Psychology

School of Thoughts of Psychology The word Psychology is derived from the Greek word ‘psyche’ which means ‘soul’ or ‘mind, ‘ology’

means ‘study’.

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Schools of thoughts in psychology

· Structuralism (Wundt)

· Functionalism (Carr and Angell)

· Behaviorism (Watson)

· Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud)

· Humanism (Abraham Maslow)

· Gestalt Psychology (Kohler)

Scope of Psychology · Clinical Psychology

· Counseling Psychology

· Psychometric Psychology

· Social Psychology

· Psychological Psychology

· Developmental Psychology

· Educational Psychology

· Experimental Psychology

· Cross-culture Psychology

· Industrial Psychology

· Environmental Psychology

· Engineering Psychology

· Forensic Psychology

· Community Psychology

Recent trends in Psychology · Eclectic Psychology

· Psychology of Cyberspace

· Energy Psychology

· Scientology

· Critical Psychology

· Kinesiology

Nervous System The nervous system is the complex system of cells that allows an organism to gain information about

what is going on inside or outside the body and to respond appropriately. It allows to learn and to react.

Central Nervous System

Brain (12 pairs of cranial nerves)

Spinal Cord (3 pairs of spinal nerves)

Peripheral Nervous System

1. Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary)

2. Autonomic Nervous System (Involuntary)

· Sympathetic NS (Emergency)

· Parasympathetic NS Relaxation)

Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral nervous system is the system of sensory and mortor neurons that form the interface between

the central nervous system and surface of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

This system is under voluntary control. It controls the skeletal muscles of the body.

· The Neuron

Neurons form the basic building blocks of the nervous system. All behavior begins with the action of

neurons. A neuron is a cell specialized to receive process and transmit information to other cells within

the body.

Structure of neuron

· Cell body or Soma

· Dendrites

· Axon

· Myelin Sheath

· Terminal Buttons

Types of Neurons

On the basis of its structure neurons are divided into three types.

· Unipolar Neurons

· Bipolar Neurons

· Multipolar Neurons

On the basis of its functions neurons have three other kinds.

· Sensory Neurons

· Mortor Neurons

· Interneurons

· Synapse

· Synaptic Transmission

· Reflex Arc (The simplest circuits are called reflex arcs, which may involve a sensory neuron, a

mortor neuron or an interneuron between them in the spinal cord)

· Reflex Action (A reflex action involves many reflex arcs and other interconnections and may be

quite complex)

Autonomic Nervous System

· Sympathetic Division

· Parasympathetic Division

Central Nervous System

· Brain

· Spinal Cord

Brain

· Fore Brain

· Mid Brain

· Hind Brain

Fore Brain

· Cerebrum or Cerebral Cortex (Left Hemisphere /Right Hemisphere)

Four Lobes

Frontal Lobe (voluntary muscles, intelligence, personality, planning, reasoning)

Temporal Lobe (hearing, language processing and memory)

Parietal Lobe (spatial location, attention, motor control, body sensation)

Occipital Lobe (visual stimuli)

Area of Cortex

Sensory Area (vision and hearing)

Motor Area (voluntary activity)

Associative Area (higher mental processes such as problem solving, remembering and thinking, linguistic

and perceptual functioning)

· Thalamus (relay station/ wakefulness and sleep)

· Hypothalamus (monitor critical internal body functions/ eating behavior/ thermostat/ endocrine

system/ aggressive and sexual behavior)

· Basal Ganglia (voluntary movements/ habitual behavior such as riding a bicycle)

· Limbic System (display of emotional reaction/ memory)

Amygdala (discrimination of objects such as appropriate food, mates and social rivals/ rage/

aggression

Septum (opposite effect of Amygdala)

Hippocampus (formation of memories)

Mid Brain

Relay information between the brain and the eyes and ear.

Hind Brain

· Medulla (involuntary reflexes/ breathing/ heart circulation)

· Cerebellum (smooth and coordinate rapid body movement/ little brain)

· Reticular Activating System (determine level of activation and arousal)

· Brain Stem (Medulla and Pons. Determine alertness, regulate breathing, heart beat and blood

pressure)

Spinal Cord

· Grey Matter

· White Matter

Transmit neural impulses rapidly to and from the brain. Spinal reflexes

Functions of Brain

Homeostasis

Study of Brain

· Recording (EEG)

· Stimulation

· Lesion

· Accidents

· Images (CAT/ PET/ MRI)

Endocrine System Release their chemical product directly into the blood stream. Travel more slowly than nerve impulse.

· Pineal Gland (wake/sleep pattern)

· Pituitary Gland (Master gland).

Anterior Pituitary (ACTH/ TSH/ Prolactin hormone/ GH/ Gonadotropin Hormone)

Posterior pituitary (Oxytocin Hormone/ ADH)

· Thyroid Gland

Thyroxin

Cretinism

· Thymus Gland

Immune system

· Adrenal Gland

Cortex (Cortisol/ Aldosterone/ Androgen)

Medulla (Epinephrine/ Adrenaline, Non-epinephrine/ Nor-adrenaline)

Fight or flight

· Pancreas Gland

Insulin

Diabetes

· Gonads

Testes

Ovaries

Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience

Factors Which Influence Degree and Quality of Learning

Subjective Factors/ Personal Factors

· Intelligence

· Interest

· Aptitude

· Mental Health

· Motivation

· Stress

· Emotional Health

· Attention/ Concentration

· Previous Learning

· Physical Health

· Other Personal Traits (assertive person v/s passive person, curiosity/ goal directedness)

Objective Factors/ Methods of Learning

· Practice

· Conceptualization

· Guidance/ Counseling

· Learning Intervals

· Reinforcement

· Meaningful v/s Non-meaningful Material

· Nature of Task

· Association

· Zeigarnik Effect

Theories of Learning

· Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

· Operant Conditioning (B F Skinner)

· Contiguity Theory of Learning (Edwin Guthrie)

· Connectivism (Edward Thorndike. Law of Effect/ Law of Readiness/ Law of Exercise)

· Sign Learning Theory (Tolman. Approach learning/ Escape learning/ Avoidance learning/ Choice-

point learning/ Latent learning)

· Insight Learning Theory (Kohler)

· Social Learning Theory (Bandura. Attention/ Retention/ Motor Reproduction/ Motivation)

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) A learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimuli and a natural stimuli

· Neutral stimulus

· Unconditional stimulus

· Unconditional response

· Conditioned stimulus

· Conditioned response

· Acquisition

· Generalization

· Discrimination

· Extinction

· Spontaneous recovery

Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior

Infant fear of rats

Bed wetting

· Taste aversion

Application of Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life

· Fantasies

· Advertisement

· Election campaign adds

· Business practice

· Clinical setting

· Health problems

· Resolution of conflicts

· Prejudice

Operant Conditioning (B F Skinner) Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increase or

decrease in occurrence.

