Private Pilot Maneuvers

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Jeppesen Sanderson's Prívate Pílot Maneuvers is a component of 1

the Guided Fligh~Discovery Pilot Training System and is copyright \'protected.No part of this publicationmay be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means - ¡electronic or otherwise - without the prior permission Ofl I.Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc.

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@ Jeppesen Sanderson, Ine., 1997,2002,2003AII Rights Reserved

55 Inverness Orive East, Englewood, ca 80112-5498International Standard flook Number 0-88487-239-4

. Printed in Canada

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All of the individual components of Jeppesen Sanderson's Guided Flight Discovery Pilot TrainingSystem concentrate on an application-ariented approach to pilot training. Nothing exemplifies thisphilosophy more than Prívate PiJot Maneuvers. When used in conjunction with the other compo-nents of the Private Pilot Program, this manual provides an effective, practical approach to yourtraining. As you examine this manual, you will discover that the maneuvers are numbered for easeof reference and are grouped into categaries based on similar operational characteristics. While thecategaries are organized to present the maneuvers in the chronological arder in which they are typ-ically introduced, this does not limit the flexibility and usability of the manual; you can study andreview the maneuvers in any order you desire .

Each maneuver is presented using colorful graphics, step-by-step procedure descriptions, helpfulhints, and the associated FAA practical test standards. In addition, Prívate Pílot Maneuvers isdesigned to lay flat for ease of study and instruction, whether you are on the ground ar in flight.These, and other unique features of the manual, are explained in further detail in the section titled"How the Manual Warks" starting on page vi.

To help you integrate the content of this manual with the associated Private Pilot ManeuversVideos and CD-ROMs, a cross-reference is included at the beginning of each maneuver category.The video and CD-ROM programs are available far your use at participating schools and aredesigned to enhance and complement your study. You also can purchase the Private PilotManeuvers CD-ROMs far self-paced home study. These revolutionary CD-ROMs combine video,animation, and interactivity to create a dynamic learning experience. When used together, thecomponents of the Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot Program provide the finest pilot trainingavailable .

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IV

GRDUND DPERATIDNSMANEUVER 1

P REFLI GHT IN S PECTI O N ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1 - 2MANEUVER 2

E N G IN E STA RT IN G ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1 -6MANEUVER 3

TAX 11N G ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1 - B

MANEUVER 4BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECK ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1 -, 2

MANEUVER SPOSTFLIGHT PROCEDURES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1-, 6

EXERCISESGROUND OPERATIONS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1 -2 1

BASIC MANEUVERSMANEUVER 6

STRAI GHT-AN D-LEVEL FLI GHT •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2-2MANEUVER 7eLI M SS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2-4

MANEUVER 8oES eENTS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2-6

MANEUVER 9Tu R N S •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2 -8

EXERCISESBASIC MANEUVERS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2- 1 3

AIRPDRT DPERATIDNSMANEUVER 10

N oRMAL TAKEOF"F"ANo CLIMB•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3- 2MANEUVER 1 1

CROSSWINO TAKEOF"F"ANO CLIMB •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3-4MANEUVER 12

TRAF"FI e PATTERN s 3-6MANEUVER 13

NORMAL ApPROACH ANO LANOING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3-1 2MANEUVER 14

CROSSWINO ApPROACH ANO LANOING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3-20EXERCISES

Al RPO RT OP ERATIoN 5 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3 -23

EMERGENCY LANDING PRDCEDURESMANEUVER 1 S

SVSTEMS ANO E~UIPMENT MALF"UNCTIONS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 4-2MANEUVER 16

EMERGENCV ApPROACH ANO LANOING •••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 4-4EXERCISES

EMERGENCV LANOING PROCEOURES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 4-9

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FLIGHT MANEUVERSMANEUVER 17

S LDW rLI GHT •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5- 2MANEUVER 18

POWER-D FF STALLS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5-4MANEUVER 19

POWER-ON STALLS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5-8MANEUVER 20

DEMONSTRATEO STALLS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5-1 1MANEUVER 21

S T EEP J""UR N S ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5- 14EXERCISES

FLIGHT MANEUVERS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5-17

GROUNO REFERENCE MANEUVERSMANEUVER 22

RECTANGULAR COURSE ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-2MANEUVER 23

s-TuR N S ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6 -4MANEUVER 24

Tu RNS AROUNO A POINT ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-6

EXERCISESG ROUNO REFERENCE MANEUVERS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-9

PERFORMANCE TAKEOFFSANO LANOINGS

MANEUVER 25S HORT-FIELO TAKEOFF ANO CLIMB••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-2

MANEUVER 26S HORT-FIELO ApPROACH ANO LAN OING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-4

MANEUVER 27SOFT-FIELO TAKEOFF ANO CLIMB ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-6

MANEUVER 28SOFT-FIELO ApPROACH ANO LANOING ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-8

EXERCISESPERFORMANCE TAKEOFFS ANO LANOINGS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-1 1

SPECIAL FLIGHT OPERATIONSMANEUVER 29

ATTITUOE INSTRUMENT FLYING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8-2MANEUVER 3D

NIGHT OPERATIONS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8-1 OEXERCISES

SPECIAL FLIGHT DPERATIONS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8-1 5

A N S W E R S A- 1v

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Private Pilot Maneuvers uses colorful graphics and step-by-step proceduredescriptions to help you visualize and understand each maneuver you willperform in the airplane. Additional guidance is provided through insets

which contain helpful hints, common errors, and FAA practical test standards .To get the most out of this manual, as well as the entire Guided Flight Discovery Pilot

Training System, you may find it beneficial to review the major design elements in this texto

14 - CROSSWINOApPROACH ANO LANOING

SkillEnhancement InsetsThese insets provide expanded inslruc-tional guidance, helpful hinls, rules ofthumb, and other information which canhelp you perform Ihe maneuver more pre-cisely Ihe firsl lime. In addition. commOllerrors, and ways lo avoid them. are dis-cussed where applicable .

Step-By-Step ProceduresManeuver procedures are presenled usingnumbered step-by-step descriptions. Eachstep relates lo a corresponding ballflag inIhe supporling graphic .

VI

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ExercisesExercises follow each 01' the eighttabbed eategories to help you evaluateyour understanding ol' ea eh maneuverpresented. Answers are provided althe end al' the manual.

PTS InsetsThe FAA practica) test standardsassociated with eaeh maneuver arepresented in an inset al the end ofthe maneuver descriptiun .

