, en

die seminaar daarvolgens geskryf het, en dat ek gepenaliseer sal word indien my seminaar hiervan afwyk.

Geteken: …………………………………. Datum: ……………………..


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For thesis and dissertations: Consult the calendar and SunScholar for the guidelines in this regard

3.3 Abstract (page number ii)

An abstract (i.e. a summary) of the paper of approximately 100 words (but not more than 120) is provided

on the first page of the contents. An abstract is an abbreviated, accurate representation of the

contents of the paper, without added interpretation. It should not contain any information that does not

appear in the paper. Neither should it contain any literature citations, references, symbols or abbreviations.

It should be concise, but written in full sentences to avoid being too cryptic. If the paper is in Afrikaans, the

summary is to be provided in English under the heading "Abstract". Important: the abstract is not an

introduction and should therefore focus on the content of the paper! The abstract usually covers:

Introductory sentence to argue/state the importance/motivation of the topic/study

Some background regarding the topic

Objectives

Methodology: The research design, approach and method is briefly explained with specific

reference to the target population and the sample size

Main findings

Implications: practical and managerial

See journal articles for examples. The Afrikaans abstract can be omitted.

3.4 Table of contents (page number iii, ii, iv, etc)

A table of contents must be provided on the third page of the contents, i.e. the page immediately following

the abstract page. The heading of this page is entitled TABLE OF CONTENTS which must be indicated

clearly at the top of the page. This page must include all the main and subheadings of the paper on the

left-hand side of the page. These must be numbered exactly as they are in the paper, with the page

numbers where these headings occur in the paper (not the range) opposite the relevant headings on

the right-hand side of the page

Please note that the headings REFERENCES and APPENDIX or APPENDICES (if more than one

appendix), are represented in the same way in the table of contents. Remember: Avoid the use of one

word headings.


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3.5 Introduction (page number 1 of the paper starts here)

The introduction starts on a new page, which is page 1 of your paper. The introduction usually comprises

two sections. The first section usually gives the reader a brief, but stimulating overview of the topic, often

in the form of key questions and issues formulated around the topic. This section therefore usually ends

with a formulation of the objective of the paper. The second section is used to indicate how the problems

identified in the first paragraph will be addressed in the paper. In this section therefore, the planning of,

approach to, and structure of the paper, are briefly outlined.

NB: The introduction should present a funnel like argument as to the importance of the study,

culminating in the research initiating question.

3.6 The body

The body of the paper comprises one or more main headings with their subsections in which the main

problems and/or issues are addressed. In order to answer the problem posed by the paper topic, the

problem must first be analysed. It follows therefore that the first part of the body of a paper comprises a

systematic and logical analysis of the problem by considering all relevant models, viewpoints and theories.

In the second part of the body all these variables are consolidated in order to formulate an answer or

answers to the problem. The most important purpose of the body of a paper is therefore to answer a

problem or address a particular issue. Anything that does not contribute significantly to this purpose is

immaterial and must be excluded from the paper.

The definition of key concepts must be a priority throughout the body of the paper. Rather than having a

separate section for this, key concepts and terms must be defined where they first become relevant in the

text of the body in order to facilitate clear arguments, detailed descriptions, and the logical flow of your

writing. The definition of key concepts must therefore form an important and integral part of the body of

your paper.

3.7 Summary and concluding remarks

In this section of your paper, a summary and some concluding remarks are provided. This section is

normally not used for any new conclusions. Your conclusions must be integrated into the body of the

paper – here they are briefly summarised only. A last "Conclusions" section is usually only reserved for

research reports, articles and theses.

The summary part is less cryptic than the abstract, but still summarises in your own words, the issues

addressed, the method followed, and the main conclusions reached. However, just like the abstract, it

should not contain any new information, i.e. information that does not appear in the paper. It should

preferably also not contain any literature references, including quotations.


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The second part of this section of your paper comprises concluding remarks. Here you can provide some

concluding perspectives on the problem in the form of future or urgent research required, new questions

uncovered, unresolved issues, practical implications. However, be careful of clumsy statements, dramatic

exaggerations and unscientific generalisations that may diminish the merit of your paper.

3.8 References

The reference list is a list of books, articles and other references integrated into one alphabetical list of

references and is compiled under the heading REFERENCES (Afrikaans: VERWYSINGS). A reference

list helps readers to find each source of information authors cited in the text of your document. All the

sources cited in the paper (except personal communications) must be listed as references (i.e. the

reference list should show 100% agreement with the citations in the text). However, the reference list is

not a bibliography and should not contain references to works other than those cited in the paper.

All references cited in the paper must be in the reference list and visa versa. For the sake of

conciseness, the reference list of assignments, essays, research papers, dissertations and theses, should

be single-spaced, with double-spacing between references. The second line and any following

lines of each reference should be indented. Please note also that references in the list of references

are not numbered. The referencing style is described in detail in the next section of this guide.

3.9 Appendix or appendices

The purpose of an appendix is to elaborate, not to clarify or to substantiate. To test whether an item can

be included as an appendix or not, the following question must be answered: if you omit the appendix page

from your paper, will the conclusions in your paper remain unchanged? If the answer is yes, the item can

probably be included as an appendix. However, if the answer is no, the item must be integrated into the

body of your paper and not be included as an appendix. It should thus be clear that an appendix may not

be used as an excuse for a longer paper, especially if there is a limitation on the length of the paper.

Accordingly, only material that is not directly relevant to the problem addressed by the paper, but that is

still of interest, may be included as an appendix or as appendices. Lastly, there must be a clear link

between the text and the appendix, and this is achieved by referring the reader at the appropriate point in

the text of the paper to the applicable appendix. Each appendix must have a number and a title. The

appendices should be numbered and included in the same order as presented in the text.