Reinforcement

· Positive Reinforcer

· Negative Reinforcer

· Extinction

· Primary Reinforcer

· Secondary Reinforcer

Schedule of Reinforcement

· Continuous Schedule

· Partial Schedule

· Ratio Schedule (fixed-ratio schedule/ variable-ratio schedule)

· Interval Schedule (fixed-interval schedule/ variable-interval schedule)

Shaping

Chaining

Response Chain

Aversive Control

Negative Reinforcement

Escape Conditioning

Avoidance Conditioning

Punishment

Disadvantages of Punishment

Applications of Operant Conditioning

· Application at Home

· Application at Work

· Application at School

Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning · Classic reflexive and operant voluntary

· Classical involves an association between an involuntary response and a stimulus while operant

involves an association between a behavior and a consequence

· Classical also called Pavlovian while Operant also called Skinnerian

· Classical UCR and CR similar while in Operant UCR and CR may be dissimilar

· In classical conditioning response comes after reinforcement while in operant conditioning

reinforcement comes after response

· Classical passive role while operant active role

· Operant usually for behavior modification

· Law of operant conditioning is the law of effect

Motivation Motivation means a need or desire that energizes and directs the behavior towards a goal

Or

An internal state that activates behavior and direct it towards a goal

Or

Motivation refers to the influence that govern the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of

behavior

Homeostasis

Factors / Aspect of Motives

· Need

· Drive

· Incentive

· Effect

Classification / Types of Motives

Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs

· Biological or Psychological needs

· Safety

· Love, Belongingness and Attachment

· Self Esteem

· Self-actualization

Primary Motives

· Hunger

Cannon’s Experiment

The Set Weight Level

Role of Hypothalamus (Lateral Hypothalamus exciting feeding/ Ventromedial Hypothalamus inhibiting

feeding)

Glucostatic Theory of Hunger

Metabolic Rate of the Body

Learned Cues

Flavor Cue

Variety

External Incentives

Over Eating

· Thirst

Internal Mechanism

Thermostatic System

Water Meter

· Temperature Regulation

Limits

Hypothalamus

Clothing

· Sleep Motive

Body Time/ Circadian Period/ Posterior Hypothalamus

Individual Difference

Lack of Sleep

Psychological Patients

· Pain Reduction

Analgesia

Drugs

Negative Incentives

Gate Control Theory

· Sexual Motive

Drive and incentive

Social Approval

Displacement

· Maternal Motive

· Oxygen Motive

· Fatigue Reduction

Lactic Acid

Psychological Fatigue/ Neurasthenia

· Bowl or Bladder Motive

Secondary Motives

· Social Motives

Social Approval

Social Comparison

Achievement Motive

Fear of Failure

Fear of Success

· Psychological Motives

Affiliation

Self-Esteem

Self-Actualization

General Motives

· Aggression

Definition

Freud Catharsis

Causes

Genetic Influence

Natural Influence (lesion of septum increases aggression and lesion of amygdala decreases aggression)

Biochemical Influence (Testosterone level)

Other Causes (Imitation/ Social learning)

· Achievement Motive

Henry Murray

Development of Achievement Motivation

· Power Motive

· Curiosity Motive

Exploration and Manipulation

Secondary Deprivation study

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

· Intrinsic Motivation

· Extrinsic motivation

· Over-Justification Effect

Theories of Motivation

· Drive Reduction Theory (Carl Hull)

· Instinct Theory (Bergen/ Freud)

· Incentive Theory of Motivation

· Optimal Arousal Theory

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Measurement of Arousal

Individual Differences

· Opponent Process Theory

· Cognitive Theories

Attribution Theory

Julian Rotter’s

A Locus of Control

Maslow’s Theory of Need Hierarchy

· Psychological Needs

· Safety

· Love and Belongingness

· Self-Esteem

· Self-Actualization

Work Motivation

· Views about Human Nature

Theory X (Taylor/ People are lazy, ignorant, selfish, prone to error and motivated exclusively by money)

Theory Y (Gregor/ People are basically creative, responsible, intrinsically motivated to do work)

· Theories of Work Motivation

Need Theories

Cognitive Theories

Equity Theories

Expectancy Theories

· Job Design and Goal Setting (Job enlargement/ Job enrichment)

Emotions Emotions are feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive element and that influence

behavior.

· Characteristics of Emotions

· Functions of Emotions

· Aspects of Emotions

· Basic Emotions

· Emotional Changes

Physiological changes in Emotion (Sympathetic division)

Role of Autonomic Nervous System (Sympathetic NS/ Parasympathetic NS)

Polygraph (Lie detector)

Role of Adrenal Gland (Adrenal Cortex is the part of the endocrine system/ Adrenal Medulla is the part

of sympathetic NS)

Limbic System (Amygdala/ Rage and aggression, Septum/Relaxation)

Theories of Emotions

· James Lange Theory of Emotions ( Perceived stimulus à Physiological arousal à Experienced

emotion)

· The Schechter Singer Theory ( Perceived stimulus à Emotional experience à Physiological

Arousal)

Two-Factor Theory

Attribution Appraisal

Experiment (Placebos)

Criticism

Conclusion

· Facial Feedback and Emotions

· Canon Bard Theory of Emotion/ Thalamic Theory of Emotions ( Perceived stimulus à

Physiological Arousal + Emotional Experience/ Thalamus as emotional control center)

Expression of Emotions

· Body Positioning

· Context

· Facial Expression

· Charles Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory

· Innate Expression

· Cross-Cultural Study

· Social Referencing

· Voluntary Control

· Smile

· Brain Activity

Expression of Emotions and Psychological Well Being

· Color of Life

· Avoidance of Unpleasant State

· Functions of Emotions

· Eliminate Undesirable behavior

· Physical Health

Non-Verbal Communication of Emotions

· Description about some emotions

· Fear

· Anger

· Happiness

Measurement of Emotions

· B.P Apparatus and Device ( Sphygmomanometer/ ECG)

· Polygraph (lie detector)

· Galvanic Skin Response

· Pupillometric

· Electroencephalograph

· Electromyography

· Electrocardiograph

· Thermometer

· Pneumograph or Spirograph

Sensation Messages from the senses are called sensations

Or

Sensation is the process of receiving stimulus energy from the external environment. Stimuli consist of

physical energy i.e. light, sound and heat. A stimulus is detected by the specialized sense organs which

are in the eyes, ears, skin, nose and tongue.

