Proceedings of International Conference on Global ...gocharsociety.org/new/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Proceedings-Vol… · Dr. S. Sheraz Mahdi Dr. J.P. Singh Dr. Chandra Bhanu Global

Editors :

Dr. Rajbir SinghDr. R. RamarajDr. S. Sheraz MahdiDr. J.P. SinghDr. Chandra Bhanu

Global Initiatives forSustainable Development: Issues and StrategiesJune 23-27, 2019

Proceedings of International Conference on

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Bangkok, Thailand

Organizer :

Gochar Educational and Welfare SocietySaharanpur (U.P.) INDIA

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Proceedings of Second International Conference on

Global Initiatives for Sustainable

Development: Issues and Strategies

June 23-27, 2019

Hotel Howard Square Boutique, Bangkok, Thailand

Volume I

Editors

Dr. Rajbir Singh

Dr. Rameshprabhu Ramaraj

Dr. S. Sheraz Mahdi

Dr. J. P. Singh

Dr. Chandra Bhanu

Organizer

Gochar Educational and Welfare Society, Saharanpur

Uttar Pradesh, India

Edition : 2019

ISBN : 978-93-87922-74-7

Price : 700/-

Copyright © Author

Printed by :

D.K. Fine Art Printers Pvt. Ltd.,

New Delhi

Disclaimer :

The authors are solely responsible for the contents of the papers compiled in

this volume. The publishers and editors do not take any, responsibility for the

same in any manner. Errors, if any, are purely unintentional and readers are

requested to communicate such errors to the editors or publishers to avoid

discrepancies in.

Published by :

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Preface The main goal of sustainable development is to meet the needs of today, without

compromising the needs of tomorrow. This means we cannot continue using current levels of

resources as this will not leave enough for future generations. As in 2030 Agenda of UNDP,

Sustainable Development is an ambitious, universal and holistic approach. The 17 Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs), otherwise known as the Global Goals are a universal call to action,

build on the successes of the Millennium Development Goals to end poverty, protect the

planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity including new areas such as climate

change, economic inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption, peace and justice, among

other priorities. India has been ranked 143rd

out of 188 countries in the 2016 Sustainable

Development Goals (SDG) and attaches high priority to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable

Developmental Goals.

Keeping in view of the above, Gochar Educational and Welfare Society, Saharanpur,

India oragnised its Second International Conference on “Global Initiatives for Sustainable

Development: Issuses and Strategies” from June 23-27, 2019 at Bangkok, Thailand.

The prime objective of the conference was to provide an intellectual plate form to the

international intellectual community of global standards to disscuss the different areas of

sustainable development goals.

The first issue of proceedings will provide a comprehensive and critical review of the

work done on different areas of sustainability. This volume has 12 papers submitted by the

policy maker, scientists, research scholars and extension specialists from various universities,

institutes and organizations, which include information on different dimesnsions of sustainable

development. Information in this issue will be useful not only for scholars, academicians and

researchers in agriculture but also for administrators, policy planners and extension workers.

We are deeply thankful to our Co-organizers i.e. Maejo University, Chiang Mai,

Thailand, The Indian Ecological Society, Ludhiana, India, Gochar Mahavidyalaya, Rampur

Maniharan, India, Hind Agri-Horticultural Society, Muzaffarnagar, India, South Asian Network

for Rural and Agricultural Development, New Delhi, Society for Integrated Development of

Agriculture, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, Jammu, India and Satyadeo Group of Colleges,

Gazipur, India

We remain grateful to our respective organizations Gochar Mahavidyalaya (Post

Graduate College), Rampur Maniharan, Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India, Sher-e- Kashmir

University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir,

India, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand, ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming System

Research, Modipuram, India for providing motivational environment and time to edit.

We are thankful to our family members for their constant support in our academic and

scientific endevours and encouragement during the preparation of this proceedings. We extend

our sincere thanks and allround support of Mr. Vishal Mithal of Anu Books for publishing this

book with patience, care and intrest.

Editors

http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/background.html

1

CONTENTS

1. Responses of Tropical Micro-crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi upon Herbicide and Trace Metal

Exposures

Thi-My-Chi Vo and Thanh-Son Dao 2- 10

2. DNA Barcoding of Three Colonial Ascidians from Indian Coastal Waters

Shabeer Ahmed N and Abdul Jaffar Ali H 11-19

3. Productivity and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Parent Clone (Hevea brasiliensis RRII 105) in

Non-Traditional Rubber Growing Region of Karnataka

Shahbaz Noori and S S Inamati 20-26

4. Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania

angustifolia)

Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and Indu Arora 27-37

5. Survivality of Soil Bio-agents in Presence of Organic Amendment in Arid Conditions of Rajasthan,

India

Nitin Chawla, Vipen Kumar and R K Bagri 38-43

6. Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic

Microflora and Yield of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum

S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and N Susheelamma 44-55

7. Forage Production and Quality of Berseem, Makkhan Grass and Barley as Affected by Organic

Inorganic Fertilization

Om Singh 56-60

8. Agricultural Waste Management through Mushroom Cultivation

Nirmala Bhatt 61-65

9. Determination of Physical and Frictional Properties of Carrot (Daucus carota L.)

J S Ghatge, S A Mehetre and S B Patil 66-74

10. Influences of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and

Yield of Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali

D S Nehete, R G Jadav and Ishwar Singh 75-83

11. Food Security through Pulse Production under Climate Uncertainties in Jammu and Kashmir

B S Jamwal and Shahid Ahamad 84-88

12. Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus Thailand Cash Crops

Niharika Srivastava 89-98

2


Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies

Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019

ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Responses of Tropical Micro-Crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi

upon Herbicide and Trace Metal Exposures

Thi-My-Chi Vo and Thanh-Son Dao1

Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang City, Vietnam 1Hochiminh City University of Technology, VNU-HCM, Hochiminh City, Vietnam

ABSTRACT

Human activities such as agriculture, industry, textile and mining are main causes for pollutants

increasing in the environment in developing countries. The occurence in high amount of pesticides and trace

metals in aquatic environment has been considered as potential ecological risks due to their persistence and non-

biodegradability. This study aims to investigate the life history traits of a tropical micro-crustacean, Daphnia

lumholtzi, under exposure to atrazine, cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) at the concentrations of 1, 5 and 25 µgL-1 21

experimental days. The results showed that the survivorship of the organisms significantly decreased after

exposing these contaminants at the test concentrations, especially at the highestone (25 µgL-1). While Cd

strongly reduced the fecundity and intrinsic population rate of the organisms, both atrazine and Pb caused an

early maturation and enhanced the intrinsic population rate. Moreover, the reproductive performance of D.

lumholtzi exposed to Pb also decreased similarly to that in Cd exposures.Our investigation revealed severe

impacts of the pollutants at environmentally relevant concentrations on the first consumer in aquatic ecosystem.

We highly suggest that the micro-crustacean D. lumholtzi could be used as a model species for ecological risk

assessments and extra polation to the risk in tropical regions. As pesticides and trace metals are usually found

simultaneously in environment, we highly recommend conducting further studies on the combined effects of

these contaminants ontropically aquatic organisms to fully understand their toxicity.

Keywords: Atrazine, Cadmium, Lead, Daphnia lumholtzi, Negative Effects, Life History Traits

INTRODUCTION

Recently, there has been a widespread application of herbicides along with trace metals for industrial

and agricultural purposes resulting in several environmental issues. Being one of the most common herbicides

found in creeks, rivers, ponds, reservoirs or even in groundwater, atrazine was classified as moderately toxic to

aquatic species (Nwani et al 2010). However, when atrazine is retained in small, standing-water reservoirs or

has repeated inputs into water bodies, damage can occur in the aquatic ecosystems (Solomon et al 1996).

Previous studies revealed that atrazine can act as an endocrince disruptor resulting in the changes in

reproductive performance of many aquatic species (Mckinlay et al 2008; Oehlmann and Schulte 2003). Besides,

in aquatic ecosystem, many trace metal (e.g. Cu, Ni, Zn) are essential for life, but all have been showed to cause

harmful effects at the certain concentration on plankton (Masmoudi et al 2013; Soeprobowati and Hariyati

2014; Offem and Ayotunde 2008), aquatic plants (Prasad et al 2001; Khellaf and Zerdaoui 2009; Verma and

Suthar, 2014) and vertebrates (Vosylien et al 2006; Kori and Ubogu 2008). On the contrary, some other trace

metals (e.g. Hg, Pb, Cd) are not essential for living organisms because they do not have a function in organisms

hence can induce negative effects on creatures. Both Pb and Cd are listed as the most hazardous inorganic

contaminants on the EPA Hazarmedous Substance Priority List (US EPA 2000). Zooplankton posses a central

position in the aquatic food web which helps to transfer primary materials (from algae) to higher trophic levels

3

Responses of Tropical Micro-Crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi upon Herbicide and Trace Metal Exposures

(e.g. shrimp, fish). Zooplankton communities are among the first affected organisms when water pollution

occurs. They consist of many groups and species (e.g. Daphnia) which are very sensitive to pollutants and used

as test model animals for ecotoxicological studies (Lampert 2006). So far, there have been numerous

investigations on the detrimental effects of trace metals and herbicides on temperate zooplankton (Vesela and

Vijverberg 2007; Traudt et al 2017; Villarroel et al 2003; Moreira et al 2014), but only few studies on the

toxicity of these contaminants on tropical micro-crustacean. Some tropical micro-crustaceans such as Daphnia

lumholtzi, Ceriodaphnia cornuta were showed to be more sennsitive to several pollutants (e.g. Cu, Zn,

cyanotoxins) than temperate zooplankton (e.g. Daphnia magna; Bui et al 2016; Dao et al 2017). Ghose et al

(2014) noted that there is a gap in knowledge of how tropical species deal with contaminants. Responses of

tropical micro-crustaceans (e.g. D. lumholtzi) to herbicidesand trace metals are not fully understood. Therefore,

in order to fill this gap, in this study, we evaluated the chronic effects of atrazine, Pb and Cd on the traits of the

tropical micro-crustacean D. lumholtzi.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The test chemicals, atrazine (purification of 99%) and the stock of Pb and Cd (at the concentration of 1

mgmL-1), for toxicity study were obtained from the manufacturer Merck (Germany). Atrazine stock standard

solution (1 mg mL-1) was prepared by dissolving atrazine into Methanol (MeOH). The atrazine solution was

kept -70oC whereas the trace metal solutions were placed at 4oC prior to the experiments. Regarding to the test

micro-crustacean, D. lumholtzi was collected from a fish pond in the Northern Vietnam (Bui et al 2016) and has

been healthygrowing in the Module of Ecotoxicology, Hochiminh City University of Technology for several

years under controlled conditions (at 27±1oC, light intensity of around 1,000 Lux, photoperiod of 12h light and

12h dark) in COMBO medium (Kilham et al 1998). The animalshave been fed with a mixture of green alga

(Chlorella sp.) and YCT (yeast, cerrophyl and trout chow digestion; US. EPA 2002).

The toxicity tests were performed according to the APHA (2012) and Dao et al (2010) with some

minor modifications. Briefly, the neonates (<24h) were individually incubated in 50 mL glass beakers

containing 20 mL COMBO medium solely considered as control. Regarding atrazine, Cd or Pb exposures, D.

lumholtzi was incubated in medium containing 1, 5 and 25 µg L-1 for each chemical. Fifteen replicates were

prepared for each treatment. Glass beakers were used for the test with atrazine while plastic beakers were served

for the trace metal exposures. Green alga (Chlorella sp.) and YTC were used as food for test organisms. Both

the food and media were totally renewed three times a week. During the test incubation (21 days), the life

history traits of daphnids including survivorship, maturation and fecundity were daily recorded. Moreover, the

intrinsic rate of population increase (r) was estimated from age-specific survival and clutch size based on the

Euler equation (Stearns, 1992):1=∑𝑒−𝑟𝑥 𝑙𝑥𝑚𝑥. Where: x – age (in days); lx – the probability of surviving; and

mx – the fecundity of at age x.

Sigma plot version 12.0 version was used for the data processing. Kruskal-Wallis test was applied for

calculation on the statistically significant difference of the maturation, reproductive performance and intrinsic

rate of population increase of test organisms.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effects on survivorship

After three weeks of exposure, the survival rate of D. lumholtzi in control was not reduced. However,

the lowest atrazine concentration, 1 µg L-1, caused the reduction of 30% of total daphnids. Seriously, exposures

to higher atrazine concentrations (5 and 25 µg L-1) resulted an enormously decrease 90 and 100% daphnid

population, respectively (Fig. 1a). Regarding the Cd exposures at the concentration of 1, 5, and 25 µg L-1, all

test daphnids died after 18, 10 and 6 days of incubation, respectively (Fig. 1b). By the end of the experiment, in

the case of Pb exposure at the highest concentration (25µg L-1), the survival proportion of organisms sharply

declined to 20% of total organisms. Besides, the survivorship of D. lumholtzi exposed to 1 and 5 µg Pb L-1was

4

Thi-My-Chi Vo and Thanh-Son Dao

down to 60% and 50%, respectively (Fig. 1c). Palma et al (2008) and Vo et al (2014) reported that survivorship

of D. magna was slightly affected when exposed to atrazine at the concentration of 5 or 50 g L-1. In the

investigation of (Luciana et al 2014), Pb did not affect D. manga’s survivorship during exposed to 30 µgL-1

over 15 days of testing. Cadmium at the concentration of 20 µgL-1 caused 90% mortality of D. magna after 21

days of treatment (Bodar et al 1989). Moreover, the mean concentration causing 50% mortality in a 48h acute

test for D. pulex was 78 µg Cd L-1 (Roux et al 1993). Hence we found that the tropical micro-crustacean, D.

lumholtzi, was more vunerable to atrazine, Pb and Cd compared to its congener, D. magna. This may be that

tropical micro-crustacean have a faster life history (e.g. life cycle of around 5 days in case of D. lumholtzi)

comparing to temperate species (e.g. D. magna has a life cycle of 7 – 10 days) thereby differing in the

sensitivity to contaminants. Our study revealed that pollutants (e.g. hebicides, trace metals) could show their

higher potent toxicity to tropical micro-crustaceans than to temperate ones. Therefore, the direct application of

ecological risk assessments based on toxicity tests of temperate model species such as D. magna could not be

relevant to extrapolate the risk in tropical regions. On the other hand, D. lumholtzi should be considered as

model zooplankton for toxicity test for ecological risk assessments in tropical regions.

Effects on age to maturity and fecundity

The age of D. lumholtzi to maturity in the control was 4.5 days and that in all atrazine

exposuresvariedfrom 3.9 - 4.1 days. There was no statistically significant difference in the age at maturity

between the control and atrazine exposures excluding the concentration of 5 µgL-1 (Fig.2a). The animals

exposed to Cd at the concentrations of 1 and 5 µg L-1 reached maturity after round 4 days (Fig. 2b), and those

which were treated with Pb (1, 5 and 25 µgL-1) matured at the ages from 3.7 to 4.1 days (Fig. 2c). The

significant difference between the daphnid maturation compared to the control was found in the two Pb

exposures (1 and 25 µgL-1). Atrazine could act as an endocrine disrupting compound (Mckinlay et al 2008;

Oehlmann and Schulte-Oehlmann 2003) therefore it might stimulate the maturation processes in animals

including zooplankton which supports the earlier maturation in atrazine exposure of our study.

On the contrary, some trace metals such as Cu, Ni and Zn (concentrations from 4 – 50 µg L-1) resulted

in the tardiness of maturation of D. lumholtzi (Dao et al 2017). The maturity of micro-crustaceans (e.g. Moina

macleayi, Ceriodaphnia dubia) was negatively by Pb (Luciana et al 2014).However, it remains unknown how

the trace metal Pb enhanced the maturation of D. lumholtzi in the current study which needs further studies to

clarify.

In the control, the mean brood size of daphnids was around 8 neonates which were similar to that in the

atrazine exposures (1, 5 and 25 µgL-1; Fig. 3a). Moreover, compared to the control, all Cd treatments caused a

statistically significant reduction in the number of neonates per brood. In each clutch, females exposed to Cd at

the concentration of 1 and 5 µg L-1 laid approximately 4 – 5 neonates (Fig. 3b). As all daphnids in 25 µg Cd L-1

exposure died after 6 days of treatment, these life-history traits (maturity and reproduction) were not recorded.

Besides, the fecundity of D. lumholtzi in the Pb exposures similar to that in the control (~8 offsprings per

clutch), while the females in the highest exposed concentration of Pb (25 µgL-1) produced much smaller broods

(only 6 neonates per clutch) than the control (Fig. 3c).

There has been no information about the effects of atrazine on D. lumholtzi’s maturity or brood size. At

every high concentration (e.g. 500 µgL-1) atrazine caused a decrease the reproduction of D. magna (Vo et al

2014). Maybe the used atrazine concentrations in the current study (1 – 25 µgL-1) were not high enough to

induce a strong impact on fecundtiy of the D. lumholtzi. Regarding the trace metal treatments, Roux et al (1993)

reported that the Cd at the concentration up to 3 µgL-1 caused the reproductive impairment of D. pulex during

21 days of incubation. The reproduction of other two micro-crustaceans, Moina macleayi, Ceriodaphnia dubia,

were negatively affected after being exposed to Pb (Luciana et al 2014). In our study Cd and Pb concentrations

were within the range or higher than that in previous investigations hence fecundity reduction of the D.

lumholtzi was recorded. Also Cd showed its stronger impact than Pb on clutch size of D. lumholtzi. This again

evidences for the potent toxicity of Cd and Pb to the tropical micro-crustacean. Compared to the maturation, the

5


Figure 1: Survival of Dapnia lumholtzi during exposure time (n = 15 at the start) upon exposure to atrazine (a),

cadmium (b) and lead (c). At1, At5 and At25: atrazine exposures at the concentration of 1, 5 and 25 µgL-1,

respectively; Cd1, Cd5 and Cd25: cadmium exposures at the concentration of 1, 5 and 25 µgL-1, respectively;

Pb1, Pb5 and Pb25: lead exposures at the concentration of 1, 5 and 25 µgL-1, respectively.

fecundity reveals a much clearer impact of the trace metals on daphnids. Hence fecundity of micro-crustacean

should be a very important life trait for trace metal risk assessment.

Effects on the intrinsic rate of population increase

As mentioned above, the used contaminants, atrazine, Cd and Pb at the test concentrations caused

detrimental impacts on survival, maturation and reproductive performance of D. lumholtzi resulting in the

effects on the intrinsic rate of population increase. The intrinsic population rate (r) of the organisms in control

was 0.339 and there was not statistically significantly difference in this biological parameter between the

control and atrazine exposures at the concentration of 1 and 25 µgL-1 (r = 0.372 and 0.298, respectively) or Pb

exposures at the concentration of 5 and 25 µgL-1 (r = 0.211 and 0.332, respectively) (Fig. 4a, 4c). While the

intrinsic population rate of daphnids exposed to atrazine (5 µgL-1; r = 0.409) and Pb (1 µgL-1; r = 0.422) was

6


enhanced, that in all Cd exposures strongly reduced ranged from 0 to 0.174 (Fig. 4). These negative effects of

trace metals (e.g. Cd or Pb) on the life history traits of crustaceans could be explained by the impairment on the

respiration function caused by these contaminants (Pane et al 2003). Additionally, Grosell et al (2002) assumed

that trace metals can inhibit the sodium uptake resulting in the energy cost for maintaining consequently the

reduction in reproductive performance. Compared to the previous studies (e.g. Palma et al

P

Figure 2: Maturity age of Dapnia lumholtzi upon exposure to atrazine (a), cadmium (b) and lead (c). Asterisk

indicates statistically significant difference between control and exposures by Kruskal Wallis test (*, 0.01 < p ≤

0.05; **, 0.001 < p ≤ 0.01; ***, p ≤ 0.001). Abbreviation as in Figure 1.

7

Responses of Tropical Micro-Crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi Upon Herbicide and Trace Metal Exposures

Figure 3: Fecundity of Dapnia lumholtzi upon exposure to atrazine (a), cadmium (b) and lead (c). Asterisk

indicates statistically significant difference between control and exposures (*, 0.01 < p ≤ 0.05; **, 0.001 < p ≤

0.01; ***, p ≤ 0.001). Abbreviation as in Figure 1.

8


Figure 4: Intrinsic rate of population increase of Dapnia lumholtzi upon exposure to atrazine (a), cadmium (b)

and lead (c). Asterisk indicates statistically significant difference between control and exposures (*, 0.01 < p ≤

0.05; **, 0.001 < p ≤ 0.01; ***, p ≤ 0.001). Abbreviation as in Figure 1.

2008; Vo et al 2014; Bodar et al 1989, Roux et al 1993), adverse effects on D. lumholtzi caused by atrazine, Pb

or Cd exposure in this study seem to be more serious. It could be explained that tropical crustacean D. lumholtzi

is more sensitive to contaminants than related species in the temperate region (Dao et al 2017).

9


CONCLUSIONS

Through this investigation we confirmed that the common contaminants in the aquatic environment,

atrazine, Cd and Pb, induced detrimental impacts on the life history traits of D. lumhotzi such as survivorship,

maturation, fecundity and intrinsic population rate. This showed that D. lumholtzi could be used as a model

species for ecological risk assessments and extrapolation to the risk in tropical regions. This study was

implemented in a single exposure aspect, but these contaminants are usually presented simultaneously. Hence

further investigations on the combined effects of these contaminants on other organisms are highly suggested.

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US. EPA. EPA-815-R-00-023. Washington, DC, USA: US Environmental Protection Agency 2000. Arsenic

occurrence in public drinking water supplies.

US Environmental Protection Agency (US. EPA), 2002. Methods for measuring the acute toxicity of effluents

and receiving waters to freshwater and marine organisms, 5th ed. EPA-821-R02-012. Office of Water,

Washington, DC

Verma R and Suthar S 2015. Lead and cadmium removal from water using duckweek – Lemma gibba L.:

Impact of pH and initial metal load. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 54 (4): 1297-1304.

Vesela S and Vijverberg J 2007. Effect of body size on toxicity of zinc in neonates of four differences sized

Daphnia species. Aquatic Ecology, 41(1): 67-73.

Villarroel MJ, Sancho E, Ferrando MD, Andreu E 2003. Acute, chronic and sublethal effects of the herbicide

propanil on Daphnia magna. Chemosphere, 53 (8): 857-864.

Vo TMC, Nguyen TS, Bui BT, Bui LTK, Do HLC, Nguyen PD, Nguyen TP, Dao TS 2014. Chronic effects of

atrazine and estriol on Daphnia magna. Vietnamese Journal of Science and Technology, 52 (3A): 323-329.

VosylienÄ MZ and Jankait Ä A 2006. Effect of heavy metal model mixture on rainbow trout biological

parameters. Ekologija., 4:12-17.

11




ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

DNA Barcoding of Three Colonial Ascidians from Indian Coastal

Waters

Shabeer Ahmed N and Abdul Jaffar Ali H

Department of Biotechnology, Islamiah College (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi (TN) India.

ABSTRACT

Adult tunicate specimens collected from Gulf of Mannar (south east coast of India) were identified by

morphological characters as Eudistoma viride Tokioka 1955, E. microlarvum Kott, 1990 and E. ovatum

(Herdman, 1886). The mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene of these species were

sequenced and deposited in the GenBank (Accession Numbers: KJ944392-93, MH669162, KJ710709,

MH667475 – 77, JX871396, KU360794, MH667483 – 84, KR867634, MH667485 and MH667486). Barcodes

were created for the COI sequences of the 3 species (Eudistoma viride BOLD: ACQ3396, E. microlarvum

BOLD: ACS6841 and E. ovatum BOLD: ACS7059) - the first record of COI gene of these species from India.

Homology results using BLAST searches resulted in 100% intra specific similarities in E. microlarvum and E.

ovatum species and 98-100% similarities among Eudistoma viride species. Phylogenetic analysis showed the

Eudistoma species forming separate clusters. This study underlines the efficiency of molecular methods in

delineating the ascidian species and this may aid extensive and systematic molecular inventory of India’s

existing marine invertebrate biodiversity.

Keywords: Eudistoma viride, E. microlarvum, E. ovatum, Cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI), ascidian,

Gulf of Mannar, India.

INTRODUCTION

The biological diversity of each country is a valuable and vulnerable natural resource. The uncontrolled

anthropogenic activities including global warming causing a serious biodiversity crisis results in the

disappearance of numerous taxa each day. The biodiversity crisis is accompanied by dwindling number of

taxonomists throughout the scientific community, resulting in the neglect of many highly diverse groups of

organisms and more so in marine environment (Buyck, 1999). The effective conservation of biodiversity can be

ensured by accurate identification, characterization and distribution as well as richness, which can be achieved

for many taxa only by experienced taxonomists. But there has been a persistent decline in both amateur and

professional taxonomy since 1950 (Hopkin and Freckleton, 2002). Most ecological studies of sessile

communities include quite a few species, but frequently published lists include identification only to family or

genus levels. The lack of field guides and identification keys for many regions is in part responsible for this

situation. Ascidians form a ubiquitous portion of marine benthic communities in shallow tropical and temperate

communities. Yet, the ascidian fauna of many regions is still poorly surveyed and the identification of species

by non-specialists almost nonexistent. Since Indian coastal region provides number of suitable marine habitats

for the settlement of ascidians, more than 400 species have been reported in Indian coastal waters by various

researchers at different locations, but less than 200 species have been taxonomically described so far.

Ascidian taxonomy based on morphology is a highly specialized discipline and the misidentification of

http://www.barcodinglife.org/index.php/Public_BarcodeCluster?clusteruri=BOLD:ACS6841

12

DNA Barcoding of Three Colonial Ascidians from Indian Coastal Waters

species has been and remains a significant problem due to frequent lack of diagnostic morphological characters

(Lambert, 2009 and Geller et al., 2010). The limitations inherent in morphology-based identification system and

the dwindling pool of taxonomists signals the need for a new approach to taxon recognition.

DNA Barcoding, a powerful molecular tool for species identification came to the attention of the

scientific community in 2003. DNA Barcoding based on the analysis of a 648 bp region of the animal

mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA), is an efficient and quick method for the identification of taxonomically

intractable groups (Hebert et al., 2003a and Hebert et al., 2003b). The cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI)

gene is a common gene useful for molecular identification of species and for uncovering patterns of diversity

within and among populations and in communities (Muirhead et al., 2008).

With this in context the present study was carried to identify the colonial ascidian from Thoothukudi

coast, Gulf of Mannar and Vizhinjam bay using morphological taxonomy and sequence the mitochondrial

cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequence (Barcode region) of these species and to create DNA

barcodes for the same. The COI gene sequences of the study species deposited in the Genbank is the first report

from these species.


Tissue sampling

Ascidian samples were collected from different locations in Gulf of Mannar at different time intervals.

Details of the collection sites across Gulf of Mannar and Vizhinjam bay are given in Table.1. Zooids from the

colony were taken using sterile scalpel blades and stored in 95% (v/v) ethanol at -20°C. For morphological

studies, whole colonies were narcotized with menthol crystals and left undisturbed for an hour to two hours,

preserved in 10% formalin prepared in sea water and identified by using taxonomic keys (Monniot and

Monniot, 2001; Kott, 1990). All the specimens were provided specimen voucher numbers.

DNA Extraction and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) DNA sequencing

Genomic DNA was isolated using DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kit (Qiagen) following the

manufacturer’s animal tissue protocol. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene was amplified using

marine invertebrate mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) primer (Geller et al., 2013). PCR

amplifications were carried out in 20.0 µl reaction volumes containing; 1 unit of AmpliTaq Gold DNA

polymerase enzyme, 5 pM of both primers and 20 ng of template DNA. Thermocycling conditions consisted of:

95°C for 5 minutes, one cycle; 95°C for 0.30 minute, 48°C for 0.40 minute, 72°C for 1 minute; 35 cycles; 72°C

for 7 minutes, one cycle. Amplified products were purified and sequenced in both directions using BigDye

Terminator v3.1 Cycle Sequencing Kit (Applied Biosystems, USA. Sequence quality was checked using

Sequence Scanner Software v1 (Applied Biosystems). Sequence alignment and required editing of the obtained

sequence was carried out using Geneious Pro v5.1 (Drummond et al., 2012).