EXERCISESGROUNDOPERATIONS

- PREFLIGHT INSPECTION

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2 - ENGlNE STARTING

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VII

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. . . . . . . . . .

Ground Operations

MAN E UVE R 4 ..........•... 1- 1 2BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECK

MANEUVER 3TAXIING

MANEUVER 5 1-16P05TFLlGHT PROCEDURE5

MANEUVER2.... . 1-6ENGINE STARTING

MANEUVER 1 1-2PREFLlGHT IN5PECTION

EXERCISES

Volume 1 - Ground Operations, Basic Maneuvers, AirportOperations, and Emergency Landing Procedures

Since there can be vast differences in ground operations from one airplane toanother, the procedures in this section are intentionally general in nature .Therefore, it is imperative that you use an appropriate printed checklist whichprovides a logical step-by-step sequence for each task you will perform .

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As a pilot, you are the final authority regarding the airworthiness and safe operation ofyour aircraft.Your flight instructor will point out the various components to be inspected and explain how todetermine the airworthiness of the airplane. In addition, the pilot's operating handbook (POH) nor-mally contains a checklist and other information regarding the preflight inspection. If a discrepancyis discovered during your preflight inspection, it should be evaluated and, if required, correctedprior to the flight.You may need to enlist the assistance of an aviation maintenance technician toanswer questions or resolve problems that you find while inspecting the airplane .

Prior to performing a visual inspection of the airplane, you should check the aircraft logbooks andrecords to ensure that the appropriate airworthiness directives have been complied with, mainte-nance requirements have been met, and aircraft inspections have been performed. Airworthinessdirectives (ADs) require correction of unsafe conditions found in engines, propellers, and other equip-ment. ADs also prescribe the conditions under which the affected equipment may continue to be oper-ated. Records of AD compliance and the aircraft logbooks are not required to be on board the aircraft .

Your preflight inspection should begin as you walk toward the airplane. This provides youwith an overall look at the airplane that may indicate items you will want to inspect moreclosely during your walkaround. During the winter months, you should remove aH frost,snow, and ice accumulations £rom the airplane surfaces .

IN CABIN

• In the cabin, verify that all the required paperwork is on board the airplane. Use theacronym ARROW to help you remember the required documents .

Airworthiness certificate (required by FAA)

Registration certificate (required by FAA)

Radio station class license (required by the Federal Communications Commission whentransmitting to ground stations outside the United States)

Operating instructions, pilot's operating handbook, or approved aircraft flight manual(required by FAA)

Weight and Balance data, as well as equipment list (required by FAA)

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PREFLlGHT INSPECTIDN ffi

gol !he aírplane. lhe slalic port can become plugged. 11is importanllhallhe slalic source be open

1'" airspeed Indicalor, allimeler, and vertical speed indicalor .

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RIGHT WING

FUSELAGE (RIGHT SIDE)

EMPENNAGE

• If a static port is located on the fuselage, check for obstructions .

FUSELAGE (LEFT SIDE)

eh as wtlnkled skln. may indicale inlernal slruclural damage .

0'1'I!IJhl aircratt, you may encounler an airplane which has an approved mínimum equipment

apy o, in5truments and equípmenllhal may legally be inoperalive. If your aírplane has an

8t ¡ stt'Umenls and equipmenl are required, how lo operate lhe airplane wilh inoper-

I:l es for oDlaining a special flighl permil.

• Check the lower surface of the fuselage fOl'evidence of engine oilleakage, dents, and gen-eral condition .

• Next, remove Ihe control lock and check the conl:rols for freedom of movement.

• Clear the propeller area, and then turn the master switch ON.

• Verify proper operation of fuel gauges and note the fuel quantity in each tank .

• Lower Ihe flaps and lurn the master switch OFF.,• Inspect the instrument panel for any irregularities, such as cracked glass or any equipment

which may have been removed for maintenance .

• Ensure the windscreen and windows are clean and in good condition .

• Before continuing to the exterior inspection, verify that the magneto switch, masterswitch, mixture control, and throttle are in the OFF position .

• Moving toward the tail, visually inspect the left side of the fuselage for skin wrinkles,dents, and loose rivets .

• Examine the rudder for damage, loose hinge bolts, and freedom of movement.

• Closely inspect the control cables and stop s for damage .

• Visually inspect the flashing beacon, tai! light, and VOR navigation antenna on the verti-cal stabilizer for damage .

• Examine the elevator (01' stabilator) trim tab, checking for security and general condition .

• For tailwheel airplanes, check the steering arms, cables, and springs fur wear .Additionally, inspect the tire for wear, cuts, abrasions, and proper inflation .

• Lastly, remove Ihe tail tiedown chain or rope .

• Thoroughly inspect the wing flap for general condition and the flap hinges for security.

• Remove the external rudder lock (if installed) .

• Inspect the tail surfaces for general condition, looking closely for skin wrinkles, dents,and loose rivets .

• Inspect the right side fuselage, as before, looking for skin wrinkles, dents, and loose rivets .

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• Check the engine cowl for security.

• Remove the wing tiedown rope or chain.

ú'Om condensation 01 moisture in lhe air, or il may be presenl in lhe fuel added to the

,ªvlalion fuel, It will setlle to lhe botlom 01 the luel lester .

w si poInt in the fuel system so any water present should accumulale in the strainer .

LANDING GEAR (RIGHT SIDE)

• Inspect the aileron surfaces for dents and skin wrinkles and the hinges for security, dam-age, and freedom of movement.

• Check the aileron pushrod or cables for security, damage, and tension .

• Check the right wingtip for damage and secure attachment, and inspect the right naviga-tion light.

• Examine the leading edge of the wing for dents or other damage .

• Inspect the upper surface of the wing for wrinkles or dents which may indicate internalstructural damage .

• Next, remove the fuel cap and visually check the fuel quantity. In addition to ensuring thatthe fuel quantity is sufficient for the proposed flight, you should verify that the fuellevelagrees with the fuel quantity gauge indication observed earlier .

• Before replacing the fuel cap, inspect the rubber gasket for cracks or deterioration .

• Inspect the fuel vent in the filler cap for obstructions, and then replace the filler cap andtighten it securely .

• Use your fuel tester to take a fuel sample from the fuel tank drain and check the color toverify that the fuel is the proper grade. If water or other contaminants are found in thesample, continue draining fuel until there is no evidence of contamination .

• If the flap track is visible, check to ensure it is in good condition and does not showunusual wear .

