Running Head: Parental Status and Life Satisfaction1[Type text][Type text][Type text]

Parental Status and Life Satisfaction3

Parental Status and the Effect on a Childs Life Satisfaction

University of North Carolina at Charlotte

Joshua Haynes

If there are any questions about this research project, the researcher can be reached via email at jhayne36@uncc.edu.

May 6th, 2014

AbstractThis study was conducted to gain a better understanding of the impact parental transitions have on a child. The research examined the relationship between parental status and a childs satisfaction with life. It is hypothesized that a negative relationship would exist between major parental transitions during a childs life and the childs reported life satisfaction. Research such as this are critical to better understand the complex situation a divorce or other significant changes in parental status can have on a child growing up. Questions made by the researcher were asked to determine whether or not the participants parents went through any significant transition, particularly divorce, and they were placed into one of two groups accordingly. The participants life satisfaction was measured using the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985) to obtain a numeric value for analysis. An independent samples t-test was used with the SPSS system to examine the data. The results showed no significant difference in the average life satisfaction scores between the two groups.

Parental Status and the Effect on a Childs Life SatisfactionDivorce rates have increased in recent years, leaving many children to grow up in nontraditional family structures (Kennedy & Ruggles, 2014). Because such a significant shift has occurred in recent years, very little formal research has gone into whether children of divorce or other major transitions experience a diminished satisfaction with life. This research will attempt to understand if a relationship is present between the parental status of individuals during childhood and their current satisfaction with life.Despite the novelty of this idea, quite a bit of preliminary research has already been done. In 1991, research was conducted to examine the possible relationship between boys problems adjusting and the presence of parental transitions (Capaldi & Patterson, 1991). The researchers examined fourth-grade boys of different transitional family structures in a variety of different attributes related to adjustment. The results showed a positive correlation between the amount of family transitions and the presence of adjustment problems. These findings indicate that family structure changes can lead to problems for a childs proper development.Astone and McLanahan (1991) also researched how family structure can influence children. They looked at how the absence of both parents in a household can lead to less success for children in high school. The researchers obtained data that indicated a detrimental relationship between children living in households that went through a major transition and educational attainment. Much like Capaldi and Pattersons findings, children that experienced a parental transition experienced various difficulties that impacted different aspects of life.Longitudinal research was conducted to examine the lasting impact of divorce or other parental conflict on psychological well-being (Amato, Booth, & Loomis, 1995). After a 12-year longitudinal study, participants whose parents either divorced or consistently exhibited conflict displayed more issues than individuals without divorce or parental inter-marital conflicts. Once again, this research shows a clear pattern that children that experience parental divorce often display more issues, both in the short term and long term, than similar children without divorced parents.Research similar to Amato et al. (1995) was conducted to examine how adolescents handled family stressors, such as divorce and parental conflict (Henry & Plunkett, 1999). Different situations were examined to see how adolescents dealt with and interpreted different family stressors and how these scenarios were intertwined. The researchers determined that different coping mechanisms exhibited can influence how adolescents handle the different situations that were examined, which in turn altered the adolescents satisfaction with their family. This research indicates that it is not only the situation, but also the individual that influences satisfaction when dealing with parental transitions or other similar issues. However, strong research regarding the relationship between divorce and how it can effect children was still a couple years away.Emery and Kelly (2003) began conducting research to see how divorce in particular can impact a childs adjustment. They explained that children following divorce might experience less parental involvement, a loss of close relationships, increased stress, and even painful long-term memories of the divorce. Emery and Kellys findings coincide with what this research sets out to discover: a negative relationship exists between children whose parents have gone through major change and their satisfaction with life.Kelly (2007) continued her research by examining the living arrangements the parents settle on for children following a divorce. She looked at data of different arrangements, as well as the childrens feelings toward the situation, to come to her conclusion. Kelly feels that the current setup many children are put into are often unsuccessful in addressing the childrens best interests. Much of the current procedure for children after divorce do not foster adequate adjustment, and in turn lead to a lower satisfaction with life. Fomby and Cherlin (2007) set out to examine the long-term effects on children that experienced multiple transitions in family structure. They used a longitudinal study that included a variety of measures that looked at child development and indicators of future well-being. The results varied between white and black children; white children show a relationship between the number of transitions and delinquent behavior, while black children showed no statistically significant difference. The research shows that many children end up experiencing long-term adjustment issues related to the number of parental transitions present while they were growing up. A study made at the University of South Carolina was conducted to examine how family structure and adolescent functioning are related (Antaramian, Huebner, & Valois, 2008). The researchers looked at middle school children coming from multiple family structures and examined their satisfaction with life. Their results indicated that children in single-parent or step-parent households had a lower satisfaction with life than their counterparts. This data continues to underline the relationship between the different types of family structures and a childs satisfaction with life. A recent study set out to determine how parental divorce affects children on both a cognitive and noncognitive level (Kim, 2011). The researcher examined data before, during, and after the divorce. Kim focused on children whose parents actually went through a divorce, and examined data to come to various conclusions. The researcher found negative effects of divorce on children, even after factoring in other extraneous factors, and these effects appeared to persist during and after the study period. This study displays another negative impact parental transitions can have on childrens development. A large-scale study was conducted recently that examined children in different family structures in 36 western societies (Arnarsson et al., 2012). Children from different countries were answered different questionnaires that indicated both their family structure and satisfaction with life. The researchers findings indicated that children who lived in two-parent homes reported a higher satisfaction with life than other families that had experienced a significant transition. These findings correlate with much of the other data that has been presented regarding parental transitions and the childs satisfaction with life.Research on the relationship between divorce or other parental transitions and a childs adjustment and satisfaction with life is still relatively new. However, much of the data currently available indicates that these transitions have a negative impact on the child, both in the short and long term. Because the data shows a connection between the two factors, more research should be done to examine the impact. It is hypothesized that parental transitions will affect a childs satisfaction with life. Specifically, this study will continue to explore the negative relationship between parental transitions and the effect these may have on a childs satisfaction with life.

