Propiedades Funcionales Qcas Alimentos

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Chemical and Functional

Properties of Food

ComponentsSecond Edition


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Chemical and Functional Properties of Food ProteinsEdited by Zdzislaw E. Sikorski

Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components, Second EditionEdited by Zdzislaw E. Sikorski

Chemical and Functional Properties of Food CompoSERIES EDITOR

Zdzislaw E. Sikorski

Chemical and Functional Properties of Food LipidsEdited by Zdzislaw E. Sikorski and Anna Kolakowska


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C R C P R E S S

Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

EDITED BYZdzislaw E. Sikorski, Ph.D.

Professor of Food ScienceDepartment of Food Chemistry and Technology

Gdansk University of Technology, Poland

Chemical and Functional

Properties of Food

ComponentsSecond Edition


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This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted materialis quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonableefforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chemical and functional properties of food components / editor, E. Sikorski.--2nd ed.

p. ; cm. -- (Chemical and functional properties of food components series)Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-58716-149-4 (alk. paper)1. Food--Analysis. 2. Food--Composition. I. Sikorski, E. II. Series.

TX545 .C44 2002664 .07--dc21 2002276808

Zdzislaw

Zdzislaw


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11-5871-6149-4/02/$0.00+$1.50 2002 by CRC Press LLC

Food Componentsand Their Rolein Food Quality

E. Sikorski

CONTENTS

1.1 Main Food Components...................................................................................11.1.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................11.1.2 Contents and Role in Food Raw Materials .........................................21.1.3 Factors Affecting Food Composition...................................................4

1.2 Quality of Foods ..............................................................................................51.3 Functional Properties of Food Components....................................................51.4 Role of Chemistry and Processing Factors .....................................................6

1.4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................61.4.2 Effect on Safety and Nutritional Value................................................71.4.3 Effect on Sensory Quality....................................................................7

References..................................................................................................................8

1.1 MAIN FOOD COMPONENTS1.1.1 I NTRODUCTION

Foods are derived from plant material, carcasses of animals, and single-cell organ-isms. They are composed mainly of water, saccharides, proteins, lipids, and min-erals (Table 1.1). These main components serve as nutrients by supplying thehuman body with the necessary building materials and source of energy, as wellas elements and compounds indispensable for the metabolism. Some plant polysac-

charides are only partly utilized for energy. However, as dietary ber, they affectvarious processes in the gastrointestinal tract in different ways (Kritchevsky andBoneld, 1995). Foods also contain a host of other constituents present in smallerquantities, especially nonprotein nitrogenous compounds, vitamins, colorants, a-vor compounds, and functional additives. Many of the minor components origi-nally present in foods are nutritionally essential, e.g., vitamins (some can beutilized by the body) and amino acids. Numerous groups, including tocopherols,ubiquinone, carotenoids, ascorbic acid, thiols, amines, and several other nonprotein

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2 Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components

nitrogenous compounds, serve as endogenous muscle antioxidants, playing anessential role in postmortem changes in meat (Decker et al., 2000). Other minorcomponents are useless or even harmful if present in excessive amounts. Mostfood raw materials are infected with different microorganisms putrefactive andoften pathogenic and some contain parasites. A variety of compounds are addedintentionally during processing to serve as preservatives, antioxidants, colorants,avorings, sweeteners, and emulsifying agents and to fulll different other tech-nological purposes. The chemical nature and role of functional food additives arepresented in detail in Chapter 12.

1.1.2 C ONTENTS AND ROLE IN FOOD RAW MATERIALS

Polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids are involved in different structures of the plantand animal tissues used for food. The structures built from these materials are respon-

sible for the form and tensile strength of the tissues and create the necessary conditionsfor the metabolic processes to occur. Compartmentation resulting from these structuresplays a crucial biological role in the organisms. Some other saccharides, proteins, andlipids are stored for reserve purposes. Other constituents are either bound to differentcell structures or distributed in soluble form in the tissue uids.