DATA ANALYSIS

The nucleotide composition of the COI sequences was analyzed using Bioedit sequence alignment

editor (Hall, 1999). A homology search was performed using BLAST program. The transmembrane helix

corresponding to the obtained mt DNA sequence was analysed with the TMPred software (Hofmann and

Stoffel, 1993). Genetic distance and Phylogenetic analysis were conducted using MEGA 6 (Tamura et al.,

2013).

RESULTS

Morphological Taxonomy

Specimens were identified upto the species level by studying their morphological characters, which are

given below separately.

13


E. microlarvum

Colonies were flat of about 1.5 cm height, divided into irregular lobes. Some sand grains were

embedded in the test. Zooids were small, 4mm long and white in colour. Both the branchial and atrial siphon

was relatively short, each with short sphincter. Only 8 stigmata per row were present (Kott, 1990).

E. ovatum (Herdman, 1886)

Colonies were firm encrusting sheets, thick up to 1 cm. Zooids were pink, circular and smaller

measuring about 2.5 mm in diameter. Zooids present in the system (7 zooids per system). Atrial siphon was

long and muscular. Branchial siphon had a wide band of tentacles. There were at least 20 stigmata per row

(Kott, 1990).

E. viride, Tokioka 1955

The general morphological characteristics of the Eudistoma viride were examined. The colonies were bushes of

small lobes with a translucent tunic. One to three zooids arranged per lobe. Zooids had a yellow green pigment

in the body wall with two black spots, one in the neural ganglion and another at the top of the endostyle. Both

the siphons were short. Six oral and cloacal lobes were present with three rows of stigmata and gonads

positioned in the posterior gut loop (Monniot and Monniot, 2001).

Table1: Collection spots across Gulf of Mannar and Vizhinjam bay

Collection site Latitude Longitude Sea Period

Hare Island 8.76659 N 78.199097 E Thoothukudi

water

June 2014, July 2018,

North Break water 8.7853 N 78.1972 E September 2012, April 2014,

July 2018,

Mandapam 9.2856 N 79.1586 E Mandapam water December 2015, July 2018,

Vizhinjam bay 8.3761 N 76.9882 E Vizhinjam water July 2018,

Vizhinjam bay 8.3756 N 76.9883 E April 2014, April 2015,

Molecular Taxonomy

Genomic DNA was isolated from 14 specimens representing E. microlarvum (3), E. ovatum (3) and E.

viride (8) species. Partial COI gene sequences of these samples were amplified using PCR and sequenced.

Amplified sequences were carefully checked for the presence of internal stop codons and deletions, since

colonial ascidian species were more prone to amplify nuclear mitochondrial Pseudogenes (NUMTS) as evident

from previous studies (Shabeer Ahmed and Jaffar Ali, 2016). Details of the mitochondrial COI gene sequences,

its length, specimen voucher numbers and GenBank accession numbers are given in Table.2. Barcodes were

created (Fig.1) and Barcode Index Numbers (BINs) were provided (Table.2). Analysis of nucleotide

composition in all the 3 codon positions (Table.3, 3a, 3b and 3c), showed a higher percentage of AT bases.

BLAST results of E. viride had 100% similarity among the COI sequences KJ944392, KJ944393, MH669162,

MH667475 and MH667476 and 98% with KJ710709, MH667477 and JX871396. E. microlarvum exhibited

100% similarities among the 3 query sequences and with the E. microlarvum GenBank sequences (KM411614)

and 99% identity with another GenBank sequence, KU667266. Similarly E. ovatum query sequences displayed

100% identity among themselves and 98 – 99% identity with the GenBank E. ovatum sequences (KU667259 –

62, KM411610 and KX138477). Since the length of E. viride JX871396 was very short, it was not included in

further analysis. Hydropathy plots of the 5’ COI gene region of E. microlarvum, E. ovatum and E. viride

showed transmembrane helices joined by external and internal loops (Fig. 2, 3 & 4). Intraspecific genetic

distance exhibited zero divergence among E. microlarvum and E. ovatum species. In E. viride species 2.4 and

2.6% divergence were observed in KJ710709 and MH667477. These 2 sequences displayed zero divergence

between them. The highest interspecific distance was found between E. microlarvum and E. ovatum, while the

lowest distance was observed between E. microlarvum and E. viride (Table.4). Interspecific genetic distance at

https://www.google.com/maps/place/8.76659+78.199097





14


each codon position was computed (Table. 4a, 4b and 4c). The highest degree of divergence was found in the

third codon position (Table.4c). The genetic relationship between the Eudistoma sp through NJ tree, constructed

using K2P showed the 3 species in distinct clusters under a single clad (Fig.5).

DISCUSSION

Morphological Taxonomy

Eudistoma sp mainly from the tropical water has many identical characters, which makes identification

difficult. Important distinguishing characters were taken into account during the confirmation of species. In E.

microlarvum and E. constrictum the nature of zooids, like its small and thread-like structure were the

differentiating characters.

Table 2: Mitochondrial COI gene sequences of Eudistoma species

Species Specimen

Voucher Number

Gene length

(bp)

GenBank

Accession Number

Barcode Index

Number

Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 30 483 MH667483

BOLD:ACS7059 Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 31 502 MH667484

Eudistoma microlarvum ASC09 511 KU360794

Eudistoma ovatum ASC 32 501 MH667485

BOLD:ACS6841 Eudistoma ovatum ASC 33 519 MH667486

Eudistoma ovatum DBTIC41 560 KR867634

Eudistoma viride ICBT005 552 KJ710709

BOLD:ACQ339

6

Eudistoma viride DBT IC 003 628 KJ944392

Eudistoma viride DBT IC 004 597 KJ944393

Eudistoma viride ASC 39 515 MH669162




Eudistoma viride ICBT.Asc001 467 JX871396

Table 3: Nucleotide distribution in Eudistoma species

Species Name A T G C AT GC

Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 30 25.5 39.8 21.0 13.7 65.3 34.7


Eudistoma microlarvum ASC09 25.6 40.3 20.2 13.9 65.9 34.1

Eudistoma ovatum ASC 32 22.6 43.0 20.2 14.2 65.6 34.4


Eudistoma ovatum DBTIC41 21.4 43.6 20.4 14.6 65.0 35.0

Eudistoma viride ICBT005 30.3 41.7 15.6 12.5 72.0 28.0

Eudistoma viride DBT IC 003 29.5 43.2 15.0 12.3 72.7 27.3


Eudistoma viride ASC 39 30.9 41.0 16.1 12.0 71.9 28.1




Eudistoma viride ICBT.Asc001 43.9 29.1 13.1 13.9 73.0 27.0

Average 28.4 41.1 17.4 13.1 69.4 30.6

15


Table 3a: Nucleotide distribution in the 1st codon position of Eudistoma species
















Average 32.7 46.3 13.0 8.0 79.0 21.0

Table 3b: Nucleotide distribution in the 2nd codon position of Eudistoma species
















Average 33.4 33.3 19.7 13.6 66.6 33.4

Table 3c: Nucleotide distribution in the 3rd t codon position of Eudistoma species


Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 30 17.0 43 23.7 16.3 60 40.0

Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 31 18.0 42 23.6 16.4 60 40.0

Eudistoma microlarvum ASC09 17.9 42 23.4 16.7 59.9 40.1

Eudistoma ovatum ASC 32 16.4 47 18.6 18.0 63.4 36.6

Eudistoma ovatum ASC 33 15.8 48 18.7 17.5 63.8 36.2

Eudistoma ovatum DBTIC41 14.6 48 17.8 19.6 62.6 37.4

Eudistoma viride ICBT005 16.5 45 19.8 18.7 61.5 38.5

Eudistoma viride DBT IC 003 18.6 45 18.2 18.2 63.6 36.4

16


Eudistoma viride DBT IC 004 17.6 44 19.2 19.2 61.6 38.4

Eudistoma viride ASC 39 18.2 44 20.6 17.2 62.2 37.8




Eudistoma viride ICBT.Asc001 43.0 23 13.5 20.5 66 34.0

Average 19.2 43.3 19.7 17.8 62.5 37.5

Likewise the cloacal cavities and pyriform colonies in E. amplum and E. pyriforme were the characters

differentiating it from E. ovatum. Morphological characters of Eudistoma viride and its haplotype were similar

exhibiting no major distinguishing characters.

Molecular Taxonomy

The domination of AT bases in all the positions exhibited the nature of this COI gene, which is usually

AT rich (Norman and Gray, 1997; Ziaie and Suyama, 1987), compared to the entire mitochondrial genome

(Burger et al 2000). Similar findings were observed in previous studies on the COI gene of ascidians (Jaffar Ali

and Shabeer Ahmed, 2016; Shabeer Ahmed and Jaffar Ali, 2019). Homology searches results with the GenBank

sequences, using nucleotide BLAST confirmed the identity of the study species. The 2% divergence between

the E. viride species indicates the sequences (JX871396, KJ710709 and MH667477) may be the haplogroups of

E. viride (KJ944392, KJ944393, MH669162, MH667475 and MH667476). Amino acid sequences of Eudistoma

sp COI gene region comprised of 4, 5 and 5 transmembrane helices of E. microlarvum, E. ovatum and E. viride

respectively, which were connected with internal and external loops. Hydropathy plots of the COI gene

sequences of these species were in accordance with the topographical model of COI protein (Saraste, 1990) and

as well with the hydropathy plot of 2 colonial ascidians Polyclinum indicum and Didemnum candidum (Shabeer

Ahmed and Jaffar Ali, 2015). Genetic distance using K2P revealed close relatedness among the same species

and maximum divergence between the species of the same genera. This demonstrates that within species, the

DNA sequences are more similar than in different species (Zemlak et al 2009). Highest divergence in the 3rd

codon position signals the maximum genetic variation at this position than in the other two positions. Similar

results were observed in the COI gene sequence of some marine fish populations (Ward et al 2005 and Akbar et

al 2010). The genetic distance of E. microlarvum and E. ovatum in all the codon positions were same i.e. (0.00).

This indicates the low genetic variation of the species from the same geographical location. In the case of E.

viride, it can be explained from the intraspecific divergence values (2.4 and 2.6%) which are much deeper

within the species, but clearly below the divergence threshold value (3%). This indicates that the deeper

divergence within the species may be due to the existence of haplogroups within E. viride species. Since the

geographical location of the specimens was same, haplogroup may be the result of sympatric speciation. NJ tree

parted Eudistoma sp into 3 clusters thereby delineating it into species level. Branches within E. viride cluster

clearly explain the haplotypes within the species.

Fig.2: Hydropathy plot of 5’ COI region of E. microlarvum showing 4 transmembrane helices

17


Fig.3: Hydropathy plot of 5’ COI region of E. ovatum showing 5 transmembrane helices

Fig.4: Hydropathy plot of 5’ COI region of E. viride showing 5 transmembrane helices

18


Fig.5: Kimura 2 parameter distance neighbour joining tree of 13 COI gene sequences from members of

Eudistoma sp, with an out group Lissoclinum fragile

CONCLUSION

COI gene sequence clustered the study species into individual groups, thereby proving its efficiency in

delineating the Eudistoma sp into species level. Based on the present study it is concluded that COI gene is the

best barcode region, for the identification of widespread species in animal kingdom including ascidians. Based

on the far-reaching literature review, very meager work on ascidian DNA barcoding has been done with only a

few species barcoded. This study is the first of its kind to report the COI gene sequences of E. microlarvum, E.

ovatum and E. viride from the Indian coastal waters and deposit it in GenBank database and BOLD. Also the

first to provide both morphological and molecular level evidences to prove its identity in a precise manner.

REFERENCES

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(Bloch, 1970). Research Journal of Biological Sciences 2010; 5 (6): 414-419.

Buyck B. Taxonomists are endangered species in Europe. Nature 1999; 401(6751):321.

Burger G, Zhu Y, Littlejohn T, Greenwood S.J, Schnare M.N, Lang B.F, Gray M.W. Complete sequence of the

mitochondrial genome of Tetrahymena pyriformis and comparison with Paramecium aurelia

mitochondrial DNA. Journal of Molecular Biolog. 2000; 297: 365–380.

Drummond AJ, Ashton B, Buxton S, Cheung M, Cooper A, Heled J, Kearse M, Moir R, Stones-Havas S,

Sturrock S, Thierer T, Wilson A, Geneious v 5.6 2012 Available at http://www.geneious.com

Geller JB, Darling JA, Carlton JT. Genetic perspectives on marine biological invasions. Annual Review of

Marine Science, 2010; 2:367 -393.

Geller J, Meyer C., Parker M, Hawk H. Redesign of PCR primers for mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase

subunit I for marine invertebrates and application in all‐taxa biotic surveys. Molecular ecology resources

2013; 13(5):851-861.

Hofmann K, Stoffel W. TMbase-A database of membrane spanning proteins segments. Biol Chem Hoppe 1993-

Seyler [online].http://www.ch.embnet.org/software/TMPRED_form. html.

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Hall, T.A. BioEdit: a user-friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for Windows

95/98/NT. Nucl. Acids. Symp 1999; 41:95-98.

Hopkin GW, Freckleton RP. Decline in the numbers of amateur and professional taxonomists: implications for

conservation. Anim conserve 2002; 5:245 -249.

Hebert PDN, Cywinska A, Ball SL, deWaard JR. Biological identification through DNA barcodes. Proc Royal

soc London B 2003a; 270:313 – 321.

Hebert PDN, Ratnasingham S, deWaard JR. Barcoding animal life: cytochrome c oxidase subunit I divergences

among closely related species. Proc Royal soc London B (suppl) 2003b; 270:96 – 99.

Hajibabaei M, Singer GAC, Hebert PDN, Hickey DA. DNA Barcoding: how it complements taxonomy,

molecular phylogenetics and population genetics. Trends Genet 2007; 23:167 – 172.

Jaffar Ali H. A, Shabeer Ahmed N. DNA barcoding of two solitary ascidians, Herdmania momus Savigny,

1816 and Microcosmus squamiger Michaelsen, 1927 from Thoothukudi coast, India. Mitochondrial

DNA. A DNA Mapp Seq Anal 2016; 27(4):3005-7.

Kott P. The Australian Ascidiacea, part 2, Aplousobranchia (1). Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 1990;

29(1): 1–226.

Lambert G. Adventure of sea squirt sleuth: unraveling the identity of Didemnum vexillium, a global ascidian

invader. Aquatic Invasions 2009; 4(1):5 – 28.

Monniot F and Monniot C. Ascidians from tropical western Pacific. Zoosystema 2001; 23 (2): 201-383

Muirhead JR, Gray DK, Kelly DW, Ellis SM, Heath DD, MacIsaac HJ. Identifying the source of species

invasions: sampling intensity vs. genetic diversity. Molecular Ecology 2008; 17:1020 – 1035.

Norman J.E, Gray M.W. The cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 gene (cox1) from the dinoflagellate,

Crypthecodinium cohnii. Federation of European Biochemical Societies Letters 1997; 413:333–338.

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Polyclinum Indicum and Didemnum Candidum from Gulf of Mannar. International Journal of Science

and Humanities 2015; 1(1):217-224.

20




ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Productivity and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Parent Clone

(Hevea brasiliensis RRII 105) In Non-Traditional Rubber Growing

Region of Karnataka

Shahbaz Noori and S S Inamati

Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Sirsi, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT

Quantitative information about growth, biomass production and carbon sequestration by crops is a

fundamental knowledge that can be used to improve the crop yield per unit of cultivation area. The present

study was conducted to determine growth, productivity and carbon sequestration potential of Hevea brasiliensis

clone RRII 105 of different aged rubber plantation in Hilly zone of Karnataka. Two ecological regions in hilly

zone were considered based on annual rainfall distribution and temperature variation viz., Mundgod (798 mm)

and Sagara (1918 mm). Seasonal diameter increments during monsoon (June-September) and winter (October-

December) was higher and declined subsequently in summer (January-March) in all age gradation. The

productivity, biomass production and carbon sequestration were observed to be double in plantation of different

age group situated in high rainfall zone (Sagara) than low rainfall zone (Mundgod).

Keywords: Biomass, growth, carbon sequestration, site factor, non-traditional belt.

INTRODUCTION

It is vital to reduce our emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) as it is reported to

be one of major greenhouse gas causing global warming. Therefore, following environmentally sound

procedures and ensuring sustainability are major concerns for economic enterprise. At the same time, the

demand for material produced by industrial plantation continues to increase. Instead of monoculture plantation,

it is necessary to adopt modern agroforestry approaches using improved varieties/clones in combination with

suitable forest tree species in the era of climate change. This improvement relies on having accurate quantitative

information about crop biomass and carbon sequestration by various crops/trees. However, there is little

information about biomass or carbon sequestration potential of species like Rubber in contrasting climatic

situations.

Hevea brasiliensis, the primary source of natural rubber in the world, is a fast-growing and high

biomass producing perennial tree and on average it attains 50 cm girth in the first 7 years. Rubber trees can

stock large amounts of carbon in their standing biomass and rubber wood is used for making diverse long-term

products such as toys, light weight furniture and packaging material constituting an additional fixed carbon sink

(Anon, 2016). Carbon sequestration potential of world’s rubber plantation is to the tune of 0.0782 PG C/yr and

it reduces 2 per cent of the current rate of rising atmospheric CO2 (Jacob, 2003).

The requirement of basic data on tree growth, biomass production and carbon partitioning information

usually important for rubber growers and breeders. The information generated on biomass potential and carbon

sequestration of rubber could be useful for rubber growers for carbon credit projects. Hence, the study was

21

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

April May June July August September October November December January February MarchMonths

Rai

nfal

l (m

m)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Tem

pera

ture

(0 C

)

Rainfall Mundgod zone Rainfall Sagara Zone Temp Mundgod zone Temp Sagara Zone

Fig. 2: Rainfall and temperature during 2016-2017 in two ecological zones

Productivity and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Parent Clone (Hevea brasiliensis RRII 105) In Non-

Traditional Rubber Growing Region of Karnataka

undertaken to estimate the biomass and carbon sequestration potential of rubber plantation grown in low and

high rainfall conditions.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The present study was conducted in the established plantation of Hevea brasiliensis clone RRII 105 in

Mundgod (14º 12′ 390′′ N Latitude and 75º 11′ 580′′ E Longitude) of Uttara Kannada district and Sagara (14º

13′ 355′′ N Latitude and 75º 11′ 635′′ E Longitude) of Shivammoga district. The site was considered based on

rainfall pattern viz., low rainfall (Mundgod) and high rainfall (Sagara) and the average annual rainfall was 798

mm and 1915 mm, respectively during the study period (2016-17). In this study, plantation of 4 years

(immature), 7 years (Juvenile) and 10 years (early mature) with uniform spacing of 3.5 x 4.2 m were considered

in both the sites (Choudhary et al., 2016). Due care was taken to choose sub plot under similar situation of

respective main plots.

The enumeration of rubber stands was carried out in randomly selected plantations. Four quadrates of

size 20 × 20 m were laid out randomly in each plantation to measure diameter at breast height, total height and

form factor for estimation of biomass production. The carbon stock and sequestration were calculated by using

Shorrock’s regression model: W = 0.002604 G2.7826 (Dey et al., 1996) where G is the trunk girth at 1.37 m from

ground level. 15-20 per cent of the shoot biomass was taken as root biomass and with 42 per cent of carbon in

rubber wood as per Ambily et al., 2012. The data were subjected to statistical analysis by ANOVA (analysis of

variance) using DMRT (Duncan’s Multiple Range Test) to ascertain significance of various growth parameters

using SPSS version 22 at five per cent significance level (p = 0.05).


A comparison made with similar age plantation across two different ecological zones exhibited

statistically significant difference with respect to all the growth attributes, productivity and carbon sequestration

potential. Though the rainfall is rather high in Sagara (1915 mm with 132 rainy days) its distribution is highly

skewed with rains mostly concentrated during months from June to September. North east monsoon showers are

limited and summers were relatively dry. Temperature and relative humidity were also high but adequate to this

region. On the contrary, Mundgod region received an annual rainfall of 798 mm with low number of rainy days.

The distribution of rainfall is far from satisfactory which results in long dry spells extending from November to

March, due to which region experiences severe seasonal drought (Fig. 1). The minimum rainfall required for

rubber cultivation is 1500 mm but the preferred average is 2500-4000 mm with a total of 100-150 rainy days

per year (Krishnan, 2015).

Fig1: Meteorological data of Sagara and Mundgod zone recorded during study period (2016-17)

22


Influence of age and site on growth attributes

Tree height and diameter varies between plantations of a particular age and is strongly influenced by

site factors. In Sagara region, tree height and diameter showed statistically higher growth varying from 5.52 m

at 4 year to 12.08 m at 10 year and 10.66 cm at 4 year to 18.47 cm at 10 year, respectively. Whereas, tree

height and diameter in Mundgod region showed variation from 4.26 m at 4 year to 8.92 m at age of 10 year and

8.67 cm at 4 year to 12.13 cm at 10 year. These variations recorded between ecological zones may be due to

difference in climatic and edaphic factors prevailing in respective location (Table 1).

Table 1: Influence of site and age on mean tree height and DBH of rubber plantation

Main plot

(M)/ Sub

plot (S)

Mean tree height (m) Mean DBH (cm)

4 YAP 7 YAP 10 YAP Mean 4 YAP 7 YAP 10 YAP Mean

M1 -

Mundgod

4.26cB 7.23bB 8.92aB 6.80B 8.67cB 12.13bB 16.10aB 12.30B

M2 - Sagara 5.52cA 9.18bA 12.08aA 8.92A 10.66cA 14.72bA 18.47aA 14.61A

Mean 4.89c 8.20b 10.50a 9.66c 13.42b 17.28a

F (M) 5375.36* P (M) <0.05 F (M) 13955.31* P (M) <0.05

F (S) 12672.74* P (S) <0.05 F (S) 50386.06* P (S) <0.05

F (M x

S)

372.76* P (M x

S)

<0.05 F (M x S) 78.45* P (M x S) <0.05

*Significant at 5 per cent level

Means having same letter as superscript indicates homogenous (on par)

YAP – Years after planting

Fig. 2: Mean seasonal diameter increment (cm) of rubber plantation in immature phase (4 year)

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

Summer Monsoon Winter

0.32

1.03

0.64

0.26

0.82

0.4

Sea

son

al

incr

emen

t (c

m)

Sagara Mundgod

23



Seasonal growth pattern

Good girth is an important attribute for sustained yield and girth increment is widely used in Hevea

cultivation as a parameter of growth, particularly during the immaturity period (Shorrock et al., 1965). Hevea

clone, RRII 105 showed a very limited difference in seasonal diameter increment between two ecological zones.

Seasonal diameter increments during monsoon (June-September) and winter (October-December) was higher

and declined subsequently in summer (January-March) in all age gradation.

Monsoon coupled with lifesaving irrigation in immature phase (4 year) during monsoon recorded

highest seasonal diameter increment of (1.03 cm), (0.82 cm) in Sagara and Mundgod region respectively.

While, in juvenile phase (7 year) and early mature phase (10 year), reduction in seasonal diameter increment

was observed which may be due to inappropriate practice of tapping observed in sixth year in non-traditional

belt of Karnataka (Fig 2).

However, between two ecological zones, Sagara recorded highest annual diameter increment in age

gradation of 4 year (1.99 cm), 7 year (1.49 cm) and 10 year (1.15 cm) which may be due to adequate monsoon

showers, lesser temperature variations, optimum relative humidity and compound interest effect of the previous

growth. While, Mundgod recorded comparatively lower annual diameter increment in age gradation of 4 years

(1.48 cm), 7 year (1.06 cm) and 10 year (0.8 cm) which may be due to low rainfall and high-temperature

variation prevailing in Mundgod (Fig. 3 and 4). This trend was in agreement with the reported literature by

Krishnan (2015), Chandrashekhar (2003) in Hevea brasiliensis.

Fig. 3: Mean seasonal diameter increment (cm) of rubber plantation in juvenile phase (7 year)

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9


0.27

0.82

0.4

0.13

0.62

0.31

Sea

son

al

in

crem

ent

(cm

)

Sagara Mundgod

24


Fig 4: Mean seasonal diameter increment (cm) of rubber plantation in early mature phase (10 year)

Influence of age and site factor on volume production and productivity

Hevea brasiliensis plantation of Sagara zone recorded a mean volume production of 65.04 m3 ha-1

whereas Mundgod zone recorded 35.63 m3 ha-1of mean volume production. Higher volume production was

observed in Sagara zone for 10 year (119.05 m3 ha-1) followed by 7 (57.65 m3 ha-1) and 4 year (18.44 m3 ha-1)

plantation in comparison with Mundgod zone at age 10 year (66.7 m3 ha-1), 7 year (30.82 m3 ha-1) and 4 year

(9.39 m3 ha-1) of plantation (Table 2).The productivity of Hevea brasiliensis plantation in Sagara (7.23 m3 ha-

1yr-1) was almost double the productivity recorded in Mundgod zone (3.95 m3 ha-1yr-1). Higher productivity in

Sagara for age gradation of 10 years (10.82 m3 ha-1yr-1) followed by 7 (7.20 m3 ha-1yr-1) and 4 year plantation

(3.68 m3 ha-1yr-1) which may be attributed to maximum DBH, tree height, favourable climatic conditions and

lesser temperature variations. On the contrary, comparatively lower performance of Hevea brasiliensis

plantation in Mundgod could be attributed to climatic variation resulting in lower productivity (Table 2).

Table 2: Influence of site and age on mean volume production and productivity of rubber plantation

Main plot

(M)/ Sub plot

(S)

Mean volume production (m3 ha-1) Mean volume productivity (m3 ha-1yr-1)


M1 - Mundgod 9.39cB 30.82bB 66.7aB 35.63B 1.86cB 3.85bB 6.14aB 3.95B

M2 - Sagara 18.44cA 57.65bA 119.05aA 65.04A 3.68cA 7.20bA 10.82aA 7.23A

Mean 13.91c 44.23b 92.87a 2.77c 5.52b 8.48a

F (M) 14002.44* P (M) <0.05 F (M) 6459.77* P (M) <0.05

F (S) 34246.90* P (S) <0.05 F (S) 6498.80* P (S) <0.05

F (M x S) 2556.78* P (M x S) <0.05 F (M x

S)

408.98* P (M x S) <0.05


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7


0.17

0.63

0.35

0.1

0.45

0.25

Sea

son

al

incr

emen

t (c

m)

Sagara Mundgod

25



Influence of age and site factor on biomass production and carbon sequestration

The total amount of biomass produced and carbon sequestered differed significantly due to age and site

conditions. The mean total biomass was significantly higher in Sagara (97.99 t ha-1) in comparison with

Mundgod (62.51 t ha-1). Subsequently the total amount of carbon sequestered was also found to be double in

Sagara (41.15 t ha-1) in comparison with Mundgod (26.25 t ha-1).

Higher biomass productionof Hevea brasiliensis plantation was observed in Sagara zone for 10 years

(168.12 t ha-1), followed by 7 (89.40 t ha-1) and 4 years (36.46 t ha-1) plantation. On the contrary, lower

performance was recorded in Mundgod zone for 10 years (114.83 t ha-1), 7 (52.20 t ha-1) and 4 years (20.50 t ha-

1) plantation. The increasing trend of biomass in both the zones could be due to the accumulation of

photosynthates with increase in age of plantation whereas, Sagara recorded higher biomass production which

could be attributed to maximum DBH, higher rainfall and lesser temperature variations in comparison with

Mundgod which experienced low rainfall and unfavourable temperature variations (Table 3).

Table 3: Influence of age and site factor on total biomass and carbon sequestration of rubber plantation

Main plot

(M)/ Sub plot

(S)

Mean total biomass (t ha-1) Mean carbon sequestration (t ha-1)


M1 -

Mundgod

20.50cB 52.20bB 114.83aB 62.51 8.61cB 21.92bB 48.23aB 26.25B

M2 - Sagara 36.46cA 89.40bA 168.12aA 97.99 15.31cA 37.55bA 70.61aA 41.15A

Mean 28.48 70.80 141.47 11.96c 29.73b 59.42a

F (M) 7507.65* P (M) <0.05 F (M) 7507.66* P (M) <0.05

F (S) 25907.26* P (S) <0.05 F (S) 25907.27* P (S) <0.05

F (M x S) 697.22* P (M x S) <0.05 F (M x S) 697.22* P (M x S) <0.05


With carbon content as 42 per cent of total biomass in Hevea brasiliensis, plantation at Sagara could

sequester a net amount of 15.31 t ha-1, 37.55 t ha-1 and 70.61 t ha-1in 4, 7 and 10 years plantation respectively,

while in Mundgod it was observed that 4, 7 and 10 years rubber plantation could sequester 8.61 t ha-1, 21.92 t

ha-1and 48.23 t ha-1, respectively (Table 3). These variations could be due to better growth forms, higher

biomass accumulation and favorable climatic factors persisting in Sagara (high rainfall zone) than Mundgod

(low rainfall zone).