NOTE: ALL STUDENTS MUST INCLUDE THE COMPLETED SELF-ASSESSMENT FORM AS WELL

AS THE TURNITIN SUMMARY AS APPENDICES (not for thesis purposes)

4. LITERATURE CITATIONS AND THE LIST OF REFERENCES

Every significant issue, statement or fact described in your paper must be supported by a literature citation

with the citation's full reference supplied in the reference list at the end of your paper. Literature citations

and the reference list (a) indicate that you have read widely and extensively, (b) indicate where you

obtained your data, (c) serve as evidence that you actually consulted relevant sources, (d) lend credibility

to your arguments, (e) acknowledge authors whose ideas and information are used in the paper, and (f)


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allow readers to locate works to which your paper refers. As indicated in the introduction, the referencing

style used is that of the American Psychological Association. This convention is described in some detail

below.

Also consult the library website http://library.sun.ac.za//eng/help/IG_Programme/Plagiaat/APA1.html. Go

to http://library.sun.ac.za and click on Inligtingsgeletterdheid; click on Verwysingstegnieke; click on APA.

Click on Voorbeelde. These examples were compiled from various sources included the Author notes

posted on the SAJIP website. Also visit http://www.apastyle.org/about-apa-style.aspx

Literature citations in a text come in two forms: (a) referring to another author without quoting that author,

and (b) quoting another author. In the first instance, you reproduce another author's ideas and writing in

your own words and you acknowledge that author by providing his surname and the date of the relevant

publication at the beginning or end of your sentence, e.g.:

Elliot (2011) found no differences between these two variables.

No differences were found between these two variables (Elliot, 2011).

There are two more conventions to note when looking at this example. When we use the same reference

for the second time in the same paragraph, just the name of the first author and no date is used. This is

because the rest of the authors and the date have already appeared in the previous sentence. When we

use the same reference for the third time in the same paragraph, it would be inelegant to refer to it

again. Therefore, the sentence starting with “They indicated….” shows no names and date, as it is clear

that we are referring to (Elliot (2011) in this example).

Two or more citations within the same parentheses are separated by semicolons if the works are by

different authors. If works by the same author are cited, give the surname only once and separate the

years by commas. Arrange the citations within parentheses in alphabetical order (which is also the

order in which they appear in the reference list) e.g.:

(Amabile, 2011; Brown, 2008, 2011a, 2011b; Crichton, 2009).

When you cite one work by multiple authors the following stylistic rules should be observed. If this

reference introduces a new sentence, it would look as follows: Eschholz, Blackwell, Gertz and Chiriccos

(2011); while on the other hand when the reference is at the end of a sentence it is placed in brackets

(Eschholz, Blackwell, Gertz & Chiriccos, 2011). Please note here that “and” is used in the text and

ampersand (“&”) is used when the reference appears in brackets. Further, when there are three or

more authors for one work, cite all the authors the first time the reference occurs; in subsequent

citations, include only the surname of the first author followed by et al. (not italicised and with a

period after the “al”) and the year if it is the first citation of the reference within a paragraph.

http://library.sun.ac.za/eng/help/IG_Programme/Plagiaat/APA1.html

http://library.sun.ac.za/

http://www.apastyle.org/about-apa-style.aspx


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If you cite a work with six or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author followed by et

al. (not italicized or with , after al.) Write out all six authors in the reference list, where after et al.

must be used.

Please take note!

Sometimes it is necessary to cite a work by an author discussed in a secondary source. The

reference, Mercer (as cited in Goodfellow, 2004) is called a secondary reference. This means that

the author of this text did not read about Mercer’s work in the original, but read about his/her work in the

work of Goodfellow. In text, you name the original author, Mercer (without the date), and give a

citation for the secondary source (Goodfellow – with the date) (in the reference list you cite the

secondary source only - Goodfellow). Important: Attempt to find as many original sources as possible.

In the text: Mercer (as cited in Goodfellow, 2004) argued the importance of ....

A quotation, the second form of a literature citation in a text, is a reproduction of the original author's

precise words in the text of your paper. Quotations thus follow the original in wording, spelling, and

punctuation. You are allowed to use the exact words of another author, provided that you indicate very

clearly that you are doing this. Use quotations sparingly! The first word of a quotation may be changed

to a capital or a small letter to allow it to fit into the text; similarly, the final punctuation mark may be

changed or omitted. The omission of words from a quotation is indicated by three ellipsis points

( ... ), or by four ellipsis points if one or more complete sentences are omitted.

Short quotations (less than 40 words) are incorporated in the text and enclosed in quotation marks.

Longer quotations are set off from the text in a free-standing block, indented two spaces, and

without any quotation marks. When another author is quoted, you acknowledge that author by providing

the following information at the beginning or end of your sentence: his surname, the date of the relevant

publication, and the page number from which the quote comes. Examples of quotations are shown below:

Cooper (2011, p. 85) concluded that "… the training needs assessment may provide information indicating

that training is not the intervention that is needed." or Cooper concluded that "…the training needs

assessment may provide information indicating that training is not the intervention that is needed" (2011, p.

85). All quotations should indicate a page number. If the quote extends over more than one page,

the abbreviation pp. is used. An example is shown below:

The conclusion was that "… the training needs assessment may provide information indicating that training

is not the intervention that is needed. For example, the problem may be the remuneration policies of a

company, rather than a lack of job skills" (Cooper, 2011, pp. 85-86). It is not good practice to follow a

“recipe style” of writing a paragraph and then followed by a reference. Students must attempt to make

the citations part of the “normal” reading of the paragraph. This enhances the flow of the paper.

In the remainder of this section, examples of referencing techniques are provided in table format.


15

APA Reference Style Guide

Notes: Please "copy" the title of a book/an article/whatever (as far as the spelling of words such as "behavior"/"behavioral" are concerned (and this also goes

for direct quotations) exactly as in the original.

• When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or Web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and

subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.

• Capitalize all major words in journal titles.

• If within the same paragraph, reference is made to the same author(s) for a second and further time(s), the year of publication is omitted in the second and further references - as long as it does not lead to confusion.

Compiled by OpenJournals Publishing and assisted by Prof George Sieberhagen (North-West University)

Basic in-text referencing In-text reference where the author of the source is known

…the result of this is a ‘technical super identity’ (Erikson, 1967, p. 20). Azar and Martin (1999) found that… (As part of the sentence) …thus Cox (1966, p. 52) refers to the modern urbanite as…

Simply use whatever you used as author in the reference, as well as the year of publication.