• Inspect the skin around the attachment points of the main landing gear for dents andwrinkles .

• Examine the tire for proper inflation, cuts, and condition of the tread .

• Check the wheel fairing (if installed) for cracks, dents, and security .

• Inspect the brake pads for wear and the hydraulic brake lines for security and leaks .

• If your airplane is equipped with oleo struts, ensure proper strut inflation .

NOSE• Open the cowl access door to inspect the engine components for loose wires and clamps,

worn hoses, and oil or fuelleaks .

• Determine the oil quantity by removing and reading the dipstick. Add oil if the level isbelow the minimum recommended by the manufacturero Then, replace the dipstick andtighten it securely .

• Drain the fuel strainer (if located within the engine compartment) for several seconds toeliminate any water or contaminants .

• If there is a fuel drain directly below the fuel selector on the underside of the airplane,take a fuel sample and check for contamination .

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to tije stall warning vane inspection, you can check Ihe signal when Ihe vane is

ster switch off immedialely after making Ihis inspection .

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é he a rspeed indicalor lo mallunclion .

Objective: To determine that Ihe applicant:

PREFLlGHT INSPECTION

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LEFT WING

:sofi cloth and a cleaning compound specilically designed lor airplane windshields. A

~ scralch the windshield surface .

LANDING GEAR (LEFT SIDE)

propellers can gene rally be detectad by oi! streaks on Ihe back side 01 the

r windscreen .

• If your airplane has a constant-speed propeller, check for oilleaks .

estess in the metal and should be repaired by an aviation lechnician prior to llight.

PREFLlGHT 'N5PECTION ~

• Inspect the propeller and spinner for security and check the propeller for nicks and cracks .

• Inspect the left wing as you did the right wing .

• Examine the pitot tube for damage and check the opening for obstructions .

• Exhibits knowledge 01 Ihe elements related to preflight inspeetion. This shall inelude which ¡tems mustbe inspeeted, Ihe reasons for checking each ítem, and how to detect possibte defeets.

• Inspects the airplane with relerence to an appropriate checklist.

• Verilies the airplane is in condition for sale Ilight.

• If the airplane is equipped with a pneumatic stall warning device, check the opening forobstructions.

• If the static port is located on the pitot tube, ensure it is clean and free of obstructions .

• Check the stall warning vane (if installed) for freedom of movement.

• Examine the left main landing gear as you did the right main gear .

• If a static. port is located on the cowling, check for obstructions .

• Examine the nosewheel tire for proper inflation, cuts, abrasions, and condition of the tread .

• Check the wheel fairing (if installed) for cracks, dents, and security .

• Carefully inspect 'the nosewheel strut for proper inflation, leaks, and security .

• Inspect the steering linkages for security and the shimmy damper for leaks or damage .

• Check the cowl flaps (if installed) for security .

• Check the exterior surface of the windshield for cleanliness and general condition .

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Although engine startíng procedures can vary from one make and model of airplane to anather .there are sorne safety precautíons whích are common to most general aviation aircraft. You shouldavoid startíng the engine wíth the tai! of the airplane pointed toward people standing nearby. prop-erty on the rampo open hangers. or other aircraft that could be damaged by the wind blast from thepropeller. Inspect the ground under the propeller before you start the engine. especíally if you areoperatíng on an unimproved surface. Rocks. pebbles. or any other loase debris can be pícked up bythe propeller and cause damage to the blades or be hurled backward. Since there are a number ofdifferent procedures used to start airplane engines. ít is very important to follow the appropríateprinted •.hccklist provided by the aircraft manufacturero The POH normally contains a checklíst andexpanded procedures for engine starting .

Place the carburetor heat control in the COLD positíon (if applícable) .

Set the mixture control to RICH .'-6

ENGINE STARTING

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ásary to use an external power source to provide sufficient energy to start the engine.

O\.J d service plug receptacle. carefully follow the procedures oullined in the POH .

Objective: To determine that the applicant

Utilizes the appropriate checklist for starting procedure.

Turn the anti-collision lights on to provide a visual warning to people appro~ching the air-plane that the engine is running.

Adjust the throttle to the recommended idle power setting .

With the area clear, turn the master switch ON .

ENGINE STARTING

Open the throttle approximately 1/8 to 1/2 inch, depending on the manufacturer's recom-mendation .

Prior to starting the engine, ensure the are a around the airplane is clear. Open a window orthe door, call out, "eLEAR," and listen for a response .

Check the oil pressure gauge to ensure the oil pressure registers within the green are. If theoil pressure do es not register in the normal range within 30 seconds in warm weather orwithin 60 seconds in cold weather, immediately shut down the engine to prevent possibledamage .

Use the engine primer to pump fuel into the intake system. The number of primer strokesrequired depends on the length of time the engine has been shut down and the temperatureof the outside airo In cold weather, a greater number of primer strokes may be necessary thanwhen operating in warmer temperatures. Refer to your airplane's POH for the manufacturer'srecommendation .

Turn or press the ignition switch to engage the starter. To avoid damage to the starter, returnthe switch to the BOTH position as soon as the engine starts .

• Exhlbits knowledge of the elements related to recommended englne starting procedures. This shallinclude the use 01 an external power source, hand propping safety. and starting under variousatmospheric conditions.

• Positions the airplane properly considering structures. surface conditions. other aircrafl. and the safetyof nearby persons and property.

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BASIC TAXI TECHNI~UES

slJstain an airplane in motion on a 50ft surface, such as grass, lhan on a

while taxiing may cause excessive wear or overhealing.

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Test the brakes for proper operation and then readjust the power setting to obtain a normaltaxi speed. Taxi speed is primarily controlled by the throttle and secondarily by the brakes .Use the brakes only when a reduction of engine r.p.m. is not sufficient lo slow the airplane .

Clear the area around the airplane. Add power slowly until the airplane begins rolling andthen reduce power. More power is required lo start the airplane rolling than is required tokeep it rolling .

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To become proficient at taxiing, you must learn directional control techniques and the properthrottle usage to control speed. To maneuver on the ground, most light training aircraft have asteerable nosewheel which is linked lo the rudder pedals. The main landing gear usually havebrakes which are differentially controlled by toe pressure on the rudder pedals. The aileronsare normally used to maintain control while taxiing in windy conditions. You should refer lothe pilot's operating handbook and the appropriate checklist for specific taxi procedures foryour airplane .