Similar results were also reported by Satheesh and Jacob (2011), Ambily et al. (2012), Krishnan (2015)

and Chaudhary et al. (2016) in Hevea brasiliensis plantations.

CONCLUSION

This study provides comprehensive estimation of carbon sequestration potential of three different aged

rubber plantations growing in two contrasting ecological conditions. Rubber plantation has grown in high

rainfall zone (Sagara) achieved higher growth, biomass and carbon sequestration potential than plantations

grown in low rainfall zone (Mundgod) confirming its great potential for carbon capture and storage, making it

possible to find option to strengthen the competitiveness and sustainability of growing rubber plantations in this

region.

26


REFERENCES

Ambily, K. K., Meenakumari, T., Jessy, M. D., Ulaganathan, A. and Nair, U. N. 2012. Carbon sequestration

potential of RRII 400 series clones of Hevea brasiliensis. Rub. Sci., 25 (2): 233-240.

Anonymous., 2016, Biology of Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber). Series of crop specific biology doc.,MoEF, New

Delhi, p. 1-2.

Chandrashekhar, T. R.; Gireesh, T.; Raj, S.; Mydin, K. K. and Mercykutyy, V. C. 2003. Girth growth of rubber

(Hevea brasiliensis) trees during the immature phase. J. Trop. For. Sci., 7(3): 399-415.

Dey, S. K., Chaudhuri, K. K., Vinod, J. P. and Sethuraj, M. R. 1996. Estimation of biomass in Hevea clones by

regression method: 2 relations of girth and biomass for mature trees. Ind. J. Nat. Rub. Res., 9 (1):

40-43.

Krishnan. B.; (2015). Growth assessment of popular clones of natural rubber under warm dry climatic

conditions of Chhattisgarh, Central India, J. Exper. Bio. Agric. Sci., 3 (2): 157- 161.

Jacob. J. 2003. Carbon sequestration potential of natural rubber plantation in: Proceedings of IRRDB

symposium on “Challenges for Natural rubber in globalization. Chiang Mai, Thailand. September 15-

17, 2003. pp. 68-74.

Satheesh, R. R. and Jocob, J. 2011. Impact of climate warming on natural rubber productivity in different agro

climatic regions of India. Nat. Rub. Res., 24 (1): 1-9.

Shorrock, V. M.; Templetons, J. K. and Lyer, G. C. 1965. Mineral nutrition, growth and nutrient cycle of Hevea

brasiliensis III. The relationship between girth and dry shoot weight. J. Rub. Res., 19: 85-92.

27




ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal

Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania angustifolia)

Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and 1Indu Arora

Department of Horticulture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India 1Department of Vegetable Science, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India

ABSTRACT

From three locations of Haryana, 104 isolates of rhizobacteria were obtained from rhizosphere and

rhizoplane of Ashwagandha plants. Of these 36 were from rhizosphere and 68 were from rhizoplane. Isolates

were screened for their growth-promoting activities in terms of biomass production. More plant biomass than

control was produced to a varying level on inoculation with these isolates. Only four isolates (HRP-7, RRP-8,

and RRP-26 & YRP-11) produced plant biomass more than 10 g /plant. Isolate YRP-11 (16.49 g/plant)

produced highest plant biomass on inoculation followed by RRP-26 (15.86 g/plant). Isolate HRP-7 produced

least plant biomass. Useful traits like nitrogen fixation and production of growth-promoting substances like

indole acetic acid were shown by the isolates selected on the basis of higher plant biomass production.

Inoculation with selected isolates increased plant biomass more in presence of farmyard manure than without

farmyard manure. The mixture of these isolates produced biomass at par with mixed biofertilizer formulation

containing Azotobacter and phosphorus solubilizing bacteria.

INTRODUCTION

Cultivation of Medicinal Plants is presumed to have immense potential for diversification of land use

pattern, more remuneration per unit area, increased employment opportunities, optimum utilization of waste

lands, ensuring health security, the attraction of entrepreneurs and upliftment of rural/ farming communities.

The fact that modern medicines contain about 25% drugs derived from such medicinal plants and its parts, make

their production more beneficial and economical both in developing and developed countries (Ahlawat, 2004).

Haryana has wide diversity of wild medicinal plants among the hilly tracts of Shivalik and also has many agro-

climatic zones with various micro- climatic conditions.Among the various medicinal plants, Ashwagandha is an

important medicinal plant whose roots have been employed in Indian traditional systems of medicine, Ayurveda

and Unani medicines. Its natural habitat is in Rajasthan, M.P., Haryana, Punjab, H.P, and western U.P and its

root production is approximately 2000 tones, but its annual requirement is about 7000 tones. Roots of

Ashwagandha contain several alkaloids and are used for curing chronic joint diseases, mental disorders and

gynecological problems like leucorrhea. Its roots can be dried and used as tonic for hiccup, cold, cough and

female disorders. It is also an ingredient of medical ailments prescribed for curing disability and sexual

weakness in males (Sangwan et al., 2004). Farmers are getting attracted to this crop as it requires less water,

animal does not eat it and grows well in poor soils. But little information is available on its nutrient

management and even use of biofertilizers has not been studied in a scientific manner. Only few sporadic

reports are available in few crops like Isabgol, Artemisia annura, Solanum nigrum, Curcuma (turmeric),

Asparagus, Ocimum, Andrographis and Aloe veraetc. in which biofertilizers like Azotobacter, Azospirillum,

vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM), Pseudomonas and Bacillus polmyxa were used.

28

Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania angustifolia)

The earlier reports suggested that the bacteria like Pseudomonas present in rhizosphere of medicinal

plants like Achyranthus, Eleacgnus and Hereclum in addition to production of phytohormones showed

antimicrobial activity (Kaur et al.,2005) and improved bioavailability of nutrients (Ratti et al., 2001 and Nuthan

et al.,2005). The rhizosphere microorganisms exert beneficial effect on plant growth as a result several activities

individually or as a combined effect. These activities include bioavailability of nutrients, production of

phytohormones and antimicrobial substances. Keeping in view the above effects of rhizosphere

microorganisms, present investigation was undertaken to Isolate and characterize rhizobacteria from

rhizosphere and rhizoplane of Ashwagandha (Withania angustifolia) and to evaluate selected efficient isolates

under pot conditions with farmyard manure.


Soil samples from the rhizosphere and rhizoplane of Ashwagandha (Withania angustifolia) were

collected from CCS, HAU, Hisar; Krishi Vigyan Kendra-Rampura, Rewari and Krishi Vigyan Kendra-Damla,

Yamuna Nagar. The representative soil of the field was collected from 5 different spots randomly upto 15 cm

depth, mixed well and a composite sample was used for determining pH, total nitrogen, total organic-carbon

and available phosphorus. The following steps were followed further to conduct the experiment.

A. Isolation of bacterial inoculants

For the isolation of rhizobacteria from rhizosphere and rhizoplane soil, serial dilution spread plate method

using Luria Bertani (LB) medium was used (Sambrook et al., 1989). The plates were incubated at 28±1ºC till

visible colonies appeared. Individual colonies of different bacterial isolates showing different morphological

features were picked up, purified by streaking on solidified LB agar plates. A further experiment was carried

out on Jensen’s nitrogen free media, Luria Bertani (LB) medium (Sambrook et al., 1989) and on Pikovskaya’s

media with tri-calcium phosphate.

A. Screening of rhizobacteria for plant growth-promoting activities under pot house conditions

To evaluate the plant growth-promoting activity of rhizobacteria from rhizosphere and rhizoplane in terms

of biomass production, a pot house experiment was conducted using sandy soil without addition of FYM or

chemical fertilizers. Seedlings of Ashwagandha were dipped in 2 days old culture broth for 15 minutes and

transplanted in earthen pots. Plants were harvested after growth period of 60 days and root and shoot dry weight

was determined.

a. Characterization of selected isolates

The isolates which showed higher biomass production were used for characterization in terms of possession

of useful traits like nitrogen-fixing ability in terms of nitrogenase activity, phosphate solubilizing activity by

growing them on solidified Pikovskaya’s agar medium plates containing tricalcium phosphate and production of

plant growth-promoting substances such as IAA in presence and absence of tryptophan. The efficient isolates

were then subjected to morphological and biochemical tests. .

b. Selection of best isolates on the bases of growth and biomass production of Ashwagandha under pot

house conditions with and without FYM

To study the effect of efficient isolates on growth and biomass production of Ashwagandha plant, second

experiment under pot house conditions was carried out with and without FYM. Seedlings of Ashwagandha were

dipped in 2 days old culture broth for 15 minutes and transplanted in earthen pots and with control. Plants were

harvested along with the roots after the growth period of 60 days and root and shoot dry weight was determined.

The experiment was carried out with the following treatments:

1. Control – NO FYM + No isolate

2. NO FYM + Isolate no. HRP-7

3. NO FYM + Isolate no. RRP-8

29

Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and Indu Arora

4. NO FYM + Isolate no. RRP-26

5. NO FYM + Isolate no. YRP-11

6. NO FYM + Isolates [HRP-7+RRP-8+RRP-26+YRP-11]

7. NO FYM + Biomix (Azotobacter + PSB)

8. FYM @5t/ha + No isolate

9. FYM @5t/ha + Isolate no. HRP-7

10. FYM @5t/ha + Isolate no. RRP-8

11. FYM @5t/ha + Isolate no. RRP-26

12. FYM @5t/ha + Isolate no. YRP-11

13. FYM @5t/ha + Isolates [HRP-7+RRP-8+RRP-26+YRP-11]

14. FYM@5 t/ha+ Biomix (Azotobacter + PSB)


Nine rhizosphere soil samples along with roots collected from three different places i.e. Hisar

(MAUUP, Deptt. of Plant Breeding CCS HAU, Hisar), Rewari (KVK, Rampura) and (KVK, Damla) Yamuna

Nagar of Haryana were analyzed for pH, percent organic carbon, total nitrogen and available phosphorus (Table

1).

Table 1: Chemical properties of soil samples collected from Ashwagandha growing areas of Haryana

Location Soil properties

Soil Texture pH Organic

Carbon (%)

Total

Nitrogen (%)

Available

P (kg/ha)

Hisar-1 Sandy loam 7.6 0.30 0.044 22

Hisar-2 Sandy loam 7.4 0.39 0.028 24

Hisar-3 Sandy loam 7.5 0.30 0.034 20

Mean 7.5 0.33 0.035 22

Rewari-1 Loamy sand 8.1 0.25 0.031 20



Mean 8.0 0.26 0.032 18

Yamunanagar-1 Silt loam 7.3 0.39 0.036 18



Mean 7.2 0.38 0.031 18

30


The soil types were sandy loam, loamy sand and silt loam for Hisar, Rewari and Yamuna Nagar soils

respectively. The pH of the soil ranged between 7.1 to 8.1. The organic carbon varied from 0.25-0.41%, highest

being in Yamuna Nagar soils (average 0.38%) while lowest organic carbon (0.26%) was found in Rewari soils.

The total nitrogen in soil samples varied from 0.027 to 0.044%, highest mean nitrogen being in Hisar (0.035%)

soils. There was no difference in mean nitrogen of Rewari and Yamuna Nagar soils. The available P in these

soils ranged between 16-24 kg/ha of soil. The phosphorus status of these soils was in the medium range.

1. Isolation of rhizobacteria from Ashwagandha rhizosphere and rhizoplane

Bacteria were isolated using the dilution plating technique from rhizosphere and rhizoplane samples

collected from Ashwagandha plant (Withania angustifolia) from Hisar, Rewari and Yamuna Nagar areas of

Haryana using half-strength LB agar medium. Total of 104 (36 from rhizosphere and 68 from rhizoplane)

isolates were picked up from the samples and were numbered as RRS for isolates from Rewari Rhizosphere

soil, RRP Rewari rhizoplane, YRS for Rhizosphere from Yamuna Nagar, YRP for Yamuna Nagar Rhizoplane,

HRP, and HRS for isolates from Rhizoplane and Rhizosphere of Hisar soil, respectively, as tabulated below in

Table 2:

Table 2: Bacterial Isolates obtained from rhizosphere and rhizoplane of Ashwagandha from Hisar,

Rewari and Yamuna Nagar

S.

No.

Isolates Sample from Location Number of

Isolates

1. HRS-1 HRS-2 HRS-3 HRS-4 HRS-5 HRS-6 HRS-7

HRS-8 HRS-9 HRS-10 HRS-11 HRS-12

Rhizosphere Hisar 12

2. HRP-1 HRP-2 HRP-3 HRP-4 HRP-5 HRP-6 HRP-7

HRP-8 HRP-9 HRP-10 HRP-11 HRP-12 HRP-13

HRP-14 HRP-15 HRP-16 HRP-17 HRP-18 HRP-19

HRP-20 HRP-21 HRP-22

Rhizoplane Hisar 22

3. RRS-1 RRS-2 RRS-3 RRS-4 RRS-5 RRS-6 RRS-7

RRS-8 RRS-9 RRS-10 RRS-11 RRS-12 RRS-13 RRS-

14 RRS-15

Rhizosphere Rewari 15

4. RRP-1 RRP-2 RRP-3 RRP-4 RRP-5 RRP-6 RRP-7

RRP-8 RRP-7 RRP-8 RRP-9 RRP-10 RRP-11 RRP-12

RRP-13 RRP-14 RRP-15 RRP-16 RRP-17 RRP-18



RRP-31 RRP-32 RRP-33

Rhizoplane Rewari 33

5. YRS-1 YRS-2 YRS-3 YRS-4 YRS-5 YRS-6 YRS-7

YRS-8 YRS-9

Rhizosphere Yamuna

Nagar

9

6. YRP-1 YRP-2 YRP-3 YRP-4 YRP-5 YRP-6 YRP-7

YRP-8 YRP-9 YRP-10 YRP-11 YRP-12 YRP-13

Rhizoplane Yamuna

Nagar

13

Total number of isolates 104

31


It was seen that number of rhizobacteria were present in rhizoplane at all three locations. Number of

rhizobacteria in rhizoplane area than rhizosphere area may be due to the presence of various carbohydrates and

organic acids, amino acids vitamins etc. present in root exudates (Arun et. al, 2012 and Eman et al., 2014).

II. Screening of bacterial isolates for plant growth promoting activities under pot house conditions

A. Screening of isolates from Hisar soils

The biomass (root+shoot) production of Ashwagandha plant with and without inoculation of

rhizosphere and rhizoplane bacterial isolates from Hisar soils are given in Tables 2 and 3. The root biomass

production varied between 0.76 g/plant (HRS-1) and 2.80 g/plant (HRS-6) while the shoot dry weight varied

between 2.14 g/plant to 6.17 g/plant by the rhizosphere isolates HRS-1 and HRS-6 respectively (Table 3).

Table 3: Screening of isolates from Hisar - rhizosphere soil of Ashwagandha for plant growth promoting

activities

Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant)

Root Shoot Total Root Shoot Total

Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 HRS-7 2.36 4.63 6.99

HRS-1 0.76 2.14 2.90 HRS-8 0.85 2.70 3.55

HRS-2 2.15 4.25 6.40 HRS-9 1.37 3.35 4.72

HRS-3 2.32 4.64 6.96 HRS-10 1.03 2.90 3.93

HRS-4 2.00 5.75 7.75 HRS-11 1.14 2.84 3.98

HRS-5 2.20 5.20 7.40 HRS-12 1.42 2.66 4.08

HRS-6 2.80 6.17 8.97

The minimum root and shoot biomass produced by rhizoplane bacterial isolates varied between 0.80

g/plant and 2.63 g/plant. Maximum root biomass was achieved due to inoculation of isolate HRP-7 which was

3.51 g/plant (root) and 8.64 g/plant (shoot). The bacterial isolate no. HRP-7 produced maximum plant biomass

(root + shoot) of 12.15 g/plant as compared to 2.58 g/plant in control (Table 4).

Table 4: Screening of Isolates from Hisar-rhizoplane of Ashwagandha for Plant growth promoting

activities



Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 HRP-12 0.98 2.93 3.91

HRP-1 1.78 3.42 5.20 HRP-13 0.80 2.63 3.43

HRP-2 2.65 4.20 6.85 HRP-14 0.90 2.78 3.68

HRP-3 2.25 4.73 6.98 HRP-15 0.88 2.83 3.71

32


HRP-4 2.43 6.40 8.83 HRP-16 1.95 5.15 7.10

HRP-5 2.84 4.22 7.06 HRP-17 0.98 2.95 3.93

HRP-6 2.51 4.34 6.85 HRP-18 0.81 2.83 3.64

HRP-7 3.51 8.64 12.15 HRP-19 0.82 2.96 3.82

HRP-8 2.17 4.66 7.13 HRP-20 2.03 4.80 6.83

HRP-9 0.90 2.75 3.65 HRP-21 0.97 2.32 3.29

HRP-10 1.06 3.11 4.17 HRP-22 1.76 3.40 5.16

HRP-11 0.93 2.88 3.81

The total biomass (root + shoot) due to the inoculation of rhizobacteria from rhizosphere of

Ashwagandha ranged between 2.90 g/plant (isolate HRS-1) and 8.97 g/plant with isolate HRS-6 (Table 4) while

in control it was only 2.50 g /plant. The dry weight of root and shoot biomass varied between 0.80 and 3.51

gram/plant produced by isolate no. HRP-13 and HRP-7 respectively. Likewise the highest and lowest shoot

biomass was produced by isolate HRP-7 and HRS-13 respectively.

B. Screening of isolates from Rewari soils

The effect of inoculation of various isolates obtained from Ashwagandha rhizosphere soil and

rhizoplane soil of Rewari on biomass production is given in Tables 5 and 6. A total of 48 isolates (15

rhizosphere + 33 rhizoplane) were screened. In control the root biomass and shoot biomass was 0.59 and 1.99

gram respectively. Maximum root biomass (2.35 g/plant) and shoot biomass (4.25 g/plant) was obtained when

isolate no. RRS-10 was inoculated from rhizosphere, and minimum root biomass, (0.80g), and shoot biomass

(2.11g/plant) was obtained when isolate RRS-1 was inoculated (Table 5).

Table 5: Screening of Isolates from Rewari-rhizosphere soil of Ashwagandha for plant growth promoting

activities

Isolate

No.

Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate

No.

Dry weight(g/plant)


Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 RRS-8 1.30 3.52 4.82

RRS-1 0.80 2.11 2.91 RRS-9 0.98 2.41 3.39

RRS-2 1.07 3.40 4.47 RRS-10 2.35 4.25 7.60

RRS-3 1.51 3.81 5.32 RRS-11 1.44 3.89 5.33

RRS-4 2.02 4.11 6.13 RRS-12 0.86 2.44 3.30

RRS-5 1.72 3.11 4.73 RRS-13 0.98 2.56 3.54

RRS-6 1.77 3.12 4.89 RRS-14 0.92 2.67 3.59

RRS-7 1.60 3.86 5.46 RRS-15 1.15 3.33 4.48

33


Among the isolates from rhizoplane of Ashwagandha from Rewari area the isolate RRP-26 produced

highest root biomass (3.86g/plant) and shoot biomass (12.00g/plant).Followed by isolate RRP-8 which produced

3.16g/plant root biomass and 10.23 g/plant shoot biomass (Table 6).

Table 6: Screening of Isolates from Rewari rhizoplane of Ashwagandha for Plant growth promoting

activities



Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 RRP-17 1.68 3.64 5.32

RRP-1 1.12 2.50 3.62 RRP-18 1.24 3.31 4.55

RRP-2 1.11 2.58 3.69 RRP-19 1.26 2.41 3.67

RRP-3 1.21 2.59 3.80 RRP-20 1.15 2.80 3.95

RRP-4 1.12 2.68 3.80 RRP-21 1.20 2.60 3.80

RRP-5 2.10 4.05 6.25 RRP-22 1.14 2.83 3.97

RRP-6 2.35 6.73 8.08 RRP-23 1.12 2.64 3.76

RRP-7 1.80 2.85 4.65 RRP-24 1.28 3.32 4.60

RRP-8 3.16 10.23 13.79 RRP-25 1.18 2.45 3.63

RRP-9 1.03 2.40 3.43 RRP-26 3.86 12.00 15.86

RRP-10 1.24 3.28 4.52 RRP-27 1.28 3.44 4.72

RRP-11 2.73 5.66 8.39 RRP-28 1.20 2.85 4.05

RRP-12 1.00 2.30 3.30 RRP-29 1.20 3.20 4.40

RRP-13 1.12 2.88 4.00 RRP-30 1.37 2.43 3.80

RRP-14 1.47 3.43 4.90 RRP-31 1.25 3.11 4.16

RRP-15 1.18 2.88 3.96 RRP-32 1.19 3.44 5.63

RRP-16 1.34 2.43 3.77 RRP-33 1.28 3.67 4.95

The total plant biomass of Ashwagandha as a result of the inoculation of rhizoplane isolates from

Rewari varied between 2.40g with isolates RRP-9 and 12.00 g with isolate RRP-26. The total plant biomass also

showed same trend. Therefore taking into consideration the total plant biomass the isolates RRP-26 and RRP-8

were selected for further investigation from the isolates from Rewari location.

C. Screening of isolates from Yamuna Nagar soils

A total number of 22 isolates, 9 from rhizosphere and 13 from the rhizoplane of Ashwagandha from

Yamuna Nagar were screened for production of plant biomass (Table 7 and 8). The root biomass production

varied between 0.80 to 2.83 g/plant in case of rhizosphere soil isolates while in rhizoplane isolates the root

biomass production varied from 2.20 g/plant to 5.35 g/plant. The total plant biomass ranged from 3.00g/plant

to 8.18 g/plant among rhizosphere isolates. Among the rhizosphere isolates highest root biomass (2.83 g/plant)

was obtained with isolate no YRS-1 while the lowest root biomass (0.80g/plant) was obtained with isolate

YRS-7 (Table 7).

34


Table 7: Screening of Isolates from Yamuna Nagar rhizosphere soil of Ashwagandha for plant growth

promoting activities

Isolate

No.

Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate

No.

Dry weight (g/plant)


Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 YRS-5 2.58 4.95 7.54

YRS-1 2.83 5.35 8.18 YRS-6 0.90 2.36 3.26

YRS-2 2.68 4.68 7.36 YRS-7 0.80 2.20 3.00

YRS-3 1.30 2.90 4.20 YRS-8 1.00 2.67 3.67

YRS-4 2.13 4.88 7.01 YRS-9 1.15 3.25 4.40

The highest root biomass (4.73g/plant) was obtained when isolate YRP-11 was inoculated while the

minimum (1.04g/plant) was obtained with isolate YRP-13. Among rhizoplane bacterial isolates, the isolate no

YRP-11 produced maximum dry weight (10.66g/plant), while minimum was produced by bacterial isolate no.

YRP-13 (Table 8).

Table 8: Screening of Isolates from Yamuna Nagar rhizoplane of Ashwagandha for plant growth

promoting activities

Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate

No.

Dry weight (g/plant)


Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 YRP-7 4.29 7.52 11.81

YRP-1 2.96 4.86 7.82 YRP-8 3.74 5.80 9.54

YRP-2 3.31 5.95 9.26 YRP-9 3.03 5.20 8.23

YRP-3 3.03 5.23 8.26 YRP-10 2.99 4.16 7.15

YRP-4 2.91 2.89 5.80 YRP-11 5.73 10.66 16.49

YRP-5 3.89 6.17 10.06 YRP-12 1.04 3.17 4.21

YRP-6 3.81 6.08 9.99 YRP-13 1.81 2.19 3.00

Based on plant biomass production by rhizoplane isolates, isolate no. YRP-11 produced maximum

plant biomass (15.49 g/plant), hence this isolate was selected for further studies. This pattern of more increase

in biomass due to the inoculation of rhizoplane isolates may be due to reason that carbohydrate, organic acids,

amino acids and hormones may be excreted from the roots, as well as synthesis of growth hormones by the

bacterial isolates.

35


II. Characterization of selected isolates for useful traits

All the 104 bacterial isolates obtained from Ashwagandha rhizosphere as well as rhizoplane were

screened for their plant growth promoting activity in terms of biomass production. Based on higher plant

biomass (root + shoot) at least one isolate each from one location i.e. Hisar, Rewari and Yamuna Nagar were

selected to examine the presence of various useful traits like nitrogen fixing ability (acetylene reduction

Table 9: Effect of efficient isolates on biomass production of Ashwagandha under pot house conditions

with and without FYM

Treatments

Dry weight (g/plant) % increase

due to FYM

FYM

No FYM FYM

(5 t / ha) Control 7.12 7.88 10.7

(Ro

ot+

Sho

ot)

To

tal D

ry W

t.(g

/pla

nt

No. of Samples

Rhizosphere Total Dry Wt.(g/plant) Production

Hisar

Rewari

Yamunanagar

Tota

l D

ry W

t.(g

/pla

nt)

No. of Samples

Rhizoplane: Total Dry Wt.(g/plant) Production

Hisar

Rewari

Yamunanagar

36


Isolate-HRP-7 8.03

(12.8)

9.30

(18.0)

15.8

Isolate-RRP-8 8.33

(17.0)

9.54

(21.1)

14.5

Isolate-RRP-26 8.56

(20.2)

9.80

(24.4)

14.5

Isolate-YRP-11 8.23

(15.6)

9.29

(17.9)

12.9

Mixture of Isolates

(HRP-7+ RRP-8+ RRP-26+ YRP-11)

8.82

(23.9)

10.20

(29.4)

15.6

Biomix (Azotobacter

Mac-27+MSX-9+ PSB)

8.95

(25.7)

10.30

(30.7)

15.1

CD at 5% FYM 0.304

CD at 5% Inoculation( I ) 0.568

CD at 5% Interaction(FYM x I) NS

Figures in parenthesis indicate % increase due to inoculation over respective uninoculated control

activity), phosphate solubilization and production of plant growth promoting substances like indole acetic acid.

The four efficient isolates selected for this study were (1) HRP-7, (2) RRP-8, (3) RRP-26 and (4) YRP-11

(Table 9). After examination of above traits, these isolates were examined for their effect on plant biomass

production with and without addition of organic matter (Farmyard manure @ 5 tons/ha.).The efficient bacterial

isolates which produced higher biomass atleast one bacterial isolate from each location i.e. Hisar, Rewari and

Yamuna Nagar was selected for determining effect on plant growth in terms of biomass production in the

absence and presence of farmyard manure @ 5 tons/ha under pot house conditions (Table 9). It was observed

that the biomass production was 7.12 g/plant without the addition of FYM while with addition of FYM it was

7.88 g/plant which is about 10.7% higher than without FYM. Among four bacterial isolates, isolate no. RRP-26

produced biomass of 8.56 g/plant which was higher by 20.2% than control, followed by bacterial isolate

no.RRP-8 which produced 8.33 g/ plant, 17.0% higher than the control. The bacterial isolate no. YRP-11 though

produced higher biomass (8.03 g) but the increase was least among all isolates (12.8%) over uninoculated

control. It was interesting to note that the combination of all the four bacterial isolates HRP-7+ RRP-8+ RRP-

26+ YRP-11, produced highest biomass 8.82 g/plant which was 23.8% higher than the uninoculated control.

The effect of biomix (Azotobacter strain Mac 27 + MSX-9 and phosphate solubilizing bacteria) produced

biomass of 8.95 g/plant (25.7%) higher than the uninoculated

The selected bacterial isolates were evaluated for growth and biomass production with farm yard

manure at 5 tonnes/ha. The mixture of all the four bacterial isolates was also used along with Biomix ( a

mixture of standard Azotobacter chroococcum a phosphate solubilizing bacteria) as check for comparison.