The content of water in various foods ranges from a few percent in driedcommodities, e.g., milk powder, through about 15% in grains, 1618% in butter,20% in honey, 35% in bread, 65% in manioc, and 75% in meat to about 90% in

many fruits and vegetables. Most of the water is immobilized in the plant and animaltissues by the structural elements and various solutes, contributes to buttressing theconformation of the polymers, and interacts in metabolic processes.

Saccharides are present in food raw materials in quantities ranging from about1% in meats and sh, to about 4.5% in milk, 18% in potatoes, and 1520% in sugarbeets, to about 70% in cereal grains. Polysaccharides participate in the formationof structures in plants. They are also stored in plants as starch and in muscles asglycogen. Other saccharides are dissolved in tissue uids or perform different bio-logical functions: in free nucleotides, as components of nucleic acids, or bound toproteins and lipids.

TABLE 1.1Main Components in Typical Foods

Water Saccharides Proteins Lipids Minerals Vitamins

Juices Saccharose Soybean Oils Vegetables VegetablesFruits Honey Beans Lard Fruits FruitsMilk Cereals Meat Butter Meat Fish liverVegetables Chocolate Fish Chocolate Fish products MeatJellies Potato Wheat Nuts Dairy products CerealsLean sh Cassava Cheese Egg yolk Cereals Milk Lean meat Fruits Eggs Pork Nuts Yeast


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Food Components and Their Role in Food Quality 3

The protein content in foods is given mainly as crude protein, i.e., as N 6.25.The 6.25 nitrogen-to-protein (N:P) conversion factor has been recommended formost plant and animal food products under the assumption that the N content in

their proteins is 16% and they do not contain nonprotein N. The N content in theproteins in various foods, however, is different, since it depends on the amino acidcomposition. Furthermore, the total N consists of protein N and of N contained innumerous nonprotein compounds, e.g., free peptides and amino acids, nucleic acidsand their degradation products, amines, betains, urea, vitamins, and alkaloids. Insome foods the nonprotein N may constitute up to 30% of total N. In many of thesecompounds the C:N ratio is similar to the average in amino acids. However, the Ncontent in urea (47%) is exceptionally high. Most of the nonprotein nitrogen com-

pounds can be utilized by the organism as a source of nitrogen.The average conversion factor for estimation of true protein, based on the ratiosof total amino acid residues to amino acid N, determined for 23 various food productsis 5.68 and for different classes of foods, 5.146.61 (Table 1.2). The N:P factor of 4.39, based on analysis of 20 different vegetables, has been proposed by Fujiharaet al. (2001) for estimating the true protein content in vegetables. A common N:Pfactor of 5.70 for blended foods or diets has been recommended by Sosulski andImadon (1990).

Proteins make up about 1% of the weight of fruits, 2% of potatoes, 3.2% of bovine milk, 12% of eggs, 1222% of wheat grain, about 20% of meat, and 2540%of different beans. They serve as the building material of muscles and other animaltissues and, in plants and animals, play crucial metabolic roles as enzymes andenzyme inhibitors, participate in the transport and binding of oxygen and metal ions,and perform immunological functions. During their development cereal grain andlegume seeds deposit large quantities of storage proteins in granules known also asprotein bodies. In soybeans these proteins constitute 6070% of the total proteincontent, and the granules in 80% are made of proteins.

Lipids constitute below 1% of the weight of fruits, vegetables, and lean sh;3.5% of milk; 6% of beef; 32% of egg yolk; and 85% of butter. The lipids containedin the food raw materials in low quantities serve mainly as components of protein-phospholipid membranes and perform metabolic functions. In fatty commodities themajority of the lipids are stored as depot fat in the form of triacylglycerols. Thelipids of numerous food shes, such as orange roughy, mullets, codsh, and sharks,

TABLE 1.2N:P Conversion Factors in Foods

Product Factor Product Factor

Dairy products 6.026.15 Potato 5.18Egg 5.73 Leafy vegetables 5.145.30Meat and sh 5.725.82 Fruits 5.18Cereals and legumes 5.405.93 Microbial biomass 5.786.61

Source: From Sosulski, F.W. and Imadon, G.I., J. Agric. Food Chem. , 38, 1351, 1990.


