Psychology of Women

PSYC 330Fall 2010

Tammy Lynn Kirichenko

Calendar Description

• An examination of the major theories, research methodologies, and data in the field of the psychology of women. Philosophical values of feminism and the psychological impact of women's historical roles in society will be considered throughout.

Prerequisites: PSYC 101, 102, and two 200 level courses in the social sciences (or permission of the instructor)

Syllabus

Questions

Other Stuff

Introductions

Why Psychology of WOMEN?

“An examination of the psychology of

women looks at the ways women’s shared

experience is distinct from that of men”

(Lips, 1999)

Why do you think that there is not a Psychology of Men

course?

Potential Topics

• Gender Theories• Stereotypes• Friendship & Other Relationships• Female Aggression• Violence Against Women• The Culture of Youth & Beauty• Communication (differences between women and men)• Portrayals of Females in the Media• Sexuality• Power & Leadership• Women and Mental Illness

• Other?

Selected Discussion Topics (example)

• Should women and girls (of any age) be encouraged to participate in beauty pageants?

• Discuss (and jot down your conclusions)

Should women and girls (of any age) be encouraged to participate in beauty pageants?

• Positives:– Competition can be

healthy– Pride in

accomplishment– Scholarships– Opportunity to do

humanitarian work– Okay if it is the

girl/woman’s own choice

• Negatives:– OVERLY competitive– Many girls are ‘forced’

into it– Focus on superficial

qualities– Can promote

unhealthy behaviours (e.g., lead to eating disorders)

Introduction

Research BackgroundResearch Background

From Princess to Sex-Object: From Princess to Sex-Object:

A Content Analysis of Portrayals of A Content Analysis of Portrayals of Femininity in Popular Media Directed Femininity in Popular Media Directed

Toward Toward

Girls and Young WomenGirls and Young Women

Research BackgroundResearch Background

content analysis of various mediacontent analysis of various media ClothingClothing Disney Animated Features (princess)Disney Animated Features (princess) LyricsLyrics Music VideosMusic Videos Toys (product descriptions)Toys (product descriptions)

PurposesPurposes

to examine popular media and the to examine popular media and the ways in ways in

which females are portrayed in terms which females are portrayed in terms of of (a) physical appearance (a) physical appearance

(b) gender-stereotypical roles (b) gender-stereotypical roles

(c) sexuality(c) sexuality

(d) values and personality characteristics (d) values and personality characteristics

(e) expectations (e) expectations

Objectification Objectification TheoryTheory

Objectification TheoryObjectification Theory ‘‘Objectification theory’ was proposed by Objectification theory’ was proposed by

Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) as their attempt Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) as their attempt to explain how females are socialised to to explain how females are socialised to internalise observers’ perspectives of their bodiesinternalise observers’ perspectives of their bodies

This, in turn, leads to a preoccupation with one’s This, in turn, leads to a preoccupation with one’s own physical appearance (self-objectification)own physical appearance (self-objectification)

They argue: ‘When objectified, individuals are They argue: ‘When objectified, individuals are treated as bodies and, in particular, as bodies treated as bodies and, in particular, as bodies that exist for the use and pleasure of others’ that exist for the use and pleasure of others’ (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998, p. 269). 1998, p. 269).

Consequences of Consequences of ObjectificationObjectification

The consequences of exposure to objectifying images, The consequences of exposure to objectifying images, words, or ideas often manifest in ways that are not words, or ideas often manifest in ways that are not always easily identifiablealways easily identifiable

For instance, internalising an observer’s perspective For instance, internalising an observer’s perspective can increase a female’s shame and anxiety about her can increase a female’s shame and anxiety about her own physical appearance/attractiveness, decrease her own physical appearance/attractiveness, decrease her awareness of internal bodily states, and, awareness of internal bodily states, and, subsequently, inhibit her ability for peak motivational subsequently, inhibit her ability for peak motivational states (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)states (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)

This lack of internal awareness may make an This lack of internal awareness may make an individual more vulnerable to developing mental individual more vulnerable to developing mental health problems such as unipolar depression, sexual health problems such as unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders (Fredrickson & dysfunction, and eating disorders (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)Roberts, 1997)