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HEADWINDS

f:1eadwnd lhere is litlle or no tendency lor the airplane lo tip since the wind Ilows over and

r,(fpressure on Ihe yoke while laxing ¡nlo a slrong headwind lorces Ihe lail up and Ihe noseoad placed on Ihe nose gear, compresses Ihe nose slrul, and puts Ihe propeller closer lo

11 oes nOI creale a hazard. on rough or uneven lerrain Ihe likelihood 01 a propeller

Hold the yoke neutral or slightly farward to maintain the elevatar (ar stabilatar) in a neutralar slightly down position. This will exert normal pressure on the nose gear .

When taxiing over rough ground, hold the yoke af! so the elevatar (or stabilator) is raised.This procedure forces the tail down and increases propeller clearance .

Press the right rudder pedal to turn the airplane to the right and the left rudder pedal to turnto the left. It is recommended that you taxi no faster than a brisk walk. In a confined area, taxiat a speed slow enough to enable you to stop by reducing the power ar shutting down theengine in the event of a brake failure .

Hold the yoke to maintain the ailerons in a neutral ar level position .

r ltd separalely, applying Ihe brakes in Ihe direction 01a tum can be helplul in reducing Iheté.t e left orake by pressing the top 01 the left rudder pedal and Ihe righl brake by press-

TAXIING

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While taxiing in moderate ar strong wind conditions, you must use special techniques to main-tain aircraft control. The aileron, rudder, and elevator (ar stabilatar) controls are relatively inef-fective at slow speeds. However, as the speed of air over the control surfaces increases, controleffectiveness also increases. The flight controls respond the same, whether you are taxiing at 5knots with no wind or sitting still with a 5-knot headwind. However, if you taxi the airplane at 15knots into a 15-knot wind, the controls have a 30-knot airflow over them and respond to thatvelocity of airflow .

TAXIING IN

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~UARTERING HEADWINDSIn a strong quartering headwind, there is a tendency for the wind to get under the upwind wing andtip the airplane toward the downwind side. With improper aileron placement, the upwind wing canbe lifted which can cause directional control problems or even overturn the airplane. In addition,wind striking the rudder can cause the airplane to turn into the wind. Improper elevator (or stabila-tor) position can reduce nosewheel friction and increase this weathervaning tendency .

IIstor is incorrectly positioned upward, the wind may raise Ihe tail causing the airplane to have a ten-

Hold the yoke full forward to maintain the elevator (or stabilator) in a full down position .This causes the wind to strike the upper surface of the elevator (or stabilator) and to exert adownward force on the tail .

'1. eea to reduce the throttle to idle to control your taxi speed. Taxling in a tailwind usually

caClSft tlJe wind has a lendency to push the airplane, increasing taxi speed .

Hold the yoke to maintain the elevator (or stabilator) in a neutral or level position. A neutralelevator position will help maintain sufficient nosewheel friction and allow positive direc-tional control.

Fully turno the yoke in the direction ofthe wind placing the upwind aileron in the up position .Due to reduced control effectiveness at slow taxi speeds, full aileron def1ection is required .

Hold the yoke to maintain the ailerons in a neutral or level position .

TAXIING IN TAILWINDSThe effectiveness of the airplane controls also is influenced by tailwinds. For example, if you taxithe airplane at 5 knots with a tailwind of 5 knots, the taxi speed and the wind speed are canceled,and the controls respond as though no wind exists. If you slow the airplane, the controls respond asthough there were an increasing tailwind component. When you stop the airplane completely, the.control surfaces are subjected to the direct effects of a 5-knot tailwind .

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TAXIING

Objeclive: To determine Ihatthe applicant:

I,lare slowing down and beginning a lurn in a quarlering lailwind. The increasing lailwind

aLt60dency 01 Ihe airplane lo lip during Ihe lurn, makes Ihe airplane especially vul •

¡:¡e&ds and slow lurns minimize Ihis danger .

TAXIING- ._-~- -- "

Hold the yoke fu1l forward to maintain the elevator (or stabilator) in a down position whichwill countcract the airplanc's tipping tendency .

Fully turn the yoke in the direction away fram the wind. In a right quartcring tailwind turnthe yokc fully to the left, or left aileron up. Reverse the position of the ailcran control whentaxiing with a left quartering tailwind .

• Positions the Ilight controls properly lor Ihe exisling wind conditions .

• Performs a brake check immedialely afler the airplane begins moving .

• Conlrols direction and speed wilhout excessive use 01brakes .

• Complies with airportllaxiway markings, signals, ATC c1earances, and instruclions .

• Taxies so as lo avoid other aircraft and hazards .

• Exhibils knowledge 01 Ihe elements related to sale taxi procedures .

QUARTERING TAILWINDSA quartering tailwind is the most critical wind condition for taxiing a tricycle gear, high-wing air-planeo Since quartering tailwinds have a tendency to flow beneath the elevator (or stabilator) and !iftthe tail, the airplanc may tip over on thc nosewheel and one main wheel.

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3. Check the flight controls far freedom of movement, full travel, and corree! control surface deflection .

2. Verify that the cabin doars are securely closed and locked .

. InQ tw doors know how lo operale Ihe lateh and loeking meehanism .

The befare takeoff check is an integral part of every flight. When perfarming the befare takeoffcheck, you should use the checklist provided by the airplane manufacturer ar operator. This helpsensure that each item is checked in the proper sequen ce and that no items are omitted. After taxiinglo the runup area, position the airplane so the propeller blast is not directed toward other aircraft,buildings, ar vehicles. If possible, point the nose of the airplane into the wind to improve enginecooling. To prevent damage to the propeller and other parts of the airplane, avoid engine runups onloase gravel ar sand. During the befare takeoff check, you should divide your attention betweenyour cockpit duties and outside the airplane. The befare takeoff check may include, but is not lim-ited to the following items .

1. Set the parking brake .

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!>.¡ you may need lo lean Ihe mixlure lar smoolh engine

D1e POH for lhe appropriale procedures .

Sel Ihe allimeler lo Ihe currenl allimeler setting or lo Ihe correctfield elevation. If the altimeter does not indicate Ihe lield elevationwíthin 75 feet, you should consider postponing the llight.

6. Set the mixture control to RICH as required for field eleva-tion or as required by the POH.

The attilude indicalor should be erect wilh Ihe minialure airplane aligned wilh Ihe horizon.

8EFORE TAKEOFF CHECK- --- .'- ~~ -~--

Check Ihal the verlical speed indicator (VSI) is pointíng at zera. If Ihe VSI is not pointing al zera, you maylly Ihe aircraft and use Ihe indicaled value as Ihe zero indication .