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as well as some crustaceans and mollusks, also comprise wax esters. Some shark oils are very rich in hydrocarbons, particularly in squalene (Sikorski et al., 1990).Furthermore, the lipid fraction of food raw materials harbors different sterols, vita-

mins, and pigments that are crucial for metabolism.

1.1.3 F ACTORS AFFECTING FOOD COMPOSITION

The content of different components in food raw materials depends on the speciesand variety of the animal and plant crop, the conditions of cultivation and harvestingof the plants, the feeding and age of the farm animals or the season in which shand marine invertebrates are caught, and postharvest changes taking place in thecrop during storage. The food industry, by establishing quality requirements for rawmaterials, can encourage producers to control within limits the contents of the maincomponents in their crops, e.g., saccharose in sugar beets, starch in potatoes, fat invarious meat cuts, pigments in fruits and vegetables and in the esh of sh fromaquaculture, or protein in wheat and barley, as well as the fatty acid composition of lipids in oilseeds and meats. The contents of desirable minor components such asnatural antioxidants can also be effectively controlled to retard the oxidation of pigments and lipids in beef meat (Matsumoto, 2000). Contamination of the rawmaterial with organic and inorganic pollutants can be controlled by observing rec-ommended agricultural procedures in using fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticidesand by restricting certain shing areas seasonally to avoid marine toxins. The sizeof predatory sh like swordsh, tuna, or sharks that are shed commercially can belimited to reduce the risk of too high a content of mercury and arsenic in the esh.

The composition of processed foods depends on the applied recipe and onchanges taking place due to processing and storage. These changes are mainlybrought about by endogenous and microbial enzymes, active forms of oxygen,heating, chemical treatment, and processing at low or high pH (Haard, 2001).

Examples of such changes are:

Leaching of soluble components, e.g., vitamins and minerals during wash-ing, blanching, and cooking

Drip formation after thawing or due to cooking Loss of moisture and volatiles due to evaporation and sublimation Absorption of desirable or harmful compounds during salting, pickling,

or smoking

Formation of desirable or harmful compounds due to enzyme activity,e.g., development of a typical avor in cheese or decarboxylation of aminoacids in sh marinades

Generation of desirable or objectionable products due to interactions of reactivegroups induced by heating or chemical treatment, e.g., avors or carcinogeniccompounds in roasted meats or trans fatty acids in hydrogenated fats

Formation of different products of oxidation of food components, mainlyof lipids, pigments, and vitamins

Loss of nutrients and deterioration of dried sh due to the attack by ies,mites, and beetles


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1.2 QUALITY OF FOODS

The quality of a food product, i.e., the characteristic properties that determine the

degree of excellence, is a sum of the attributes contributing to the satisfaction of theconsumer with the product. The composition and the chemical nature of the foodcomponents affect all aspects of food quality. The total quality reects at least thefollowing attributes:

Compatibility with the local or international food laws, regulations, andstandards, concerning mainly proportions of main components, presenceof compounds regarded as identity indicators, contents of contaminantsand additives, hygienic requirements, and packaging

Nutritional aspects, i.e., the contents of nutritionally desirable constitu-ents, mainly proteins, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, vitamins,ber, and mineral components

Safety aspects affected by the compounds that may constitute healthhazards for the consumers and affect the digestibility and nutritional useof the food, e.g., heavy metals, toxins of different origin, pathogenicmicroorganisms, parasites, and enzyme inhibitors

Sensory attributes color, size, form, avor, and taste and rheologicalproperties, obviously affected by the chemical composition of the product,as well as the effects resulting from processing and culinary preparation