Sexual ObjectificationSexual Objectification

Sexual objectification occurs when a woman’s Sexual objectification occurs when a woman’s

body is treated as an object (especially an object body is treated as an object (especially an object

that exists for the pleasure and use of others), that exists for the pleasure and use of others),

and is illustrated interpersonally through gaze or and is illustrated interpersonally through gaze or

‘‘checking out’, and in the representation of checking out’, and in the representation of

women in the media … very few women are able women in the media … very few women are able

to avoid contexts that may be potentially to avoid contexts that may be potentially

objectifying. (Slater & Tiggemann, 2002, p. 343)objectifying. (Slater & Tiggemann, 2002, p. 343)

Objectifying Media Objectifying Media ImagesImages

This is apparent in the mediaThis is apparent in the media e.g., music lyrics and videos, magazine covers e.g., music lyrics and videos, magazine covers

and advertisements, television, movies, etc.and advertisements, television, movies, etc.

Women often put themselves on display (e.g., Women often put themselves on display (e.g., wearing revealing clothing, dancing or acting wearing revealing clothing, dancing or acting provocatively in order to get attention)provocatively in order to get attention)

Women often refer to themselves in self-Women often refer to themselves in self-objectifying waysobjectifying ways

ExamplesExamples

‘‘advertising’ that one is an object to advertising’ that one is an object to be stared at, lusted after, or touched be stared at, lusted after, or touched

Music lyrics & videosMusic lyrics & videos

ClothingClothing

LyricsLyrics

Examples of objectification in lyricsExamples of objectification in lyrics Self-objectificationSelf-objectification Being objectified by othersBeing objectified by others

What messages do such songs transmit What messages do such songs transmit toto Girls?Girls? Boys?Boys?

Music VideosMusic Videos close ups of body parts: breasts, buttocks, close ups of body parts: breasts, buttocks,

groin, midriffgroin, midriff

male gaze/‘checking out’male gaze/‘checking out’

dancing/gyratingdancing/gyrating

touching oneself seductively/sexually touching oneself seductively/sexually suggestivesuggestive

Clothing TextClothing Text Seven themes emerged from analyses of Seven themes emerged from analyses of

the clothing text (/97)the clothing text (/97)

The text in each category included words The text in each category included words related to related to Innocence (9) Innocence (9) Naughtiness (11) Naughtiness (11) Objectification (29)Objectification (29) – 30% – 30% ‘‘Princessy’ (22) Princessy’ (22) Spoiled (12) Spoiled (12) Superiority (7) Superiority (7) Competitiveness (7)Competitiveness (7)

Should we close our eyes Should we close our eyes … ?… ?

merely encountering words (visually) that merely encountering words (visually) that describe one’s physical appearance describe one’s physical appearance activated a state of self-objectification in activated a state of self-objectification in women (and led to greater appearance women (and led to greater appearance anxiety; see Roberts & Gettman, 2004)anxiety; see Roberts & Gettman, 2004)

imagine all of the situations in which imagine all of the situations in which females are exposed to such words …females are exposed to such words … … … and, therefore, are at risk for feelings of and, therefore, are at risk for feelings of

self-shame, disgust, anxiety, and self-shame, disgust, anxiety, and unattractiveness …unattractiveness …

Thoughts?

Social IdentitySocial Identity

Social IdentitySocial Identity We think of ourselves in terms of various We think of ourselves in terms of various

identities. Some of these may include:identities. Some of these may include:

GenderGender EthnicityEthnicity NationalityNationality ReligionReligion Sexual OrientationSexual Orientation TalentsTalents AccomplishmentsAccomplishments AppearanceAppearance RelationshipsRelationships

Gender TheoriesGender Theories One of the first of these identities that develops is One of the first of these identities that develops is

gender identitygender identity

Gender identityGender identity is the personal construction and is the personal construction and acceptance of the self as male or female (Bukatko acceptance of the self as male or female (Bukatko & Daehler, 2003), which most children acquire by & Daehler, 2003), which most children acquire by the age of three (Santrock, 2004). the age of three (Santrock, 2004).