Or

Sensation is the initial message from the stimuli

Or

The activation of sense organ by a source of physical energy

Sensory System

Sensory Receptors

General Characteristics of Sensation

· Quality

· Intensity

· Duration

· Specific Stimulus

· Sensory Threshold

· Absolute Threshold

· Differential Threshold

· Terminal Threshold

· Sensory Acuity

Senses

· Sight à Light waves à Eyesà Rods and Cons of Retinaà Colors, patterns, textures, motion,

depth in space

· Hearing à Sound waves à Ear à Hair cells located in the inner ear à Noise, tones

· Skin Sensation à External contact à Skin à Nerve ending in skin à Touch, pain, warmth, cold

· Taste àSoluble substances à Tongue à Taste buds of tongue à Flavors (sweet/ sour/ salty/

bitter)

· Vestibular Sense à Mechanical and gravitational forces à Inner Ear àHair cells of semicircular

canal and vestibule à Spatial movement, gravitational pull

· Kinesthesis à Body Movement à Muscles, tendons and joints à Nerve fiber in muscles,

tendon and joints à Movement and position of body parts

Vision/ Eye

· Stimulus for Vision

· Wave Amplitude

· Wave Length

· Wave Purity

·

Structure of the Eye

· Outermost Layer ( Sclera/ Fibrous layer)

· Cornea

· The Middle Layer/ Choroids

· The Anterior Chamber

· Aqueous Humor

· Iris (Aperture)

· Pupil

· Lens (Myopia/ Shortsightedness, Hyperopia/ Long-sightedness)

· Retina (Photoreceptors/ Rods/ Cons/ Fovea)

· Blind Spot

· Bipolar Cells

· Optic Nerve

· Optic Chiasma

Light and Dark Adaptation

Sensory Adaptation

Color Vision

· Hue

· Saturation

· Brightness

· Color Blindness

Binocular Fusion

Retinal disparity

Color Vision Theory

· The Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision

· The Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision

Hearing/ Ear The Physical Characteristics of Sound

· Amplitude

· Wavelength

· Frequency

Psychological Dimension of Sound

· Loudness

· Pitch

· Timber

Structure of Ear

· Outer Ear

Pinna

Auditory Canal

· Middle Ear

Eardrum

Ossicles

Oval Window

Eustachian Tube

· Inner Ear

Cochlea

Organ of Corti/ Hair Cells

· Semicircular Canal

· Function of Ear

· Auditory Processing in the Brain

· Localization of Sound

Cutaneous Sense/ Skin Touch (Parietal Lobe)

Temperature

Pain

· Pathway of Pain

The Somato Senses

Chemical Senses Taste / Gustation

· Receptor Cells

Smell / Olfaction

· Functions

· Receptors

· Importance

· Pathway to Brain

Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses

Perception Perception is the meaning given to the initial message

Or

The sorting out, interpretation, analysis and integration of stimuli by the sense organ and brain

Factors of Perception

· Objective Factors

Perceptual Organization

· Perceptual Organization

· Figure and Ground

· Grouping

· Gestalt Principle. Law of Perceptual Organization

· Simplicity

· Similarity

· Proximity

· Continuity

· Common Fate

· Closure

· Reference Frame

· Figural Goodness

Perceptual Constancy

· Size Constancy

· Shape Constancy

· Brightness Constancy

Characteristics of Stimulus

· Contrast

· Change

· Movement

· Size

· Intensity

· Context

· Repetition

· Subjective Factors

· Motivation

· Perceptual Set

· Expectation

· Past Experience

· Attention

· Interest

· Attitude

· Personal Attributes

· Emotional State

· Personal Values

· Social factors

· Social Values

· Social Beliefs

· Customs/ rituals

· Social Norms/ Mores

· National Laws

Types of Perception

Depth and Distance Perception

· Stimulus Cues

· Relative Size

· Relative Height

· Motion Parallax

· Texture Gradient

· Relative Brightness

· Light and Shadow

· Interposition

· Linear Perception

· Binocular Cues

· Retinal or Binocular Disparity

· Convergence

· Accommodation

· Linear perspective

· Role of Motion in Depth Perception

· Monaural Cues

· Distance From the Origin of Sound

· Direction of Sound

· Binaural Cues

· Time Difference

· Intensity Difference

· Head Movement

· Other Cues

Motion Perception

· Real movement

· Apparent Movement

· Phi Phenomenon

· Auto Kinetic Effect

· Factors in Perception of Movement

· Speed

· Size

· Distance

Time perception

· Factors Affecting Time Perception

· Subjective Factors

· Objective Factors

Form Perception

· Illusion

· Causes of illusion

· Illusion can be due to the defect of the sense organ

· Limitations of the sense organs

· Due to temporary state of mind

· Odd arrangement of stimuli

· Habit and familiarity

· Context

· False cues

· Types of Illusion

· UFO

· Illusion of Movement ( Auto-kinetic Effect/ phi-Phenomenon/ Gama-phenomenon

· Illusion of Space

· Illusion of Direction

· Illusion of Weight

· Illusion of Form

· Illusion of Size

· Illusion of Context

· Horizontal/ Vertical Illusion

· Zolliner Illusion

· Ponzo Illusion

· Aristotle’s Illusion

· Herring’s Illusion

· Wundt’s Illusion

· Diagonal Illusion

· Muller Lyre Illusion

· Pogandroff Illusion

· Impossible Figures

Perceptual Problems (Illusion and Hallucination)

· Difference between Illusion and Hallucination

· Auditory Hallucination

· Visual Hallucination

· Tactual Hallucination

· Gustatory Hallucination

· Olfactory Hallucination

Personality It refers to characteristics that make a person unique

Or

It refers to the stability of person’s behavior that leads to act uniformly both in different situations and

over extended period of time

Or

The sum total of characteristics that differentiate people or the stability in person’s behavior across

different situations

Factors Affecting Personality

· Heredity

· Heredity and Basics of Genetics (Microcephaly)

· Biochemistry of Genes

· Basic Genetic Principles ( Genotype/ Phenotype/ DNA)

· Structure and function of Chromosomes (XX/ XY)

· Dominance and Recessiveness

· Twins (Identical Twins/ fraternal Twins)

· Chromosomes and Behavior Abnormalities (Phenylketonuria/ Sickle-cell Anemia/ Tay-Sachs

Disease/ Down Syndrome/ Turner Syndrome/ Klinefelter’s Syndrome/ XYY)

· Environment

· The Internal Environment ( Mother Nutrition and State of Mind/ Illness of Mother/ AIDS/

Mother’s Drug Intake/ Birth Complications)

· The External Environment

· Interaction of Heredity and Environment

· Animal Studies

· Human Studies

Theories of Personality

· Psychodynamic Perspective

· Sigmund Freud Theory

· Structure of Personality ( Id/ Ego/ Super Ego/ Conscious/ Pre-conscious and Unconscious

Regions)

· Stages of Development ( Oral Stage/ Anal Stage/ Phallic Stage/ Latency Stage/ Genital Stage)

· The Ego Defense Mechanism ( Identification/ Sublimation/ Repression/ Regression/ Denial/

Projection/ Reaction Formation/ Rationalization)