4. Check and set the flight instruments .

7. Set the elevator trim and rudder trim (if installed) to the TAKEOFF position.

5. Position the fuel selector valveto the fullest tan k or to theBOTH position, as recom-mended by the POH.

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8. Smoothly add power to the r.p.m. setting recommended by the manufacturer for the powercheck (also called the runup). You should also hold the brakes to ensure the airplane does notmove forward during the runup .

9. Check eaeh magneto for proper operation. Test the magnetos by noting the r.p.m. with the mag-neto switch in the BOTH position, then move the magneto switch to the RIGHT position andnote the r.p.m. drop. Next, return the magneto switch to BOTH, then switch to the LEFT positionand again note the r.p.m. drop. Finally, return the magneto switch to the BOTH position for take-off. The airplane manufacturer specifies the maximum permissible r.p.m. reductions for eachmagneto, as well as the maximum differential.

10. Position the carburetor heat control to ON and check for a corresponding drop in r.p.m., thenreturn it to the COLD position. In sorne atmospheric conditions, carburetor ice may form whiletaxiing. This may be noted by a larger initial drop in r.p.m. followed by a slight increase inr.p.m. The initial drop may be accompanied by engine roughness which subsides with ther.p.m. increase .

11. Check the engine instruments and ammeter for normal indications. With the exception of theoil temperature gauge, the engine instruments should register in the green ares. In coldweather, oil temperature might not indicate in the normal range until after takeoff. An amme-ter discharge or low voltage light may indicate a faulty alternator, broken alternator belt, orexcessive electrical load .

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BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECK-- _,~---_~I __ o

12. Check the suction gauge for a normal indication. A low reading may indi-cate a dirty air filter. Unreliable gyro indications may result if sufficient suc-tion is not maintained .

13. Reduce power to approximately 1,000 r.p.m .

14. Set the communication and navigation radios to the appropriate frequencies .

15. Set the transponder to the appropriate code. While you typically should use the code 1200 forVFR flight, you may b.e assigned a discrete transponder code at sorne airports .

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16. Ensure your Janding light, navigation lights, flashing beacon and/or strobe lights are on asrequired .

17. Adjust the throttle friction as desired .

18. Review performance airspeeds .

19. Release the parking brake .

20. Clear the area of traffic before taxiing into the takeoff position. After receiving your takeoffclearance (if required), you should check the final approach path, any taxiways you may crossto get to the runway, and the runway itself .

BEFORETAKEOFFCHECK

Objective: To determine that the applicant:

• Exhibits knowledge 01the elements related to the before takeoff check. This shall include the reasons lor

checking each item and how to detect malfunctions .

• Positlons Ihe airplane properly considering other aircraftlvessels, wind and surface conditions .

• Divides altention inside and outside the cockpit.

• Ensures that engine temperature and pressure are suitable for run-up and takeoff .

• Accomplishes the befo re takeoff checklist and ensures the airplane is in safe operating condition .

• Reviews takeoff performance airspeeds, takeoff distances, departure. and emergency procedures .

• Avoids runway incursions and/or ensures no conflict with traffic prior to taxiing into takeoff position .

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Many pilots maintain a high level of vigilance throughout a flight; however, the flight is not overonce you arrive on the runway - you still have several impartant tasks to perform as part of yourpostflight procedures. These tasks include completing the after landing and engine shutdownchecklists as well as parking and securing the airplane .

AFTER LANCINe;After landing, gradually slow the airplane to normal taxi speed befare turning off the runway. Youshould use the manufacturer's checklist to perfarm the after landing check once the airplane isstopped clear of the active runway .

Retract the wing flaps .

Move the carburetar heat control to the COLD position to prevent unfiltered air from beingdrawn into the carburetar, causing damage to the internal components of the engine .

At tower controlled airparts, contact ground control for taxi clearance .

After receiving your taxi clearance, clear the area around the airplane to avoid taxi conflicts .While taxiing, you should position the flight controls as appropriate far the prevailing windconditions .

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Install the controllock .

Turn the master switch OFF.

Set the mixture control to IDLE CUT-OFF.

Turn OFF the avionÍGs power switch .

Turn OFF all electrical equipment .

Turn the ignition switch OFF when the engine stops. As an added precaution, remove thekey £rom the ignition .

Set the throttle to idle, or as recommended by the manufacturero

a wish fo check lor accidental activation 01the ELT by tuning 121.5 MHz on a communication radio .

Set the parking brake .

POSTFLlGHT PROCEDURES

ENGINE SHUTDOWNMany aircraft have specific procedures for engine shutdown. You should always follow the recom-mendations contained in the POH.

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PARKING ANO SECURINGWhen taxiing into the parking area, you should use a safe taxi speed and follow any hand signalsyou receive £rom ramp personnel. In general, there are two ways to park an airplane. One way is totaxi the airplane into its designated parking spot, shut down and secure the engine, then safelydeplane any passengers. However, because of the proximity of other aircraft, this procedure may notbe possible. In this situation, you should taxi the airplane near your intended parking spot and posi-tion the airplane so that the propwash does not endanger people or property on the rampo Then,shut down and secure the engine, safely deplane any passengers, and use a towbar to maneuver theairplane into parking. Once you have positioned the airplane in its parking spot, you should tiedown the airplane and perform a postflight inspection .

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2. Place chocks in front of and behind the main wheels .

meye !he airplane by pushing on various components. You can push on the leading

I Sfabiliz.ers as long as you only apply pressure lo Ihe leading edge near Ihe fuselage .

goOO push poi nI on low-wing airplanes; however. be careful lO only apply pressure

Itplanes. you can move Ihe airplane by pushing on Ihe wing slruls .

1. Release the parking brake and position the airplane in the parking spot using a towbar, if necessary .

3. Secure the airplane with tiedown chains or ropes .

4. Install the pitot tube cover .

5. Complete a postfIight inspection using a checklist, if available. A typical postflight inspectionincludes checking for leaking fIuids, airframe damage, proper tire infIation. and a variety ofother items.

TIEDDWNTo avoid damage from high winds or gusty conditions, you must secure the airplane properly. Thisis usually accomplished using chocks and tiedown ropes or chains .

1-1 B

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POSTFLIGHT PROCEDURES

6. Remove aH personal materials [ram the cockpit, stow the seatbelts, and close and lock aH doorsand windows .

AFTER LANOING, PARKING ANO SECURING


Exhibits knowledge 01 the elements related to alter landing. parking. and securing procedures .