Shelf life at specic storage conditions Convenience aspects, which are reected by the size and ease of opening

and reclosing the container, suitability of the product for immediate useor for different types of thermal treatment, ease of portioning or spreading,and transport and storage requirements

Ecological aspects regarding suitability for recycling of the packaging

material and pollution hazards

For many foods one of the most important quality criterion is freshness. This isespecially so in numerous species of vegetables, fruits, and seafood. Fish of valuablespecies at the state of prime freshness, suitable to be eaten raw, may have a marketprice that is ten times higher than that of the same sh after several days of storagein ice but still very t for human consumption. The characteristic freshness attributesof different foods are usually evaluated by sensory examination and by determination

of specic indices, e.g., nucleotide degradation products in sh.

1.3 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF FOODCOMPONENTS

The term functional properties has evolved to have a broad range of meanings.That corresponding to the term technological properties implies that the givencomponent present in optimum concentration, subjected to processing at optimum

parameters, contributes to the desirable sensory characteristics of the product,usually by interacting with other food constituents. Hydrophobic interactions,


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hydrogen bonds, ionic forces, and covalent bonding are involved. Thus the func-tional properties of food components are affected by the number of accessiblereactive groups and by the exposure of hydrophobic areas in the given medium.

Therefore the functional properties displayed in a system of given water activityand pH and in the given range of temperature can be to a large extent predictedfrom the structure of the respective saccharides, proteins, and lipids. They canalso be improved by appropriate, intentional enzymatic or chemical modicationsof the molecules, mainly those that affect the size, charge density, or hydrophilicand hydrophobic character of the compounds, or by changes in the environment,regarding both the solvent and other solutes.

The functional properties of food components make it possible to manufacture

products of desirable quality. Thus pectins contribute to the characteristic texture of ripe apples and make perfect jellies. Various other polysaccharides are good thick-ening and gelling agents at different ranges of acidity and concentration of variousions. Alginates in the presence of Ca 2+ form protective, unfrozen gels on the surfaceof frozen products. Some starches are resistant to retrogradation, thereby retardingstaling of bread. Fructose retards moisture loss from biscuits. Mono- and diacyl-glycerols, phospholipids, and proteins are used for emulsifying lipids and stabilizingfood emulsions and foams. Antifreeze proteins decrease ice formation in variousproducts, and gluten plays a major role in producing the characteristic texture of wheat bread.

Technologically required functional effects can also be achieved by intentionallyemploying various food additives food colors, sweeteners, and a host of othercompounds that are not regarded as foodstuffs per se, but are used to modify therheological properties or acidity, increase the color stability or shelf life, or act ashumectants or avor enhancers (Rutkowski et al., 1997).

During the recent two decades the term functional has also been given to a largegroup of products and components, also called designer foods, pharmafoods, nutra-ceuticals, or foods for specic health use, that are regarded as health enhancing.These foods, mainly drinks, meals, confectionery, ice cream, and salad dressings,contain various ingredients (e.g., oligosaccharides, sugar alcohols, or choline) thatare claimed to have special physiological functions like neutralizing harmful com-pounds in the body and promoting recovery and general good health (Goldberg,1994). Foods containing probiotics, mainly dairy products, have been treated indetail in Chapter 11.

1.4 ROLE OF CHEMISTRY AND PROCESSING FACTORS

1.4.1 I NTRODUCTION

The chemical nature of food components is of crucial importance for all aspectsof food quality. It decides on the nutritional value of the product, its sensoryattractiveness, the development of desirable or deteriorative changes due to inter-actions with other constituents and to processing, and the susceptibility and resis-

tance to spoilage during storage. Food components that contain reactive groups,many of them essential for the quality of the products, are generally labile and


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easily undergo different enzymatic and chemical changes, especially when treatedat elevated temperatures or in conditions promoting the generation of active speciesof oxygen.