Only insert the page number when using a direct quote. Do not include suffixes such as Jr.

In-text reference to more than one source

More recent studies (Bartlett, 1992; James, 1998) show that… The researchers (Bartlett, 1992, p. 54; Brown, 1876, p. 45; James, 1998, p. 45) refer to…

In-text reference to more than one author should be ordered alphabetically.

General forms for reference lists Non-periodical Author, A.A. (1994). Title of work. Location: Publisher. Nonperiodicals include items published

separately: books, reports, brochures, certain monographs, manuals, and audiovisual media

Part of a Non-periodical Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (1994). Title of chapter. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx-xxxx). Location: Publisher.

Periodical Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (1994). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx, xxx-xxxx. .

Periodicals include items published on a regular basis: journals, magazines, scholarly newsletters, etc

Online periodical Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (2000). Title of article. Title of


16

Periodical, xx, xxx-xxxx. Retrieved Month day, year, from web address Online document Author, A.A. (2000). Title of work. Retrieved Month day, year, from web

address

Referencing other sources A book with only one author Rose, L. (1977). Crime and punishment. London: Batsford. A book by two authors Gordon, E.W., & Rourke, A. (1966). Compensatory education for the

disadvantaged. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

In order to avoid possible communication problems all procedures should be explained to the patient (Gardner & Sheldon, 1967, p. 40)… Gardner and Sheldon (1967, p. 40)

When quoting a book with two authors in the text, use the word ‘and’ between the names; if the reference is in parentheses, use ‘&’ examine the problem…

A book by three or more authors Meyer, B.S., Anderson, D.P., Bohning, R.H., & Fratanna, D.G., Jr. (1973). Introduction to plant physiology. New York: Van Nostrand.

In referring to a work by three, four or five authors all the relevant names have to be furnished in the first reference to the work, e.g.: …the traditionalist personality (Riesman, Denney & Glazer, 1968, p. 40) restrains him from doing…

In later references to this work only the first author’s name is stated, and the abbreviation ‘et al.’ is used: …due to his “other-directness” modern Western man in a sense is at home everywhere and yet nowhere (Riesman et al., 1968, p. 40)…

In referring to a work by six or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author followed by et al. (italicized and with a full stop after “al”), and the year for the first and subsequent citations. In the reference list, provide the initials and surnames of the first six authors, and shorten any remaining authors to et al.

Reference to more than one publication of the same author in the same year

Johnson (1994a, p. 48) discussed the subject…

In his later works (Johnson, 1994b, p. 56) he argued…

Johnson, P.D. (1994a). Pedagogy. London: Routledge.


17

Johnson, P.D. (1994b). Advanced Pedagogy. London: Routledge.

Different authors with the same surname

According to B. Smith (1989) and F. Smith (1997), … When you refer to publications by different authors with the same surname, use their initials in the reference.

A book with an institution, organisation or association as author

You can also use the name of the body as part of the sentence. …it had long been evident that the intellectual potential of the Afrikaners on the Witwatersrand was under utilised (Rand Afrikaans University, 1976, p. 48)…

…thus the Rand Afrikaans University (1963, p. 30) concluded that…

Rand Afrikaans University (1970). The new university: A practical guideline. Johannesburg, Gauteng: Rand Afrikaans University.

Where reference is made to the work by a body (institution, organisation, association, etc.) where no specific author is responsible for the work, the official name of the body is used as author. When the author and publisher are identical, use the word Author as the name of the publisher.

A book with (an) editor(s) Driver, E., & Broisen, A. (Eds.). (1989). Child sexual abuse. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Education Ltd.

Strunk, W. (Ed.). (1976). Adult learning. New York: Macmillan.

A chapter in a book (not edited) Capra, F. (1983). The systems view of life. In The turning point: science, society and the rising culture (pp. 376-399). London: Fontana Press

Part/chapter of an edited book Hartley, J.T., Harker, J.O., & Walsh, D.A. (1980). Contemporary issues and new directions in adult development of learning and memory. In L.W. Poon (Ed.), Aging in the 1980’s: Psychological issues, (pp. 239- 252). Washington: American Psychological Association.

Shirom, A. (1989). Burnout in work organizations. In C.L. Cooper & I.T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. IV (pp. 25-49). New York: Wiley.

Anonymous work When a work’s author is designated as “Anonymous”, cite in text the word ‘Anonymous’:

A recent article (Anonymous, 1993) stated that… In the case of articles in newspapers or magazines where no author is named, the title is used instead of the author.


18

A recent article (War over, 1991) stated that…

Anonymous. (1993, 17 February). Best practices. The Star, p. 10.

War over. (1991, 7 January). The Star, p. 1.

A work with a foreign title Spyridakis, A. (1987). E historia tis Helladas [A history of Greece]. Athens: Therios ita Iona.

Translated works Luria, A.R. (1968). The mind of a mnemonist: A little book about a vast memory. (L. Solotaroff, Trans.). New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1967)

In text, cite the original publication date and the date of the translation:

A recent study (Luria, 1967/1968)

Second, further or revised editions Dyson, G.G.H. (1977). The mechanics of athletics. (7th edn.). New York: Homes and Meier.

Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (Rev. edn.). New York: Academic Press.

Date of publication unknown Wolverton, H.(n.d.). The geological structure of the Black Hills. Wilmington: Prairie Press.

Dictionaries The concise Macquarie dictionary. (1982). New South Wales: Lane Cove.

Nguyen, D.H. (1966). Vietnamese-English dictionary. Rutland Vermont: Charles Tuttle Company.

Sadie, S. (Ed.). (1980). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians (6th edn, Vols. 1-20). London: MacMillan.

Encyclopedia Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new Encyclopaedia Brittanica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Brittanica.

If an entry has no byline, place the title in the author position.