MethodParticipantsThe participants for this research study consisted of 164 different individuals, coming from a variety of different backgrounds. 98 of the participants said their parents were never divorced, while 49 individuals stated their parents did get divorced while they were growing up. 11 responses indicated some other situation not listed, and the participants gave a brief description. Seven responses were eliminated either because the participant did not wish for their information to be included in the research or they were below the age of 18 and parental consent was not obtained. The demographic information revealed 50 men, 104 women, and four individuals that preferred not to answer. The average age was 21.84 years old, with a range of 18 to 60 years old. The majority ethnicity was Caucasian at 72.8 percent, but other races were also represented:10.8 percent stated they were Black or African American, 7.0 percent chose Hispanic or Latino, 6.0 percent selected Asian or Pacific Islander, 0.6 percent marked American Indian or Alaskan Native, and 3.2 percent preferred not to state their race. Subjects gained access to the survey online, through facebook.com, reddit.com, and through an email sent to students by the supervisor, Dr. Kathleen Willet. Participants who received the survey through Dr. Willet received extra credit in her course, while the other individuals were not compensated. Participation was completely voluntary, and individuals were told they could leave the survey at any time without consequence. The subjects were also told their responses would remain anonymous, and the only identifying information given was the essential demographic questions. The responses were not shown to anyone other than the researcher.MaterialsFor this study, participants completed a questionnaire consisting of three separate parts. The first part asked demographic question, revealing the subject variables for each participant, as well as information such as age, gender, and ethnicity. These answers showed the participants parents either experienced some sort of significant transition, specifically a divorce, or they were together. Participants then completed two different surveys. The first was the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale (Rosenberg, 1965), which measured the participants self-esteem. The second survey was the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985), which scores the participants overall satisfaction with their life. The results from the second scale made up the dependent variable of this research. The Satisfaction with Life Scale is one of the most successful measurements of life satisfaction available. It is widely accepted for both its reliability and validity. The researcher created the demographic questions specifically for this study. Their reliability is unknown. A typo was present in the survey as well; when asking about gender, female was misspelled as femals. After speaking with some of the participants, they noted that some of the questions seemed ambiguous and were unsure how to respond. The discussion will cover these potential influences later. Overall, participants answered 20 questions. A full copy of the questionnaire can be found in Appendix A.Design and ProcedureThis research was set up as a between subjects study. A convenience sample was used due to time and funding constraints. Participants were placed into one of two subject variable groups, which was determined by whether or not their parents had gone through any significant transitions, especially divorce. The dependent variable examined was their results on the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Participants completed the questionnaire over the Internet, so this may have had an impact on their results. For example, they may have been distracted by other online activities, or they may have low computer literacy. An incorrect button may have also been pressed, which could potentially have impacted the results on that survey. If a potential candidate did not have access to the Internet or a device that could access the survey, they were unable to be a part of the research.Before completing the questionnaire, individuals were asked to review the informed consent form. They were then asked if they consented to their answers being used in this research; if they declined, their results were not analyzed in any way. While reviewing the informed consent portion, they were told their responses would be completely anonymous. No specific information was connected to any of the participants, and the results were only viewed by the research conductors. Deception was used in the research; the self-esteem results were intended to distract the participants from the true purpose of the study. This was used as a deceptive method to conceal the research was looking at the relationship between parental status and life-satisfaction. Therefore, the scores on this portion were not examined in the results. Completing the survey required between five and ten minutes of the volunteers time. Afterward, they were shown the debriefing form. This covered the experiment and what it is examining, as well as contact information for the researchers. Information was also provided if they wished to know the results of the research or if any part of the questionnaire made them feel stressed or uncomfortable.