1.4.2 EFFECT ON SAFETY AND NUTRITIONAL VALUE

Food is regarded as safe if it does not contain harmful organisms or compounds inconcentrations above the accepted limits (see Chapter 13). The nutritional value of foods depends primarily on the contents of nutrients and nutritionally objectionablecomponents in the products.

Processing may increase the safety and biological value of food by inducing

chemical changes, increasing the digestibility of the components, or by inactivatingundesirable compounds, e.g., toxins or enzymes catalyzing the generation of toxicagents from harmless precursors. Freezing and short-term frozen storage of shinactivate the parasite Anisakis , which could escape detection during visual inspec-tion of herring llets used as raw material for cold marinades produced at mildconditions. Thermal treatment brings about inactivation of myrosinase, the enzymeinvolved in hydrolysis of glucosinolanes. This arrests the reactions that lead to theformation of goitrogenic products in oilseeds of Cruciferae . Heat pasteurization andsterilization reduce the number of vegetative forms and spores, respectively, to theacceptable level of pathogenic microorganisms. Several other examples of suchimprovements of the biological quality of foods are given in the following chaptersof this book.

However, there are also nutritionally undesirable side effects of processing:destruction of essential food components as a result of heating, chemical treatment,and oxidation. Generally known is the partial thermal decomposition of vitamins,especially thiamine, loss of available lysine and sulfur-containing amino acids, orgeneration of harmful compounds (e.g., carcinogenic heterocyclic aromatic amines,lysinoalanine, and lanthionine or position isomers of fatty acids) not originallypresent in foods. Thanks to the unprecedented development of analytical chemistry,applying efcient procedures of enrichment and separation, combined with the useof highly selective and sensitive detectors, has made it possible to determine variousproducts of chemical reactions in foods, even in very low concentrations. In recentyears new evidence of side effects has been accumulated in respect to chemicalprocessing of oils and fats. Commercial hydrogenation of oils not only brings aboutthe intended saturation of selected double bonds in the fatty acids, and thereby the

required change in the rheological properties of the oil, but also results in thegeneration of a large number of trans-trans and cis-trans isomers that are absent inunprocessed oils.

1.4.3 EFFECT ON SENSORY Q UALITY

Many of the desirable sensory attributes of foods stem from the properties of theraw material: the color, avor, taste, and texture of fresh fruits and vegetables or the

taste of nuts and milk. These properties are in many cases carried through to thenal products.


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In other commodities the characteristic quality attributes are generated in pro-cessing. The texture of bread develops due to interactions of proteins, lipids, andsaccharides with each other and with various gases (Eliasson, 1998; Wrigley et al.,

1998; Preston, 1998). The bouquet of wine is due to fermentation of saccharidesand a number of other biochemical and chemical reactions. The delicious color,avor, texture, and taste of smoked salmon are generated as a result of enzymaticchanges in the tissues and the effect of salt and smoke (Doe et al., 1998). Optimumfoam performance of beer depends on the interactions of peptides, lipids, the surface-active components of hop, and gases (Hughes, 1999). The avor, texture, and tasteof cheese result from fermentation and ripening, while the appealing color and avorof different fried products are due to reactions of saccharides and amino acids

(Sikorski, 2001).The sensory attributes of foods are related to the contents of many chemicallylabile components. These components, however, just as most nutritionally essentialcompounds, are prone to deteriorative changes in severe heat treatment conditions,oxidizing conditions, or application of considerably high doses of chemical agents(e.g., acetic acid or salt), which are often required to ensure safety and sufcientlylong shelf life of the products. Thus loss in sensory quality takes place in overster-ilized meat products, due to degradation of sulfur containing amino acids and thedevelopment of an off-avor; in toughening of the texture of overpasteurized hamor shellsh, due to excessive shrinkage of the tissues and drip; and in deteriorationof the texture and arresting of ripening in herring, due to preservation at too high aconcentration of salt.