Increased plant biomass was seen when the bacterial isolates were inoculated singly or as mixture with and

without farm yard manure. The increase ranged between 12.8 – 23.9% without farm yard manure and 18.0 to

29.4% with FYM. The increase in biomass production with mixture of selected bacterial isolates was at par with

biomix. The treatments of inoculation of bacterial isolates and the use of farm yard manure gave significantly

higher biomass yields but the interaction of both was non-significant.

CONCLUSION

Numbers of isolates were obtained from rhizoplane (68) than rhizosphere (36) of Ashwagandha. A total

of 104 bacterial isolates obtained from rhizosphere and rhizoplane of Ashwagandha (Withania angustifolia)

37


increased plant biomass (root + shoot) on inoculation in sandy soil without FYM. It was observed that efficient

isolates which increased biomass belonged to rhizoplane. Characterization of the efficient isolates indicated that

bacteria possessed useful traits like nitrogen fixation, production of growth promoting substances like Indole Acetic

Acid. The mixture of efficient isolates increased more plant biomass when inoculated with farmyard manure

than without farmyard manure and individual isolates. By inoculating rhizobacteria the plant biomass of

Ashwagandha (Withania angustifolia) can be increased and similar studies may be conducted in other medicinal

plants as well as other crops in Horticulture and Agronomy for sustainable growth and development of plants

and organic crop production. It was also seen in several investigations that use of rhizobacteria or rhizosphere

microorganisms like Azotobacter, Pseudomonasetc along with organic manures, increased the germination,

plant growth and plant biomass. The growth attributing characters also improved by the use of microbial

inoculants and thus role of biofertilizers has immense potential for sustainable agricultural development.

REFERENCES

Ahlawat, V.P. 2004. Extension activities for the development of medicinal plants cultivation in Haryana-

Present status and future strategies. In “Proc. Natl. Seminar on Research and Developments in

Production, Protection, Quality, Processing and Marketing of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants” held on

27-29, Feb. 2004, at CCSHAU Hisar p 47.

Arun, B., Gopinath, B., Sharma, S. (2012). Plant growth promoting potential of bacteria isolate on N-free media

from rhizosphere of Cassia occidentalis. World Journal of Microbial Biotech., 28(9):2849-57.

Balakumbahan, R.; Sadasakthi, A.; Kumar, S. and Saravanan, A. 2005. Effects of inorganic and biofetilizers on

biomass and alkaloids yield of Keelanelli (Phyllanthus amarus). J. Medicinal and Aromatic Pl. Sc.,

27(3): 478-482.

Eman, A. Ahmed; Enas, A.Hassan; K.M.K. El Tobgy; Ramdhan, E.M. (2014). Evaluation of rhizobacteria of

some medicinal plants for plant growth promotion and biological control. Annals of Agriculture Science.

59 (2):273-280.

Gulati, S. P. 2004. Organic farming system for medicinal and aromatic plant production. In “Proc. Natl.

Seminar on Research and Developments in Production, Protection, Quality Processing and Marketing of

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants” held on 27-29, Feb. 2004, at CCSHAU Hisar p 11.

Kavitha, C. and Vadivel, E. 2006. Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on yield and yield attributing

characters of Mucunapruiens. J. Medicinal and Aromatic Pl. Sci. 28: 18-22.

Kaur, M.; Seema Devi and Ramesh Chand 2005. Characterization of Pseudomonas species isolated from the

rhizosphere of medicinal plants for plant growth promoting properties. In: Proc. Natl. Seminar on Role

of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha of Medicine” held on 4-5, March

2004 at CCSHAU Hisar p 127.

Kedia, S. and Kasera P. K. 2006. Effect of different nutritional treatments on growth performance and biomass

production in Phyllanthus fraternus (Euphorbiaceae).). J. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences. 28: 531-

534.

Ratti, N.; Kumar, S.; Verma, H. N. and Gautam, S.P. 2001. Improvement in bioavailability of Tricalcium

phosphate to Cymbopogonmartini var. motia by rhizobacteria, AMF and Azospirillum inoculation.

Microbiol. Res. 156: 145.

Sambrook, J.; Fritscgh, E.F. and Maniatis, T. 1989. Molecular cloning, A laboratory manual,Cold Spring

Harbor N.Y.

Nuthan, D.; Vasundhara, M., Kumaravelu, R. and Biradar, S. L. 2005. Cost benefit analysis in sweet worm

wood under organic cultivation. In “Proc. of Natl. Seminar on Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in

Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha of Medicine” held on 4-5, March 2005 at CCSHAU Hisar p 132.

Puttanna, K.; Rao, E.V.S. P. and Ganesh 2006. Effect of inorganic and organic sources of nutrients on yield and

nutrition of Centellaasiatica. J. Medicinal and Aromatic Pl. Sci. 28: p.527-530.

38




ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Survivality of Soil Bio-agents in Presence of Organic Amendment in

Arid Conditions of Rajasthan, India

Nitin Chawla, Vipen Kumar and R K Bagri

Rajasthan Agriculture Research Institute (SKN Agricultural University: Jobner), Durgapura,

Jaipur, India

ABSTRACT

The effect of three organic amendments viz., farm yard manure, vermicompost and mustard cake on

survival of bioagents . The population of four bioagents i.e. Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma viride,

Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis significantly higher in three amended soil as compared to un

amended control. The four respective bioagents were enumerated in selective media at monthly intervals up to

180 days of soil application of bio-agents. The recovery of this bio-agent was found at 30 days after application

as compared to 0 day i.e. immediate after soil application. The survival of the bioagent was relatively better in

mustard cake amended soil as compared to farm yard manure and vermicompost amended soils. The population

of T. viride was considerably less in unamended soil as compared to amended soils. The population of P.

fluorescens was considerably higher in amended soils as compared to control i.e. unamended soil. The

population of this bacterium in soil gradually decreased from 30 days of soil applications onwards up to 180

days. The survival of the bacterium was higher in mustard cake and vermicompost amended soil as compared to

soils amended with farm yard manure. Statistical analysis of data revealed that a perusal of the data given in

table 4 showed that mustard cake and vermicompost was slightly better for survival of B. subtilis in comparison

to farm yard manure. The survival of B. subtilis was relatively less in unamended control in comparison to

amended soils.

Keyword: Bioagents, Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma viride, pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus

subtilis organic amendment, survival, population


Effect of three organic amendments viz., farm yard manure, vermicompost and mustard the cake on the

survival of bioagents i.e. T. harzianum, T. viride, P. fluorescens and B. subtilis in soil under green house

conditions. For this purpose talc based formulations of bioagents were applied in organic amended soils. Bareja

and Lodha (2002) studied the survival of Trichoderma harzianum in different composts prepared from on-farm

wastes, farm yard manure and soil. Influence the population of microbial antagonists in presence of organic

amendment in soil reported by (Chattopadhaya, 1999; Bora, 2000).

Effect of organic amendments on survival of bioagents in soil

Effect of three organic amendments viz., farm yard manure, vermicompost and mustard cake

on the survival of four test bioagents i.e. T. harzianum, T. viride, P. fluorescens and B. subtilis under

green house condition. The earthen pots were filled with natural field soil and amended with farm

yard manure at 20 g kg-1 soil, vermicompost at 10 g kg-1 soil and mustard cake at 2 g kg-1 soil. Talc

based formulations of four respective bioagents were applied to amended soil at 2 g kg-1 soil. In case

39

Survivality of Soil Bio-agents in Presence of Organic Amendment in Arid Conditions of Rajasthan, India

of control the test bioagents were added separately to unamended soil. Each treatment was replic ated

thrice. The pots were irrigated regularly.

The population of four respective bioagents present in amended and unamended soils was enumerated

immediately after the application of bioagent and at monthly interval up to eight months of addition

to soil. The details of soil processing i.e. serial dilutions and media used for determining the

population dynamics of the individual bioagent are described below.

Enumeration of T. harzianum and T. viride from soil

The experiment was conducted at Rajasthan Agricultural Research Instiyute Durgapura Jaipur in year

2016-17. Soil samples were collected using cork borer from each pot, mixed thoroughly and air-dried in

shade for 48 hours. 10 g soil was added in 90 ml sterilized water in Erlenmeyer flask and shaked

gently for 4-5 minutes. Serial dilutions were made from stock soil suspension upto 107 add 0.2 ml soil

suspension of suitable dilution (depending on stage of soil sampling) was added to the surface of

Trichoderma selective medium (Elad and Chet, 1983) and spread uniform with help of glass spreader.

The inoculated petridishes were incubated at 250C for 5 to 6 days and the T. harzianum and T. viride

colonies developed were counted. Techniques for mass multiplication of Trichoderma spp. was

reported (Kousalyagangadharan and Jeyarajan, 1988; Papavizas, 1985; Panicker and

Jeyarajan; 1993).

Enumeration Pseudomonas fluorescens from soil

As described above, soil samples were collected mixed thoroughly and air-dried in shade for

48 hours. Stock soil solution was prepared by taking 10 g soil in 90 ml sterile distilled in Erlenmeyer

flask and shaken gently for 2 to 4 minutes. Serial dilutions were prepared from the stock soil

suspension upto 1014. A 0.2 ml soil suspension of suitable dilution, depending on time of soil

sampling was added on surface of Pseudomonas agar fluorescence (PAF) media in Petri dishes and

spread uniformly with the help of glass spreader. The inoculated Petri-dishes were incubated at 270C

for 24 hours and the colonies appeared were counted.

Enumeration of Bacillus subtilis from soil

The method of collection of soil samples and preparation of serial dilutions was similar to that

of Pseudomonas fluorescens. Serial dilutions were prepared up to 1012 using the stock soil

suspension. In this case also a 0.2 ml suspension was transferred to surface of nutrient agar medium in

petridishes and spread uniformly with the help of glass spreader. The inoculated petridishes were

incubated 250C for 48 hours and the colonies appeared were counted.


Survival of bioagent in soil

The four respective bioagents were enumerated in selective media at monthly interval up to 180 days of

soil application of bioagents. The population of T. harzianum was significantly higher in soils amended with

farm yard manure, vermicompost or mustard cake. The recovery of this bioagent was higher at 30 days of

applications compared to 0 days i.e. immediate after soil application. The population of the bioagent started

reducing after 60 days of soil application i.e. mid-January. The population was gradually reduced during the

months of February, March, April and May i.e. up to 180 days of soil application in all the amended soils and

control. The survival of the bioagent was relatively better in mustard cake amended soil as compared to farm

yard manure and vermicompost amended soils. Whereas, survival of T. harzianum was relatively less as

compared to amended soils all through out the study i.e. up to 180 days of soil application. Saju 2002; reported

T. harzianum using organic matter enhances the farm production (Table 1).

40


Table 1: Effect of organic amendments on population of Trichoderma harzianum in soil (CFU g-1 soil)

under green house condition

Soil

amendments

Dose

(g kg-1

soil)

Days after application

0 Day

(x 106)

30 Day

(x 106)

60 Day

(x 105)

90 Day

(x 105)

120 Day

(x 104)

150 Day

(x 104)

180 Day

(x 103)

Farm yard

manure

20 18.25 24.25 28.75 25.00 12.25 10.00 22.50

Vermicompost 10 19.50 23.75 25.50 22.50 10.50 8.25 20.75

Mustard cake 2 20.75 24.75 33.75 29.50 13.25 11.50 24.00

Control

(without

organic

amendment)

-

19.00 17.25 15.00 11.50 5.75 3.25 4.75

S.Em ± 0.62 0.25 0.62 0.69 0.26 0.31 0.42

CD (P=0.05) NS 0.77 1.91 2.13 0.80 0.94 1.30

The population of T. viride was significantly higher in three amended soil as compared to unamended

control like T. harzianum, the population of T. viride in soil increased in all the three amended soils and also in

control at 30 days of applications. In the case of T. viride also, the population level started declining after 60

days of soil application. A gradual decrease in population of this bioagent was recorded up to 180 days of soil

application i.e. during mid May in amended as well as in unamended soils. This bioagent survives better in

mustard cake or vermicompost amended soils in comparison to farm yard manure amended soil. In this case,

also survival was considerably less in unamended control soil as compared to amended soils (Table 2).

Table 2: Effect of organic amendments on population of Trichoderma viride in soil (CFU g-1 soil) under

green house condition

Soil

amendments

Dose

(g kg-1

soil)


0 Day

(x 106)

30 Day

(x 106)

60 Day

(x 105)

90 Day

(x 105)

120 Day

(x 104)

150 Day

(x 104)

180

Day

(x

103)

Farm yard

manure

20 15.25 21.00 22.00 21.00 9.50 6.25 18.50

Vermicompost 10 20.00 28.25 35.75 27.25 13.00 10.75 22.50

41

Survivality of Soil Bio-agents in Presence of Organic Amendment in Arid Conditions of Rajasthan, India

Mustard cake 2 23.00 27.25 36.50 29.50 12.50 9.00 25.75

Control

(without

organic

amendment)

-

18.00 17.25 15.50 12.25 7.00 4.00 6.00

S.Em ± 1.81 0.30 0.59 0.55 0.20 0.44 0.38

CD

(P=0.05)

NS 0.92 1.82 1.69 0.63 1.37 1.16

The population of P. fluorescens was considerably higher in amended soils as compared to control i.e.

unamended soil. The population of this bacterium in the soil gradually decreased from 30 days of soil

applications onwards up to 180 days. The decreased in the population of this bacterium was faster after 90 days

i.e. March, April and May irrespective of type of amendment used. The survival of the bacterium was higher in

mustard cake and vermicompost amended soils comparison to soils amended with farm yard manure. Further,

the recovery of P. fluorescens was quite low in unamended soil as compared to amended soils Raj and Kapoor,

1996; Rajappan et al, 2002; Srivastava and Sinha, 1971 (Table 3).

Table 3: Effect of organic amendments on population of Pseudomonas fluorescens in soil (CFU g-1 soil)

under green house condition

Soil

amendments

Dose

(g kg-1

soil)


0 Day

(x 1014)

30 Day

(x 1012)

60 Day

(x

1011)

90 Day

(x 1011)

120

Day

(x 109)

150

Day

(x 107)

180

Day

(x

106)

Farm yard

manure

20 16.25 20.25 23.75 12.75 11.50 13.00 14.75

Vermicompost 10 20.75 26.00 28.00 14.25 13.25 15.25 17.50

Mustard cake 2 22.25 29.50 29.25 16.25 15.50 17.00 22.00

Control

(without organic

amendment)

-

18.00 16.00 15.00 13.00 8.00 5.25 6.00

S.Em ± 1.47 0.86 0.40 0.46 0.38 0.49 0.76

CD (P=0.05) NS 2.66 1.22 1.42 1.16 1.51 2.34

42


Table 4: Effect of organic amendments on population of Bacillus subtilis in soil (CFU g-1 soil) under

green house condition

Soil

amendments

Dose

(g kg-1

soil)


0 Day

(x 1012)

30 Day

(x 1012)

60 Day

(x 1011)

90 Day

(x 1011)

120 Day

(x 109)

150 Day

(x 107)

180 Day

(x 106)

Farm yard

manure

20 13.75 18.50 19.25 10.75 8.75 10.25 14.00

Vermicompost 10 14.25 19.00 20.75 11.25 9.50 8.75 12.75

Mustard cake 2 14.75 19.25 21.50 11.75 10.75 11.00 16.75

Control

(without

organic

amendments)

-

13.00 12.00 11.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 5.00

S.Em ± 0.79 0.19 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.18 0.34

CD

(P=0.05)

NS 0.59 0.70 0.67 0.70 0.55 1.04

43


The pattern of survival of B. subtilis in amended and unamended soils was similar to that of P.

fluorescens. In this case, also the population was enhanced at 30 days of soil applications and decline gradually

till 90 days i.e. mid-February. The magnitude of reduction of population was higher after 120 days i.e. mid-

March and continued to further decline till mid-May i.e. up to 180 days of bioagent application. A perusal of the

data given in table 4 showed that mustard cake and vermicompost was slightly better for survival of B. subtilis

in comparison to farm yard manure. The survival of B. subtilis was relatively less in unamended control in

comparison to amended soils.

CONCLUSION

The study conducted the use of four bioagents populations in presence of three amended soil showed

different results. The survivality of bioagents in arid conditions was relatively better in mustard cake amended

soil as compared to farm yard manure and vermi compost amended soil. The population of Tricoderma viride

was less in unamended soils. Pseudomonas fluorescens population was higher in amended soil and Bacillus

subtilis survived better in mustard cake and vermi compost amended soil as compared to farm yard manure.

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wilt severity and yield of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Indian J. Agri. Sci. 70 (6): 390-392.

Chattopadhyay, N., Kaiser, S.A.K.M. and Sengupta, P.K. 1999. Effect of organic amendment of soil on the

population of three soil-borne fungal pathogens of chickpea. Ann. Pl. Protec. Sci. 7 (2): 243-245.

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Phytoparasitica 11: 55-58

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44




ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated

Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and Yield of Gherkin and

Chrysanthemum

S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and 1N Susheelamma

Department of Agricultural Microbiology, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-65, Karnataka, India 1Centre of Rural Development, Jnanabharathi, Bangalore University, Bengaluru, India

ABSTRACT

The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effect of residual coconut water and spent

wash from desiccated coconut mills on epiphytic microflora and yield of gherkin and chrysanthemum. The

microorganisms, nutrients and growth hormones present in the residual coconut water and spent wash were

identified using standard tests. A pot experiment was carried with different concentrations such as 10, 15 and 20

per cent residual coconut water and spent wash. The phyllosphere and rhizosphere microorganisms were

significantly higher in 10 per cent spent wash so also various growth parameters. The concentrations showed

positive effect was further evaluated under field conditions. A combination of 20 per cent residual coconut

water and 5 per cent spent wash showed better plant growth and yield (11.24 t ha-1). A higher population of

beneficial rhizosphere microflora such as Azotobacter sp. (13.60 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil ), phosphate solubilizing

bacteria (9.40 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil) and Pseudomonas sp. (17.30 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil) at 90 days after sowing

in gherkin. In chrysanthemum, 10 per cent spent wash showed significantly higher plant growth ,flower yield

(10.40 t ha-1) and rhizosphere microflora at 120 days after planting viz., Azotobacter sp. (11.40 x 105 cfu g-1

of soil) , phosphate solubilizing bacteria (8.43 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil ) and Pseudomonas sp. (20.70 x 105 cfu g-1

of soil). Phyllosphere microorganisms were more in treatment with 5 per cent spent wash in both the crops. The

study revealed that the discharged residual coconut water and spent wash from desiccated coconut industry

contain nutrients and plant growth promoting substances. Hence, residual coconut water and spent wash

enhance the growth of plant associated microorganisms which in turn enhance the growth and yield of gherkin

and chrysanthemum.

Keywords: Residual coconut water, Phyllosphere, Rhizosphere, Gherkin, Chrysanthemum

INTRODUCTION

India consists of around 266 desiccated coconuts (DC) units, with an average capacity varying from

10,000 to 50,000 nuts per day. Karnataka consists of around 45-50 DC units mainly located in coconut growing

areas (Source: Coconut Development Board, 2010). The desiccated industries produce lot of waste water,

including 1500 to 2000 liters of coconut water, 7000 to 8000 liters of washed water and about 800 to 1000 liters

of pasteurized water during the processing which is let out as an effluent from desiccated coconut powder

producing industries having a capacity of 1000 kg per day (Industrial pollution control guidelines, 1993).

Gherkin and chrysanthemum are quick income generating, export-oriented and popular commercial

crops and are cultivated in poly house as well as in open field. Now a day’s locally available organic inputs like

coconut water and coconut milk are gaining popularity in cultivation of these crops that too in peri-urban Effect

45

of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and Yield

of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum

areas. Coconut water is traditionally used as a growth supplement in plant tissue culture and is the best medium

for microbial growth. The leaf associated microbes were stimulated by application of exogenous nutrients like

coconut water. The presence of carbohydrates, amino acids and organic acids in coconut water acts as nutrient

source for microorganisms and auxin content of coconut water stimulates the release of saccharides from the

plant cell wall and microbes utilized these compounds (Goldberg, 1980, Van der wal and Leveau, 2011). The

growth promoting substances in coconut water plays a major role in formation of root architecture and

photosynthetic activity of plants. Due to this effect, the plant produces sugars, amino acids and other organic

acids in the form of root exudates in the rhizosphere. These exudates favoured colonization of microorganisms

in the rhizosphere (Farhatullah et al., 2007).

Residual coconut milk and spent wash are the major source of organic load in the effluent discharged

from the desiccated coconut industries. This effluent disposal may lead to eutrophication of natural water bodies

affecting aquatic and terrestrial biological systems (Chanakyaet al., 2015). The effluent is a source of macro and

micronutrients, plant growth promoting substance that could be utilized for crop growth. Attempts have been

made to utilize residual coconut water and spent wash in crop production.


The mineral and hormone content of desiccated coconut water, their effect on growth, phyllosphere and

rhizosphere microflora of gherkin under glasshouse conditionstudy were published by Umesha and

Narayanaswamy, 2016 and 2017.The microorganisms present in the residual coconut milk and spent wash and

foliar spray of these effluents on growth, phyllosphere and rhizosphere microflora of chrysanthemum under

glasshouse condition are furnished in this paper.

Enumeration of microorganisms in residual coconut water and spent wash

The enumeration and isolation of microorganisms from residual coconut water and spent wash was

carried out by using serial dilution and plate count method (Bunt and Rovira, 1955).

Morphological and biochemical characterization of isolated microorganisms

The morphological characteristics such as colony morphology, elevation, opacity, cell shape, gram

reaction were described following the descriptions given by Pelezar (1957) and Schaad (1992).All biochemical

tests viz., catalase test, indole, methyl red, Voges Proskauer test, citrate utilization were carried out as per the

methods described by the Pelezar (1957) and laboratory guide for identification of bacteria (Schaad, 1992).

Details of pot experiment with chrysanthemum (Dendranthemaindicum) as test crop under glass house

condition

Pot culture experiment was conducted in the glass house at Department of Agricultural Microbiology,

UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru. Yellow gold variety of chrysanthemum (seedlings procured from the S. L. N. V.

Nursery Pvt. Ltd.) cultivar were used in the study. The crops were sown on 25th January, 2015.

The soil used for the pot experiment was sourced from forest of GKVK, Bengaluru, which was sandy

loam in texture. The soil was sieved and 2 kg of soil was filled into 3 kg capacity poly bags to raise

chrysanthemum seedlings. The bags were punched with 2 or 3 holes at the bottom to drain out excess water.

The recommended dose of well-decomposed FYM was applied and cured for one week. At the time of sowing

the fifty per cent of nitrogen, entire quantity phosphorus and potassium fertilizers were applied in the form of

urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash to the potting mixture and two seedlings of chrysanthemum

were transplanted per pot and soil moisture was maintained. The remaining fifty per cent of nitrogen was

applied in the form of urea at 20 days after transplanting. The poly bags were kept on cement platforms (Plate

1) in a randomized design under glass house and maintained up to 60 days.

Freshly collected residual coconut water and spent wash were sprayed at the vegetative stage of the

crops. Two sprays were given at 30 and 45 days after transplanting as per treatment requirements. The plant

46

S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and N Susheelamma

height, number of leaves, number of branches, enumeration of phyllosphere and rhizosphere microorganisms at

15, 30, 45, 60 days after sowing and dry weight of shoot and root were recorded after harvest of crops.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Isolation of microorganisms in residual coconut water and spent wash

In this experiment, microorganisms were isolated from residual coconut water and spent wash samples

(Table 1). The results indicated that spent wash recorded microbial population viz., bacteria (45.33 and 29.67x

105 cfu/ml), yeast (15.11and9.89 x 104 cfu/ml), actinobacteria (15.33 and 10.00 x 103 cfu/ml), free living N2

fixer (4.33and2.67x 105 cfu/ml), Pseudomonas sp. (9.67 and 3.33 x 105 cfu/ml), PSB (10.33 and 7.33 x 105

cfu/ml), coliforms (15.00 and 7.67 x 105 cfu/ml). This result explained that, the reaped nuts collected on the

ground or from coconut garden or some nuts were severely damaged during harvesting or transport, permitting

the seepage of coconut water, an ideal carrier of organisms (Nandana and Werellagama, 2001). The initial

contaminants must have been introduced during the washing of de-shelled coconut pieces. The water used in

washing, the utensils that came in contact with coconut milk, coconut shell, air and handlers are possible

sources of microorganisms (Priyanthi, 1997 and Appaiah et al. 2015).

Control (only water) 10 % Spent wash 20 % Residual coconut water

Plate 1: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on plant growth of chrysanthemum under glass

house condition

Bacteria Yeast Free living N2 fixer

47

Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and

Yield of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum

Pseudomonas sp. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria Coliforms

Plate 2: Microorganisms isolated from residual coconut water and spent wash

Table 1: Microbial population of residual coconut water and spent wash

Microorganisms Residual coconut water Spent wash

Bacteria (105 cfu / ml) 29.67 45.33

Yeast (104 cfu / ml) 9.89 15.11

Actinobacteria (103 cfu / ml) 10.00 15.33

Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria (105 cfu / ml) 2.67 4.33

Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (105 cfu / ml) 7.33 10.33

Pseudomonas sp. (105 cfu / ml) 3.33 9.67

Coliforms (105 cfu / ml) 7.67 15.00

Morphological and biochemical characteristics of isolated microflora of residual coconut water and spent

wash

The isolated microorganisms of residual coconut water and spent washwere examined and

characterized morphological as well as biochemical test (Table 2). Most of the isolated colonies were circular,

smooth, convex, whitish, opaque and rod shape. The majority of them showed catalase, indole test positive and

gram-negative reaction.

Table 2: Morphological and biochemical characteristics of microbial isolates of residual coconut water

and spent wash

Morphological

and

biochemical

Bacteria Free living N2

fixer Pseudomonassp

Phosphate solubilizing

bacteria Coliforms

Colony

morphology

Circular,

Glistening,

Cream

Circular,

Glistening,

Whitish mucoid

Circular, Smooth,

Creamy whitish

Circular,

Smooth,

Whitish

Circular,

Smooth,

Blackish

48


Elevation Convex Convex Raised Raised Flat

Opacity Translucent Translucent Opaque Opaque Opaque

Cell shape Coccus Coccus Rod Rod Rod

Gram staining + - - + -

Endospore - - - + -

Catalase + + + - +

Indole + + - - -

Methyl red + + - - +

Vogesproskauer - - - - -

Citrate test - + + - +

Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on growth parameters of Chrysanthemum under glass

house condition

The data on the plant height (cm), number of leaves, number of suckers per plantat harvest of

chrysanthemum as affected by the foliar application of residual coconut water and spent wash are presented in

Table 3 and 4, Plate 1.At 15 and 30 days after planting (before spraying), the plant height recorded 5.00 cm to

6.33 cm and 14.00 cm to 15.33 cm.The number of leaves ranged from 4.00 to 5.00 and 5.33 to 6.00,

respectively.At 45 DAP were significantly higher due to 10 per cent spent wash (26.60 cm, 13.67) as compared

to other treatments. Whereas, significantly lower growth parameters were observed at 10 per cent residual

coconut water (17.67 cm, 7.67 respectively). Whereas, at 60 DAP, application of 10 per cent spent wash

recorded maximum growth parameters (31.47 cm, 17.90and 5.60) as compared to other treatments. Whereas,

significantly lower plant height was observed at 10 per cent residual coconut water (22.00 cm, 9.50 and 1.32)

respectively. Increased plant height, number of leaves and suckers per plant due to the auxin, gibberellin and

cytokinin like activity of the coconut water and ability to supply amino acids, organic acids, vitamins, sugars

and minerals in available form (Kuraishi and Okumura (1961), Leetham (1982), George (1993), Gunawan

(1987), Hendaryono and Wijayani, (1994).