Maintains directional control alter touchdown while decelerating to an appropriate speed .

• Observes runway hold lines and other surface control markings and lighting .

Parks in an appropriate area, considering the salety 01 nearby persons and property .

• Fo/lows tha appropriate procedure lor angine shutdown .

• Completes the appropriate checklisl.

• Conducts an appropriate poslfhght inspection and secures the aircralt .

1-19

1-21

2. Daes the effectiveness af the aileran , rudder, and elevatar (ar stabilatar) cantrols in crease ar

decrease as the airplane's speed decreases? _

2. What dacuments are required an board the airplane?

EXERCISES - GROUND OPERATIONS ~I

3. Haw can yau tell when water is present in a fuel sample?

5. After starting the engine, what actian shauld yau take in the event the ail pressure daes nat

register within the green are in the recammended time?

4. After yau start the engine in cald weather, the ail pressure shauld register properly within

haw many secands? _

5. What dacuments are nat required ta be an board the airplane? _A. Airwarthiness certificate, aircraft lagbaaksB. Airwarthiness directives (ADsl, maintenance recardsC. Airwarthiness directives (ADsl, appraved flight manual

2. The primer pumps fuel inta what part af the engine?

3. Where wauld yau find procedural informatian an starting the airplane with an external pawer saurce?

1. What shauld yau use ta ensure that all steps are campleted when perfarrning a preflight inspectian?

1. True/False. Befare yau start the engine, a tharaugh laak araund the propeller eliminates the

need far apening a windaw ar daar and shauting "CLEAR!" _

4. True/False. Nicks an the propeller can cause excessive stress and shauld be checked by a cer-

tificated mcchanic. _

1. True/False. Taxi speed is primarily cantrolled by using the brakes. _

1 - PREFLIGHT INSPECTION

2 - ENGINE STARTING

3 - TAXIINGThe following questions pertain to a tricycle gear airplane .

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3. What action is helpful in reducing the radius of a tum while taxiing?

4. How would you position the flight controls for the surface wind conditions depicted in illustration A?

5. How would you position the flight controls for the surface wind conditions depicted in illustration B?

4 - BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECK

1. Why should you position the nos e of the airplane into the wind during the runup?

2. True/False. If the altimeter setting is not available during the before takeoff check, you can

adjust the altimeter to agree with field elevation. _

3. As you apply carburetor heat during the runup should the r.p.m. increase or decrease (assum-

ing no carburetor ice existsj?

4. What may occur if sufficient vacuum pressure (suction) is not maintained?

5. True/False. Unless you are assigned a discrete transponder code, you should use 1220 for VFR

flight. _

s - POSTFLIGHT PROCEDURES

1. Why should you ensure the carburetor heat is COLD while taxiing?

2. How can you check for accidental activation of your ELT?

3. True/False. You should install the controllock before engine shutdown. _

4. If you move an airplane by pushing on the leading edge of a wing, where should you apply

pressure?

5. While securing your airplane, where should you normally place the chocks?

1-22

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Basic Maneuvers

MAN EUVE R 6 .STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLlGHT

MANEUVER 8DESCENTS

MANEUVER 7CLlMBS

MANEUVER 9TURNS

EXERCISES


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1800'Altitude

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Nase LowAttitude

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0800

Heading2000'A/litude

Wings Level

PILOT PASSING CONTROL: "You hove the flight controis."

PILOT TAKING CONTROL: "i hove the flight controls. "

During straight-and-Ievel flight you can maintain a constant heading and altitude by controlling thenose and wing positions with reference to the natural horizon. Although the flight instruments maybe used as a eros s-check to confirm that you are maintaining straight-and-Ievel flight, your primaryreference should be the horizon to the front and side of your airplane. Keeping your eyes primarilyfocused outside the cockpit also helps you see and avoid other aircraft.

Trim adjustments eliminate the need for continuous forward or backward pressure on the yoke tomaintain attitude. If the airplane feels nose-heavy, you are holding back pressure to maintain agiven attitude. Likewise, if forward pressure is required, the airplane will feel tail-heavy. When it isproperly trimmed, you will not have to apply either forward or back pressure to maintain a constantpitch attitude. Use the trim tab only to remove pressure; do not use it to fly the airplane. The properprocedure is to set the airplane in the desired pitch attitude and at the selected airspeed, then trimaway any control pressure necessary to hold that attitude. With a few exceptions, tri m tab adjust-ments should be made whenever you must apply a continuous forward or rearward force to theyoke. The same principIes apply to trimming the rudder however, since it is not as easy to feel thecontrol pressures, you should refer to the turn coordinator while trimming the rudder to maintaincoordinated 'flight.

When you are introduced to straight-and-Ievel flight (or any other maneuver), your instructor willnormally demonstrate the maneuver first, then pass the controls to you. To ensure that it is clear asto who has control of the airplane, the FAA strongly recommends the use of a three-step processwhen exchanging the flight controls. During the preflight briefing, you should review with yourinstructor the following procedures for passing control of the airplane .

PILOT PASSING CONTROL: "You hove the fiight controls. "

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-- -----'" ..:. --- STRAIGHT-ANO-LEVEL F"L1GHT I~.IThe pilot passing the controls should continue to fly until the pilot taking the controls acknowl-edges the exchange by saying, "1 hove the flight controls." A visual check al so is recommended toensure that the other pilot actually has the controls. There may be times when your instructordesires to assume control of the airplane from you. If this is necessary, your instructor should takethe controls while informing you, "1hove the flight controls."

Establish the airplane on a speefic heading and altitude. Adjust the rudder to maintain coor-dinated flight and trim to relieve control pressures .

• Maintain a wings-level position by keeping the wingtips a given distance above (high-wing airplane) or below (low-wing airplane) the horizon .

• By keeping a point on the airplane's nose or spot on the windshield in a constant positionin relation to a point on the horizon, you can maintain your desired altitude .

Brief periods of inattention, power changes, turbulence, or wind gusts can cause your airplaneto drift away from a desired course and altitude. Once you detect a change in the position ofyour airplane's reference points in relation to the horizon, determine the magnitude of thedeviation from the desired heading and altitude by cross-checking your flighl instrumenls .

Adjust the elevator (or stabilator) and ailerons to return to lhe original heading and allitude.Simultaneously adjust power lo maintain the desired airspeed. Trim to relieve control pressures .