Gender rolesGender roles, however, are socially constructed , however, are socially constructed sets of expectations that influence how females sets of expectations that influence how females and males think, feel, and behave (Santrock, and males think, feel, and behave (Santrock, 2004). 2004).

Although gender-role socialisation is a life-long Although gender-role socialisation is a life-long process, it is particularly noticeable during process, it is particularly noticeable during children’s formative years (Marliene, 1999).children’s formative years (Marliene, 1999).

1. 1. Psychoanalytic/IdentificatioPsychoanalytic/Identificatio

nn From an early age, girls learn to feel From an early age, girls learn to feel

inferior to and envious of malesinferior to and envious of males Freud:Freud:

Development and resolution of the Development and resolution of the Oedipus Complex; Oedipus Complex; Castration anxiety; Castration anxiety; Penis envyPenis envy

Horney:Horney: Unconscious fear of vaginal penetrationUnconscious fear of vaginal penetration Girls are valued less than boys and are Girls are valued less than boys and are

treated as though their sexuality is the treated as though their sexuality is the most important part of their identitymost important part of their identity

2. Social Learning2. Social Learning From birth, children are treated in gender-From birth, children are treated in gender-

specific ways, and parents and other specific ways, and parents and other adults reinforce gender-specific attitudes adults reinforce gender-specific attitudes and behaviours. and behaviours.

Gender identity, therefore, is formed Gender identity, therefore, is formed through imitation, direct reinforcement for through imitation, direct reinforcement for sex-typed activities, and vicarious learning sex-typed activities, and vicarious learning from peer or adult same-sex models (Burr, from peer or adult same-sex models (Burr, 1998). 1998).

Bandura (1986) refers to these Bandura (1986) refers to these phenomena as ‘differential reinforcement’ phenomena as ‘differential reinforcement’ and ‘observational learning’. and ‘observational learning’.

3. Cognitive 3. Cognitive DevelopmentalDevelopmental

Children mature through interaction with their Children mature through interaction with their environment and take an active role in organising environment and take an active role in organising their world; they create schemas (i.e., mental their world; they create schemas (i.e., mental categories) that are fluid and that emerge through categories) that are fluid and that emerge through interaction with their social environment (Marliene, interaction with their social environment (Marliene, 1999)1999)

Kohlberg (1966, as cited in Levy & Carter, 1989) Kohlberg (1966, as cited in Levy & Carter, 1989)

proposed several stages of gender development: proposed several stages of gender development: gender identitygender identity: children are capable of labelling : children are capable of labelling

themselves and others by gender (based on physical themselves and others by gender (based on physical features); features);

gender stabilitygender stability: children understand that gender does : children understand that gender does not change over time; and not change over time; and

gender constancygender constancy: children understand that gender is : children understand that gender is constant across time and situations, and that it is constant across time and situations, and that it is independent from what they wear or how they behave. independent from what they wear or how they behave.

4. Gender Schema/4. Gender Schema/Enculturated Lens TheoryEnculturated Lens Theory

The development of gender identity is embedded in the socio-The development of gender identity is embedded in the socio-historical context of each culture, and culture operates as a lens historical context of each culture, and culture operates as a lens through which gender identity and roles are defined and passed on through which gender identity and roles are defined and passed on from one generation to the next (Bem, 1993). from one generation to the next (Bem, 1993).

Gender schema theorists consider both cognitive developmental Gender schema theorists consider both cognitive developmental and social learning theories (i.e., schemas are socialised cognitive and social learning theories (i.e., schemas are socialised cognitive networks of sex and gender roles) as components of gender networks of sex and gender roles) as components of gender schema theory. schema theory.