Table 3: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on plant height and number of leaves of

chrysanthemum under glass house condition

Treatments

Plant height (cm) No. of leaves

BS AS BS AS

15 DAP 30 DAP 45

DAP 60 DAP 15 DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP

60

DAP

T1 : Control

(water spray) 6.33 14.00 21.50 25.83 5.00 5.67 10.13

13.6

7

49



T2: 10 % -

Residual coconut

water

7.30 14.00 17.67 22.00 4.00 5.33 7.67 9.50

T3: 15 % -

Residual coconut

water

6.00 15.33 19.00 23.10 4.13 5.60 8.40 10.1

3

T4: 20 % -

Residual coconut

water

5.33 14.37 24.33 30.60 4.33 6.00 11.60 17.0

3

T5: 10 % - Spent

wash 5.00 14.00 26.60 31.47 4.00 5.80 13.67

17.9

0

T6: 15 % - Spent

wash 5.30 15.00 20.03 24.40 4.30 5.33 9.00

12.3

0

T7 : 20 % - Spent

wash 6.00 14.30 18.40 22.60 4.00 5.67 8.03 9.80

S. Em. ±

C. D. at 1 % NS NS

0.61

1.87

0.42

1.28 NS NS

0.28

0.85

0.30

0.93

Plant biomass

The data indicated significant differences in dry weight of shoot, root and total dry weight of

chrysanthemum due to foliar spray of residual coconut water and spent wash are presented in Table 4. The

maximum total dry weight of chrysanthemum was observed in treatment 10 per cent spent wash (29.83 g/ plant)

and minimum total dry weight (14.07 g/ plant) was recorded in 10 per cent residual coconut water.This might be

due to accumulation of more metabolites and availability of reserve food for the reproductive growth. Similar

results were also obtained by Dutta and Ramdas (1998) and Sharma et al. (1995) in chrysanthemum.

Table 4: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on suckers and dry weight (g) of


Treatments

No. of

suckers

At harvest

Dry weight (g)

Shoot Root Total

T1 : Control (water spray) 3.40 16.80 7.27 24.07

T2: 10 % - Residual coconut water 1.32 10.13 3.93 14.07



T5: 10 % - Spent wash 5.60 21.23 8.60 29.83

50


T6: 15 % - Spent wash 3.00 16.07 5.53 21.60

T7 : 20 % - Spent wash 1.60 12.83 4.13 16.96

S. Em. ±

C. D. at 1 %

0.24

0.74

0.58

1.78

0.29

0.93

0.66

2.00

Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on phyllosphere and rhizosphere microflora of


Phyllosphere microflora of chrysanthemum

The phyllosphere microorganisms of chrysanthemum were significantly influenced by the foliar

application of residual coconut water and spent wash at different intervals and the results are presented in Table

5.

Table 5: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on phyllosphere microflora of chrysanthemum

under glass house condition

Treatments

Bacteria Yeast Actinobacteria

104 cfu /cm2

BS AS BS AS BS AS

15

DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP

60

DAP

15

DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP

60

DAP

15

DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP 60 DAP

T1 : Control

(water

spray)

0.110 0.117 0.148 0.243 0.106 0.109 0.125 0.169 0.078 0.087 0.099 0.108

T2: 10 % -

Residual

coconut

water

0.099 0.113 0.306 0.467 0.071 0.106 0.292 0.350 0.064 0.083 0.131 0.160

T3: 15 % -

Residual

coconut

water

0.103 0.120 0.225 0.426 0.103 0.107 0.227 0.292 0.092 0.099 0.110 0.143

T4: 20 % -

Residual

coconut

water

0.099 0.125 0.198 0.376 0.085 0.101 0.200 0.244 0.078 0.092 0.101 0.120

T5: 10 % -

Spent wash 0.099 0.119 0.375 0.526 0.092 0.103 0.350 0.383 0.071 0.098 0.137 0.183

51



T6: 15 % -

Spent wash 0.114 0.114 0.262 0.461 0.106 0.119 0.268 0.303 0.064 0.092 0.116 0.151

T7 : 20 % -

Spent wash 0.107 0.124 0.202 0.387 0.099 0.112 0.214 0.272 0.085 0.094 0.106 0.139

S. Em. ±

C. D. at 1

%

NS NS 0.37

1.13

0.39

1.19 NS NS

0.36

1.11

0.37

1.10 NS NS

0.41

1.25

0.27

0.84

Bacteria

At 45 and 60 days after planting there was significant difference among the bacterial population. The

higher bacterial population was recorded with foliar application of 10 per cent spent wash (0.375and 0.526 x

104 cfu cm2). Lower bacterial population was recorded in control (water spray) (0.148and 0.243 x 104 cfu

cm2).

Yeast population

Significant difference among the treatments at 45 and 60 DAP were observed maximum yeast

population (0.350 and 0.383 x 104 cfu cm2 respectively) was found at 10 per cent spent wash as compared to

other treatments. Whereas, minimum yeast population was recorded in control (0.125 and 0.169 x 104 cfu cm2,

respectively)

Actinobacteria population

At 45 and 60 DAP there was significant difference among the treatments. The maximum actinobacteria

population was recorded at 10 per cent spent wash (0.137 and 0.183 x 104 cfu cm2, respectively) compared to

other treatments. Minimum was recorded in control (0.099 and 0.108 x 104 cfu cm2, respectively).

The increased phyllosphere microorganism was due to the exogenously applied coconut water solution.

This coconut water contained available essential nutrients viz., carbohydrates, amino acids vitamins and other

organic acids for their growth. The above results are in conformity with the findings of (Goldberg, 1980 and

Fry, 1989) who reported that the exogenous application of auxin stimulates the release of saccharides from the

plant cell wall and microbes utilized these compounds.

Rhizosphere microflora of chrysanthemum

The rhizosphere microflora of chrysanthemum was significantly influenced by the foliar application of

residual coconut water and spent wash at different intervals and the results are presented in Table 6.

Bacterial population

Higher bacterial population in rhizosphere at 45 and 60 DAP was recorded in treatment 10 per cent

spent wash (32.70 and 35.47 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil) and lower bacterial population (20.33 and 22.10 x 105 cfu g-

1 of soil) was recorded in 10 per cent residual coconut water.

Fungal population

Higher fungal population at 45 and 60 DAP was observed with 10 per cent spent wash (11.07 and 9.00

x 104 cfu g-1 of soil respectively) compared to other treatments. Whereas, the lower fungal population was

recorded in the treatment supplemented with 10 per cent residual coconut water (6.00 and 4.70 x 104 cfu g-1 of

soil, respectively).

52


Actinobacteria population

Significantly higher actinobacteria population at 45 and 60 DAP, was observed in treatment 10 per cent

spent wash which recorded significantly higher (9.50 and 12.00 x 103 cfu g-1 of soil respectively) compared to

other treatments. Whereas, lower actinobacteria population was recorded in treatment at 10 per cent residual

coconut water (3.70 and 5.70 x 103 cfu g-1 of soil, respectively).

Beneficial rhizosphere microflora of chrysanthemum

The beneficial rhizosphere microflora Azotobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Phosphate solubilizing

bacteria population of chrysanthemum was significantly influenced by the foliar application of residual coconut

water and spent wash at different intervals and the results are presented in Table 7.

Table 6: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on rhizosphere microorganisms of


Treatments

Bacteria

(105) cfu g-1 of soil

Fungi


Actinobacteria


BS AS BS AS BS AS

15

DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP

60

DAP

15

DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP

60

DAP

15

DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP

60

DAP

T1 :

Control

(water

spray)

14.33 18.53 27.00 30.67 3.40 4.33 7.40 9.33 2.70 4.03 7.00 8.07

T2: 10 % -

Residual

coconut

water

14.70 18.68 20.33 22.10 3.60 4.67 6.00 4.70 1.63 3.00 3.70 5.70

T3: 15 % -

Residual

coconut

water

15.60 19.35 22.40 25.50 4.70 5.40 6.73 5.60 2.40 3.80 4.33 6.33

T4: 20 % -

Residual

coconut

water

11.93 19.37 29.33 34.50 3.33 5.00 9.68 7.40 2.00 3.67 8.67 10.03

T5: 10 % -

Spent

wash

14.60 18.00 32.70 35.47 4.00 5.13 11.07 9.00 2.33 4.00 9.50 12.00

53



T6: 15 % -

Spent

wash

15.13 20.03 24.63 27.70 4.00 4.27 8.00 6.87 2.70 3.70 6.33 7.00

T7 : 20 % -

Spent

wash

13.00 19.13 21.83 24.03 3.64 4.70 6.30 5.53 3.00 3.43 4.00 6.17

S. Em. ±

C. D. at 1

%

NS NS 0.53

1.63

0.41

1.25 NS NS

0.22

0.67

0.69

2.11 NS NS

0.24

0.74

0.22

0.67

Table 7: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on beneficial microorganisms in rhizosphere

of chrysanthemum under glass house condition

Treatments

Azotobacter sp.


Phosphate solubilizing bacteria


Pseudomonas sp.


BS AS BS AS BS AS

15

DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP

60

DAP

15

DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP

60

DAP

15

DAP

30

DAP

45

DAP

60

DAP

T1 : Control

(water

spray)

2.00 2.70 8.00 10.13 1.40 2.00 4.03 8.50 4.00 5.00 10.3

2 11.70

T2: 10 %

Residual

coconut

water

2.33 3.33 5.00 7.67 2.00 2.70 3.13 5.00 4.13 6.03 7.03 8.07

T3: 15 %

Residual

coconut

water

2.70 4.00 5.67 8.33 1.70 2.33 3.73 6.03 4.00 6.13 7.70 9.03

T4: 20 %

Residual

coconut

water

2.03 3.00 9.03 11.50 1.60 2.67 5.00 10.10 3.67 5.67 11.4

0 14.03

T5: 10 % -

Spent wash 3.00 4.33 9.50 12.33 2.13 3.00 6.43 10.60 5.00 6.40

12.7

3 14.80

T6: 15 % -

Spent wash 2.68 4.00 7.00 9.00 2.00 3.13 3.90 7.00 4.30 6.60 8.67 10.60

54


T7 : 20 % -

Spent wash 3.00 4.30 5.13 8.03 2.33 2.70 3.50 5.80 3.33 5.13 7.43 8.50

S. Em. ±

C. D. at 1

%

NS NS 0.21

0.66

0.32

0.99 NS NS

0.17

0.54

0.22

0.67 NS NS

0.28

0.85

0.29

0.89

Azotobacter sp. population

Maximum Azotobacter population in rhizosphere at 45 and 60 DAP was recorded in the treatment of

10 per cent spent wash (9.50 and 12.33 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil respectively) as compared to other treatments.

Whereas, the lower Azotobacter population was recorded in 10 per cent residual coconut water (5.00 and 7.67 x

105 cfu g-1 of soil, respectively).

Pseudomonas sp. population

Higher Pseudomonas was recorded in rhizosphere at 45 and60 DAP at 10 per cent spent wash (12.73

and 14.80 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil) and least Pseudomonas in 10 per cent residual coconut water (7.03 and 8.07 x

105 cfu g-1 of soil).

Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) population

At 45 and 60DAP, the maximum phosphate solubilizing bacteria (6.43 and 10.60 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil)

was observed in the treatment of 10 per cent spent wash and minimum PSB population was recorded in 10 per

cent residual coconut water (3.13 and 5.00 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil).Increase in both general and beneficial

microflora in soil can be attributed to incorporation of organic manures which provided a conducive

environment for microbial proliferation due to increased organic C, mineral N and total N content of soils

(Dinesh et al., 2000). It was also suggested that within the highly active rhizosphere soil microbes are equipped

with necessary breakdown tools to compete with plant roots for free amino acids and other carbon sources (Ge,

et al., 2009).

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explant. Inter. J. Agricul. Biol., 1:181–182.

Fry, S. C., 1989, Cellulases, hemicelluloses and auxin stimulated growth, a possible relationship. Physiol. Plant,

75: 532-536.

Ge, T., Song, S., Roberts, P., Jones, D.L., Huang, D. and Twasaki, K., 2009, Amino acids as a nitrogen source

for tomato seedling. The use of dual labeled glycine to test for direct uptake by tomato seedling.Environ.

Exper. Bot., 66: 357-361.

George, E. F., 1993, The components of culture media inplant propagation by tissue culture part I. Exgenetics

Ltd., Edition. England, pp 316-320.

Goldberg, R., 1980, Cell wall polysaccharides activities and growth processes, a possible relationship.Physiol.

Plant. 50: 261-264.

Gunawan, L. W., 1987, Tissue culture technique. Plant tissue culture laboratory, Inter university centre

biotechnology.Bogor Institute of Agriculture, Bogor. Indonesia.

Hendaryono, D. P. S. and Wijayani, A., 1994, Tissue culture technique. Kanisius. Yogyakarta., Indonesia.

Industrial Pollution Control Guidelines - desiccated coconut industry, 1993, Published by Central

environmental authority, Parisara Mawatha, Colombo 10, Sri lanka, 1:16.

Kuraishi, S. and Okumura, F. S., 1961, A new green leaf growth stimulating factor phyllococosine, from

coconut milk. Nature, 189:148-149.

Leetham, D. S., 1982, A compound in coconut milk which actively promoted radish cotyledon expansion but

exhibited negligible activity in tissue culture bioassay for cytokinins was identified as the 6 oxypurine, 2-

(3-methyl but-2-enyamino)-purine-6-one. Plant Sci. Lett., 26: 241-249.

Nandana, H. V. A. and Werellagama, D. I. R. B, 2001, Wastewater treatment in desiccated coconut industry.

Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Forestry and Environment Symposium, Sri lanka, pp: 30.

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pp-315.

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coconut mill effluent. M. Sc. Thesis, University of Kelaniya, Srilanka.

Schaad, N. W., 1992, Laboratory Guide for identification of plant pathogenic bacteria Eds. N. W. Schad, The

American Psychopathological Society. Minneapolis, USA.

Sharma, H. G., Verma, V. J. and Tiwari, B. L., 1995, Effect of foliar application of some plant growth

regulators on growth and flowering of chrysanthemum var. carvin. Orissa J. Hort., 23 (1&2): 61-64.

Umesha, S. and B. Narayanaswamy, 2016 (a), Growth promoting substances and mineral elements in desiccated

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Umesha, S. and B. Narayanaswamy, 2017©, Pivotal role of Residual coconut water and spent wash on

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Van Der Wal, A. and Leveau, J. H., 2011, Modelling sugar diffusion across plant leaf cuticles, the effect of free

water on substrate availability to phyllosphere bacteria. Environ. Microbiol.,13: 792-797.

56




ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Forage Production and Quality of Berseem, Makkhan Grass and

Barley as Affected by Organic Inorganic Fertilization

Om Singh

Livestock Production Management, ICAR-IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly (U.P.), India

ABSTRACT

The present study was conducted to know the effect of organic and mineral fertilization on forage

crops, under the recycling of crop nutrients, animal and farm waste application in forage production. Berseem,

Makhan grass and barley are suitable fodder crops for the north part of the country. The field trial was

conducted during winter seasons of 2009 and 2010 at IVRI, Fodder Farm. In trial, three forage cultivars namely,

Berseem, Makkhan grass and barley were evaluated under two organic fertilizer treatments, vermi compost and

FYM and the control treatment (No fertilizer). Means of three cultivars demonstrated that the yield of Berseem

951.1 q/ha, was higher where as the direction of the variation among Makkhan grass (722.2q/ha) and Barley

(683.3 q/ha) cultivars was the same where, Barseem’s produced highest yield of DM and NDF contents. The

fertilizer levels caused highest variation in case yield and CP contents. Means revealed that application of

vermi-compost increased in a field (951.1 q/ha) fodder and accumulated the highest CP content amounting to

263.1 g kg-1. These results might be attributed to the correction of N deficiency and this improved soil

properties upon vermi-compost application. Increasing the N fertilizer levels from 60kg/ha to 120 kg/ha

increased fodder yield (810.1q/ha to 1095.2 q/ha) and C.P. (149.4g kg-1). The dry matter yield was also in the

similar trend. This trial was conducted under coloboratic Research project-Recycling of animal and farm waste

and application of their value-added products in sustainable crop production and animal husbandry. The results

indicate that application of vermicompost @10t/ha is suitable for recommendation of manures under organice

fodder production. These fodder crops were in sandy loam soils under irrigated conditions in Bareilly district of

western Uttar Pradesh, India. The author is PI of the sub project under which trial was conducted.

Keywords: Makkhan grass, fodder, berseem, barley, fertilisation

INTRODUCTION

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) is the most important forage legume crop in India. Despite the

fact that its yield and protein content are high, it is characterized by low dry matter content especially in the 1st

cut, in addition to its limited energy supply, attributed tot he low carbohydrate content. Therefore, there is a

pressing need to introduce some promising winter annual forage grasses, like barley and makkhan grass and

investigate their performance under the western Uttar Pradesh. This would enhance the northizdic animal

production systems by providing a high-quality feed at a low cost. As nitrogen nutrient is a key input. The

introduction of high-yielding genotypes would greatly increase the prospect of increasing yields, but this goal

will not be reached without appropriately managing the application. Besides, organic farming is receiving

increased attention nowadays (Kavita et al., 2018). Therefore, objective of this study was to investigate the yield

and quality of the three testedfodder crops under varying levels of organic well as nitrogen approach. Fodder

rich in qualitative and nutritive traits can only solve problem of malnutrition in animals. Most of the fodder

crops grown on marginal lands with monoculture are deficient in these traits. Considering country highest

livestock population in the world (20% of the world livestock population), net deficit of 63% green

57

Forage Production and Quality of Berseem, Makkhan Grass and Barley as Affected by Organic Inorganic

Fertilization

fodder, 24% dry crop residues and 64% feeds, (Kumar et al., 2012) and increasing population of livestock

coupled with poor quality fodder leading to low productivity. Fodder cereal crops have a high content of

digestible starch, water-soluble carbohydrates and fibre creating a high energy feed for livestock when

harvested at the recommended stage of crop (Nadeau et al., 2010). However, supplementations of protein feed

to high producing ruminants are required since the crude protein content of fodder cereal crops is relatively low.

Cereal + legume intercropping system may improve fodder quality and yield on a given land area by making

more efficient use of the available resources (Lithourgidis and Dordas, 2010). In intercropping system, cereal

crops provide structural support for fodder legumes, improve light interception whereas legume crops leads to

higher protein content which improved the quality of fodder. The availability of quality and nutritive fodder is a

limiting factor leading to decline in potential of dairy sector. In view, the present work was undertaken aiming

to improve fodder quality and nutritive values.


The experiment was conducted at ICAR-IVRI during 2009-10 to evaluate the above technical

programme. The soil experimental field was sandy clay loam. The experiment was laid out in randomized block

design with four replications. Field trials were conducted during the winter seasons of 2009 and 2010, at IVRI

Fodder Farm. Split plot design, with three replicates, was used for the two trials. In the 1st trial, three forage

crops, namely Berseem, Makkhan grass and barley were evaluated under two organic fertilizer treatments;

vermin-compost and FYM, and a control treatment (no fertilizer). In the 2nd trial, the same three fodder crop

were evaluated under three N fertilization levels 60, 90 and 120 kg ha-1). Main plots were assigned to test the

fertilizer applications, while, the fodder crops were tested in the subplots. Compost was produced in open

windrows and sourced mainly from animal manure (90%) and plant residues (10%). Whereas, vermi compost

was prepared from cow dung manure. Nitrogen was applied in the form of urea (46%). All the forage cultivars

were sown with the recommended seeding rate, amounting to 6 kg ha for both Berseem and Ryegrass, and 80

kg ha-1 for Barley. Plot size in both trials was 4 x 25 m. All plots were treated similarly. First cut was taken at

60 days after sowing. The plots were manually harvested to a 5 cm stubble height and the fresh hergage per plot

was weighed in the field. A representative sub-sample of approximately 116 g fresh matter per plot was dried to

determine the dry matter content.

The crops were grown Ryegrass, Barley and Berseem under testing of cultivars in the 1st and 2nd trials.

Among tested fertilizers applications in the Trial No. 1: Control, FYM and Vermi compost, Trial No. 2- 60, 90

and 120 kg/h Nitrogen were tested.


Analysis of variance for both trials revealed significant variation (P<0.001) among the three tested

monocultures for all the studied parameters. While, the fertilizer applications caused significant variations (P>

0.01) only in the yield, DM and CP contents, in the 1st trial, and the yield and CP content, in the 2nd trial.

Interaction between the two studied factors was non-significant in both trials.

Cultivar-related effects: Means of the three cultivars for all the tested parameters, presented in Table,

demonstrate that the direction of the variation among the three cultivars was the same in the case of two trials.

Where, Berseem monoculture produced the highest significant yield, DM contents in both experiments, with

values amounting to, 182.2 (ton ha-1), 176.2q/ha. Contrarily, the Berseem produced the highest significant CP in

both trials, with CP content amounting to 122.4 and 109.7, (g kg-1) for the 1st and 2nd trials, respectively. In

addition, Barley was significantly superior only in case of the carbohydrate content, with 263.1 and 269.4 (g kg-

1) for the 1st and 2nd trials, respectively.

Fertilization-related effects: The fertilizer levels caused significant variations only in case of yield and CP

contents in both trials and in case of DM content only in the 1st trial. Means presented in Table revealed that, in

58

Om Singh

the 1st trial, the application of vermi compost resulted in significantly increasing the yield upto 919 q/ha. In

addition, the same treatment accumulated the highest significant CP content, amounting to 149.78 g kg-1. These

results might be attributed to the correction of N deficiency and, thus, improved soil properties upon vermin

compost application. It was also reported that nitrogen concentration in plant tissues increased with vermin-

compst application. In the 2nd trial, increasing the N fertilizer level from 60 to 120 kg N ha-1, significantly

increased the fodder yield and CP content upto 11.02 ton ha-1 and 132.77 g CP kg-1. The higher crude protein at

higher nitrogen levels was mainly due to structural role of nitrogen in building up amino acids. The progressive

increase in crude protein contents with increasing nitrogen rates was documented.

Table: Forage yield (q/ha) and quality parameters (g/kg) among the tested cultivars in the 1st and 2nd

trials.

Treatments/Trials Yield DM CP Carbohydrate NDF

Trial 1 :

Ryegrass 722.1c 126.02c 169.29a 150.77c 433.24c

Barley 683.3b 149.55b 132.10b 263.15a 458.50b

Berseem 951.1a 176.25a 122.44c 241.33b 562.17a

L.S.D.0.05 1.77 6.30 5.69 17.98 20.35

Trial 2 :

Ryegrass 896.1b 121.09c 149.78a 168.93c 511.61c

Barley 810.3b 148.11b 122.13b 269.40a 499.91b

Berseem 1095.2a 182.20a 109.77c 229.78b 571.11a

L.S.D.0.05 1.89 5.48 3.97 19.85 18.05

Forage Yield, quality parameters (g/kg) among the tested cultivars in 1st trials

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

Yield DM CP Carbohydrate

Ryegrass

Barley

Berseem

59

Forage Production and Quality of Berseem, Makkhan Grass and Barley as Affected by Organic Inorganic

Fertilization

Forage Yield, quality parameters (g/kg) among the tested cultivars in 2nd trials

Rhizobium and PSB seed innocuation in berseem and azotobactor and PSB in barley and ryegrass crop

recorded higher over control treatment (Sardar et al., 2016). Highest in Oat green fodder (896.2 q/ha) was

recorded with the application of 10 t/ha Vermi-bio-manure. Maximum yield in green fodder Berseem (1095.2

q/ha) was obtainted with the application of 10t/ha vermi-bio manure (Sudhakar et al., 2002).

CONCLUSION

The obtained results indicated significant variations in the yield and tested quality parameters among

the three forage monocultures. Berseem was superior in the CP content, while the forage ryegrass and barley

produced highest yield, DM, carbohydrates and fiber fractions. Organic, as well as mineral fertilizer

applications exerted a significant influence on the yield, DM and CP contents. Highest values were achieved

with application of vermi-compost (1st trial) and highest nitrogen level (2nd trial). The results suggest that

mixing the berseem with the tested forage ryegrass and barley would improve the forage yield and quality of the

1st cut. It is recommended to investigate the yield and quality of different forage ryegrass and barley with

legume berseem mixtures under organic and mineral fertilizer applications.

REFERENCES

A.O.A.C, 1990. Official Methods of Analysis (15th Ed.). Association of Official Analytical Chemists,

Arlington, VA.

Kavita Bhadu, K.K. Agarwal and Rakesh Choudhary, 2018. Productivity and Profitability of Black Gram as

Influenced by Nutrient Management under Organic Farming: Progressive Agriculture, 18 (2): 252-255.

Kumar, S., R.K. Agarwal, A.K. Dixit, A.K. Rai, J.B. Singh and S.K. Rai, 2012. Forage Production Technology

for Arable Lands. Technology Bulletin 39: 255-260.

Kumawat, N., Sharma, O.P. and Kumar R., 2009. Effect of Organic Manures, PSB and Phosphorus Fertilization

on yield and Economics of Mungbean Vigna radiate (L.) Wilczek, Environment & Ecology, 27(1): 5-7.

Lithourgidis, A.S. and C.A. Dordas, 2010. Forage yield, growth rate and nitrogen uptake of wheat, barley and

rye-faba bean intercrops in three seeding ratios. Crop. Sci. 50 : 2148-2158.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Yield DM CP Carbohydrate

Ryegrass

Barley

Berseem

60

Om Singh

Nadeau, E., B.O. Rustas, A. Arnesson, and C. Swensson, 2010. Maize silage quality on Swedish dairy and beef

farms. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Forage Conservation, Brno, Czech Republic,

pp. 195-197.

Sardar, S., Kumar, Y., Shahi, U.P. Kumar, A., Dhyani, B. P., Yadav, A.K. and Singh, S.P., 2016. Effect of

integrated use of bio-fertilizers and vermi-compost on nutrient availability, uptake and performance of

urd bean (vigna mungo) in sandy loam soil. Plant Archives, 16(1) : 18-22.

Sudhakar, G, Christopher, L. A. Rangasamy, A., Subbian, P and Velayuthan, A., 2002. Effect of vermicompost

application on the soil properties, nutrient availability, uptake and yield of rice-A review, Agriculture

Review, 23(2): 127-1.

Van Soest, P.J., J.B. Robertson and B.A. Lewis, 1991. Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and

nonstartch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Diary Sci., 74 : 3583: 3597.

61




ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Agricultural Waste Management through Mushroom Cultivation

Nirmala Bhatt

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand), India

ABSTRACT

Secondary agricultural vocation like mushrooms are going to occupy a prominent place to fill the void of

quality food requirements with the ever increasing population and shrinking land. The demand for quality food

and novel products is increasing with the changes in life style and income. The present century is going to be

functional foods free from synthetic chemicals. Mushroom cultivation fits very well into this category and is

going to be an important vocation. Diversification in any farming system imparts sustainability. Mushrooms are

one such component that not only impart diversification but also help in addressing the problems of quality

food, health and environmental industrial, forestry and household wastes into nutritious foods (mushrooms).

India produces about 600 million tonnes of agricultural by-products, which can profitably be utilized for the

cultivation of mushrooms. Currently, we are using 0.04% of these residues for producing around 1.2 lakh tons

of mushrooms of which 85% is button mushroom. India contributes about 3% of the total world button

mushroom production. Even if we use 1% of the residues for mushroom production, we can produce 3.0 million

tons of mushrooms. Agricultural wastes are good source of the cultivation of mushrooms. Some of them are

most commonly used such as wheat straw, paddy straw, rice straw, rice bran, wheat bran, molasses, coffee

straw, banana leaves, tea leaves, cotton, saw dust, sugarcane bagasse etc.

The substrate Paddy straw and Wheat straw is almost similar in terms of yield. However, another

agricultural wastes such as Chicken manure, Wheat bran or Rice bran, different Cakes are used as a supplement

to meet the nutritional requirement of the Agaricus bisporus. The other agricultural wastes FYM, spent compost

and coir pith are utilized for the casing of A. bisporus beds which is precondition for fruiting of this mushroom.

Agricultural waste like Saw dust supplemented with Rice bran or Wheat bran are practiced as substrate for

growth of Lentinula edodes. The agricultural waste, Maize straw and Cobs, Soyabean straw, Banana leaves and

Pseudostem, paddy straw, Tea leaves etc. are utilized for growth of various species of Pleurotus. In the present

era to avoid hazardous environmental problems, the management of waste disposal has become necessity. The

inappropriate management of waste gives rise to many problems such as spread of infectious diseases,

development of new strains of disease-causing agents. Therefore, eco-friendly management of agriculture waste

produced brings to notice an immediate requirement to overcome the problem.

Keywords: Spent Mushroom Substrate, Mushroom Cultivation, Button Mushroom, Waste Management.