Personal communication Personal communications may be letters, memos, some electronic


19

communication (e.g., e-mail or messages from non-archived discussion groups or electronic bulletin boards), personal interviews, telephone conversations, and the like. Because they do not provide recoverable data, personal communications are not included in the reference list. Cite personal communications in text only. Give the initials as well as the surname of the communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible:

According to T.K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001)…

Unpublished manuscript submitted for publication

Jordan, B. (1989). Psychology of adolescent parents. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Unpublished manuscript not submitted for publication

Ryder, M. (1987). Wonder woman: An Amazon legacy. Unpublished manuscript.

Newspaper article Lamb, J. (1970, 20 October). The perfect plants for lazy gardeners. Weekend Australian, p. 3.

Periodical article If a journal or newsletter does not use volume numbers, include the month, season, or other designation with the year, for example (1994, April)

Phillips, E. (1985). The Australian scene. Australian Journal of Ecology, 3(2), 25-29.

Only indicate the issue number after the volume number if each issue begins on page 1.

Journal article in press Phillips, E. (in press). The Australian scene. Australian Journal of Ecology.

In text:

Phillips (in press) or (Phillips, in press)

Abstract Phillips, E. (1985). The Australian scene [Abstract]. Australian Journal of Ecology, 3(2), 25-29.

Non-English journal article Give the original title, as well as an English translation in brackets. Ising, M. (2000). Intensitätsabhängigkeit evozierter Potenzial im EEG:


20

Sind impulsive Personen Augmenter oder Reducer? [Intensity dependence in eventrelated EEG potentials: Are impulsive individuals augmenters or reducers?]. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 21, 208-217.

Published dissertation or thesis Bevins, G.D. (1987). Theory and practice at an Australian university. Doctoral dissertation. Montreal: McGill University.

Unpublished dissertation or thesis Little, P. (1965). Helplessness, depression and mood in end stage renal disease. Unpublished master’s thesis, Wits University, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Or: Unpublished doctoral dissertation…

Dissertation abstract Ross. D.F. (1990). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person from a lineup (Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51, 417.

Government publications When referring to a government publication, the date is sufficient for in text referencing, e.g.:

According to The Bill of Rights (1996)… Education is in the process of transformation (Department of Education, 1995)…

Provide all numbers, sections, chapters or volume numbers that is available, in brackets.

The Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the Republic of South African. (1996). Government Gazette. (No. 17678).

Department of Education. (1995). White Paper on Education. Government Gazette. (Vol. 375, No. 45621).

Commission on Civil Rights. (1967). Racial isolation in the public schools. Washington: United States Government Printing Office.

Republic of South Africa. (1997). Basic Conditions of Employment Act,


21

No. 75 of 1997. Pretoria: Government Printers.

Unpublished raw data, untitled Use brackets to indicate that the material is a description of the content, not a title.

Bordi, F., & LeDoux, J.E. (1993). [Auditory response latencies in rat auditory cortex]. Unpublished raw data.

Booklet, pamphlet or leaflet South African College of Advanced Education. (1976). Referencing: the footnote and Harvard system [Brochure]. Johannesburg: Wits Technikon.

Research and Training Center in Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for reporting and writing about people with disabilities (4th edn.). [Brochure]. Lawrence, K.S.: Author.

Study guide Speedy, C. (1999). Study Guide: Electrical Engineering 1. America: South American College of Engineering.

Conference proceedings, no author or title

International Microcomputer Conference. (1984). Conference proceedings held at the Western Australian Institute of Technology, Perth, 22 – 24 May 1984. Perth: Western Australian Institute of technology.

Conference proceedings, with author Field, G. (2001). Rethinking reference rethought. In Revelling in Reference: Reference and Information Services Section Symposium, 12-14 October 2001 (pp. 59-64). Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: Australian Library and Information Association

Unpublished paper presented at a meeting

Lanktree, C., & Briere, J. (1991, January). Early data on the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSC-C). Paper presented at the meeting of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, San Diego, CA.

Publication of limited circulation For a publication of limited circulation, give in parentheses immediately after the title a name and address from which the publication can be obtained:

Klombers, N. (Ed.). (1993, Spring). ADAA Reporter. (Available from the Anxiety Disorders Association of America, 6000 Executive Boulevard,


22

Suite 513, Rockville, MD20852) Review Schatz, B.R. (2000). Learning by text or context? [Review of the book

The social life of information]. Science, 290, 1304. Kraus, S.J. (1992). Visions of psychology: A videotext of classic studies [Review of the motion picture Discovering Psychology]. Contemporary Psychology, 37, 1146-1147.

Electronic sources In-text reference where the author of the electronic source is known

Simply use whatever you used as author in the reference, as well as the year of publication:

The project website was created using Aldus Pagemaker version 3 (1987-1988)…

Several films (e.g., Bertolucci, 1988) have used this technique…

Azar and Martin (1999) found that…

In-text reference to a web site To cite an entire Web site (but not a specific document on the site), simply give the site's URL in the text:

Rainbow MOO is a virtual space designed especially for teachers and their elementary-school students (http://it.uwp.edu/rainbow).

When a specific part of an electronic source has to be quoted and no page number can be found, use the paragraph number if available, preceded by the ¶ symbol or the abbreviation para.

If these are absent, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph following it:

Jones, 2000: ¶5)

Jones, 2000: Conclusion, para.7)

Internet site with author Holmes, A. (1998). Greenpeace wins media war. Retrieved November 25, 1998, from http://www.independent.co.uk/international/green25.htm

http://it.uwp.edu/rainbow




http://www.independent.co.uk/international/green25.htm

http://www.independent.co.uk/international/green25.htm


23

Internet document without author GVU’s 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/user_surveys/survey-1997-10/

Article From an Online Periodical with DOI Assigned

Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number). doi:0000000/000000000000

Personal electronic communication (e-mail)

Because personal e-mail do not provide recoverable data, they (like other personal communications) are not included in the reference list. Cite personal communications in text only. Give the initials as well as the surname of the communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible:

According to T. K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001)…

Article in an Internet-only journal Fredrickson, B.L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/ pre0030001a.html

Electronic copy of a journal article retrieved from database

Borman, W.C. (1993). Role of early supervisory experience in supervisor performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 443-449. Retrieved October 23, 2000, from PsycARTICLES database.