Gender schemacity refers to judgements about the social world as Gender schemacity refers to judgements about the social world as being organised into female and male categories (Ruble & Stangor, being organised into female and male categories (Ruble & Stangor, 1986). Individuals with strong gender schemas are more 1986). Individuals with strong gender schemas are more susceptible to stereotypic perceptions and behaviours, whereas susceptible to stereotypic perceptions and behaviours, whereas gender aschematic individuals tend to be less bound by gender aschematic individuals tend to be less bound by stereotypical roles and perceptions (Bem, 1999; Ruble & Stangor, stereotypical roles and perceptions (Bem, 1999; Ruble & Stangor, 1986).1986).

Although children learn about their own sex and sex-/gender roles Although children learn about their own sex and sex-/gender roles primarily through interactions with others (e.g., caregivers, primarily through interactions with others (e.g., caregivers, siblings), they also internalise gender-role stereotypes from books, siblings), they also internalise gender-role stereotypes from books, songs, television, and movies (Thorne, 1993), and learn sex-typed songs, television, and movies (Thorne, 1993), and learn sex-typed behaviour from these ‘symbolic’ models (Burr, 1998). behaviour from these ‘symbolic’ models (Burr, 1998).

StereotypesStereotypes

Gender StereotypesGender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes differ from many racial Gender stereotypes differ from many racial stereotypes in that people often stereotypes in that people often wantwant to to confirm them. Many men want to be confirm them. Many men want to be “masculine” (assertive and dominant); “masculine” (assertive and dominant); many women want to be “feminine” (gentle many women want to be “feminine” (gentle and self-less). Not only do people often and self-less). Not only do people often internalize, value, and agree with sex roles internalize, value, and agree with sex roles and gender stereotypes, but they also feel and gender stereotypes, but they also feel societal pressure to conform. (Worchel, societal pressure to conform. (Worchel, Cooper, Goethals, & Olson, 2000, p. 212)Cooper, Goethals, & Olson, 2000, p. 212)

Stereotypes: RolesStereotypes: Roles

Women areWomen are NurturersNurturers Domestic Domestic

OccupationsOccupations Teachers, nurses, secretariesTeachers, nurses, secretaries

Other examples?Other examples?

Stereotypes: Attitudes & Stereotypes: Attitudes & BehavioursBehaviours

Women are preoccupied with their Women are preoccupied with their appearanceappearance

Women are overly emotionalWomen are overly emotional WeakWeak DependentDependent Need to be rescuedNeed to be rescued

Women are … ?Women are … ?

Media ModelsMedia Models ChildhoodChildhood

toys, books, audio-visual media, role models toys, books, audio-visual media, role models and adult influences, computersand adult influences, computers

AdolescenceAdolescence books, television & movies, magazines, books, television & movies, magazines,

music videos, “role models” (e.g. actors, music videos, “role models” (e.g. actors, models, musicians), fashion, video games, models, musicians), fashion, video games, internetinternet

AdulthoodAdulthood values, stereotypes, portrayals are still being values, stereotypes, portrayals are still being

reinforced (e.g., ‘reality’ television)reinforced (e.g., ‘reality’ television) internalized internalized cumulative effect cumulative effect

Prince Charming (aka “Mr. Right”), the “fairy tale wedding”Prince Charming (aka “Mr. Right”), the “fairy tale wedding”

The Princess The Princess PhenomenonPhenomenon

Fairy talesFairy tales Books, dolls, tiaras, castlesBooks, dolls, tiaras, castles

DisneyDisney Books, movies, video games, merchandiseBooks, movies, video games, merchandise

ClothingClothing T-shirts, jewelry, accessoriesT-shirts, jewelry, accessories

ElectronicsElectronics DVD players, televisions, ipods, cell phone coversDVD players, televisions, ipods, cell phone covers

Household appliances and accessoriesHousehold appliances and accessories Toasters, dishes, bedding, bathroom decorToasters, dishes, bedding, bathroom decor

MoviesMovies A Cinderella Story; Mean Girls; The Princess DiariesA Cinderella Story; Mean Girls; The Princess Diaries

TelevisionTelevision

Commercials Commercials (e.g., toothpaste/mouthwash)(e.g., toothpaste/mouthwash)

Reality Shows Reality Shows (e.g., (e.g., The BachelorThe Bachelor))

Other?Other?