INTRODUCTION

The bioconversion of agricultural wastes into a value-added product is good mean of their use. The

property of edible mushroom fungi to convert complex organic compounds into simpler ones is used to

transform the useless agricultural waste into valuable products. Various edible mushroom species are cultivated

worldwide. Some of them are given below:

62


Mushrooms in world production (27 bn. Kg, 2012)

Mushroom species grow and yield on a spectrum of plant wastes. Chemically these plant wastes are

lignocelluloses, composed of various levels of lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses. In India mere food crops

alone, after the harvest and separation of edible portion lends to 1.15 billion tons of inedible wastes, which

obviously is renewable. Growing mushrooms on lignocellulosic wastes represent the most successful example

of solid-state fermentation, to generate and easier separation of valid and valued form of, biomass, represented

by the mushrooms. Such a biodegradation and biotransformation of lignocellulosic wastes serves to return

carbon to the atmosphere in its most natural form. In general, the growth substrate constitutes 10-35% of cost of

mushroom production. This includes physical, chemical and biological conditioning of the plant wastes to

render it suitable for the growth of a mushroom species in question. While preparing a substrate for mushroom

growth, competitors and contaminants assume another dimension of importance influencing the mushroom

yield. Chemistry of a growth substrate related to its pretreatments in turn to suit the elaboration of degrading

enzymes by a mushroom species, ultimately defines the duration for cropping and “Bioconversion Efficiency”

i.e., the yield output. The mushroom species thus could be lignicolous, humicolous or cellulocolous, and prefers

the growth substrate accordingly. India with her diverse geographic climatic conditions produces a range of

food corps, and wastes so generated, if utilized properly could render the mushroom technology to suit a range

of socio-economic conditions, with possible reduction in the cost of mushroom production.


For the cultivation of Pleurotus paddy straw, wheat straw and cotton straw substrates were used while

for Agaricus, it is wheat straw was usually used. A disadvantage of straw is that it should be prepared first, as

mushrooms are grown hygienically indoors. Straw is laden with other microbes, and it is necessary to get rid of

those tiny competitors, as there will be no scope of mushroom mycelium to grow in their presence. Ganoderma

was cultivated using sawdust. Sawdust itself is often not nutritious enough and need to be supplemented with a

nitrogen source such as bran, urea and sunflower seeds. Cultivation of oyster mushroom is of most concern as

its spores are allergic to some people, so related preventive measures should be done in working facility.

Besides this, oyster mushrooms have a short life span, so they are beneficial to those growers who can sell them

fresh in market.

Agaricus

30%

Pleurotus

27%

Others 15%

Flammulina

5%

Auricularia

6%

Lentinula

17%

63

Nirmala Bhatt

Various agricultural wastes for mushroom cultivation:

S. No. Agricultural wastes Mushrooms

1. Rice straw,wheat straw, Cotton straw, soybean straw, Banana leaves Pleurotus spp.

2. Wheat straw, Poultry Manure, Wheat bran, Cotton seed cake and Soybean

meal

Agaricus bisporus

3. Rice bran, Saw dust, Coffee pulp+ Rice bran Lentinula edodes

4. Paddy straw, Cotton wastes Volvallella spp.

5. Sawdust, Wheat straw, Rice bran and sun flower seeds Ganoderma spp.

6. Wheat straw, Paddy straw Calocybe spp.


For high yield of mushroom cultivation, it is necessary that the entire nutritional requirement should be

fulfilled in optimum concentration as various researches has reported low or high concentration. (Ahlawat et. al.

2004b). Banana stalk and Wheat and Paddy straw are used for the cultivation of Pleurotus sajor-caju with

biological efficiency of 74.4% and 74.12%, respectively but there is a low yield when they are supplemented

with other additives of high nitrogen concentration which lower its yield (Ahlawat and Vijay 2004). Growth of

Pleurotus ostreatus resulted similar in paddy straw and wheat straw while in sugarcane bagasse it resulted in

low yield. Reason behind this selective high yield must be appropriate concentration of Iignin, hemicelluloses,

cellulose in substrate. (Fahy and Wuest 1984).

Composition of various types of substrates

S. No. Substrate Composition

1. Wheat straw 1% protein

13% lignin

39% hemicelluloses

40% cellulose

2. Rice straw 41% cellulose

14% lignin

0.8% total nitrogen

0.25% P2 O5

0.3% K2O

6% SiO2

3. Sugarcane bagasse Cellulose 35-40%

Hemicellulose 20-25%

Lignin 18-24%

Ash1-4%

Waxes <1%

Nitrogen 0.7%

There is a Positive correction of cellulose: lignin with mycelia growth and high in Pleurotus ostratus

and carbon: Nitrogen ratio with mushroom yield in case of Pleurotus eryngii and Agaricus biosporus while in

many strains high yield is related to cellulose content.

Combination of Agricultural Substrates Used for Cultivation

In additions to the use of supplements with agricultural wastes as a substrate, various combinations of

agricultural wastes are also used for the cultivation and are reported to be an optimal substrate. Vegetable

wastes, when used in combination with paddy straw, resulted in a high yield of oyster mushroom. To cultivate

64


P. osreatus sawdust supplemented with rice bran is reported as an optimal substrate. The quality of P. eryngii

was significantly affected by substrate ingredients. On barley straw and sugar beet pulp substrate complemented

with rice bran, highest mushroom fresh weight and moisture content were achieved. For Pleurotus sajor-caju,

combination of soybean straw, wheat straw showed significantly highest yield while soybean straw and saw

dust combination showed significantly lesser yield.

Combination of substrates and their effects:

S.No. Substrate (in combination) Strain Effect

1. Barley straw+wheat bran and wood

chips+soybean powder+rice bran

treatments

Pleurotus eryngii 4.64 % protein content

2. Wheat straw+wheat bran+soybean

powder treatment

Pleurotus eryngii 13.66 % protein content

3. Soybean straw+wheat straw Pleurotus sajorcaju 87.3 % biological

efficiency

4. Soybean straw+saw dust Pleurotus sajorcaju 43.8 % biological

efficiency

5. Corncob (CC)+ sugarcane bagasse Pleurotus sajorcaju High content of protein,

ash and mineral (Ca, K,

Mg, Mn, and Zn)

Supplements Used With Agricultural Wastes

Agricultural wastes are used in addition to various supplements such as gypsum, lime and urea.

Gypsum contributes as a calcium source and regulates the acidity level. Water holding capacity of gypsum is

high which prevent excess wetting of the substrate. Lime is used to adjust pH. Mushroom cultivation needs

appropriate nitrogen content for high yield, which can be fulfilled by various components such as Poultry

Manure, urea, bran, sunflower seed or cake, soybean meal, cotton seed cake and molasses etc.

CONCLUSION

India, being a second major producer of vegetables in the world, estimated production of fruits and

vegetables in India at under license of creative commons attribution 3.0 license 150 million tons, the total waste

generation comes to about 50 million tons per annum. Due to their chemical composition fruits and vegetables

wastes are more prone to spoilage than cereals, which create unhygienic conditions leading to spread of diseases

and loss to resources. The vegetable wastes are a rich in nitrogen and carbohydrate but are on fit for

consumption. These wastes can be utilized for the production of various types of mushroom such as the oyster

mushroom species.

In recent times waste management is of most concern. Proper management and execution of waste

disposal practices have become today’s need. The inappropriate managements of waste give rise to many

problems such as rapid spread of infectious diseases, development of new varieties of diseases. The exponential

increase in the present amount of waste produced brings to notice an immediate requirement of solution to

overcome this problem.

An agricultural waste consists of lignin and cellulose, which are difficult to breakdown. They are

insoluble and bind to inert substances in soil and get out of reach of bacterial culture present in soil. While

mushroom’s mycelium releases extracellular enzymes, which are responsible for the lignin degradation.

Pleurotus and Lentinula have their own enzymes system based on endoglucanase, laccase and phenoxidasess.

A large amount of agricultural wastes and appropriate climatic conditions provide massive scope for oyster

mushroom cultivation.

65

Nirmala Bhatt

An agricultural waste provides the opportunity for cost-effective farming. Even after being used for

mushroom cultivation, it can be used later on as manure for agricultural field as now the nutrient contents are at

acceptable range. Cultivation of mushroom on these residual wastes is one of the most eco-friendly practices to

fight the malnutrition and environmental pollution caused by these wastes. (Dann 1996). Various researches are

still going on to exploit the potential of agricultural wastes either by using them in combination or by giving

them pretreatment. Rice bran, coffee pulps and saw dust are the main substrates used for the cultivation of

Lentinula edodes. Banana leaves, paddy straw and tea leaves are used for Volvallella, Calocybe and Pleurotus,

respectively.

REFERENCES

Ahlawat O.P. and Vijay B. (2004). Effect of casing material fermented with thermophilic fungi on yield of

Agaricus bisporus. Indian J. Microbiol 44(1): 31-35.

Ahlawat O.P., Sharma Vibuti, Indurani C. and Vijay B. (2004b). Physico-chemical changes in button

mushroom spent substrate recomposted by different methods. In: “Recent trends in Environmental

Science” from 24-26th April 2004 at National Environmental Science Academy, New Delhi.

Dann M.S. (1996). The many uses of spent mushroom substrate. Mushroom News. 44(8): 24-27.

Fahy H.K. and Wuest P.J. (1984). Best practices for environmental protection in the mushroom farm company.

Chested County Planning Commission. West Chester, PA, p65.

66




ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Determination of Physical and Frictional Properties of Carrot

(Daucus carota L.)

J S Ghatge, S A Mehetre and S B Patil

Dr. D. Y. Patil College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Talsande, Maharastra, India

ABSTRACT

Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is one of the most important vegetable crops grown in the various states of

India mostly in Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam and Rajasthan for

local consumption as well as for export purpose. The total area under carrot in India during 2015-16 was 71

thousand hectares, and the production was 1136 thousand metric tons.

The physical properties of carrot i.e. weight, diameter, length and volume were studied. Average weight,

diameter, length and volume of carrot were observed as 102.08 g, 39.56 mm, 118.6 mm and 69.8 cm3

respectively. The frictional properties i.e. rolling angle, static coefficient of friction and dynamic coefficient of

friction of carrot were also studied. The rooling angle of carrot was found as 10.2 degree. The static coefficient

of friction of carrot on MS sheet and galvanized sheet was observed as 0.56 and 0.69 respectively. The dynamic

coefficient of friction of carrot on MS sheet and galvanized sheet was observed as 0.48 and 0.62 respectively.

Keywords: Physical Properties, Frictional Properties, Engineering Properties, Carrot, Rolling angle, Static

coefficient of friction, dynamic coefficient of friction.

INTRODUCTION

Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is one of the most important vegetable crops grown various states in India and

abroad. It is grown in India for local consumption as well as for export purpose. Carrot belongs to the class of

foods that provide energy in the human diet in the form of carbohydrates. Carrot is mainly starchy and has less

protein content. However, considering the large quantity of carrot consumed per day, their protein contribution

becomes significant. In addition, carrot contains an appreciable amount of vitamins and minerals. Carrot has a

competitive production advantage in terms of energy yield per hectare over cereals produced in difficult

ecological conditions. Carrot grows underneath the soil where they are able to absorb high amount of minerals

and other nutrients from the soil. They are also able to absorb important nutrients from the sun through their

leaves.

Carrot matures in about two months, although some gardeners find them more succulent when they are

pulled earlier than this. A tiny head or crown of orange colour will appear at the soil line when the carrots are

maturing. The diameter of the carrot is a good indication of its maturity level. The late summer crop can be

harvested in winter if mulched, a light frost is said to sweeten the carrot's flavour. The darkest and greenest tops

indicate the largest carrots.

Carrots are a nutritious addition to the diet as they are one of the richest sources of beta carotene. They

are also important sources of Vitamin C, Vitamin K, dietary fiber and potassium. They also contain Vitamin B6,

niacin, folate, Vitamin E, enzyme-supporting manganese and molybdenum, and energy-providing Vitamin B1,

Vitamin B2 and phosphorus.

67

Determination of Physical and Frictional Properties of Carrot (Daucus carota L.)

Carrot is often used in juice therapy for the treatment of certain diseases. In fact, carrots were initially

grown as medicine for treating a variety of ailments. This vegetable can be eaten both in its raw and cooked

forms. It serves as a fat substitute when used as a thickener in soups, sauces, casseroles and quick breads. A

steaming bowl of carrot soup is a great way to boost nutrition in winter.

There are many health benefits to eating carrots. They not only improve physical well-being, but also

improve mental health. This is due to their high amounts of antioxidants which help to remove harmful free

radicals and toxins from the body.

In India, the carrot is grown across the country. Haryana is the leading producer, followed by Andhra

Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Assam. The total area under this crop in India during 2015-

16 was 71 thousand hectares, and the production was 1136 thousand metric tons. India exports carrot to UAE,

UK, Maldives, Bangladesh and other countries. The total volume of export during 2014-15 was 278.97 metric

tons which valued 6.43 million rupees.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The shortage of processing and preservative equipment’s for carrot, which may be due to the fact that

data on the engineering properties of carrot required for the design of these machines is insufficient or not

available in some cases. Also, most agricultural products are visco-elastic, therefore, the determination of the

engineering properties of biomaterials are difficult and complicated.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objective of this study is to determine the selected engineering properties of Carrot; (shape, size,

volume, weight, rolling angle, static coefficient of friction and Dynamic coefficient of friction).


Selection of material

To study engineering properties of carrot, “Pusa Kesar” variety (commonly grown) was procured from

a farmer. Random samples were drawn from freshly harvested carrots. Ten numbers of carrots were taken as

(measurement of physical and frictional properties) study samples. For this particular study, the following

physical and frictional characteristics were determined in laboratories.

1. Weight of carrot

The weight (g) of carrot after harvesting was measured with the help of an electronic weighing balance

with least count of 0.02 g as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Measurement of weight of carrot

68


2. Diameter of carrot Size

The size of carrot was determined using the projected area method. In this method, three characteristic

dimensions are defined: (Mohsenin, 1970).

1. Major diameter, which is the longest dimension of the maximum projected area;

2. Intermediate diameter, which is the minimum diameter of the maximum projected area or the maximum

diameter of the minimum projected area; and

3. Minor diameter, which is the shortest dimension of the minimum projected area. Length, width, and thickness

terms are commonly used that correspond to major, intermediate, and minor diameters, respectively.

4. The diameters of carrot after harvesting were measured by using Vernier Caliper with least count of 0.2 mm

as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Measurement of diameter of carrot

3. Volume of carrot

Volume is defined as the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by an object, usually expressed

in units that are the cubes of length, such as cubic inches and cubic centimeters, or in units of liquid measure,

such as gallons and liters. In the SI system, the unit of volume is m3 (Mohsenin, 1970). The Volume of carrot

after harvesting was measured by water displacement method, as shown in Figure 3 and 4. The length of carrot

was measured with the help of steel tape as shown in Figure 5.

4. Length of carrot The frictional properties of carrot were studied with platform set-up as shown in Figure 6. The

coefficient of friction includes the magnitude of frictional force and normal force. The frictional force between

the two objects is not constant, but increases until it reaches a maximum value. When the frictional force is at its

maximum, the object will either be moving or will be on verge of moving. There was two methods to

measurethe coefficient of friction viz. horizontal and inclined method. In horizontal method t he friction

between horizontal plane surface and box containing sample material was determined by the variation of

weights in hanger, where as in inclined method the moment of the box by lifting an inclined plane along with

the protector to obtain tangent angle of friction. The coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of force of

friction to the normal force. (Razavi and Farahmandfar, 2008).

Figure 3: Initial water level Figure 4: Final water level

69


Figure 5: Measurement of diameter of carrot

The coefficient of friction was measured against the galvanized and M.S. Sheet surface. Three

frictional properties viz. Rolling angle, Coefficient of static friction and Coefficient of dynamic friction by

horizontal plane method as per the procedure suggested in frictional properties manual by CIAE, Bhopal (2013)

was determined.

5. Rolling angle for carrot

To determine the rolling angle, a carrot was kept at the Centre of the corking surface. The platform was

inclined until carrot begins to roll. When the rolling of carrot was started, the position of platform was noted by

protractor; for the next test, the platform was brought to the initial horizontal position (Bayanar and Vanayak,

1985). In this experiment, the rolling angle was measured for two different platforms such as galvanized iron

sheet and mild steel sheet. The rolling angle was measured as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 6: Set up for study of frictional Figure 7: Measurement of rolling angle of carrot

properties of carrot

6. Coefficient of static friction

If the externally applied force is just equal to the force of static friction, then the object is on the verge

of slipping and the coefficient of friction involved is called the coefficient of static friction. It was determined

on two surfaces, i.e. galvanized iron sheet and mild steel sheet for carrot. A pan having weight was attached to

carrot by thread. The table was tilted slowly manually until movement of the carrot mass. The coefficient of

static friction was calculated by using following relationship, (Frictional properties manual by CIAE, Bhopal,

2013).

Static friction

μ =

W2 − W1

s W … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …1

70


Where,

μs = Coefficient of static friction;

W1 = Weight to cause the sliding of empty box;

W2 = Weight to cause the sliding of the filled box; and

W = Weight of the carrot.

The Coefficient of static friction was calculated by the horizontal plane method.

Figure 8: Measurement of the coefficient of static friction

6. Coefficient of dynamic friction

If the externally applied force is equal to the force of dynamic friction, then the object slides at a constant

speed, and the coefficient of friction involved is called the dynamic coefficient of friction. It was determined on

two surfaces, i.e. galvanized and mild steel for carrot. The coefficient of dynamic friction was calculated by

using following relationship, (Frictional properties manual by CIAE, Bhopal, 2013).

Dynamic friction

μ =

W2 − W1

d W … … … … … … … … … … … … 2

Where,

μd = Coefficient of dynamic friction;

W1 = Weight to cause the sliding of carrot, g;

μd = Coefficient of dynamic friction;

W1 = Weight to cause the sliding of carrot, g;

Figure 9: Measurement of coefficient of dynamic friction

71



Engineering Properties of Carrot

Engineering properties such as physical properties and frictional properties of carrot were studied

according to the procedure explained above and the results are explained below.

1. Physical properties of carrot

The various physical properties of carrot such as length, diameter, weight and volume were measured as

per the procedure explained in material and methods. The obtained values are presented in Table 1. The

average length, diameter, weight and volume of carrot were found to be 118.6 mm, 39.56 mm, 102.08 g and

69.8 cc, respectively.

Table 1: Dimensions of Carrot

Sample

Number

Length,

mm

Diameter,

mm

Weight, g Volume, 000 mm3

1 117 39.58 102.24 73

2 118 39.62 101.86 65

3 120 40.22 103.12 74

4 117 40.90 103.00 72

5 119 38.60 100.56 67

6 121 39.31 101.34 69

7 118 38.96 102.89 70

8 122 40.43 101.65 71

9 115 38.76 102.49 68

10 119 39.22 101.71 69

Average 118.6 39.56 102.08 69.8

2. Frictional properties of carrot

2.1 Rolling angle

The rolling angle for carrot was measured as per the procedure explained in material and methods. The

obtained values for the ten samples are shown in Table 2. The average rolling angle for carrot was observed as

10.2 degrees.

Table 2: Rolling Angle for Carrot

Sample

Number

Rolling Angle

degree

Sample Number Rolling Angle, degree

1 11 6 7

2 10 7 9

3 9 8 13

4 12 9 11

5 10 10 10

Average Rolling Angle for Carrot = 10.2 degree

2.2 Static coefficient of friction

The ratio of applied force (F, gm) to the normal reaction (N, gm) is defined as the static coefficient of

friction. It was measured by a horizontal plane method as explained in material and methods. It was

determined on two surfaces, i.e. galvanized iron sheet and mild steel sheet. The values of static coefficient of

friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet were calculated and shown in Table 3 and Table 4 respectively.

72


Table 3: Static coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet

N, g F, g Static Coefficient of Friction

103 65 0.63

113 66 0.58

123 69 0.56

133 70 0.52

143 72 0.50

Average static coefficient of friction for galvanized iron

sheet, μav

0.56

Table 4: Static Coefficient of Friction for MS Sheet

N, g F, g Static Coefficient of Friction

103 77 0.74

113 82 0.72

123 86 0.69

133 89 0.66

143 93 0.65

Average static coefficient of friction for MS sheet, μav 0.69

Figure 10 and Figure 11 show the relationship between normal reaction and force applied for the static

coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet, respectively. The slope of the curve shows the

average static coefficient of friction for the galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet respectively. The static

coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet was found to be 0.56 and 0.69 respectively.

These findings were by the findings of Ambrose (2013).

Fig. 10: Static coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet

Fig. 11: Static coefficient of friction for MS sheet

75

70

65

60

μs=0.56

R² = 0.9759

100 120 140 160

Normal reaction, g

Forc

e ap

plie

d,

g

Forc

e ap

plie

d,

g

100

90

80

70

μs = 0.69

R² = 0.9928

100 120 140 160

Normal reaction, g

73


2.3. Dynamic coefficient of friction

The dynamic coefficient of friction for carrot was measured by horizontal plane method as explained

in material and methods. It was determined on two surfaces, i.e. galvanized iron sheet and mild steel sheet.

The values of dynamic coefficient of friction for the galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet were calculated and

expressed in Table 5 and Table 6 respectively.

Table 5: Dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet

N, g F, g Coefficient of

Friction

103 59 0.52

113 62 0.50

123 64 0.48

133 65 0.45

143 67 0.46

Average dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet, μav 0.48

Table 6: Dynamic coefficient of friction for MS sheet

N, g F, g Coefficient of

Friction

103 67 0.59

113 77 0.62

123 81 0.60

133 89 0.62

143 96 0.67

Average dynamic coefficient of friction for MS sheet, μav 0.62

Figure 12 and Figure 13 shows the relationship between normal reaction and force applied for the

dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet respectively. The slope of the curve

shows the average dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet respectively. The

dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet was found to be 0.48 and 0.62

respectively. These findings were in accordance with the findings of Ambrose (2013).

Fig. 12: Dynamic coefficient of friction for Fig. 13: Dynamic coefficient of friction for MS

sheet galvanized iron sheet

70

68

66

64

62

60

μd=0.48

R² = 0.9704

100

120 140 160

Normal reaction, g

95

90

85

80

75

70

μd = 0.62

R² = 0.9879

100

120 140 160

Normal reaction, g

Forc

e ap

plie

d,

g

Forc

e ap

plie

d,

g

74


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The physical properties of carrot i.e. weight, diameter, length and volume were studied. The average

weight, diameter, length and volume of carrot were observed as 102.08 g, 39.56 mm, 118.6 mm and 69.8

cm3 respectively.

The frictional properties i.e. rolling angle, static coefficient of friction and dynamic coefficient of

friction of carrot were also studied. The rolling angle of carrot was found as 10.2 degree. The static

coefficient of friction of carrot on galvanized sheet was observed as 0.56 and 0.69 respectively. The

sdynamic coefficient of friction of carrot on MS sheet was observed as 0.48 and 0.62 respectively.

REFERENCES

Ahmadi H.; Mollazade K.; Khorshidi J.;Mohtasebi S.S.;Ali R. (2009). Some physical and mechanical

properties of fennel seed, Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 1(1): 66-75.

Balami, A. A., Adebayo, S. E. and Adetoye, E. Y. (2012). Determination of some engineering properties of

sweet potato (ipomoea batatas). Asian Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences. 1: 67-77.

Gamea, G. R., Abd El-Maksoud, M.A. and Abd El-Gawad, A.M. (2009). Physical characteristics and chemical

properties of potato tubers under different storage systems. Misr J. Ag. Eng. 26 (1): 385- 408.

Mohsenin, N.N. (1986). Physical properties of plant and animal materials.2nd Ed. Gordon and Breach Science

publ., New York. pp. 20-89.

Negar, A., Morteza, M.M., Shirmohamadi, G.R and Chegini-Reza A.A.Z (2012). Potatoes Physical Properties

Researching in Mechanized Harvesting (Agria Variety). Paper presented in Int. Confer. Agric. Eng. CIGR-

Ag. Eng. 2012, Valencia Conference Centre, July 8-12, 2012, Valencia, Spain.

Niveditha, V. R., Sridhar, K. R. and Balasubramanian, D. 2013. Physical and mechanical properties of seeds

and kernels of Canavalia of coastal sand dunes. International Food Research Journal, 20 (4): 1547- 1554.

75




ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical

Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of Mango (Mangifera

Indica L.) cv. Amrapali

D S Nehete, R G Jadav and Ishwar Singh

Department of Horticulture, B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University’ Anand

(Gujarat), India

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted to find out the most appropriate combination of bio-fertilizers and

chemical fertilizers for mango production during 2011 - 13 at the Horticultural Research Farm, Department of

Horticulture, B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand. The trial was laid out in

randomized block design, replicated thrice, with thirteen treatments including control. It was found that the

application of 100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T6) significantly increases tree height (m) at initial

and harvesting stage, tree spread N- S (m) at initial and harvesting stage and canopy volume (m3) at initial

stage, whereas tree spread E - W at harvesting stage and canopy volume (m3) at harvesting stage found

superior with 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T4). The application of 85% N + 85% P2O5 +

Azotobacter + PSB (T10) appeared as the most suited combination for providing maximum number of panicles

per branch, length of panicle (cm), number of flowers per panicle, sex ratio, total chlorophyll content of leaf

(mg/g) at 50% flowering and before harvesting, leaf area (cm2) at 50% flowering and before harvesting,

marketable fruit weight (g), number of fruits per tree and fruit yield (kg/tree). Shelf life (days) and fruit

volume (cc) significantly increased with 70% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T13). Tree spread E - W at

initial stage was found non significant. Treatment 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB proved as the

next better treatment followed by 100% RDF.

Keywords: Mango, Growth, Flowering, Yield and Amrapali

INTRODUCTION

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae. It is grown almost in 63 countries

of the world. This fruit crop occupies a unique place amongst the fruit crops grown in India. In Western India,

several mango varieties viz., Alphonso, Kesar, Rajapuri, Pairi, Dashehari, Langra, Neelum, Amrapali and

Mallika are commercially grown and accepted by the consumers. Amrapali is a hybrid developed at IARI,

New Delhi through crosses between Dashehari × Neelum. It is precocious dwarf (suitable for high-density

planting), regular bearer and good cropper. Fruits are green, apricot yellow, medium-sized sweet in taste with

high T.S.S. and pulp content (75%), while flesh is fibreless and deep orange-red. Application of manures and

fertilizers through soil is not enough to produce qualitative mango fruits. A decline in soil health due to

excessive dependence on chemical inputs left us with no other option but to utilising biological inputs like

biofertilizers which is sought to be one of the answers to restore the soil health apart from solving nutrition

problem of plants. Biofertilizers are microbial preparations containing living cells of different

microorganisms that have the ability to mobilize plant nutrients in soil

76

Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of

Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali

from unusable to usable form through biological process. They are environmentally friendly and play

significant role in crop production. It is mainly used for field crops but now a days it is used for fruit crops

also. Biofertilizers are able to fix 20–200 kg N/ha/year, solubilize P in the range of 30–50 kg P2O5 ha/year

and mobilizes P, Zn, Fe, Mo to varying extent. Biofertilizers are used in live formulation of beneficial

microorganisms which on application to seed, root or soil, mobilize the availability of nutrients particularly

by their biological activity and help to build up the lost micro flora and in turn improved the soil health in

general (Hazarika and Ansari, 2007). Considering the importance and future scope of mango fruit, it was

decided to conduct the present experiment with the objectives to find out the effect of bio-fertilizers in

combination with chemical fertilizers on growth of mango cv. Amrapali.


A field experiment was conducted at the Horticultural Research Farm, Department of Horticulture,

B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand during Rabi – Summer season of the year

2011 - 12 and 2012 - 13. The soil samples of location before conducting an experiment in main field were

analyzed for essential nutrients, organic carbon, EC and pH (Jackson, 1973). The details of value are given in

Table 1, which shows the soils to be medium in available nitrogen and available phosphorous was low,

whereas available potash is high at location of experiment, while organic carbon was low at the location.

The experiment consisted of thirteen treatment combinations, comprised of three nitrogen levels (100, 85 and

70% of RDF), two levels of phosphorous (100 and 85% of RDF) and bio-fertilizers (Azotobacter, PSB each

of 5 ml/ tree). The details of treatments are given in Table 2. According to treatment, 50% N and 100% P2O5

of each treatment were applied at the time of onset of monsoon by (18th July and 12th July during 2011-12 and

2012-13, respectively) making ring with 15 cm deep and 1.5 m away from main trunk Second dose of 50% N

was applied at flowering stage (21st February and 12th February during 2011-12 and 2012-13, respectively).