Once you have returned to the desired heading and altitude, adjust the control s to maintainthe proper wing and nose positions in relation to the horizon. Adjust power to maintain air-speed and trim to relieve control pressures .

STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLlGHT

The PTS does not include specific criteria for straight-and-/evel flight using visual references.

However, it does have performance standards fer basic instrument straight-and-Ievef flight. (Se e

Maneuver #29.)

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CLlMBS

2-5

Reduce power to the cruise setting when the desired cruise speed is reached. Trim to relievethe control pressures and, if necessary, lean the mixture .

CLlMBS 0J~--_.-.. ~

eloff. For example, 10% 01a 500 I.p.m. climb would yield a 50.1001 lead lor leveloH.

Maintain climb airspeed and heading using outside references and instrument cross-checks .Use changes in pitch attitude to maintain your airspeed and bank angle adjustments to cor-rect for heading deviations. If changes are necessary, make small adjustments, allow the air-plane to stabilize, then trim to relieve the control pressures .

Ifyou are climbing at 500 f.p.m., return to straight-and-level flight by gradually lowering thenos e approximately 50 feet prior to the desired leveloff altitude. Maintain climb power toaccelerate to cruise speed. As the airplane accelerates, less right rudder pressure will beneeded (or increasing left rudder pressure against the right rudder trim) as the left-turningtendencies diminish .

The PTS does not include specific critería lor climbs using visual references. However, it

does have perlormance standards tor basic instrument constant-airspeed climbs. (See

Maneuver #29.)

After clearing the airspace around your airplane, simultaneously add power and apply backpressure on the yoke. Add right rudder to compensate for the left-turning tendencies whichresult £rom the increase in pitch attitude and decrease in airspeed. Trim up elevator (or sta-bilator) and right rudder (if available) .

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-.E

The descent is a basic flight maneuver which results in a loss of altitude without gaining excessiveairspeed, controlling the rate of doscent with pitch attitude and, in sorne cases, power. Initially, youwill practice descents at the airspeed used for approaches to landings. Afier you learn this type ofdescent, you will practica the cruiso descent which is flown at cruise airspeed and results in ahigher groundspeed.

To fiud the specific airspaed corresponding to the type of descent you want to porform, you shouldrefer to the POH for your airplane. When you perform a descent. you should develop the practice ofestahlishing the proper flight altitudes lIsing visual references first, then cross-check your pamIllo-ters using the flight instruments.

After clearing the airspace around your airplane. appl carburetor heat (if applicable) anelreduce power as required. Gradually apply back pressure to maintain ¡¡Ititude while the air-plane sIows to lhe deseent airspeed.

When you reach lhe deseent airspeed,lO\ver lhe nose slighlly to sel the deseent pitch altiludeand maiutain airspeed. Trim to relieve control pressures.

att ude is near1y the same as that used lor straight-and.level cruising f1ight. While you nor-

lIJIerandlor pitch anitude changes, you can also use conliguration changes. Extending Ihe

a~ inareases your deseenl rale withoul increasing your airspeed.

Maintain descent airspeed and heading. Cross-cheek your airspeed and rate of descent usingthe airpIane nose position in relation to the horizon, the airspeed indieator, the verticalspeed indieator, and the piteh attitude on the attitude indieator.

• In a power-off glide, pitch attitude control s airspeed; raise the nose to deerease airspeed,and Iower the nos e to increase airspeed. Always trim afier any adjustment is made lo pitchattitude.

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2-7

fór le"eloff. For example. 10% 01 a 500 f.p.m. c1imb would yield a 50.loot lead lar leveloff .

DESCENTS

The PTS does nol include specilic crilería for descents using visual references. However,

il does have performance standards lar basic instrument consta ni airspeed descenls. (See

Maneuver #29)

DESCENTS

• To maintain heading. refer to the position of each wingtip in relation to the horizon andcross-check using the heading indicator. AIso, check the tum coordinator to ensure youmaintain coordinated flight. If changes are necessary. make small adjustments. allow theairplane lo stabilize again. Lhel1Lrim lo relieve Lhe control pressures .

• To maintain a constant airspeed in a powered descent. you will need to adjust the nos e atti-tude when you change power. A power addition requires a slightly higher nose attitude,while a slightly lower nos e attitude is needed for a power reduction. Always trim after anyadjustment is made to pitch attitude or power .

If you are descending at 500 f.p.m .. return lo straighl-and.level flighl by gradually rais-ing the Ilose approximately 50 feel prior lo the desired leveloff altilude. Add powor lomaintain airspoed .

Once the airplane is stabilized in straight-and-Ievel cruising flight, trim to relieve controlpressures. Set the carburetor heat to COLD (if applicable) and, if necessary, enrichen the mixture .

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2-8

Turns are accomplished by using outside visual references and monitoring the flight instruments .You will normally begin by practicing level turns ando once mastered. move on to climbing anddescending turns. Turns are divided into three classes:

• Shallow turn - A turn of less than approximately 20° angle of bank

• Mediurn turn - A.,turn between approximately 20° to 45° angle of bank

• Steep turn - A turn of approximately 45° angle of bank or more

LEVEL TURNSWhen you make turns by visual reference. lhe nose of lhe airplane appears lo move in an are withrespect to the borizon. You can determine wben you bave reacbed tbe proper angle of bank byobserving tbe angle of lbe cowling and instrument panel witb respect to lhe borizon .

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2-9

LEVEL TURNS

The PTS does not ¡nclude specific criteria lor level turns using visual relerences. Howover, it

does have performance standards lor basic instrument turns to headings. (See Maneuver #29.)

TURNS

as well as the angle 01bank. The rate at which the airplane rolls depends on how much

e alrplane rolls (steepness 01the bank) depends on how long you dellect the ailerons.

a long as the ailerons are dellected .

a Ing Dy one-hall your bank angle is a good rule 01 thumb lor in¡tial training. However. keep in mind

1 Il;!ad really depends on the type 01turn, turn rate, and rollout rateo As you gain experience. you

te ron in and roll-out technique lor various types 01 turns .

After clearing the airspace around your airplane. add power slightly, turn the airplane in thedesired direction, and apply a slight amount ofback pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude .Maintain coordinated flight by applying rudder in the direction of the turno

Lead the roIl-out by approximately one-haH your angle of bank. Use coordinated aileron andrudder control pressures as you roIl out. Simultaneously. begin releasing the back pressureon the yoke so aileron, rudder, and elevator (or stabilator) pmssures are neutralized when theairplane maches the wings-Ievel position .