Internet articles based on a print source

VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in the selection of resources by psychology undergraduates [Electronic version]. Journal of Bibliographic Research, 5, 117-123.

If you have reason to believe that the article might be subject to change, you should add the date you retrieved the document, and the URL

Newsgroups, online forums, electronic mailing lists

FORMAT: Author. (Year, Day Month). Subject of message. Message posted to Name mailing list, archived at URL

Brack, Ernie (1995, 2 May). Re: Computing short courses. Message posted to LisLink mailing list, archived at http://archive.lislink.com

Jensen, L.R. (1995, 12 December). Recommendation of student radio/tv in English. Message posted to IASTAR mailing list, archived at http://nrg.dtu.dk

http://archive.lislink.com/

http://archive.lislink.com/


24

Brett, P. (1999, June 6). Experiments proving the collective unconscious [Msg 1]. Message posted to news://alt.psychology.jung

If you cannot determine the author's name or screen name, then use the author's email address as the main entry. When deciding where in your Reference List to insert such a source, treat the first letter of the email address as though it were capitalized.

[email protected] (1996, May 26). Thinking of adoption. Message posted to news://alt.adoption

If the message is not retrievable from an archive, it should not be included in the reference list. It can be cited as a personal communication.

Paper presented at a virtual conference

Tan, G., & Lewandowsky, S. (1996). A comparison of operator trust in humans versus machines. Paper presented at the CybErg 96 virtual conference. Retrieved May 16, 2000, from http://www.curtin.edu.au/conference/cyberg/centre/outline. cgi/frame?dir=tan

Abstract Isaac. J.D., Sansone, C., & Smith, J.L. (1999, May). Other people as a source of interest in an activity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 239-265. Abstract retrieved June 7, 1999, from IDEAL database: http://www.europe.idealibrary.com

Article in an electronic magazine (ezine)

Adler, J. (1999, May 17). Ghost of Everest. Newsweek. Retrieved May 19, 1999.

Newspaper article Azar, B., & Martin, S. (1999, October). APA's Council of Representatives endorses new standards for testing, highschool psychology. APA Monitor. Retrieved October 7, 1999, from http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct99/in1.html

Review Parfit, M. (1997, December 7). Breathless [Review of the book The climb: Tragic ambitions on Everest]. New York Times on the Web. Retrieved October 7, 1999, from http://search.nytimes.com/books/97/12/07/reviews/971207.07parfitt. html

http://www.curtin.edu.au/conference/cyberg/centre/outline

http://www.curtin.edu.au/conference/cyberg/centre/outline

http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct99/in1.html

http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct99/in1.html


25

Letter to the editor Gray, J. (1999, May 7). Pesticides linger in land and air—and in our bodies [Letter to the editor]. Lexington Herald-Leader. Retrieved October 7, 1999, from http://www.kentuckyconnect.com/heraldleader/news/050799/lettersdocs/ 507letters.htm

Government publication Bush, G. (1989, April 12). Principles of ethical conduct for government officers and employees Exec. Order No. 12674. Pt. 1. Retrieved November 18, 1997, from http://www.usoge.gov/exorders/eo12674.html

CD-ROM Hawking, S. (1994). A brief history of time: An interactive adventure [CD]. Sacramento: Crunch Pod Media.

Sound recording Williamson, C. (1985). Prairie fire. On Arkansas traveler [CD]. Oakland, California: Olivia Records.

Rock 'n roll classics. (1986). [Cassette] San Diego, California: Uptown Sound.

Motion picture/film Transactional analysis [Motion picture]. (1974). Los Angeles: Research Films.

Bertolucci, B. (Producer). (1988). The last emperor [Motion picture]. Los Angeles: Columbia Pictures.

Television broadcast Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, October 11). The MacNeil/Lehrer news hour [Television broadcast]. New York and Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service.

Video recording Babakuieria. (1986). [Video recording]. Sydney: ABC Drama Department.

Sutton, P. (Producer). (1986). Kay Cottee: First Lady [Video Recording]. New South Wales: Direct Video Pty Ltd.

Cochrane, C., (Executive Producer) & Graham S., (Director). (1988). The Superkids' fitness video [Video Recording]. Perth: Dynami Australia.

Microfiche Illinois State Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction (1971). Toys for early development of the young blind child: a guide for parents. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 065 201)

Computer program Aldus Pagemaker version 3.0 [Computer software] (1987-1988). Seattle, Washington: Aldus Corporation Schwarzer, R.(1989). Statistics software for meta-analysis [Computer software and manual]. Retrieved from http://www.yorku.ca/faculty/academic/schwarze/meta_e.htm

http://www.kentuckyconnect.com/heraldleader/news/050799/lettersdocs/

http://www.kentuckyconnect.com/heraldleader/news/050799/lettersdocs/

http://www.usoge.gov/exorders/eo12674.html

http://www.usoge.gov/exorders/eo12674.html


26

Commonly used abbreviations

Appendix - app. Chapter - ch. Column - col. Columns - cols. Editor - ed. Editors - eds. Edition - edn. Editions - edns.

Number - no. Numbers - nos. No date - n.d. No publisher, no page - n.p. Page - p. Pages - pp. Paragraph - para. Revised- rev.

Reprinted - rpt. Supplement - Suppl. Technical Report - Tech. Rep. Translated, translator - trans. Volume - vol. Volumes - vols. Written - writ.

Rule: a capital letter for the abbreviation for editor or editors i.e. Ed. or Eds. Use lower case for edition i.e. 2nd edn.

Latin abbreviations And others - et al. (et alii)

Used where there are too many authors to list In the same work - ibid. (ibidem) Signifies the same work as the one cited immediately before, but a different page The same - id. (idem) The item cited is by the author of the item cited immediately before In the work cited - op. cit. (opere citato) Refers the reader back to the author’s previously cited work, but to a different page Without place - s.l. (sine loco)

For more resources visit: Academic Phrasebank of the University of Manchester: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/index.htm http://www.waikato.ac.nz/library/apaguide.shtml http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/07/ http://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/apagd.php#articleone This referencing guide is compiled from various resources, our appreciation to http://www.infosecsa.co.za/Reference_Techniques.pdf

Take note: Internet references (especially those that do not come from established journals and

organisations) must be treated with caution. Since most material found on the web, especially those on

home pages, are not refereed by experts, as is the case with articles and books, any person can create a

homepage and fill it with suspect information.