According to treatment, 5ml of each of Azotobacter and PSB were dissolved in 1 litre water and mixed with

80 kg FYM (well decomposed organic manure). This mixture was applied at the time of onset of monsoon (1st

August and 23rd July during 2011-12 and 2012-13, respectively). At the time of flowering stage 5ml of each

of Azotobacter and PSB were dissolved in 1 litre water and mixed with 20 kg finely powdered FYM. This

mixture was given on 3rd March and 23rd February during 2011-12 and 2012-13, respectively.

Potassium 100%, FYM @ 100 kg/tree was applied as a common dose to ten year old experimental trees.

The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design with four replications. The soil of the

experimental site was sandy loam, locally known as “Goradu”. Data obtained from study for two consecutive

years were pooled and statistically analyzed as procedure given by Panse and Sukhatme (1967).

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

In respect of growth parameters the results revealed that pooled results recorded significantly

maximum tree height at initial stage by the application of 100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T6)

which was at par with T4, T2, T13, T10, T5, T8, T3 and T12. Tree height at harvesting stage was found non-

significant during first year of study. On pooled basis, maximum tree height at harvesting stage was found by

the application of 100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T6) and was at par with T4, T2, T13, T10 and T8

as compared to control T1. Initially tree spread East-West (E - W) was found non-significant due to the

combined application of biofertilizers and chemical fertilizers. Later on at harvesting stage significantly

higher tree spread was observed under 100 % N + 100 % P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T4) in pooled results,

which was at par with T10, T8, T12, T6, T13, T3 and T2.

Likewise, the influence of biofertilizers in combination with chemical fertilizers on tree spread N –

S at initial stage on pooled basis significantly maximum tree spread were obtained under T6 (100% N +

77


85 % P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) and it was at par with T13 followed by T2, T3, T5, T4, T11, T12, T8 and T7.

However, maximum tree spread N – S at harvesting stage during pooled results were recorded under T6

(100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB). It was at par with T4, T13, T3, T5, T2 and T8.

In a pooled analysis, maximum canopy volume at initially was observed with the application of 100% N +

85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T6) and was at par with T4, T13, T2, T10 and T8. It is seen that significantly

higher canopy volume at harvesting stage by the application of 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB

(T4) and was at par with T6 and T13.

Table 1: Chemical properties of the experimental soil

S. No. Soil characteristics Value

1. Organic carbon (%) 0.34

2. Available nitrogen (kg ha-1) 260.37

3. Available phosphorus (kg ha-1) 21.84

4. Available potash (kg ha-1) 415.71

5. Soil pH

(1:2.5, soil : water ratio) 7.08

6. EC (dsm-1) 0.29

The positive influence of bio-fertilizers in combination with chemical fertilizers on growth

performance in respect of tree height, tree spread and canopy volume might be due to the application of NPK

and FYM along with Azotobacter and PSB. The useful effect of nitrogen is certainly reflected by an increase in

growth attributes. As nitrogen is the major constituent of fertilizers and it is a constituent of the protein, which

is essential for formation of protoplasm and thus increasing the cell division and cell elongation and there by

more vegetative growth. The application of N made a more rapid synthesis of carbohydrate, which is converted

into protein and protoplasm and increasing the size of cells. Similarly inoculation of Azotobacter a biological

nitrogen fixer improved the nitrogen use efficiency of the plant (Dutta et al., 2009).

Table 2: The treatment details in the present investigation are as under

S.

No.

Treatments Treatment details

T1 Control - 750 N + 160 P2O5 g/tree

(RDF)

Control - 750 N + 160 P2O5 g/tree (RDF) (100% N + 100%

P2O5)

T2 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter 750 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree)

T3 100% N + 100% P2O5 + PSB 750 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + PSB (5ml/tree)

T4 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter

+ PSB

750 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB

(5ml/tree)


78

Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of

Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali


+ PSB


(5ml/tree)

T7 85% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter 637.5 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree)


+ PSB

637.5 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB

(5ml/tree)

T9 85% N + 85% P2O5 + PSB 637.5 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + PSB (5ml/tree)

T10 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter +

PSB


(5ml/tree)



+ PSB


(5ml/tree)


PSB


(5ml/tree)

In addition to this phosphorus plays an important role in energy transformation which potassium plays an

important role in the maintenance of cellular organization by regulating the permeability of cellular membranes.

Treatment T10 i.e. 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB recorded significantly the highest number of

panicles per branch as compared to the rest of the treatments except T13 and T8. The length of panicle was

significantly increased by the application of T10 (85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) which remained at

par with T11 and T8. It is clearly indicated that treatment 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T10)

significantly increased the number of flowers per panicle and reduction in sex ratio i.e. male and hermaphrodite

flowers. It remained at par with T8 followed by T13 and T12 during pooled analysis. These might be due to facts

that in conditions of adequate nutrition provided through NPK, FYM and biofertilizers, the trees remained more

vegetative and hence, accumulation of carbohydrates induce early flowering. It was also helps in maintaining a

particular C: N ratio (CCC: NN) in shoots which is essential to produce flowers (Kunte et al., 2005). The

increased in flowers may be due to increased in nutrients availability from FYM, the organic phosphorous

through phosphobacteria and IAA from Azotobacter which may have increased various endogenous hormonal

levels in plant tissue might be responsible for enhancing flowering.

Table 2: The treatment details in the present investigation are as under 1.

S.

No.

Treatments Treatment details

T1 Control - 750 N + 160 P2O5 g/tree

(RDF)

Control - 750 N + 160 P2O5 g/tree (RDF) (100% N + 100%

P2O5)




+ PSB


(5ml/tree)



+ PSB


(5ml/tree)

T7 85% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter 637.5 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree)


+ PSB


(5ml/tree)

T9 85% N + 85% P2O5 + PSB 637.5 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + PSB (5ml/tree)

79



PSB


(5ml/tree)



+ PSB


(5ml/tree)


PSB


(5ml/tree)

In the present study treatment of 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T10) recorded significantly the

maximum total chlorophyll content of the leaf at 50% flowering stage and it remained at par with T12 followed by

T6, T4 and T13. While, before harvesting total chlorophyll content of leaf was significantly increased under T6

(100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) and remained at par with T10, T8 and T4.

The maximum leaf area was noticed under T6 (100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) at 50% flowering

stage and just before harvesting, during the period of experiment and on pooled basis and it remained at par with

T8, T10 and T13.

The increased in chlorophyll content and leaf area might be due to the application of NPK along with FYM

and biofertilizers secreted plant growth-promoting substances like IAA, GA3 and cytokinins besides increasing

the availability of atmospheric nitrogen which enhanced rapid synthesis of carbohydrate. While, phosphobacteria

bring about dissolution of bound forms of phosphates in soil. Thus, phosphorus plays an important role in energy

transformation and potassium plays an important role in maintenance of cellular organization by regulating the

permeability of cellular membrane.

Treatment T10 i.e. 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB recorded significantly the maximum fruit

weight as compared to the rest of the treatments on pooled basis. This might be due to accumulation of more food

material in the trees by an efficient utilization for development of fruits. The marked effect of nitrogen on various

characters of fruits was due to increased in the efficiency of metabolic processes and thus encouraged the growth

of the plant in general and consequently the various parts of the plant including fruit. The application of N, P and

K fertilizers might have resulted in high rate of photosynthesis results leads to higher carbohydrate accumulation

in fruit and thereby increasing in fruit size and weight. They also enhanced the plant growth through their

beneficial effects, which in turn resulted in higher fruit size (Singh et al. 2003).

Significantly the highest number of fruits per tree was recorded in treatment T10 i.e. 85% N + 85% P2O5 +

Azotobacter + PSB and remained at par with treatments T8. Similarly, the highest fruit yield per tree was also

recorded by the treatment T10 i.e. 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB and it remained at par with treatments

T8 and T13. The increased in number of fruits per tree and fruit yield (kg/plant) might be attributed due to

increasing levels of nutrients near the assimilating area of plant enhanced the rate of dry matter production and its

rational partitioning to economic part improved the yield (Dalal et al., 2004).

Maximum shelf life was reported by the treatment T13 (70% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) which was

closely followed by the treatments T12, T8, T10 and T11. Similarly, the fruit volume was also significantly highest

with the treatment T13 (70% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) as compared to rest of the treatments, except

T10 followed by T9, T8, T4, T6, T12, T11 and T7.

Table 3: Growth parameters at initial and harvesting stage of mango cv. Amrapali as influenced by bio-

fertilizers in combination with chemical fertilizers

S.

No

.

Treatments

Tree height (m) Tree spread E - W

(m)

Tree spread N - S

(m) Canopy volume (m3)

At

Initial

stage

At

Harvesting

stage

At

Initial

stage

At

Harvesting

stage

At

Initial

stage

At

Harvesting

stage

At

Initial

stage

At

Harvesting

stage

80

Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of Mango

(Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali

T1 Control - 750 N

+ 160 P2O5

g/tree (RDF)

5.55

5.79

5.38

5.59

5.44

5.74

88.65

101.50

T2 100% N +

100% P2O5 +

Azotobacter

6.12

6.46

5.76

6.16

6.17

6.53 118.75 140.13

T3 100% N +

100% P2O5 +

PSB

5.84

6.18

5.96

6.33

6.16

6.58 109.22 129.79

T4 100% N +

100% P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

6.16

6.68

6.12

6.81

6.13

6.76 124.48 160.75

T5 100% N + 85%

P2O5 + PSB

5.93

6.28

5.42

5.79

6.14

6.54

108.25 129.11

T6 100% N + 85%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

6.19

\6.69

6.04

6.64

6.34

6.91 125.81 160.72

T7 85% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter

5.76

6.10

5.46

5.81

5.89

6.34 102.41 121.54

T8 85% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

5.91

6.37

6.13

6.71

5.91

6.45 112.68 142.32

T9 85% N + 85%

P2O5 + PSB

5.44

5.81

5.49

5.86

5.44

5.87 85.98 105.18

T10 85% N + 85%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

5.97

6.43

6.22

6.76

5.77

6.27 113.33 142.27

T11 70% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter

5.53

5.88

5.57

5.95

6.00

6.37 93.86 112.89

T12 70% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

5.82

6.21

6.20

6.69

5.94

6.40 109.25 133.95

T13 70% N + 85%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

6.03

6.44

5.98

6.58

6.31

6.76 118.59 146.53

S.Em ± 0.14 0.13 0.25 0.24 0.17 0.17 5.11 5.63

C. D. (P

=0.05)

0.40 0.38 NS 0.68 0.48 0.48 14.39 15.93

C. V. (%) 7.19 6.45 12.61 11.72 8.70 7.96 13.58 12.31

81


Table 4: Flowering and physiological parameters of mango cv. Amrapali as influenced by bio-fertilizers in

combination with chemical fertilizers

S.

No

.

Treatments

No. of

panicles

per

branch

Length of

panicle

(cm)

No. of

flowers

per

panicle

Sex

ratio

Total chlorophyll

content of leaf (mg/g)

Leaf area

(cm2)

At 50%

flowering

Before

harvesting

At

50%

flower

ing

Before

harvesti

ng

T1 Control - 750 N +

160 P2O5 g/tree

(RDF)

5.75 23.50 1470.63 1.50 2.14 1.27 50.36 51.18

T2 100% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter

6.63 26.38 1520.25 1.38 2.14 1.25 61.02 61.93

T3 100% N + 100%

P2O5 + PSB 6.75 30.13 1527.50 1.28 2.18 1.25 73.04 73.90

T4 100% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

7.50 30.13 1606.25 0.95 2.33 1.32 79.12 79.99

T5 100% N + 85%

P2O5 + PSB 7.50 30.00 1570.63 1.20 2.18 1.22 78.47 79.33

T6 100% N + 85%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

7.75 33.88 1682.50 0.93 2.37 1.36 85.91 86.84

T7 85% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter

6.25 36.63 1558.13 1.10 2.22 1.21 77.07 78.13

T8 85% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

8.88 41.50 1764.13 0.74 2.38 1.30 81.74 82.99

T9 85% N + 85%

P2O5 + PSB 7.38 37.63 1595.63 1.08 2.22 1.23 79.73 80.74

T1

0

85% N + 85%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

9.38 43.38 1779.38 0.73 2.41 1.32 83.03 82.26

T1

1

70% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter

6.25 42.38 1550.38 1.15 2.19 1.19 73.22 72.89

T1

2

70% N + 100%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

8.13 37.88 1728.13 0.83 2.35 1.27 79.21 80.38

82

Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali

Table 5: Yield parameters, shelf life and fruit volume of mango cv. Amrapali as influenced by bio-

fertilizers in combination with chemical fertilizers

T1

3

70% N + 85%

P2O5 +

Azotobacter +

PSB

9.13 39.38 1760.13 0.79 2.33 1.28 81.03 83.22

S.Em ± 0.38 0.94 38.19 0.06 0.4 0.2 2.07 2.18

C. D. (P =0.05) 1.08 2.65 107.58 0.18 0.12 0.6 5.83 6.14

C. V. (%) 14.32 8.21 7.17 18.24 5.38 5.35 8.35 8.63

S.

No. Treatments

Marketable

fruit weight

(g)

Number

of fruits

per tree

Fruit

yield

(kg/tree)

Shelf life

(Days)

Fruit volume

(cc)

T1

Control - 750 N +

160 P2O5 g/tree

(RDF)

132.38 341.00 36.63 10.00 107.12

T2 100% N + 100%

P2O5 + Azotobacter 146.23 351.13 37.88 10.88 119.09

T3 100% N + 100%

P2O5 + PSB 153.18 361.00 38.38 10.88 115.76

T4

100% N + 100%

P2O5 + Azotobacter

+ PSB

164.11 367.68 46.00 11.50 124.80

T5 100% N + 85% P2O5

+ PSB 151.43 359.88 37.38 10.63 118.06

T6

100% N + 85% P2O5

+ Azotobacter +

PSB

160.91 401.38 41.25 11.00 124.11

T7 85% N + 100% P2O5

+ Azotobacter 152.89 360.63 37.50 11.50 121.51

T8

85% N + 100% P2O5

+ Azotobacter +

PSB

166.95 541.75 52.13 12.63 125.14

T9 85% N + 85% P2O5

+ PSB 151.55 371.00 38.14 11.75 125.94

T10

85% N + 85% P2O5

+ Azotobacter +

PSB

179.21 556.00 54.00 12.38 126.13

T11 70% N + 100% P2O5

+ Azotobacter 143.08 354.50 42.13 12.38 122.63

T12

70% N + 100% P2O5

+ Azotobacter +

PSB

155.11 432.75 47.63 12.88 122.84

83


The NPK application along with bio-fertilizers viz., Azotobacter and PSB and FYM resulted in an overall

improvement in fruit quality and thereby shelf life of mango. The increased in fruit quality may be attributed to

the use of these bio-fertilizers which enhances the nutrient availability by enhancing the capability of plants to

better solute uptake from rhizosphere and also helped in mitigating stresses in plants (Patel et al., 2009). The

potassium is known to be a vital element for the development of fruit, movement of sugar and indirectly

photosynthesis. The increased in fruit volume was due to use of NPK along with FYM and biofertilizers which

caused accumulation of more food material and leads to efficient utilization of the same for the development of

fruits.

REFFERENCES

Dalal, S. R.; Gonge, V. S.; Jogdande, N. D. and Anjali Moharia (2004). Responce of different levels of nutrients

and PSB on fruit yield and economics of sapota. PKV Res. J. 28: 126 -128.

Dutta, P.; S. B. Maji and B. C. Das (2009). Studies on response of biofertilizer on growth and productivity of

guava. Indian J. Hort., 66 (1): 39-42.

Hazarika, B. N. and Ansari, S. (2007) biofertilizers in fruit crops - A review Agric.Rev., 28 (1) :69-74.

Jackson, M. L. (1973). Soil chemical Analysis prentice Hall of India. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi: 498.

Kunte, Y. N.; Kawthalkar, M. P. and Yawalkar, K. S. (2005). Principles of horticulture and fruit growing. 10th

edition, Agri-Horticultural Publishing House, India.

Panse, V. G. and P. V. Sukhatme (1967). Statistical methods for Agril. workers 2nd enlarge edition ICAR New

Delhi.

Patel, V. B., S. K. Singh, Ram Asrey, Lata Nain, A. K. Singh and Laxman Singh (2009). Microbial and inorganic

fertilizers application influenced vegetative growth, yield, leaf nutrient status and soil microbial biomass in

sweet orange cv. Mosambi. Indian J Hort. 66 (2): 163-168.

Singh, G., Mishra, A. K., Hareeb, M., Tandok, D. K. and Pathak R. K. (2003). The guava. Extension bulletin 17,

Published by CISH, Lucknow: pp. 1.

T13

70% N + 85% P2O5

+ Azotobacter +

PSB

160.83 483.63 53.13 13.50 128.68

S.Em ± 4.27 15.03 2.00 0.45 2.64

C. D. (P =0.05) 12.02 42.35 5.64 1.25 7.44

C. V. (%) 8.23 10.99 13.92 11.49 6.39

84



ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Security Through Pulse production Under Climate Uncertainties In

Jammu and Kashmir

B S Jamwal and 1Shahid Ahamad

Pulses Research Sub-Station, SKUAST-J Samba-184121 Jammu (J&K), India 1Directorate of Research, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and Technology-

Jammu (J&K), India

ABSTRACT

Pulses provide protein of high biological value in vegetarian diets, overcoming malnutrition in masses.

About 90% of the global pigeopea, 65% of chickpea and 37% of lentil area falls in India while as a share of

production is 93%, 68% and 32% respectively (FAO STAT 2012). The situation of pulses in J&K is quite

dismal. The area under pulses in J&K which stood at 55 thousand ha in 1968-69 has come down to approximately

half in recent years. The same is the situation of total production and productiviy has also stagnated. Pulses which

shared 6.85% of total crop area in J&K state in 1960-61, has come down to 2.58% in 2012-13. A number of

constraints can be attributed to this down fall in area but very low SRR can be attributed as main reason. It is

11.83% and 3.66% for two respective seasons in J&K state which is quite low in comparison to other states and

national level SRR of pulses.

Seeing this dismal position, Govt. of India has sanctioned two “Seed Hubs on Pulses” for J&K state one

of which will be operated through SKUAST-Jammu. Out of the total state pulses area, approx 66% area falls in

Jammu region. As the major area under pulses during earlier decades has now been occupied by wheat and paddy

crops due to coverage under Ravi-Trawi command area, now with plenty of irrigation facility and pulses are

marginalized to rainfall Kandi belt or other non-productive areas; the ‘Seed Hub on Pulses’ will take care of

quality seed requirement of Kandi based rainfed pulses farmers, who don’t have timely availability of pulses

quality seed and are compelled to panicky adoption of other options than pulses cultivation at eleventh hour

during sowing seasons.

Also timely availability of quality seed of high yielding pulse varieties to command area farmers will

boost the coverage of area. Under pulses in this highly productive tract of the region which is more than 50

thousand ha. A total quantity of 2500 Qtl of quality seed of different pulses is targetted to be produced over

different seasons in three years project period and there after the activity will be carried over after the completion

of the project on self-sustainable basis, thereby addressing the problem of protein malnutrition of poor farmers,

ameliorating the soil health and improving the financial and social status of the target area farmers as well as will

increase area, production and productivity of pulses in Jammu region of J&K state.

Key words: Food Security, Pulse production, Climate Uncertainties

INTRODUCTION

The land which is basic to agriculture is finite and fragile. Water is life but limited and getting polluted.

Despite soil fertility degradation, ground water depletion, bio-diversity erosion, soil, water and air pollution; total

factor productivity reduction and increase in the cost of production in conjunction with other growth retarding and

cost escalating factors, 70% increase in grain yield would be required to feed your people by 2050. Globally, only

85

Security Through Pulse production Under Climate Uncertainties In Jammu and Kashmir

3.0 billion hectares of land is irrigated, And of total water available, 70% is used in agriculture which is likely to

reduce further due to its other pressing demands. To meets the ends, high-quality seed of improved varieties of

different crops to increase production through productivity enhancement per unit area, input and time would be

required.

The country has advanced from a situation of food scarcity and imports to that of food security and

exportable surpluses. However, the growth of agriculture sector has not kept pace with the growth of the

population and has stagnated. The imperative of national food security, nutritional security and economic

development demand a very focused and determined approach to raise productivity and production in agriculture.

In view of the fact that the area under cultivation is unlikely to increase significantly, thrust will have to be on

raising productivity per unit of cultivated land with 17 percent of world population in India and it has only 2.4%

global land area and 4% water bodies. The second major challenge is climate change.

Seed is the critical and most important input in agriculture that acts as a catalyst for all other inputs to

realize higher productivity in any crop species. With good quality seeds, the investment on all other inputs will

not pay the desired divided. It is well known fact that the direct contribution of quality seeds alone to the total

production is around 20%. With efficient management of other inputs viz. water, fertilizer, plant protection,

growth-regulating chemicals etc, the added dividend in production can be raised to 45%.

Inspire of the release of several improved varieties/hybrids in each crops, their spread among the farming

community is not satisfactory resulting in the wastage of huge resources spent on the development and release of

such varieties hybrids over long period. It could be because of the lack of seed availability in sufficient quantity or

non-performance of released variety/hybrid farmer fields due to late sowing etc. In view of these fact timely

availability of quality seeds of improved varieties/hybrids at right place in adequate quantities, at affordable price

is crucial in realizing the better performance and decides the health of Indian agricultural economy. J & K state

which is one of the important state of India, the seed situation is quite dismal. The SRR (seed replacement rate)

which was 22.4 in 2004-05 at national level increased to 39.9 in 2013-14. But in J & k state the quality seed

distributed to farmers was in 19.13% of total wheat area, 2.81% in rice area and 6.14% in total maize area

cultivated in Jammu region while as it was 7.23% for all other crops combined area during 2016-17.

Approximately 75% area in Jammu region which forms one of the major agricultural production areas, is rainfed

and depends on rains. The total rainfall which different districts of this region experience from 2010 to 2016 were

quite variable. The Rajouri district which is having majority of rainfed area experienced as low as 70.70 mm and

142mm rainfall during 2015 and 2014. The same is the situation in Poonch district which received 122 mm,

173mm and 181 mm rainfall during 2016, 2010 and 2015 year.

Table 1: Minimum-Maximum temperature (0C) at Jammu

S.

No.

Month 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.

1. Jan. 5.8 17.5 6.4 16.8 6.1 18.4 6.7 16.5 6.9 19.1 6.8 16.8 7.0 17.0

2. Feb. 10.6 23.3 10.2 20.4 7.7 20.0 9.1 19.8 8.8 19.3 10.4 21.7 10.0 23.0

3. March 17.6 31.0 14.8 27.9 13.5 27.6 13.7 26.8 12.9 24.5 12.9 23.8 15.0 27.0

4. April 23.2 37.5 19.1 32.2 18.5 32.6 18.9 32.5 16.5 30.2 18.5 29.3 19.9 33.6

5. May 25.4 39.1 25.2 39.1 22.9 38.1 24.5 39.1 22.4 36.0 22.7 36.8 24.5 38.6

6. June 26.2 39.0 25.1 36.2 26.4 41.5 26.7 36.9 26.8 40.1 24.8 36.8 26.5 38.1

7. July 25.8 34.3 24.9 33.0 26.1 36.3 25.3 33.4 26.0 34.6 25.0 33.0 25.0 30.4

86

B S Jamwal and Shahid Ahamad

8. Aug 25.3 32.6 24.6 32.5 24.1 32.7 24.4 31.4 24.3 33.4 24.7 32.5 24.7 32.4

9. Sept 23.1 32.5 23.7 32.8 22.3 31.9 22.5 32.5 22.5 30.9 22.0 33.0 33.2 23.9

10. Oct. 19.9 31.1 18.5 30.6 17.1 30.0 19.5 30.2 17.9 29.8 17.4 29.7 18.4 31.8

11. Nov. 14.0 27.1 14.0 26.4 12.2 25.6 10.7 25.5 11.2 26.0 NA NA 11.8 26.4

12. Dec. 8.4 21.0 8.7 22.4 8.4 19.6 7.6 20.0 6.7 19.2 NA NA 18.6 22.3

In other nearly district like Udhampur, Reasi, Doda, Kishtwar and Ramban the situation is still more

grim. Only three districts of Jammu, Samba and Kathua, which have, though, significant rainfed area. The rainfall

was normally during 2010-2016 but the rainfall pattern was variable. To add to this the temperature fluctuations

are playing their role in miseries of the farmers and abrupt temperature rise even upto 5 c above than normal

during February, April, May drought-like situation in October.-December months during early Rabi season,

increase the miseries of rainfed farmers, especially pulse farmers as pulses have 90% rainfed area.

Seeing all this condition, ICAR (GOI) has sanctioned two “pulses seed Hub” in 2016-17, one for Jammu

region and the other for Kashmir region and the seed availability of pulses farmers is picking up. Such types of

activities needs to be taken up in other crops also, which will boost quality seed availability for poor farmers this

climatically ecologically fragile region and will be a poor for food as well nutritional security of these poor

farmers and their families.

A systematic strong and vibrant seed production system is needed to attend to sustainable food security.

Increase in SRR to 35% in case of open-pollinated varieties in self-pollinated crops; 50% and above in cross-

pollinated crop varieties and 100% case of hybrids will certainly help in doubling the food grain production in J

& K state. An increase in variety replacement following logical system of notified high yield varieties/hybrids will

also add to the productivity gain. Up-gradation of existing seed system is need of the hour to attend to the great

challenge of reducing the usage of farm saved seeds. An effective farmer’s friendly model should be developed to

make available the quality seeds of improved varieties/hybrids timely at affordable price.

In tribal hilly regions, farmers varieties/local varieties are still popular may be because of excellent

quality associated with therapeutic/medicinal value, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, climate resilience and

special attributes association with these varieties. But as these varieties are not in seed chain, efforts should be

made to bring such varieties in informal seed chain with some amount of genetic purity through special

maintenance breeding methods. These farmers varieties are quite important in future breeding programme as they

process useful

Table 2: Annual Rainfall Jammu Division

Stations 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Kathua 710.00 1050.00 1372.00 1279.00 1201.00 1086.00 1253.00

Bashal 867.00 1545.00 2280.00 2194.00 2032.00 1799.00 1774.00

Rajouri 1136.02 1055.60 891.00 987.30 142.00 70.70 858.30

Akhnoor 1467.60 1653.00 1908.00 2113.40 2275.80 1359.02 1383.00

Poonch 173.00 362.00 326.00 390.00 479.00 181.00 122.00

Billawar 1341.00 1700.00 1891.00 2806.00 2843.00 2001.00 1941.00

Kishtwar --- --- --- --- --- 776.56 780.00

87

Security Through Pulse production Under Climate Uncertainties In Jammu and Kashmir

Table 3: Area sown under different food crops

Dis

tric

t

Net

Are

a S

ow

n

(ha)

Net

Are

a i

rrig

ated

(ha)

Net

Are

a cr

opped

(ha)

Tota

l cr

opped

Are

a

Irri

gat

ed (

ha)

Are

a

sow

n

under

dif

fer

ent

food

crops

as

bel

ow

in

(ha)

.