ResultsScoring and CalculationsTo analyze the data, participants were split into two groups depending on which independent variable set they belonged to for this study. The independent variable was whether or not the participants parents got a divorce. Their responses to the question Did your parents get divorced while you were growing up? determined how their responses would be categorized. If they selected Other: they were asked to describe the situation, and were placed into one of the two groups that best fit their situation. If an individuals parents were divorced, they were given a score of 1; if the parents stayed together, the individuals score was a 0. An independent samples t-test was used within the SPSS system. Their aggregate scores on the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) were also input alongside the corresponding individual variable. Scores on each question ranged from 1 to 7, while the total score could be anywhere from 7 to 35. A significance value of 0.05 was used for this data analysis.Overall FindingsFor this research, it was hypothesized that the presence of significant parental transitions in an individuals life would affect his or her satisfaction with life. This study examines the possibility of a negative relationship between parental divorce and the childs satisfaction with life. This hypothesis was not supported after the data were analyzed. Through the SPSS program, an independent samples t-test was administered on the data. Results from the independent samples t-test indicate thatlife satisfaction scores for children with separated parents (M=21.06) were not significantly different than children whose parents did not separate or experience any other significant transitions (M=20.55); t(149)=-.39, p=.70.IV group Figure 1 displays a side-by-side comparison of the two means, while Appendix B shows a full breakdown of the data groups.DiscussionThis study was done to examine what sort of impact parental transitions have on a childs satisfaction with life. It was hypothesized that divorce and other significant transitions would negatively affect the childs satisfaction with life in later years. Although prior research indicated this correlation, the findings in this particular study did not support the hypothesis. In fact, the average life satisfaction score was actually higher for individuals whose parents got divorced. This unexpected outcome could have been caused by a variety of different factors. The standard deviation for the individual variable group whose parents remained together was somewhat high, over 8, and the other groups standard deviation of 6 could have also played a factor. There was also a limited sample size in this study. Due to the use of a convenience sample, ample representation of the population was not present. Furthermore, there was a discrepancy in the representation between the two independent variable groups; approximately two-thirds of the participants reported that their parents were not divorced or experience any other significant transitions. In an ideal study, more participants from different backgrounds would have participated in the research, especially those who grew up with divorced parents.The questions used in the study were imperfect. The researcher questioned some of the participants after they completed the study, and they noted some of the questions were confusing or unclear. Some of the questions seemed to have been poorly worded. One participant stated that neither agreeing nor disagreeing with question 13, I wish I could have more respect for myself, displayed a particularly positive state of mind. Although this question was discarded, as were the rest of the self-esteem questions, similar ambiguity may have existed in the life-satisfaction questions. The demographic questions were created by the researcher and had no proven reliability or validity. The portion that focused on parental status may not have been clear or offered a clear response option. Some of the responses indicated parents never getting divorced, yet the participant grew up with only one parent. There was also a spelling mistake on the survey itself. Question 2, which asked about the participants gender, misspelled female as femals. Even though the research did not focus on male or female differences and the participants gender played no role in the data analysis, this may have altered their perception for the remainder of the questionnaire.Despite the simplicity and brevity of the survey, many participants may have responded inaccurately. They may have simply filled out the answers without even reading the questions. For example, some of the responses had 4 as the only response, despite the questions displaying either a positive or negative. Participants not filling out the survey correctly would certainly impact the final results, and if a significant number of students marked their answers in this manner, the results may have been severely altered. After the conclusion of this study, more research should be done on the subject. The results were inconclusive, but this was likely due to some of the issues noted above, such as the sample size and poor questions. A more comprehensive study could potentially show significant results on this topic, especially if a bigger and broader group of individuals participated. The limited results of this study actually showed lower life satisfaction scores for individuals who did not experience and major shifts in parental status, although the difference was not statistically significant at the 0.05 level. Further examination may indicate that difficulties such as divorce and other major changes make the individual less susceptible to hardships later in life that they are unable to overcome.The research in this study is of significant importance because society does not yet fully understand the possible implications of divorce on a childs well-being. Life satisfaction is a strong indicator of general happiness and life fulfillment. If an individual has low life satisfaction, they may suffer in many areas of life. Once more research has been done and research supports the effects of divorce on children, better steps may be taken to ensure the child still grows up to be happy and well-adjusted.