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/index.htm

http://www.waikato.ac.nz/library/apaguide.shtml

http://www.waikato.ac.nz/library/apaguide.shtml


27

5. ADDITIONAL TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS

5.1 Spelling

All writing, i.e. terminology, spelling, hyphenation, abbreviations, and punctuation must be in standard

South African English, not American English (except in quotations from an American source).

Accordingly a United Kingdom dictionary, thesaurus (e.g. Collins), and computer spelling and

grammar checker (UK option) must be used. Use “s” and not “z”

How to set English (United Kingdom) as default on your computer

If you set English (United Kingdom) as default on your computer, it will automatically correct

spelling and grammar according to standard rules followed by writers who use United

Kingdom English.

In Review tab; far left hand side , first block, click on red marking next to thesaurus; select

UK English, clear both tick boxes and OK

5.2 Tenses

Inconsistent or inappropriate tenses are confusing. The following recommendations and examples may

help to avoid such confusion:

Refer to accepted knowledge in the present tense, e.g. "Locus of control refers to beliefs about the

control an individual has over events."

Use the past tense to describe an event that occurred at some specific time in the past, e.g.

"McClelland investigated this problem."

Use the present perfect tense for events that have occurred over an unspecified time in the past,

up to the present, e.g. "Several authors have described this phenomenon."

Describe your methods (which were applied some time ago), and your results (which were

obtained some time ago) in the past tense, e.g. "Interviews were conducted ... Managers

disagreed with most of the statements."

Refer to information in your paper in the present tense, e.g. "The results of that investigation are

summarised in Table 1" or "The model is reproduced in Figure 1."

Discuss your findings and conclusions in the present tense, e.g. "These findings imply that ... " or

"It can be concluded that ... "


28

5.3 Numbers and decimal fractions

The following numbers are usually written as words: the integers zero to nine, common fractions, and any

number starting a sentence. In most other cases, numbers are usually written as figures, e.g. numbers

(both cardinal and ordinal) higher than nine, percentages, measures, time, dates, decimals, ratios.

Note the use of zero in a decimal fraction. Use zero before the decimal point when numbers are less than

1 (e.g. 0.23cm or 0.48s), but do not use a zero before a decimal fraction when the number cannot be

greater than 1 (e.g. correlations, proportions and levels of statistical significance i.e. r = -.43 and p<.05)

The decision as to how many decimal places should be used when reporting results are governed by three

general principles: (a) a fundamental attitude to round as much as possible while keeping (b) prospective

use and (c) statistical precision in mind. As a general rule, fewer decimal digits are easier to comprehend

than more digits. Most data can be presented effectively with two decimal digits of accuracy. Correlations,

proportions, inferential statistics and significance probabilities (e.g. t, F and chi-square) are reported with

two decimals. However, there are circumstances under which more decimals may be reported (e.g.

Bonferroni tests, exact randomisation probabilities).

5.4 Tables and figures

Briefly refer to the information in every table. Indicate what the reader should look for, as this speed up the

comprehension of the material. You should not, however, repeat the results or discuss details, as this

would make the table superfluous.

APA Table Guidelines

Purpose and General Information:

Tables are useful for presenting a large quantity of information clearly and concisely. They typically display

numerical data in columns and rows for easy classification and comparison. Tables do not duplicate text,

but rather present new information. They should be interpretable without the text.

Basic Presentation and Formatting:

1. Numbering: Each table is preceded by the capitalized word “table” followed by an Arabic number

(e.g., Table 1, Table 2, Table 3). The number given to a table is determined by the order in which that

table is referred to in the text (i.e., the first table discussed is Table 1, the second is Table 2, and so

on). Capitalize “table,” and do not bold or italicize the text.

2. Titling: Each table has a unique title written directly below the table number. Titles should be brief yet

descriptive. Capitalize each major word in the title (but not of, on, in, and, etc.). Italicize titles. Don’t

put a period. Example: Mean Performance Scores of Students With Different College Majors

3. Spacing: Tables in the new 6th edition APA format can be double-spaced or single-spaced with

readability as the primary consideration. Spacing should be consistent throughout the table.


29

4. Ruling: Put lines in a table only when they are necessary for clarity. Horizontal lines are permissible;

vertical lines are not.

5. Font: Use a serif font Times Roman or Courier for text and tables. Serif means that there are short

lines at the ends of the strokes of letters. Example: This is written in serif font. This is sans serif font.

Columns and Headings:

1. Generally, arrange tables such that different types of information are located in different columns, with

items to be compared located in neighbouring columns.

2. Each component of a table is unique; don’t repeat rows or columns within a table.

3. Each column and row will have a heading; headings should be concise but descriptive. Capitalise the

first word of each heading. Do not bold or italicize the text, and do not put a period after the heading.

Example: Temporal lobe

4. Column headings refer to information below, not next to, the heading.

5. Column headings can be of two types: They can cover just one column, or they can cover multiple

columns (technically called “spanners”). If a heading covers multiple columns, there must be a row

above or beneath that heading that contains individual column headings.

6. Column and row headings may contain standard symbols and abbreviations (e.g., %, M, SD, df, F)

without explanation, but nonstandard abbreviations should be explained in a note to the table (below).

Unlike full words, abbreviations in headings don’t necessarily need to be capitalized.

Body:

1. If individual cells contain text, capitalize the first word.

2. Cells typically contain numbers, not text. Use the number of decimal places that is appropriate for your

analysis. This will often be two, but may be more or less depending on the level of precision required

by your analysis.

3. Be consistent in the number of decimal places you use within a column and within comparable values

elsewhere.

4. If a cell must remain empty, put in a dash (--) and explain your absence of data in the note to the

table.

Notes to a Table:

1. Occasionally you may need to provide additional information about an aspect of a table. You can

present this information in a note to the table rather than in the text or in the table itself.