Dru

gs

Ric

e

mai

ze

Baj

ra

Whea

t

Bar

ley

Mil

lets

gra

ins

Puls

es

Sugar

cane

Condim

ents

& S

pic

es

Oil

see

ds

Fodder

cro

ps

fiber

Nar

coti

cs

and

Pla

nta

tion

crop

Jam

mu

106798

66115

196241

116800

67551

24061

5559

79936

422

4935

3456

130

1928

5143

15

17

Kat

tua

58797

21218

117008

41800

35913

15304

1454

50195

1698

32

2403

28

232

3366

5932

_

02

Sam

b

a 3264

5

1006

7

6471

8

2080

0

1932

8

2667

4437

2954

9

512

83

2175

_

188

4050

1721

6

_

Udha

mpur

48885

10212

92765

13300

8325

35307

1585

36906

855

626

1576

_

333

1773

267

8

_

Rea

si

20937

1439

36464

2100

1125

18531

270

14232

106

25

352

_

17

1130

652

_

_

Raj

ou

ri

53632

4768

10154

3

8400

4410

47475

563

45587

97

_

307

17

445

1584

849

_

_

Poonch

27336

3501

44728

5900

2859

24201

_

14956

_

_

28

_

290

132

2145

_

_

Doda

29848

2495

49817

3400

1509

26428

01

3357

1446

24

1488

_

80

983

814

_

_

Ram

b

an

19661

1372

25396

1500

5280

14681

_

5416

_

_

_

_

19

_

_

_

_

Kis

tw

ar

16

044

28

15

20

027

32

00

11

74

11

577

_

24

05

15

97

17

44

11

70

_

01

25

_

_

_

To

tal

41

48

83

12

40

02

74

87

07

21

72

00

14

74

75

22

12

32

13

86

9

28

25

39

67

33

74

69

12

95

5

45

17

35

14

97

1

17

52

3

29

19

gene/gene blocks for specific traits. These varieties are the products of dynamic evolution in a target ecosystem

and quite adapted to the region.

Enabling the resource poor farmers with quality seed and suitable production technology for sustainable

likelihood is a big challenge that needs a concentrated focus. Since majority of the farmers in J & k are small and

marginal, providing quality seeds at affordable price is also a challenge as seeds produced by using

varieties/hybrids with bio-tech traits in plant breeding which can be made available to resources poor farmers at

88

B S Jamwal and1Shahid Ahamad

affordable price, good infrastructure facilities are to be created and capacity building to undertake such advance to

research be given the priority. These are urgent need to bestow attention by policy makers to promote healthy

seed industry and achieve second green revolution through seeds in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India.

The area under pulses in J&K which stood at 55 thousand ha in 1968-69 has come down to

approximately half in recent years. The same is the situation of total production and productiviy has also

stagnated. Pulses which shared 6.85% of total crop area in J&K state in 1960-61, has come down to 2.58% in

2012-13. A number of constraints can be attributed to this down fall in area but very low SRR can be attributed as

main reason. It is 11.83% and 3.66% for two respective seasons in J&K state which is quite low in comparison to

other states and national level SRR of pulses.

REFERENCES

Ahamad, S. (2009). Plant Disease Management for Sustainable Agriculture Published by Daya Publishing House

New Delhi. pp 373.

Ahamad, S. (2012). Recent Trends in Plant Diseases Management in India, Published by Kalyani Publisher,

Ludhiana, India. Pp 478.

Ahamad, S. (2013). Hill Agriculture. Published by Astral Publishing House, New Delhi.pp 550.

Ahamad, S. and Ali Anwar (2014). Terminology on Plant Pathology Published by Jaya Publishing House, Delhi-

110006 pp. 159.

Ahamad, S. and Jag Paul Sharma (2018). Transformation of Agriculture trough Innovative Technologies.

Published by Astral Publishing House, New Delhi. pp 450.

Ahamad, S. and Narain, U. (2007). Eco-friendly Management of Plant Diseases Published by Daya Publishing

House New Delhi. pp 412.

Ahamad, S., Anwar, A and Sharma, P.K. (2011).Plant Disease Management on Horticultural Crops., Published by

Daya Publishing House New Delhi. pp 405.

B. Lal, Ahamad, S. and De, D. (2016). Modeling in Communication behaviors of Farmers, Published by Astral

International Publisher, New Delhi.

Nasim Ahmad and Shahid Ahamad (2017). Green House gases and IPM. Published by Educationist Press, A

division of Write and Prints Publications, New Delhi. pp 292.

Shahid Ahamad and Nasim Ahmad (2017). Pathogenic Fungi in Plant Organisms. Published by Educationist

Press, A division of Write and Prints Publications, New Delhi. pp286.

89



ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7

Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus

Thailand Cash Crops

Niharika Srivastava

Department of Economics, Pratap Bahadur Post Graduate College, Pratapgarh (UP), India

ABSTRACT

Sugarcane is one of a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. It is an important cash crop of the

primary sector grown in India. On the other side, Sugar cane production is one of the major economic sectors in

Thailand.For comparing the variables between both countries for sugarcane, researcher has following objectives-

1) To assess the trend of Area, Production and Yield for Sugarcane in both countries. 2) To build a model among

the variables- Production, Area and Yield for sugarcane in both countries. 3) To highlights the impulse-response

and decomposition impact for sugarcane in both countries. To fulfill the above objectives, two hypotheses are

used for testing the study.Explanatory Research is used in this paper. This paper is based on secondary data that

was collected from the website of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO). Time Series

data from 1961 to 2016 has been used in this paper that is analyzed through econometrics tools. EViews 10

package is used to analyze the data.

After analyzing the data, researcher comes to this conclusion that Thailand production rate is higher than

India and Thailand’s area change in a constant term means linear pattern while India’s area has exponential

pattern. Therefore yield of Thailand is near about equal to India. Due to applying mechanization and

commercialization policy in agriculture, yield has been increasing in both countries while causing widespread

ecological and environmental damage.To increase biological nitrogen fixation and solubility of phosphatic

fertilizers, setts should be treated with N supplying bio-fertilizers or phosphate solubilising inoculants and the

introduction of machinery also has two faces good and bad therefore the balance of advantage will depend upon

local agricultural circumstances which must be closely studied in order to elucidate what degree of mechanization

will be the most advantageous economically in both countries.

Keywords: Agriculture, Cash Crops, Sugarcane.

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock. The major agricultural products can

be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels and raw materials (such as rubber). Since 1900, large rises have been

seen in productivity introducing by mechanization, and assisted by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective

breeding. Agriculture has been converting into Mechanization and Commercial Agriculture. Now a days,

approximately 70% of the world's food is produced by 500 million smallholder farmers. For their livelihood they

depend on the production of cash crops, basic commodities that are hard to differentiate in the market. Sugarcane

is one of a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. It is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral

shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, typically three to four m (10 to 13 ft) high and about 5 cm (2 in) in

diameter. The stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A

mature stalk is typically composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars, and 63–73% water.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_crop

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_material

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rubber

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanized_farming

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fertilizer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breeding

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breeding


90

Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus Thailand Cash Crops

A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, and

the harvest period. The average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare (24–28 long). Now a days,

approximately 70% of the world's food is produced by 500 million smallholder farmers. For their livelihood they

depend on the production of cash crops, basic commodities that are hard to differentiate in the market. Sugarcane

is one of a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. It is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral

shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, typically three to four m (10 to 13 ft) high and about 5 cm (2 in) in

diameter. The stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A

mature stalk is typically composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars, and 63–73% water.

A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, and

the harvest period. The average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare (24–28 long ton/acre; 27–31 short

ton/acre) per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge

and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation. Many parts of the sugarcane are commonly used as

animal feeds where the plants are cultivated. The leaves make good forage for ruminants. In most countries where

sugarcane is cultivated, there are several foods and popular dishes derived directly from it. Global production of

sugarcane in 2016 was 1.9 billion tones, with Brazil producing 41% of the world total followed by India 18%.

Thailand was in fourth position (Table-1).

Table-1: sugarcane production – 2016

Country Production (millions of tonnes)

Brazil 768.70

India 348.40

China 122.70

Thailand 87.50

World 1890.70

Source: FAOSTAT, United Nations

AGRICULTURE/CROPS

TRADITIONAL /

SUBSISTENCE CROPS

FARMING WITH HIGH LABOUR LESS TOOLS / TO FEED THEMSELVES AND THEIR FAMILIES

MECHANICAL /

CASH CROPS

FARMING WITH LOW LABOUR HIGH

TOOLS/TO SELL FOR PROFIT


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAOSTAT

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations

91

Niharika Srivastava

Sugarcane is important to the cash crop of primary sector grown in India. Sugarcane cultivation and

development of sugar industry runs parallel to the growth of human civilization and are as old as agriculture. The

average sugarcane yield in the country plays a vital role towards in the socio-economic development of the rural

areas by mobilizing rural resources and generating higher income and employment opportunities. About 7.5% of

the rural population, covering about 60 million sugarcane farmers is dependent and a large number of agricultural

labors are involved in sugarcane cultivation, harvesting and ancillary activities. Therefore in the current day rural

economy set up sugarcane cultivation and sugar industry have been focal point for socio-economic development

in rural areas by mobilizing rural resources, generating employment and higher income, transport and

communication facilities. About 7 million sugarcane farmers and large number of agricultural laborers are

involved in sugar cane cultivation and ancillary activities. Apart from this, the sugar industry provides

employment to 5 lakh skilled and semi-skilled workers in rural areas. On the other side, Sugar cane production is

one of the major economic sectors in Thailand. There are several activities involved in the production process

such as sugarcane growing, sugar milling, credit banking, exportation, etc. The sugar production activities provide

significant full time and temporary employment in sugar factories, sugar transformation, transportation and

exports.

Usaborisut 2018, studyis related to the progress in Mechanization of Sugarcane Farms in Thailand.

According to Usaborisut, Sugarcane is an important cash crop in Thailand. With a contribution of 5.5% to the

total world production, Thailand is the fourth largest producer of sugarcane next to Brazil, India, and China.

During the crop year 2014/15, about 103.7 million tonnes of cane was produced with a national average of about

76.6 tonnes/ha, higher than the world average of 69.5 tonnes/ha and also of those countries ranking higher in

terms of total production. The major sugar-producing regions of Thailand are northeastern, central, and northern

parts, for which the share of production was 44.59, 28.98, and 26.43%, respectively, in crop year 2016/17.

Sugarcane is labor-intensive for almost all operations, from land preparation to harvesting. Machinery can help in

labor-saving and timeliness of operations, improving quality of work, reducing drudgery and operation cost, and

more importantly, increasing effective utilization of resources. Sugarcane growers are facing serious problems

such as labor shortage and high minimum wage for manual labor. Sometimes, mishandling of a problem may

result in other serious consequences. For instance, burning sugarcane to reduce labor requirement in harvesting

may lead to other problems. Mechanization can play a vital role in solving problems and in improving efficiency

of the present sugarcane production system. This paper presents the progress of farm mechanization in sugarcane

cultivation in Thailand through an overview of the machinery used in different farm operations based on farming

practices as well as their impact and also factors influencing the extent of mechanization in this crop. Future

prospects of mechanization are also discussed.

According to the Indian Council of Agriculture, in the conventional system, for cultivating sugarcane in

an acre (0.4 ha) of land about 1170 man hours and 130 bullock pair hours are required, which is laborious hence it

not only increases drudgery but also cost of production. Moreover, due to attractive job offers and wages in non-

farm sectors, labourers are reluctant to work in sugarcane fields. In States like Punjab and Haryana where the use

of farm machinery is quite high, the cost of cultivation excluding the cost on family labour and fixed costs is

around Rs. 35,000 per acre; approximately 45-48% of the total cost goes to payment on human labour and only

15-16% is spent on machinery rent including transport. Therefore, to increase net returns from sugarcane

cultivation there is a need incorporate cost-effectiveness in the production system. Mechanization is the

immediate option through which there is possibility of minimizing expenditure on human labour. Mechanization

has brought about significant improvement in agricultural productivity in developed countries. Taking into

consideration the time, precision of field operations, increased input use efficiency and productivity per unit, there

is a need to making sugarcane cultivation at least a semi-mechanized one by popularizing machinery like

sugarcane cutter planter, inter-culture implements, tractor-mounted-sprayers and harvesters which are available in

the country. If the initial cost of machinery is high, then it can be hired on co-operative basis.

Charnchayasuk (1965) is a Comparative Study of Economic Development between Thailand and India.

The objectives of this study are to compare the economic systems in Thailand and India. To assess the

92


effectiveness of the economic programs they have outlined, and to compare their achievements and

accomplishments in economic growth and development. India has to go cautiously in letting them work and not

throw them out by too much mechanization. In Thailand techniques of cultivation have not improved with the

expansion of area. It was being concluded that there is no time for experimentation. Mistakes in the past must be

corrected.

Kishore et al (2017) shows that present mechanization status in sugarcane in a review form.The crops

grown by the Indian farmers include different food crops, commercial crops, oil seeds etc.; sugarcane is one of the

important commercial crops grown in India. The area under sugarcane is covering around 5.08 million hectares

and with an average annual production of 350.02 million tonnes in the year 2013-14 and with an average

productivity of 68 tonnes/ha. India is a second largest producer as well as consumer of the sugar in the world and

during 2014-15; it produced 28 million tonnes of sugar, which was nearly 11.8 per cent of the total sugar

production of the world. The major producing state s are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,

Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. Though, the area under cultivation of sugarcane is more in the world as well as in

the country, the extent of la bour consuming is more and mechanization is less and also the energy consumption in

sugarcane production is more as compared to other crops like paddy, wheat, potato, maize, etc. Since the cost of

labour in country is increasing rapidly and the price of local sugar is uncompetitive with the product from

mechanized international producers, India needs to change its sugarcane production methods from manual work to

mechanization in order to catch up with international trends in this global industry. The use of mechanization

helps in labour saving, timeliness of operations, human drudgery reduction, reduces cost of operation, helps in

improving quality of work and ensures effective utilization of resources. The major operations in sugarcane

cultivation right from land preparation, sugarcane planting, ratoon management, weeding, harvesting, detrashing

and trash management, respectively needs mechanization effectively. Almost all of the sugarcane grown in India

is still harvested and detrashed the leaves by hand. In order to summarize past experience and promote the

mechanization of sugarcane production in India, this paper reviews the whole process of developing

mechanization for years and describes the current state of sugarcane mechanization in India. The mechanization

used in all the operations is discussed in this study.

OBJECTIVES

For comparing the variables between both countries for sugarcane, researcher has following objectives-

1. To assess the trend of Area, Production and Yield for Sugarcane in both countries.

2. To build a model among the variables- Production, Area and Yield for sugarcane in both countries.

3. To highlights the impulse-response and decomposition impact for sugarcane in both countries.

HYPOTHESIS

To fulfill the above objectives, following hypothesis are used for testing the study.

H0: ROPI=ROPT & ROAI=ROAT

H1: ROPI≠ROPT &ROAI≠ROAT

H0: Both countries have same impulse-response and decomposition impact for Sugarcane.

H1: Both countries have not same impulse-response and decomposition impact for Sugarcane.

METHODOLOGY

Explanatory Research is used in this paper. This paper is based on secondary data that was collected from

the website of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO).Time Series datafrom 1961 to 2016

has been used in this paper that is analyzed through econometrics tools. EViews 10 package is used to analyze the

data.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE STUDY

93

Niharika Srivastava

Productions of both countries are seen in pictorial form in Chart-1. The chart shows that the production of

India is greater than Thailand.

CHART-1

Same as the area of sugarcane in India is higher than Thailand. (See Chart-2)

CHART-2

Table 1 shows the individual estimated equation for the area and productionof Indian sugarcane crop in

respect of time. The estimated values of parameters are significant.The adjusted R2 gives us some idea of how

well on model generalizes and ideally we would like its value to be the same, or very close to, the value of R2.

Change in R2 is significant because the probability of value of F-ratio is less than 0.001 (p<0.001).

Table-1: Estimated equation and related values for India

S.

No.

Estimated

Equation

Parameters Value Godness of Fit

S.E. T Values Significane

Value

R R2 F Ratio Significane

Value

1 A=2195791.75

3* exp(.015* t)

0.001 23.507 0.000

0.954

0.911 552.579 0.000 46588.436 47.132 0.000

2 P=

90378845.745*

exp( 0.025 * t )

0.001 26.750 0.000

0.964 0.930 715.566 0.000 2980560.

190 30.323 0.000

0

100,000,000

200,000,000

300,000,000

400,000,000

1961

1965

1969

1973

1977

1981

1985

1989

1993

1997

2001

2005

2009

2013

IN T

ON

NES

YEAR

PRODUCTION OF SUGARCANE

INDIA

THAILAND

01,000,0002,000,0003,000,0004,000,0005,000,0006,000,000

1961

1965

1969

1973

1977

1981

1985

1989

1993

1997

2001

2005

2009

2013

IN H

ECTA

RE

YEAR

AREA OF SUGARCANE

INDIA

THAILAND

94


Table 2 shows the individual estimated equation for area and productionof Thailand sugarcane crop in the

respect of time. The estimated values of parameters are significant.The adjusted R2 gives us some idea of how

well on model generalizes and ideally we would like its value to be the same, or very close to, the value of R2.

Change in R2 is significant because the probability of value of F-ratio is less than 0.001 (p<0.001).

Table-2: Estimated equation and related values for Thailand

S.

No.

Estimated

Equation

Parameters Value Godness of Fit

S.E. T

Values

Significane

Value

R R2 F Ratio Significane

Value

1 A=93121.533

* exp(.057* t)

0.003 16.645 0.000

0.915 0.837 277.048 0.000 10380.86

6 8.970 0.000

2 P=-

16721314.202

+1736173.24

2* t

73456.96

5 23.635 0.000

0.955 0.912 558.625 0.000 2600729.

299 -6.429 0.000

The pattern of area in both countries are same but the rate is differs in both countries. After applying T-

Test on this difference, researcher finds the p value is less than 0.0001. By conventional criteria, this difference is

considered to be extremely statistically significant. It shows that both are not equal (ROPI≠ROPT). The null

hypothesis is rejected in this case and alternative is accepted. Thailand production rate is higher than India.

In the case of the area, both have different pattern. India’s area has exponential pattern while Thailand’s

area change in a constant term means linear pattern. Therefore both are not equal (ROAI≠ROAT) or it can be said

that in this case Null hypothesis is also rejected and alternative is accepted. Therefore yield of Thailand is near

about equal to India.

CHART-3

0

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

600,000

700,000

800,000

900,000

1961

1966

1971

1976

1981

1986

1991

1996

2001

2006

2011

2016

TO

NN

ES P

ER H

ECTA

RE

YEAR

YIRLD OF SUGARCANE

INDIA

THAILAND

95

Niharika Srivastava

For building a model, the researcher tests the stationary and causality (through unit root test) of the series.

Both series are non stationary and casual. Therefore VAR model is developed among the variables in both series

that shows the dynamic form of both series and the impact of all variables to each other can be seen in short run as

well as long run through impulse-response and decomposition.

INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE = 0.596788238125*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE (-1)

-0.258397550655*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE (-2)

+ 0.00425466220224*INDIA_PRPDUCTION (-1)

+ 0.00227295674405*INDIA_PRPDUCTION (-2)

+ 5.29214678658*INDIA_YIELDING (-1)

– 5.0723253597*INDIA_YIELDING (-2)

+ 799755.996442

INDIA_PRPDUCTION = - 44.7228863531*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE(-1)

+ 45.906714866*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE(-2)

+ 1.36632777989*INDIA_PRPDUCTION(-1)

- 0.584073300803*INDIA_PRPDUCTION(-2)

+ 244.955771096*INDIA_YIELDING(-1)

- 79.2206229447*INDIA_YIELDING(-2)

- 52045724.5417

INDIA_YIELDING = - 0.106080022676*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE(-1)

+ 0.154520807112*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE(-2)

+ 0.000881914400328*INDIA_PRPDUCTION(-1)

- 0.00161266851456*INDIA_PRPDUCTION(-2)

+ 0.657217560285*INDIA_YIELDING(-1)

+ 0.498674839827*INDIA_YIELDING(-2)

- 97211.7493724

CHART-4

-20,000,000

-10,000,000

0

10,000,000

20,000,000

30,000,000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Response of INDIA_PRPDUCTION to INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE

-10,000

0

10,000

20,000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Response of INDIA_YIELDING to INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE

Response to Cholesky One S.D. (d.f. adjusted) Innovations ± 2 S.E.

96


In India, due to the shocks of the area of India, production is constant upto 2 period then decreases till 10

periods (some fluctuations are also found on 5-6 periods). Due to same shocks, yield decreases upto 2 periods. It

is negative from 2-3 periods then starts to increase upto 5 periods. After that it decreases further till 7th periods

and then starts to increase till 10th periods.

In the short run, that is quarter 3 impulse or innovation or shocks to Area account for 68.49% variation of

the fluctuation in Area (Own Shocks). Shock to Area can cause 53.96% fluctuation in Production while shock to

Area can cause 8.95% fluctuation in Yield. In long run, shocks to Area account for 54.78% (decrease from the

short run) variation of the fluctuation in Area (Own Shocks). Shock to Area can cause 41.87% (decrease from the

short run) fluctuation in Production while shock to Area can cause 7.63% (decrease or like constant from the short

run but having very low effects) fluctuation in Area. It means thatProduction is highly effected due to the shock to

Area.

If we throw the light on the Thailand, the value of response is lying between upper and lower limits on

the 95% of confidence level. Due to the shocks of area of Thailand, the effects of production will be decrease upto

2 periods. After that it will increase. Same results are founded on Yield of Thailand.

In the short run, that is quarter 3 impulse or innovation or shocks to Area account for 82.49% variation of

the fluctuation in Area (Own Shocks). Shock to Area can cause 39.61% fluctuation in production while a shock to

Area can cause 10.05% fluctuation in Yield. In long run, shocks to Area account for 69.14% (decrease from the

short run) variation of the fluctuation in Area (Own Shocks). Shock to Area can cause 45.79% (increase from the

short run) fluctuation in Production while shock to Area can cause 16.75% (increase or like constant from the

short run but having very low effects) fluctuation in Area. It means that Production is highly effected due to the

shock to Area.

It can be concluded that impulse-response is same but the decomposition is different in both countries.

Therefore Null Hypothesis is accepted in impulse-response but rejected in decomposition impact.

TABLE-3

Variance Decomposition of INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE:

Period S.E. INDIA_AR... INDIA_PR... INDIA_YIE...

1 221181.6 100.0000 0.000000 0.000000

2 388121.1 81.02359 16.99595 1.980453

3 468098.6 68.49117 29.81709 1.691736

4 496343.3 65.32657 33.09867 1.574765

5 518551.5 64.52945 33.30484 2.165707

6 546271.4 62.59172 33.80978 3.598500

7 570250.7 59.95494 35.23050 4.814556

8 587189.3 57.90882 36.33054 5.760646

9 601281.5 56.31854 36.91936 6.762101

10 615143.6 54.78453 37.37806 7.837415

Variance Decomposition of INDIA_PRPDUCTION:


1 20611944 80.36761 19.63239 0.000000

2 32966994 61.63986 37.77204 0.588101

3 38389992 53.96431 45.36841 0.667286

4 40977372 52.19440 46.56933 1.236274

5 43627022 51.05109 45.85650 3.092410

6 46405184 48.83510 45.89664 5.268256

7 48617923 46.52471 46.56067 6.914625

8 50318848 44.75137 46.93018 8.318449

9 51855562 43.27156 47.00662 9.721820

10 53323725 41.87027 47.08447 11.04526

Variance Decomposition of INDIA_YIELDING:


1 27537.51 16.84378 69.10915 14.04707

2 36578.53 9.551414 79.04856 11.40003

3 38709.82 8.951722 78.43416 12.61412

4 40876.14 8.622805 73.46871 17.90849

5 44491.29 8.812439 68.05489 23.13267

6 47551.04 8.251351 66.16459 25.58406

7 49577.20 7.805761 65.03585 27.15839

8 51315.51 7.660578 63.64033 28.69909

9 53111.36 7.671981 62.34434 29.98368

10 54776.90 7.635152 61.49728 30.86756

Cholesky Ordering: INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE INDIA_PRPDUCTI

ON INDIA_YIELDING

97

Niharika Srivastava

CHART-5


TABLE-4

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

The researcher comes to this conclusion that Thailand production rate is higher than India and Thailand’s

area change in a constant term means linear pattern while India’s area has exponential pattern. Therefore yield of

0

2,000,000

4,000,000

6,000,000

8,000,000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Response of THAILAND_PRODUCTION to THAILAND_AREA_IN_HECTARE

-10,000

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Response of THAILAND_YIELDING to THAILAND_AREA_IN_HECTARE

Response to Cholesky One S.D. (d.f. adjusted) Innovations ± 2 S.E.

Variance Decomposition of THAILAND_AREA_IN_HECTARE:

Period S.E. THAILAND... THAILAND... THAILAND...

1 68263.14 100.0000 0.000000 0.000000

2 102141.1 89.73725 8.589255 1.673500

3 126263.0 82.49796 14.44190 3.060144

4 145824.4 78.00492 17.23705 4.758022

5 162271.0 75.14539 18.62857 6.226041

6 176549.1 73.14305 19.26397 7.592973

7 189051.6 71.70504 19.49093 8.804031

8 200142.2 70.62771 19.47383 9.898468

9 210051.8 69.80097 19.31981 10.87921

10 218972.5 69.14732 19.08940 11.76328

Variance Decomposition of THAILAND_PRODUCTION:


1 7502130. 53.56452 46.43548 0.000000

2 10877809 41.89754 58.09303 0.009433

3 12877702 39.61544 60.26612 0.118439

4 14285115 39.86139 59.83469 0.303919

5 15399441 40.82098 58.53537 0.643653

6 16323925 41.92828 56.99868 1.073040

7 17117074 43.02176 55.38390 1.594343

8 17811498 44.04160 53.78811 2.170288

9 18429894 44.96675 52.24900 2.784251

10 18986649 45.79395 50.79185 3.414196

Variance Decomposition of THAILAND_YIELDING:


1 65708.27 13.70794 56.93423 29.35783

2 80550.02 10.13388 70.28190 19.58422

3 87141.54 10.05936 71.58499 18.35565

4 90370.95 10.69212 72.10197 17.20591

5 92724.97 11.75488 71.53696 16.70816

6 94475.16 12.82589 70.88751 16.28660

7 95965.94 13.90429 70.04774 16.04797

8 97243.55 14.91998 69.20337 15.87665

9 98395.02 15.87385 68.33831 15.78783

10 99437.58 16.75522 67.49780 15.74698

Cholesky Ordering: THAILAND_AREA_IN_HECTARE

THAILAND_PRODUCTION THAILAND_YIELDING

98


Thailand is near about equal to India. Due to applying mechanization and commercialization policy in agriculture,

yield has been increasing in both countries.

Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly

increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase in the global population. Results of this Modernfarming

agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological developments have

sharply increased yields, while causing widespread ecological and environmental damage. On the other side,

Machinery also increases the tendency of "modern agri-culture" toward monoculture. The purchase of an

expensivemachine specialized for only one crop will certainly induce theowner to continue growing that crop.

Thus, monoculturesbecome more attractive and even justifiable on narrow economic grounds. However,

monoculture tends to bring with it aset of problems such as a buildup of diseases, insects, andweeds that parasitize

or compete with the single crop. Rotationof crops usually aids in control of these problems. In addition,using very

large machinery makes it more difficult to followproper erosion-control practices such as strip cropping orterrace

maintenance. This, in addition to the loss of soilorganic matter which accompanies continuous growing of

rowcrops by conventional tillage systems, can create a situation ofaccelerated soilerosion.

To increase biological nitrogen fixation and solubility of phosphatic fertilizers, setts should be treated

with N supplying bio-fertilizers or phosphate solubilising inoculants and the introduction of machinery also has

two faces good and bad therefore the balance of advantage will depend upon local agricultural circumstances

which must be closely studied in order to elucidate what degree of mechanization will be the most advantageous

economically in both countries.

REFERENCES

AIORP(S) Technical Bulletin No.1.

http://sugar-asia.com/the-new-cane-cultivation-technique-reduces-cane-sett-costs-by-4-times.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/X0513E/x0513e24.htm.

http://www.nationmultimedia.com/detail/national/30348512in Si Boon.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcane.

https://knoema.com/atlas/Thailand/topics/Agriculture/Crops-Production-Yield/Sugar-cane-yield.

https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ttest1/?Format=SEM.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture.

https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ttest1/?Format=SEM.

https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4073&context=etd.

https://sugarcane.icar.gov.in/index.php/en/?id=317&phpMyAdmin=11c501a2a5dt8788ed6.

AIORP(S) Technical Bulletin No.1.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Bosch

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_yields

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeding

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrochemical

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer

http://sugar-asia.com/the-new-cane-cultivation-technique-reduces-cane-sett-costs-by-4-times

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcane

https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ttest1/?Format=SEM

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ttest1/?Format=SEM

https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4073&context=etd

https://sugarcane.icar.gov.in/index.php/en/?id=317&phpMyAdmin=11c501a2a5dt8788ed6

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