ReferencesAmato, P. R., Booth, A., & Loomis, L. S. (1995). Parental divorce, parental conflict, and offspring well-being during early adulthood.Social Forces, 73(3), 895-915.Antaramian, S. P., Huebner, E. S., & Valois, R. F. (2008). Adolescent life satisfaction.Applied Psychology: An International Review,57, 112-126. Arnarsson, A. M., Bendtsen, P., Bjarnason, T., Borup, I., Haapasalo, I., Iannotti, R. J., Lfstedt, P., & Niclasen, B. (2012). Life satisfaction among children in different family structures: A comparative study of 36 western societies. Children & Society,26, 51-62. Astone, N. M., & McLanahan, S. S. (1991). Family structure, parental practices, and high school completion.American Sociological Review, 56(3), 309-320.Capaldi, D. M., & Patterson, G. R. (1991). Relation of parental transitions to boys adjustment problems: I A linear hypothesis. II Mothers at risk for transitions and unskilled parenting. Developmental Psychology,27(3), 489-504.Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.Emery, R. E., & Kelly, J. B. (2003). Children's adjustment following divorce: Risk and resilience perspectives.Family Relations,52, 352-362.Fomby, P., & Cherlin, A. (2007). Family instability and child well-being.American Sociological Review,72, 181-204. Henry, C. S., & Plunkett, S. W. (1999). Adolescent perceptions of interparental conflict, stressors, and coping as predictors of adolescent family life satisfaction.Sociological Inquiry,69(4), 599-620.Kelly, J. (2006). Childrens living arrangements following separation and divorce: Insights from empirical and clinical research.Family Process, 46(1), 35-52.Kennedy, S., & Ruggles, S. Breaking Up Is Hard to Count: The Rise of Divorce in the United States, 19802010.Demography,51, 587-598.Kim, H. S. (2011). Consequences of parental divorce for child development.American Sociological Review,76(3), 487-511. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Figures

Note: Figure 1 compares the average scores of participants whose parents divorced with the mean scores of individuals. The maximum score is 35, while the minimum score is 7.