2. Notes to the table appear underneath the table being supplemented. Notes begin under the first

column and are left-justified and single or double spaced. Each note begins on a new line.

3. There are three kinds of notes to tables:

a. General notes are about the table as a whole. They begin with the capitalized and italicized word

"Note" followed by a period. The first word of the text of the note is capitalized, and the note ends in a

period. Example: Note. All non-significant three- way interactions were omitted.


30

b. Specific notes are about a particular column, row, or cell. They begin with a lower- case letter in

superscript format (e.g., a); this letter will also appear in the column, row, or cell that your note refers

to. Use letters in alphabetical order. Order the letters in the body of the table from the upper left-hand

side of the table to the lower-right hand side. Notes end with a period. Example: an = 15 for each

group.

c. Probability notes are about statistical findings. These are commonly used to specify the p-value of a

particular statistical test. For example, if you have some results that are significant at the p = .05 level

and others that are significant at the p = .01 level, put different symbols next to those results in the

table, and provide an explanatory note of your symbols underneath the table. Begin probability notes

with the symbol to be defined and end them with a period. Example: *p < .05. **p < .01.

4. If you have a note of each kind (or of any two of the three kinds), they must appear in the order of

General note, Specific note, and Probability note.

Table Checklist

Is the table necessary?

Is the table referred to in the text?

Are all comparable tables in the manuscript consistent in presentation?

Is the title brief but explanatory?

Does every column have a column heading? Are all abbreviations, special symbols, and special

use of italics, parentheses, and dashes explained and/or do they appear in the APA manual's list

of statistical abbreviations (e.g., SD)?

Are all probability-level values correctly identified, and are asterisks attached to the appropriate

table entries? Is a probability level assigned the same number of asterisks in all tables in the

same article?

Are the notes in the following order: general note, specific note, probability note?

Sample Table (Single spaced):

Table 1

Mean +/- SD Music Test Scores for Men and Women

Classicala Jazz

Gender Mean SD Mean SD

Male 8.45 0.98 5.72 1.38

Female 7.12 1.10 3.92 1.67

Note. The mean score here reflects knowledge according to the Music Knowledge Index,

which ranges from zero to 20.

aRefers to music composed between 1600 and 1800 AD.


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The following are some of the more important technical requirements concerning tables in papers: (a)

tables are numbered with Arabic numerals, in the order in which they appear in the text, e.g. Table 1, Table

2, etc., (b) each table must have a concise title that explains its contents, (c) table headings (number and

name) appear at the top of the table, starting on the left margin, in the next line give the table name

in italics, figure headings appear below the figure, starting on the left margin (d) if you type the table

yourself, use only horizontal lines in the table, (e) tables are positioned in the middle of the page, and (f)

the table's full literature reference is provided below the table, on its right-hand side; (g) attempt to have

tables on one page.

Table 1

SMME definition

Size or class The total number of employed personnel

Large > 150

Medium 50 – 150

Small/Micro 1 – 49

(Mummenthy, 2008, p. 6)

Figures are treated in precisely the same way as tables, except that the title of a figure is placed below

the figure, not above it as is the case with tables. The full literature reference of the figure is provided

just below the title on its right-hand side.

Important: never have a table and figure directly below each other. Do not refer to “ the figure below” –

always give the table or figure number. The systems model is depicted in Figure 2 (Figure with a capital

F).

Note the differences in the use of italics and layout of the heading.

Figure 2. Systems – Model (Input, Process, Output)

(Mummenthy, 2008, p. 6)

Inputs Processes Outputs/Outcome

Transformation

of the Inputs


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5.5 Statistical expressions in APA

Some of the more common examples are given below. Italics and spaces need to be carefully noted.

Note on Probabilities:

There are two ways to report statistical probability: pre-specified probability given as a range below the

chosen alpha level and exact probability given as a calculated p-value. Since most statistical packages

calculate an exact value for p, the Publication Manual recommends that exact p-values should be reported.

Example: p < .05

Example: p = .031 (preferred)

Exceptions, where a pre-specified probability range may be preferred, include large or complex

tables of correlations or when the p-value is particularly small (e.g., p < .001).

Reporting F-tests:

General format: F([df-between], [df-within]) = [F-obtained], p = [p-value], [eta-squared obtained] = [value].

Example: F(2, 50) = 9.35, p < .001, η2 = .03.

If a p-value is not significant, then the letters ns are substituted, or the precise p-value is substituted

prefaced by an equals sign.

Example: F(2, 50) = 1.35, ns.

Example: F(2, 50) = 1.35, p = .18. (preferred)

If an F-value is less than 1, thereby implying that it can never be statistically significant, then neither the F-

value itself, nor the associated p-value, is reported.

Example: F(2, 50) < 1.

Example: F < 1.

Reporting t-tests:

General format: t([df error]) = [t-obtained], p = [p-value], [Cohen's d obtained] = [value].

Example: t(9) = 2.35, p = .043, d = .70.

Reporting χ2 tests:

General format: χ2([df error], N = [total sample size]) = [Chi-squared obtained], p = [p-value].

Example: χ2(4, N = 24) = 12.4, p = .015.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_level

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F_test

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_significance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_test

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi-squared_test


33

5.6 Final preparation and typing of paper

After writing the paper, proofread it to identify grammatical and spelling errors. It usually also helps to

set the paper aside for a few days, then to read it again, slowly, as if it were someone else's work. Also

ask someone else to read your final paper critically, marking every error, and even sentences that have to

be read twice. Rectify all these problems before you have your paper typed, if you don't type it yourself.

Remember that poor editing influences the perception of the quality of your paper in general, and will

probably result in a substantially lower mark.

Papers must be typed on one side of the page only. Top, bottom, left and right margins are usually not

larger than 2.54 centimetres. Font size can vary between 10 and 12 font with 1.5 line spacing throughout

the paper. The length of the paper will be determined by your lecturer – make sure that you know what is

required in this regard. Students should make sure that they adhere to the guidelines posted on the

library website for submission of thesis (SUNScholar)

After typing the paper, proofread it again for typing errors. Your finalised paper must then be bound

securely in a plastic cover. Only when you are convinced that everything possible has been done to

produce a final paper of high quality, are you ready to submit it for evaluation.