· Evaluating Freudian Theory

· Neo-Freudian Perspective

· Carl Jung

· Psychic Energy

· Structure of the Psyche (The Ego/ The Personal Unconscious/ The Collective Unconscious/

Archetype/ Persona/ Masculine/ Feminine)

· Introversion and Extroversion

· Dream Analysis

· Word Association Test

· Summing Up

· Alfred Adler

· Feeling of Inferiority

· Striving for Superiority

· The Self

· Order of Birth

· Goals of Adler’s Theory

· The Type and Trait Perspective

· Type Theory (Carl Jung/ Extrovert/ Libido emergency)

· Trait Theory (Surface Trait/ Deeper Source Trait)

· The Behavior Perspective

· Classical Conditioning

· Operant conditioning

· Social Learning

· Observation

· Modeling

· The Humanistic Perspective

· Carl Roger and Maslow

· Carl Roger Theory

· Development of the Personality (Positive Regards/ Self-concept/ Conditional Positive Regard/

Psychological Problems/ Evaluation)

Personality Assessment and Measurement

· Non Projective Techniques

· Interviewing

· Rating Scale

· Personality Inventories (MMPI/ CPI/ The 16 PF/ EPPS)

· Projective Techniques

· Rorschach Test

· The Thematic Apperception Test

· The Sentence Completion Test

· The Blocky Test

· The Draw-a Man Test and The House-Tree Person Test

· Projective Techniques an evaluation

· Summary

Social Psychology

· Socialization

· Socialization Agencies

· Family (Norms/ Outside Groups/ Stereotype)

· Peer Group

· School

· Work Place

· Mass Media

· Modes of Socialization

· Direct Instruction

· Shaping

· Modeling

· Social Groups

· Characteristics

· Group Formation

· Attraction

· Similarity

· Task (CSS Forum)

· Affiliation (Lahore Gymkhana)

· Need Fulfillment

· Group structure

· Group Norms

· Positions and Roles

· Status Hierarchies

· The Distribution of Power

· Leadership

· Types of Group

· Primary Group/ Secondary Group

· In-Group/ Out-Group

· Formal and In-formal Group

· Organized and Spontaneous Group

· Reference Group and membership Group

· Group Cohesiveness/ Solidarity

· Conformity

A change in the behavior or attitude brought about by the desire to follow the beliefs and

standards of other people

Situational Factors Governing Conformity

· Group Size

· Group Composition

· Group Influence

· Asch Study

· Conformity Conclusion

· The characteristics of the Group/ Status

· The situation which the individual is responding (Publicly/ Privately)

· The kind of task

· Unanimity of group (Social supporter)

· Group Think/ Caving into Conformity

· Compliance/Submitting to Direct Social Pressure Behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure

· Foot-in-the-door Technique

· Door-in-the-face Technique

· That’s-not-all Technique

· Not-so-free-sample

· Industrial Organizational Psychology

· Obedience/ Following Direct Orders

A change in behavior in response to orders of others (Stanley Milgram)

· Attitude

Person’s liking or disliking for any object, person, idea and so forth

· Components of Attitude

· Cognitive Component ( Beliefs)

· Feeling Component (Emotions)

· Action Tendency Component (Behavior)

· Culture and Attitude

· Formation of Attitude

· Socialization (Conditioning/ Modeling)

· Personal experience

· Reducing Surplus Information

· Personal Interest

· Need Satisfaction

· Solution of Problems

· Personal Information

· Group Affiliation

· Personality and Attitude

· Pervious Experiences

· Isolated Events

· Racial Prejudice

· Reliable Personality

· Parents Influence

· Peer Group Influence

· Teacher’s Influence

· Mass Media

· Functions of Attitude

· The Adjustment Function

· The Ego-Defense Function

· The Value-Expressive Function

· The Knowledge Function

· Measurement of Attitude

· The Method of Equal Appearing Interval

· The Method of Summited Rating (Likert Scale)

· The Social Distance Scale

· Cumulative Scaling

· Special Techniques

· Disguised Techniques

· The Semantic Differential technique

· Attitude Change

· Congruent Change

· Incongruent Change

· Extremeness

· Multiplexity

· Consistency

· Interconnectedness

· Consonance of Attitude Cluster

· Strength and Number of Wants Served

· Centrality of the Related Values

· Personality Factors

· Intelligence

· Prejudice Prejudice is an attitude (usually negative) towards the members of some group, based solely on their

membership in that group.

· Discrimination

Discrimination is the differential treatment of individuals belongs to a particular social group. To treat a

member of a subordinate group as inferior is to discriminate against the person.

· Reverse Discrimination

· Stereotype

A set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a particular group and its members

· Socio-Cultural Approach

· Situational Approach

· Psychodynamic Approach

· Phenomenological Approach

· Theories of Prejudice and Discrimination

· Causes of Prejudice

· Psychological Factors

· Projection

· Stereotyping

· Authoritarian Personality

· Scapegoating

· Learning

· To Reduce Prejudice

· Authoritarian Personality Theory

· Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

· Realistic Group Conflict Theory

· Social Identity Theory

· Contact Hypothesis

· Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and Development of

Relationships

· How Do I Like You: Let ME Count The Ways

· Proximity

· Mere exposure

· Similarity

· Physical Attractiveness

· Friendship Qualities (Keeping confidence/ Loyalty/ Warmth/ Supportiveness/ Frankness/ Sense

of Humor/ Willing to make time/ Independence/ Good Conversationalist/ Intelligence)

· How Do I Love You: Let Me Count The Ways

· Passionate or Romantic Love

· Companionate Love

· Commitment Component

· Intimacy Component

· Passion Component

·

· Aggression and Pro-social Behavior: Hurting and Helping Others

· Hurting Others: Aggression

· Instinct Approach: Aggression as a Release (Freud/ Catharsis)

· Frustration-Aggression Approach: Aggression as a Reaction to Frustration

· Observational Learning Approaches: Learning to Hurt Others

· Helping Others: The Brighter Side of Human Nature

· Pro-social Behavior (Noticing the person. Event or situation that may require help à

Interpreting the event that may require help àAssuming responsibility for help àDeciding on

and implementing the form of help

· Diffusion of Responsibility

· Altruism

Helping behavior that is beneficial to others but clearly required self-sacrifice

· Theoretical Perspective on Altruism

· Evolutionary Perspective (Darwin/ Rabbits/ Baboons/ Mother/ Mutual Biological Needs)

· Socio-culture Perspective

· Learning Perspective

· Neurobiological Perspective

· Factors Affecting Altruism

· Bystander Effect/ Diffusion of Responsibility

· Time Pressure

· Emotions

· Personality Traits

· Challenges to Altruism

· Ways to Deal With Anger

· Look at the anger-provoking event from the perspective of the others

· Minimize the importance of the situation

· Fantasize on getting even- but don’t act on it

· Relax

· Leadership

Leadership is the process whereby one individual influences other group members towards the

attainment of defined goal.