Optimum parameters of storage and processing ensure the retention of thedesirable properties of the raw material and lead to development of intendedattributes of the product. In the selection of these parameters the chemistry of foodcomponents and of the effect of processing must be studied. The eager food tech-nology student can nd all the necessary information in at least two excellenttextbooks on food chemistry, published by Belitz et al. (2001) and Fennema (1996);in numerous books on food lipids, proteins, and saccharides; and in current inter-national journals.

REFERENCES

Belitz, H.D., Grosch, W., and Schieberle, P., Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchem , 4th ed.,

Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2001.Decker, E.A., Livisay, S.A., Zhou S., Mechanism of endogenous skeletal muscle antioxidants:chemical and physical aspects, in Antioxidants in Muscle Foods: Nutritional Strategiesto Improve Quality , Decker, E., Faustman, C., and Lopez-Bote, C.J., Eds., WileyInterscience, New York, 2000, p. 25.

Doe, P. et al., Basic principles, in Fish Drying and Smoking: Production and Quality , Doe,P.E., Ed., Technomic Publishing Co., Inc., Lancaster, PA, 1998, p. 13.

Eliasson, A.C., Lipid-carbohydrate interactions, in Interactions: The Keys to Cereal Quality ,Hamer, R.J. and Hoseney, R.C., Eds., American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc.,

St. Paul, MN, 1998, p. 47.Fennema, O.R., Ed., Food Chemistry , 3rd ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996.


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Fujihara, S., Kasuga, A., and Aoyagi, Y., Nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors for commonvegetables in Japan, J. Food Sci. , 66, 412, 2001.

Goldberg, I., Functional Foods: Designer Foods, Pharmafoods, Nutraceuticals , Chapman &

Hall, New York, 1994.Haard, N.F., Enzymic modication in food systems, in Chemical and Functional Propertiesof Food Proteins , Sikorski, Z.E., Ed., Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster, PA, 2001,p. 155.

Hughes, P., Keeping a head: optimizing beer foam performance, in Bubbles in Food , Campbell,G.M. et al., Eds., Eagan Press, St. Paul, MN, 1999, p. 129.

Kritchevsky, D. and Boneld, Ch., Eds., Dietary Fiber in Health & Disease , Eagan Press,St. Paul, MN, 1995.

Matsumoto, M., Dietary delivery versus exogenous addition of antioxidants, in Antioxidants

in Muscle Foods: Nutritional Strategies to Improve Quality , Decker, E., Faustman,C., and Lopez-Bote, C.J., Eds., Wiley Interscience, New York, 2000, p. 315.Preston, K.R., Protein-carbohydrate interactions, in Interactions: The Keys to Cereal Quality ,

Hamer, R.J. and Hoseney, R.C., Eds., American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc.,St. Paul, MN, 1998, p. 81.

Rutkowski, A., Gwiazda, S., and D abrowski, K., Food Additives and Functional Component ,Agro & Food Technology, Katowice, 1997 (in Polish).

Sikorski, Z.E., Chemical reactions in proteins in food systems, in Chemical and FunctionalProperties of Food Proteins , Sikorski, Z.E., Ed., Technomic Publishing Co., Inc.,

Lancaster, PA, 2001, p. 191.Sikorski, Z.E., , A., and Pan, B.S., The nutritive composition of the majorgroups of marine food organisms, in Seafood: Resources, Nutritional Composition,and Preservation , Sikorski, Z.E., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1990, p. 29.

Sosulski, F.W. and Imadon, G.I., Amino acid composition and nitrogen-to-protein conversionfactors for animal and plant foods, J. Agric. Food Chem. , 38, 1351, 1990.

Wrigley, C.W. et al., Protein-protein interactions: essential to dough rheology, in Interactions:The Keys to Cereal Quality , Hamer, R.J. and Hoseney, R.C., Eds., American Associ-ation of Cereal Chemists, Inc., St. Paul, MN, 1998, p. 17.

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