6. EVALUATION OF A PAPER

Different evaluation dimensions will be emphasised. These will depend on, for example: (a) the course

level, i.e. undergraduate versus postgraduate papers; (b) the particular learning objectives involved; (c) the

availability of references; and (d) the complexity of the topic; etc.

Typical dimensions, on which papers may be evaluated, are:

Introduction and orientation

Summary and concluding remarks

Depth of, and extent to which topic is covered

Applicability and relevance of contents to topic

Selection and use of relevant, evergreen and recent literature

Systematisation, logical structure, organisation, integration, continuity

Reasoning, insight, inferences, conclusions

Language usage

Scientific originality, creativity, initiative

Contribution of the study

Technical and editorial care (table of contents, layout, tables, figures, literature citations and

references, typing)


34

Your lecturer will inform you beforehand on which dimensions your paper will be evaluated. Make sure

that you know precisely what these are beforehand so that you can keep them in mind while writing the

paper. A typical assessment sheet is included for your reference. A self-assessment should always be

done PRIOR to handing in your seminar. This will prevent you from handing in a seminar or thesis that

does not adhere to the basic assessment criteria. The self-assessment must be filled out and included as

an appendix in your seminar.

All post-graduate work must also be submitted on SUNScholar and Turn-it-in.


35

STUDENT: ____________________________________ US NR: _____________________

UITKLOP ITEMS / KNOCK OUT ITEMS (indien NEE aangedui word, sal u seminaar nie beoordeel

word nie / if NO is indicated, your seminar will not be assessed) Ja / Yes Nee / No

Bronverwysings en bronnelys ingesluit / References and “reference list” included

Getekende plagiaat verklaring / Signed plagiarism declaration

Selfbeoordeling / Self – assessment (Voeg in as bylae / Include as an appendix)

Turnitin opsomming / summary ** (Voeg in as bylae / Include as an appendix) %

Inhoud selfstandig aangebied / Own content

DIMENSIES VAN ASSESERING / DIMENSIONS OF ASSESSMENT PUNT

MARK

VOORKOMS EN TEGNIESE VERSORGING VOLGENS APA RIGLYNE /

APPEARANCE AND TECHNICAL CARE ACCORDING TO APA GUIDELINES [10]

Ja /

Yes Nee /

No

Voorkoms keurig en netjies / appearance professional & neat

Inhoudsopgawe en inhoud met bladsy nommers / list of contents and content with page numbers

Voldoende verwysings na/erkenning van bronne / Sufficient reference to and acknowledgement of

references

Korrektheid van verwysings in teks en verwysingslys / Correctness of reference in text and reference

list

Alle bronne in verwysingslys ook in teks en vice versa / All references in reference list also in text and

vice versa

Baie

swak /

Very

poor

Sw

ak /

Poor

Redelik

/

Fair

Goed /

Good

Baie

goed/

Very

good

BRONNE / SOURCES [10]

Gehalte van bronne / quality of references [is dit die erkende bronne vir die

onderwerp en vanuit die “beste” bronne / are these sources the most recognized

sources from the “best” sources]

Resentheid van bronne / recency of references

Aantal bronne gebruik / number of sources used

TAALGEBRUIK / LANGUAGE [5]

Wetenskaplike skryfstyl / scientific writing style [sien riglyne / see guidelines]

Oorspronklike woordkeuse / use of own words [ eie woorde / own words used]

Taal van “abstract” / language of “opsomming” [sien riglyne / see guidelines]

INHOUD / CONTENT [75]

Logiese afbakening & struktuur / logical delimitation & structure

[volg die inhoud logies op mekaar en is daar voldoende struktuur aan die inhoud

gegee / is there a logical delimitation to the content; is there sufficient structure to the

content]

Tematiese vloei / thematic exposition

[volg die dele logies op mekaar, is daar ‘n deurlopende vloei en koppeling tussen

paragrawe? / do the sections logically follow each other; is there a flow between

paragraphs]

DEPARTEMENT BEDRYFSIELKUNDE / DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

SELFBEOORDELING / SELF ASSESSMENT *


36

Beredenerende aanbieding / argumentative presentation

[volg die skryfwyse ‘n beredeneerde ingesteldheid eerder as die een outeur noem dit

en die ander dat; integreer;kontrasteer en beredeneer die inhoud / do the writing style

show a argumentative presentation rather than the one author states this and the

other that; integrate, contrast and argue the content]

Integrasie van bronne / integration of references

[integreer bronne deur te beredeneer; moenie een bron na die ander “behandel” nie –

die bronne moet bespreek en geintegreer word/ integrate sources by argument; do

not discuss one source after the other with no discussion and integration]

Teoretiese onderbou / theoretical base

[is die seminaar op teoretiese inhoud gebasseer of is dit oppervlakkig / is the seminar

content based on theoretical content]

Diepte van inhoud / depth of content

[het die inhoud diepte of is dit oppervlakkig / do the content reflect academic depth or

is it superficial]

Omvang van inhoud / comprehensiveness of content

[is dit binne die riglyne / is it within the guidelines]

Insig in die onderwerp / insight into the topic

[toon die student dat hy/sy die onderwerp verstaan en insig daarin toon / the student

shows insight into, and understanding of the topic]

Eie interpretasie en gevolgtrekkings / own interpretation and conclusions

[demonstreer die student dat hy/sy die inhoud interpreter en gevolgtrekkings daaruit

kan maak / student demonstrates interpretation of content as well as presentation of

conclusions]

Relevante,toepaslike en nuttige inhoud / relevant, applicable and useful content

[is al die inhoud toepaslik en nuttitg vir die onderwerp/ is all the content relevant and

applicalble to the topic]

* Hierdie voltooide vorm moet as ‘n bylae by u seminaar ingevoeg word

This completed form must be included as an appendix in your seminar

***********

Documents

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY€¦ · psychology, both locally and internationally. Papers written for the Department of Industrial Psychology must therefore meet all the requirements