· Theories of Leadership

· Great Man Theory of Leadership

· Situational Theory of Leadership

· Power ( Coercive Power, Qaddafi/ Reward Power, Khosa/ Legitimate Power, Leghari Chief/

Expert Power, Wasim Akram/ Referent Power, Katrina

· Leadership Styles

· Bureaucratic Leadership

· Charismatic Leadership

· Autocratic Leadership

· Democratic Leadership

· Laissez-Faire Leadership

· People-Oriented Leadership

· Task-Oriented Leadership

· Servant Leadership

· Transactional Leadership

· Transformational leadership

· Functions/ Qualities of Leadership

· An Executive

· As Planner

· As Policy maker

· As Expert

· As Able Diplomat

· As External Group Representative

· As Controller of Internal Relations

· As Purveyor of Rewards and Punishments

· As Arbitrator and Mediator

· As Exemplar

· As Symbol of the Group

· As Substitute for Internal Responsibility

· An Ideologist

· As Father Figure

· As Scapegoat

Paper 2

Methods of Psychology Psychologists used a variety of methods to acquire knowledge about behavior

· Case study

· Types of Case Study

· Prospective (To Determine Outcome)

· Retrospective (Start with an Outcome i.e. Disease)

· Outline for Case Study

· Present Status

· Manifest Personality

· Personality Dynamics and Structures

· Social Determinants & Current Life Situation

· Major Stressors & Coping Potentials

· Personality Development

· Formulation of the Case

· Recommendations & Predictions

· Strength of the Case Study

· Limitations of the Case Study

· Some Famous Case Studies in Psychology

· Methods of psychology

· Observational Method

· Subjective Observation

· Objective/ Naturalistic Observation

· Field Study Method

· Daybook Method

· Biographical Method

· Clinical Method

· Survey Method

· Selection of the Problem

· Questioner About the Problem

· Sampling the Population

· Method of Measurement

· Analysis of Data

· Result or Report writing

· Advantages

· Disadvantages

· Experimental Method (cause & Effect Relationship)

· Hypothesis

· Variables (Independent/ Dependent)

· Controls

· Unknown Variables

· Several Variables

· Advantages

· Disadvantages

· Interviewing

Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology is the branch of Psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social

changes throughout the life span.

· Scope of Developmental Psychology

· Methods of Developmental Psychology

· Longitudinal Method (Panel Study/ Cohort study/ Retrospective Study/ Advantages/

Disadvantages)

· Cross-sectional Study (Advantages/ Disadvantages)

· Cross-sequential Method

· Nature and Nurture Theory

· Maturation and Development

· Factors affecting Development

· Heredity / Nature Theory

· Heredity and Basics of Genetics (Microcephaly)

· Biochemistry of Genes

· Basic Genetic Principles (DNA/ Genotype/ Phenotype)

· Structure and Functions of Chromosomes (XX/ XY)

· Dominance and Recessiveness

· Twins (Identical Twins/ Fraternal Twins)

· Chromosomes and Behavior Abnormalities (Phenylketonuria/ Sickle Cell Anemia/ Tay-Sach

Disease/ Down Syndrome: Trisomy: Mongolism/ Turner Syndrome, 45X / Klinefelter’s Syndrome,

XXY / XYY Comp)

· Environment / Nurture Theory

· Internal Environment (Mother’s Nutrition and state of Mind/ Illness of Mother/ AIDS/ Mother

Drug Intake/ Birth Complications/ Alcohol and Nicotine Use)

· External Environment

· Interaction of Heredity and Environment

· Animal Studies

· Human Studies

· Aspects of Growth

· Physical Development (Grasping Reflex/ Sucking Reflex/ Babinski Reflex/ Moro Reflex)

· Cognitive Development(Piaget Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor Stage à Pre-operational

Stage à Concrete-Operational stageà Formal Operational stage)

· Social Development

· Social Development During Childhood

· Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

· Trust vs. Mistrust (0 to 1.5 Year)

· Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1.5 to 3 Year)

· Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 Year)

· Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 Year)

· Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

· Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood)

· Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)

· Ego-integrity vs. Despair (late Adulthood)

· Development of Language

· Elements of Language (Phonemes: vowels/ Morphemes: Basic words/ Syntax: Phrases and

sentences/ Semantics: Final and broadest language)

· Development of Meaningful Words and Grammar

· Vocabulary Growth

· Pre-school development

· Environmental Influence on Language Development

· Acquisition of Language (Imitation/ reinforcement/ innate Language structure/ cognitive

Development)

· Piaget’s Theory of cognitive Development

· Four factors Interact to Influence Changes in Thinking (Biological Maturation/ Activity/ Social

Transmission/ Equilibrium)

· Organization (Schemas)

· Adaptation (Assimilation/ Accommodation)

· Equilibration

· Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

· Sensorimotor Stage (0 to 2 Years: Sensory Functions/ Motor Functions/ Reflexes/ Object

Permanence/ Stranger’s Anxiety)

· Pre-operational Stage (2 to 7 Years: Thinking/ Pretend Mommy or Daddy/ New Schemas called

Operations/ Centration/ Representational Thoughts/ One-way logic/ Ego-centric)

· Concrete-operational Stage (7 to 11 Years: Conserve Numbers and Amount/ Hands-on Thinking/

Logical Stability/ Reversibility)

· Formal Operational Stage (Over 11 Years: Include Conductive and Deductive Reasoning/ What

Ought to Be)

Phases of Development Prenatal Development

Postnatal development

· Prenatal Development

· Autosomes

· Sex Chromosomes

· Genes

· Cell Division (Mitosis/ Meiosis)

· Genotype

· Phenotype

· Twins (Identical Twins/ fraternal Twins)

· Prenatal Development Stages

· Germinal Period (Conception to 1st week: Fertilized Ovum, Blastula/ Implantation)

· Embryonic Period (1st week to 2nd month: Embryo develop within Embryonic sac/ Placenta/

umbilical Cord/ Ectoderm, Outer Layer: Skin and NS/ Mesoderm, Middle Layer: Muscle, Blood,

Excretory System/ Endoderm, Inner Layer: Digestive System, Lungs, Endocrine System )

· Fetal Period (3rd month until Birth: 1st 2nd 3rd Trimesters)

· Sensitive Period

· Pre-term Infants

· Teratogens

· Potential Challenges to Pre-natal Development

· Tests to Determine Chromosomal Abnormalities (Ultrasound Sonography: Microcephaly, Precise

location/ Amniocentesis: Amniotic Fluid Withdrawn 12th to 16th week/ Chronic Villus Test:

Placenta Sample, 8th to 11th week/ Maternal Blood Test: 14th to 20th week)

· Post natal development

· Child Birth and Neonate/ Infancy

· Labor (5 to 18 Hours)