Appendix A: Questionnaire Answered by ParticipantsSurvey on Self-Esteem and Life SatisfactionProject Title and Purpose: You are invited to participate in a research study entitled Life Satisfaction and Self-Esteem. This is a study to examine how an individuals self-esteem and satisfaction with life can be heavily related to one another. Investigators: This study is being conducted by Dr. Kathleen Willet (kpotte10@uncc.edu) and Joshua Haynes (jhayne36@uncc.edu). Description of Participation: You will be asked to complete a 20 question survey covering a variety of questions, covering both demographic and psychological information. Length of Participation: Your participation in this project will take approximately five to ten minutes, which includes reading the Informed Consent form, completing the survey, and a short debriefing session. Risks and Benefits of Participation: There are no known risks to participation in this study. However, there may be risks which are currently unforeseeable. The benefits of participation in this study are an increased understanding of the different relationships present in examining psychological well-being. Volunteer Statement: You are a volunteer. The decision to participate in this study is completely up to you. If you decide to be in the study, you may stop at any time. You will not be treated any differently if you decide not to participate or if you stop once you have started. Confidentiality: Any information about your participation, including your identity, will be kept confidential to the extent possible. The following steps will be taken to ensure this confidentiality: No identifying features will be attached to your survey answers. The answers will only be seen by the two researchers. Consent forms and survey answers will be kept in separate folders. Participant Consent: I have read the information in this consent form. I have had the chance to ask questions about this study, and those questions have been answered to my satisfaction. I am at least 18 years of age, and I agree to participate in this research project. I understand that I will receive a copy of this form after it has been signed by me and the Principal Investigator if requested. I consent to my participation being used in this research. I do not consent to participate in this research.DemographicsTo ensure ample representation of all backgrounds, please respond to a few questions about your background.What is your age? What is your gender? Male Femals Prefer not to answerWhat is your ethnicity? White/Caucasian Black or African-American Hispanic or Latino Asian or Pacific Islander American Indian or Alaskan Native Prefer not to answerWho did you grow up with? Mother and Father together Mother or Father only, not both Mother or Father and Step-Parent Other: Did your parents get divorced while you were growing up? Yes No I never knew one/both of my parents Other: Self-Esteem and Life SatisfactionI feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI feel that I have a number of good qualities Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeAll in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI am able to do things as well as most other people Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI feel I do not have much to be proud of Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI take a positive attitude toward myself Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeOn the whole, I am satisfied with myself Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI wish I could have more respect for myself Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI certainly feel useless at times Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeAt times I think I am no good at all Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeIn most ways my life is close to my ideal Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly AgreeThe conditions of my life are excellent Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly AgreeI am satisfied with my life Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly AgreeSo far I have gotten the important things I want in life Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly AgreeIf I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree

Thank you for participating in our Life Satisfaction and Self-Esteem study! The focus of this study is to learn more about the influence divorce and other significant parental transitions later have on the childs satisfaction with life. The questions asking about self-esteem were to throw you off so you would not realize the true purpose of the study.The survey you completed centered on how satisfied you were with your life and whether or not your parents separated or went through some other significant transition. You answered the Satisfaction with Life scale, made by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin in 1985.If you are interested in learning the results of this study, please contact the researcher after May 5, 2014.

Researcher:Faculty Advisor:Joshua HaynesKathleen Willet, Ph.D.jhayne36@uncc.eduPsychology Dept. Office Colvard 4048Kpotte10@uncc.edu

If anything about this survey caused you to feel uncomfortable, health and counseling services are available to you in Atkins, room 158. You can reach Counseling Services at (704)687 0311 or get information at http://counselingcenter.uncc.edu/. All counseling services are free and confidential.

Appendix B: SPSS TablesIndependent samples t-test for parental status and the childs life satisfactionGroup Statistics

Parental StatusNMeanStd. DeviationStd. Error Mean

Life SatisfactionParents Together9820.55108.14827.82310

Parents Separated5321.05666.35615.87308

Independent Samples Test

Levenes Test for Equality of Variancest-test for Equality of Means

FSig.tdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean DifferenceStd. Error Difference95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

LowerUpper

Life SatisfactionEqual variances assumed6.422.012-.392149.696-.505581.29092-3.056472.04530

Equal variances not assumed-.421130.322.674-.505581.19990-2.879391.86823