· Birth (30 Min to 2 Hours)

· Afterbirth (20 Min)

· Weight of Neonate (5.5 to 9.5 Pounds/ 19 to 22 Inch)

· The Apgar Scale

· Reflexes (Moro/ Tonic Neck/ Stepping/ Grasping: Palmer/ Rooting/ Sucking/ Babinski)

· Sensory Threshold

· Physiological Reactivity

· Skeletal Development

· Teeth

· Muscles

· Basic Needs (Oxygen/ Temperature Regulation/ Sleep/ Elimination/ Hunger/ Thirst)

· Sensory Development (Vision/ Hearing/ Olfaction/ Gustation/ Thermal Sensitivity/ Pain)

· Childhood

· Early Childhood (Motor Development/ Physical Changes)

· Middle Childhood( Childhood and Cognition/ Sibling/ Birth Order/ Friendship/ Influence of Peer

Group/ Competence Motivation)

· Adolescence

· Physical Changes (Body Type and Body Appearance)

· Psychological Changes

· Needs of Adolescence (Self Image/ self-esteem and Puberty/ Identity Crisis/ Adolescence and

Cognitive Development/ Adolescence and Vocational Choice)

· Parenting Styles (Authoritarian Families/ Democratic or Authoritative Families/ Permissive or

Laissez-faire Families/ Uninvolved Parents)

· Effects of Parenting Styles

· Adulthood

· Self-concept

· Marriage

· Family

· Cognition in Adulthood

· Middle Adulthood

· Cues of Middle Age

· Decline

· Middle Life Crisis

· Old Age (Late Adulthood)

· Biological Factors (Baldness/ Wrinkles/ Deafness/ Blindness/ Sense of Smell/ Creaking Joints/

Shortness of Breath)

· Retirement

· Causes of Aging

· Death and Dying

Moral development

· Interpersonal Dimensions

· Intrapersonal Dimensions

· Theories of Moral Development

· Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development (Internalization)

· Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation (Ego-centric/ Avoid Punishment)

Stage 2: Naive Hedonism (Avoid Punishment/ Get Rewarded)

· Level 2: Conventional Morality

Interpersonal Norms (Social Approval)

Order Maintaining Morality (Obey Law & Order)

· Level 3: Post-conventional Morality

Stage 1: the Social Contract Orientation (Whether the Law is Just or Fair)

Stage 2: Universal Ethical Principles (Universal Ethical Principles)

· Piaget Theory of Moral Development

· The Pre-Moral Period (Pre School/ Have Fun)

· Heteronomous Morality (5 to 10 Year/ Absolute Respect for Rules)

· Autonomous Morality (10-11 Year/ Social Rules are Arbitrary Agreements)

· Bronfenbrenner’s Theory of Moral Development

· Self-oriented Morality

· Authority-oriented Morality

· Peer-oriented Morality

· Collective-oriented Morality

· Objectively-oriented Morality

· Role of Empathy in Moral development

· Role of Emotions in Moral development

Abnormal Behavior

· Criteria for Abnormality

· Distress

· Dysfunction

· Disability (Substance Abuse/ Bulimia/ Being Short)

· Violation of Norms (Criminal/ Prostitutes/ Highly Anxious)

· Goals of Clinical Assessment

· Classification

· Description

· Diagnosis

· Prediction (True/ False Positive Prediction/ Sensitivity, True/ False Negative Prediction/

Specificity)

· Techniques to Get Information in Clinical Diagnosis

· Clinical Interview

· Case History

· Mental Status Examination

· Psychological Tests

· Behavioral Assessment

· Physiological Assessment (CAT/ MRI/ PET)

· Psychopathology & Clinical Psychology

· Concept of Normality & Abnormality

· Abnormality as Deviation from Average

· Abnormality as Deviation from Ideal

· Abnormality as a Subject of Subjective Discomfort

· Abnormality as the Inability to Function Effectively

· Legal Definition of Abnormality

· Views of Abnormality through History

· Philosophical Era

· Plato (Biological disorders)

· Hippocrates (Fluids or Humors)

· Ancient Demonology & Witchcraft

· Superstitions

· Witchcrafts

· Renaissance & Rise of Humanitarian Approach

· Pre-scientific Biological Approach/ Phrenology

· Moral Treatment/ Sigmund Fried

· Mental Illness in the 20th Century

· Models of Psychopathology

· The Biological or Medical model

· Body’s Biochemical Imbalance

· Biomedical Factors

· Psychoanalytical Model

· Childhood Conflicts/ Freud

· Behavioral Model

· Learning Theories (classical/ operant/ Social)

· Cognitive Model

· Cognitive Structures

· Cognitive Processes

· Cognitive Products

· Emotional Disorders

· Humanistic Model

· High Degree of control (Roger)

· Socio-cultural Model

· Family

· Social Relationships

· Model Providing Complete Explanation of Abnormal Behavior

· Factors of psychopathology

· Role of Biological Factors

· Genetic Factors (Down Syndrome / XYY)

· Brain structure (Birth Complications/ Prefrontal Damage/ Environmental Toxins)

· Neurotransmitters (Low Serotonin/ High Testosterone)

· Role of Sociological Factors

· Family

· Education

· Peer Influence

· Drugs & Alcohol

· Unemployment

· Social Injustice

· Treatment of Psychopathology

· Medication

· Psychological Treatment

· Other Treatments

· The Assessment/Purpose of Psychopathology/ DSM-IV-RT

· Multiaxial Classification System

· Axis I (Clinical Syndromes)

· Axis II (Personality & Mental Retardation)

· Axis III (General Medical Condition)

· Axis IV (Psychosocial & Environmental Problems)

· Axis V (Global Assessment of Functioning GAF Scale)

· Utility of DSM-IV-RT

· Cultural Consideration in DSM-IV-RT

· Merits

· Drawbacks

· DSM-IV-RT Classification of Psychopathology

· Anxiety Disorder

· Somatoform Disorder

· Dissociative Disorder

· Mood Disorder

· Schizophrenia

· Personality Disorder

· Ethical Issues in Psychology (CC-SIR-RID)

· Competence

· Confidentiality

· Safety of Participant

· Informed Consent

· Right to Service

· Relationship with Vulnerable Individuals

· Institutional Consent

· Deception

· Ethics for Research With Animals

· Anxiety Disorder (Psychoneurosis)

· Causes of Anxiety

· Biological Factors (Genetic Factors/ Twins/ Bio-medicals/ Neurotransmitter)

· Psychological Factors (Phobias/ Manias/ Chronic Vague Anxiety/ Cognitive Factors)

· Social Learning

· Psychodynamics

· Behavioral

· Subtypes of Anxiety Disorders

· Generalize Anxiety Disorder

· Panic Disorder

· Phobic Disorder

· Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

· Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

· Treatment of Anxiety Disorder (Minor Tranquilizer/ Sedative Medicines)

· Somatoform Disorder (Psychosomatic Disorder) The somatoform disorder involves physical symptoms or complaints of illness in the absence of true

physical stimuli.

· Causes of Somatoform Disorders

· Subtypes of Somatoform Disorders

· Somatization Disorders

· Hypochondriasis

· Psychogenic Pain Disorder

· Hysteria or Conversion Disorder

· Treatment of Somatoform Disorders

· Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders are loosely defined by some sudden alteration of consciousness, memory,

perception or identity.

· Causes of Dissociative Disorders

· Symptoms & Sub-types

· Amnesia (Localized Amnesia/ Systemized Amnesia)

· Fugue (Wandering/ New Personality/ More Sociable/ More Violent)

· Multiple Personality

· Depersonalization & De-realization

· Treatment

· Mood Disorder Affective Disorder (Elation / Depression)

The affective disorders are characterized by mood problems: either excessive sadness or its opposite,

frenzied excitement and elation/joy.

· Major Types

· Depressive Affective Disorder

· Manic Affective Disorder/Uni-Polar Disorder

· Manic Depressive Disorder/ Bi-polar Affective Disorder

· Causes of Mood Disorders

· Biological Causes (Brain chemistry, Na, K, Transmitter Systems)

· Psychological Causes (Anger at oneself/ Cognitive Psychologists/ Learned Helplessness/ Parent-

Children Relations)

· Self-defecting Thinking

· Genetic Predisposition

· Treatment ( Lithium Carbonate/ Antidepressant Drugs/ Psychotherapy/ electroconvulsive

Therapy)

· Schizophrenic Disorder/ Psychosis

· Common Symptoms

· Positive Symptoms

· Faulty Perceptual Processing

· Disorganized Thinking

· Emotional Distortion

· Delusion (Grossly Inaccurate Belief: Delusion Through Broadcasting/ Delusion of Grandeur/

delusion of Persecution/ Delusion of Reference)

· Hallucination (Sensation Without a Basis in Reality: Auditory Hallucination/ Visual Hallucination)

· Negative Symptoms

· Withdrawal from Reality

· Bizarre Behavior & disturbance of Speech

· Disturbed Sense of Self

· Inadequacies of Control

· Sub-types of Schizophrenia

· Disorganized Schizophrenia (Disintegration of Personality/ Lack of Theme/ Childlike/ Lack of

Control Over Urination/ Drifters/ Prostitutes)

· Catatonic Schizophrenia (Hyper Activity/ Two Extremes/ Shake Hands/ Visual Hallucinations/

Bizarre Body Posture/ Psychomotor Disturbance)

· Paranoid Schizophrenia (Delusion of Grandeur/ Delusion of Persecution/ Blame Game)

· Undifferentiated Schizophrenia

· Residual Schizophrenia ( Symptoms in Past)

· Causes of Schizophrenia

· Role of Heredity (Identical Twins/ Diathesis/ Biochemical & Neural Mechanism)

· Role of Environment ( Family Life/ Sexual or Aggressive Impulses/ Both Parents/ Emotional

Climate/ Brain Damage)

· Treatment of Schizophrenia (PABF)

· Pharmacotherapy (Major Tranquilizer)

· Anti-psychotic Medication

· Behavior Based Program

· Family Psycho Education

· Personality Disorder/ Character Disorder Personality disorders are maladaptive patterns of behavior.

Or

Personality disorders are a heterogeneous group of disorders defined by long-standing, pervasive and

inflexible patterns of behavior or inner experiences that deviate from the expectations of a person’s

culture.

· Subtypes of Personality/ Character Disorders

· Cluster A: Odd Behaviors

· Paranoid Personality Disorders (Suspicious/ Hostile)

· Schizoid Personality Disorders (Loners/ Pursuing Solitary Interest)

· Schizoid Personality Disorder (Bizarre Thought/ Unusual Perceptual Experiences)

· Cluster B: Dramatic Emotional Personality

· Antisocial Personality Disorder

· Borderline Personality Disorder (Impulsive/ Damage Relationships/ Gambling/ Spending/

Substance Abuse/ eating Spree/ Indiscriminate Sexual Behavior/ Fear of Abandonment/

Depression/ Emptiness)

· Histrionic Personality Disorder (Over-dramatic/ Attention Seeking/ Emotionally Shallow/ Call

Their Best friends/ Trouble in Remembering/ Attention Seekers/ Baseless Opinions/ Over-

concerned With Attractiveness)

· Narcissistic Personality Disorder (Grandiose View of Themselves/ Self Centered/ Fantasize of

Great Success/ Attention Seekers/ Lack of Empathy/ Arrogance/ Feeling of Entitlement/ Change

partners)

· Cluster C: Anxious & Fearful Behavior

· Avoidant Personality Disorder (Fearful of Criticism, Rejection and Disapproval)

· Dependent Personality Disorder (Over-Reliance on Others/ Weak)

· Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Perfectionist/ Pre-occupied with Rules and Details/ Serious/

Rigid/ Formal/ Inflexible/ Unable to discard worn-out things and memories)

· Causes of Personality Disorders

· Biological Mechanism

· Psychological Factors

· Antisocial Personality

· Behaviorism

· Cognition

Intelligence Testing Intelligence is the ability to acquire new ideas and new behavior and adjust to new situations.

· Theories of Intelligence

· Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence (Charles Spearman)

· General Intelligence

· Specific Intelligence

· Thurstone’s Theory of Intelligence(Seven Primary Mental Abilities

· Verbal Comprehension

· Numerical Ability

· Spatial Relations

· Perceptual Speed

· Word Fluency

· Memory

· Inductive Reasoning

· Gardner Theory of Multiple Intelligence (Eight Types of Intelligence)

· Linguistic/ Verbal

· Logical/ Mathematical

· Spatial

· Musical

· Body Kinesthetic

· Interpersonal

· Intrapersonal

· Naturalistic

· Triarchic Theory/ Sternberg Theory of Intelligence

Proposes that intelligence can be divided into three ways of processing information

· Analytical Thinking

· Creative Thinking

· Practical Thinking

· Emotional Intelligence

Include four major elements of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences.

· The Development of Intelligence Test

· Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

· Intelligence Quotient

· The Wechsler Test

· WAIS-R

· WISC-III

· WPPSI-R

· The Use and Measuring of Intelligence Scale

· Controversy Over IQ Testing

· Cultural Bias

· Factors Affecting IQ

· Nature vs. Nurture

· Family Size & IQ

· Aptitude Tests

· Achievement Tests

· Interest Inventories

Psychotherapy

· Psychodynamic Treatment

· Freud Therapy (Long Suppressed Conflicts)

Therapy Procedure (FDRTCT)

· Free Association (To Probe Unconscious)

· Dream Interpretation & Analysis (Repressed Conflicts)

· Resistance

· Transference (Positive/ Negative)

· Catharsis

· Termination

· Contemporary Alternative Psychoanalysis

· Behavior Approach to Treatment

· Classical Conditioning Approach (Ivan Pavlov ASB)

· Aversive Procedure (Drinking Problem)

· Systematic Desensitization (Phobia)

· Biofeedback Therapy

· Observational Learning & Modeling

· Operant Conditioning Approaches (BF Skinner TS)

· Token System

· Self-control Procedures

· Cognitive Behavior Approach

· Rational-Emotive Therapy (Albert Allis) ABO

· Activating Agent

· Belief

· Consequence

· Techniques of REBT (Cognitive Technique/ Emotive Technique/ Behavioral Technique/ Laughter

Technique)

· Humanistic Therapy

· Client-Centered Therapy/ Roger Therapy SB-SD-UC

· Self-Actualization

· Basic Needs

· Self-Concept

· Discrepancy

· Unconditional Regard

· Conception of Troubled Behavior

· Goals

· Procedure (Unconditional Positive Regard/ Empathy/ Congruence)

· Gestalt Therapy

· Existential Therapy

· Psychodrama

· Group Therapy

· Advantages of Group Therapy

· Family Therapy

· Self-Help therapy

· Couple Therapy

· Encounter Therapy

· Sensitivity Training

· Encounter Groups

· Effectiveness of Psychotherapy

· Biomedical/ Medical/ Somato Therapies

· Shock Therapy

· Electro Convulsive Therapy

· Insulin Therapy

· Psychosurgery (Pre-frontal Lobotomy)

· Chemotherapy/ Drug Therapy (Anti-anxiety Drugs: Minor Tranquilizer/ Anti-psychotic Drugs:

Major Tranquilizer/ Anti-Depressant Drugs)

· Evaluation of Psychotherapies

Mentally Retarded Children Mental retardation refers to significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing

concurrently with deficit in adoptive behavior, and manifested during the developmental period.

· Classification of Mental Retardation

· Physical Behavior

· Communication

· Social Behavior

· Self-care Behavior

· Level of Mental Retardation

· Mild Mental Retardation (IQ Range 55 to 70: Educable Mental Retardation)

· Moderate Mental Retardation (40 to 55: Trainable Mental Retardation)

· Severe Mental Retardation (25 to 40)

· Profound Mental Retardation (Below 25)

· Etiology/ Causes of Mental Retardation

· Genetic Factor (Down Syndrome)

· Infectious Diseases (HIV/ Rubella/ Herpes)

· Environmental Hazards (Lead Poisoning)

· Familial Causes

· Psychological Causes

· Treatment of Mental Retardation

· Behavioral Treatment

· Cognitive Treatment

· Residential Treatment

· Mainstreaming

Gifted &Talented Children (IQ above 140) · Identification of Gifted & Talented Children

· Education od Gifted & Talented Children (Product/ Process/ Affective)

Forgetting The inability to retrieve memory from long-term storage is called forgetting

Or

The inability to recognize, recall or reproduce that which was previously learned

· Theories of Forgetting (DIC-PC)

· Decay Theory

· Interference Theory (Proactive Interference: Forward in Time/ Retroactive Interference:

Backward in Time/ Cue-dependent Forgetting)

· Cue-dependent Theory

· Psychoanalytical Theory (Motivational Aspect)

· Consolidation Theory

· Forgetting Among the Elderly

· Amnesia

· Anterograde Amnesia (Loss of Short-Term Memory)

· Retrograde Amnesia (Loss of Pre-Existing Memory)

· Difference Between Normal Age-Related Forgetfulness & Amnesia

· Normal Activities

· Describe Incidents

· Remember Directions

· Hold Conversation

· Decision Making Ability

Kinds of Memory

· Sensory Memory

· Echoic Memory

· Iconic memory

· Short-Term Memory/ Working Memory

· Long-Term Memory

· Declarative Memory (Episodic Memory: Where & When/ Semantic Memory: General

knowledge)

· Procedural Memory (Knowing How)

Organizational/ Industrial Psychology

· Individual Difference

· Human Engineering

· Human Understanding

· Selection & Placement

· Selection Procedure

· The Application Blank

· Interview (Obtaining Information/ Giving Information/ Motivation)

Advantages

Limitations (Halo Effect/ Stereotyping)

· Personnel Tests

Purpose of Personal Tests

Types of Personal Tests (Intelligence Test/ Clerical Ability Test/ Mechanical Ability Test/

Personality Test/ Interest Inventory/ Achievement Test

· Morale & Productivity

· Morale & Job Satisfaction

· Factors Relating to Job Satisfaction

· Personal Factors (Sex/ Number of Dependents/ Age/ Time on Job/ Intelligence/ Education/

Personality)

· Working Environment

· Physical Factors/ Improving Efficiency in Work (Rest Pause/ Tea Break/ Boredom)

· Psychological Factors (Security/ Pay or Wages/ Opportunity for Advancement/ Working

Conditions/ Company & management/ Intrinsic Aspect of the Job/ Communication/ Benefits/

Supervision/ Responsibility/ Downward Flow of Information/ Co-workers)

· Accident & Safety

· Environmental Causes (Heating/ Pollution/ Unsuitable Working Tools)

· Personal Causes (Age & Experience/ Health/ Absenteeism/ Fatigue)

· Psychological Factors (Low Intelligence/ Boredom/ Poor Morale/ Depression)

· Accident Reduction (Cause Analysis of Accident/ Elimination of Unsafe Acts/ Elimination of

Unsafe Conditions/ Safety Training Program)

· Psychology in Marketing Advertising

· Marketing & Advertising Research (Product Analysis/ Consumer Research/ Distribution

Research)

· Factors of Advertisement (Color/ Size/ Illustrations

· Headlines

· Newspaper

· Magazine

· Radio & Television

· Salesmanship

Relationship of Labor & Management · Employer or Management

· Administration

· Accounts Department

· Purchase Department

· Production Department

· Sales Department

· Welfare Department

· Steps taken by Management To Achieve Its Objectives (Job Evaluation/ Set Production Targets/

Critical Analysis/ Communication/ Welfare Program/ Pocket Union)

· Labor or Employs

· Labor Unions

· Consumers

Fatigue · Types of Fatigue

· Physical Fatigue

· Mental Fatigue (Boredom / Depression)

· Psychological Fatigue

· Causes of Fatigue

· Nature of Work

· Severe Weather

· Lack of Skill

· Lack of Energy

· Lactic Acid

· Lack of Fresh Air

· Congested Spaces

· Lack of Health

· Prevention of Accidents & Fatigue

· Supervision

· Safe Working Conditions

· Specialists/ Right Man For the Right Job

· Training

· Technical Knowledge of Machines

________________________________________________SHOAIB SATTAR (23-12-2012)