When you reach the desired angle of bank. neutralize the ailerons. Trim to relieve controlpressures .

Upon reaching a wings-Ievel attitude, reduce power and trim to remove control pressures .

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CLIMBING TURNSThe objective of practicing climbing turns is to smoothly combine the techniques of climbs withthose of turns. InitiaIly, you may practice climbing turns with a two-step process. First, you estab-lish climb power and attitude, then roll to the desired angle of bank. As you gain experience andproficiency, you will en ter the maneuver by establishing both the climb and bank attitude at thesame time .

You should use the same airspeed for straight climbs and climbing turns. However, your rate ofclimb wilI be less for climbing turns than straight climbs. GeneraIly. you perform climbing turnsusing shallow bank angles. because steep bank angles divert more Dfthe vertical component Df lift,which causes a reduction in rate of climb .

After clearing the airspace around your airplane, simultaneously add power, apply backpressure on the yoke and turn the airplane in the desired directiDn with coordinated aileronand rudder control input.

When you reach the desired angle of bank. neutralize the ailerons. Trim to relieve controlpressures .

Maintain the desired climb airspeed and angle ofbank using outside referenccs, periodicallycross-checking your flight instruments .

Lead the roll-out by approximately one-half your angle of bank. Use coordinated aileron andrudder control pressures as you roIl out. Simultaneously. begin releasing the back pressureon the yoke so aileron. rudder. and elevator (or stabilator) pressures are neutralized when theairplane reaches the desired heading and altitude.

2-10

•

CLlMBING TURNS

2-' ,

The PTS does nol include specífjc crilena for climbing lums using visual references. However, il

does have performance slandards for basic ínslrumenl conslanl airspeed climbs and lurns lo

headings. (See Maneuver #29.)

111lIa6 and heading al Ihe same lime. If you reach Ihe heading f¡rsl, level Ihe wings and majn-

9d aftitude. If you reach Ihe altílude firsl, lower Ihe nose lo mainlain Ihe desired alli-

e déS'ir'9d heading. If you reach bolh Ihe desired allilude and heading al Ihe sama time,

~ SJmultaneously .

TURNS- -- ~ -------

Once the desired cruise airspeed has been obtained, reduce power, trim to relieve controlpressures, and lean the mixture (if necessary) .

DESCENDING TURNSDescending turns to preselected headings and altitudes combine lhe procedures for straightdescents with those used in turns. As with climbing turns, you may practice descending turns usinga two-step process. First, you establish the descent attitude, then roll to the desired angle of bank.As you gain proficiency, you willlearn to establish the descent attitude and bank simultaneously .

Maintain the same airspeed in descending turns as in straight descents. However, your rate ofdescent wil! be higher in a descending turn than in a straight descent with a comparable power set-ting because the vertical lift component is less when the airplane banks. You can compensate forthis with a slight addition of power over what is used in a straight deseen!.

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,.,

When you reach the desired angle of bank, neutralize the ailerons. Trim to relieve controlpressures .

Set the carburetor heat to the COLD position, trim lo relieve control pressures, and, if neces-sary, enrichen the mixture .

DESCENDING TURNS

1 01dese~nt Make the ¡n¡lial power selling lor Ihe desired rale 01deseenl and allow Ihe pilche o labil ze. If you desire a higher rale 01descenl, reduce power. In conlrasl, add power il

en!

Afier clearing the airspace around your airplane, apply carburetor heat (if applicable), reducepower, and lower the nose. Simultaneously, turn toward the desired heading using coordi-nated aileron and rudder application .

The PTS does nol inelude speeilic eriteria lor descending lurns usíng visual relerences .However, il does have performance standards lor basic instrument constant airspeed descentsand lums lo headings. (See Maneuver #29.)

Maintain the desired descent airspeed and angle of bank using outside references, periodi-caIly cross-checking your flight instruments .

Lead the roIl-out by approximately one-half your angle of bank. Use coordinated aileron andrudder control pressures as your roIl out. Simultaneously, add power to the cruise settingand adjust the nose position so aileron, rudder, and elevator (or stabilator) pressures are neu-tralized when the airplane reaches the desired heading and altitude .

2-12

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EXERCISES - BASIC MANEUVERS ?:"Ie------ - ~-

2-13

3. True/False. As the pitch attitude is increased and the airspeed decreases, left-turning tenden-

cies become less pronounced. _

4. Would you expect a need for a de crease or increase of right rudder pressure as the aircraft .

accelerates during leveloff?

1. Which type of c1imb speed results in the greatest gain in altitude in the shortest distance?

5. What percentage of your vertical speed is normally used to determine the lead for level-

off? _

5. How can you determine the magnitude of a deviation £rom your desired heading and altitude?

2. Which type of c1imb speed provides the most gain in altitude in the least amount of time?

4. What is the primary reason for making trim adjustments? _

A. To correct heading

B. To change pitch attitude

C. To relieve control pressures

3. True/False. To maintain straight-and-Ievel flight, you normally need to make a continuous

series of small adjustments in pitch and bank. _

2. What is a safety-related advantage ofkeeping your eyes primarily focused outside Lhe cockpit?

1. During straight-and-Ievel flight, what is the primary visual reference used for maintaining alti-

tude and heading'?

7 - CLIMBS

6 - STRAIGHT-ANO-LEVEL FLIGHT

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B - DESCENTS

1. True/False. You can control your rate of deseent with piteh attitude. _

2. Will a eruise deseent result in a higher or lower groundspeed than a typieal deseent used for

approaeh to landing?

3. During a 500 f.p.m. deseent, you have been instrueted to level off at 4,000 feet MSL. What alti-

tude should you begin your leveloff?

4. True/False. You can deerease your deseent rate by lowering the flaps. _

5. Would a power inerease during a eonstant airspeed, power-on deseent require you to raise or

lower the nos e to maintain airspeed?

9 TURNS

1. Turns are divided into three classes or types. What are the classes of turns and how many

degrees of bank are assoeiated with eaeh?

2. True/False. During a level turn, you maintain the same amount of aileron defleeUon through-

out the turn. _

3. What determines how far an airplane rolls?

4. You are in a climbing turn to the right, using a 30° angle of bank, and have been direeted to

rollout on a heading of 090°. Gn what heading should you begin your rollout?

5. How can you eompensate fur the inereased rate of deseent you experienee in a deseending

turn, as opposed to a straight deseent?

2-14

. .3-6. . . . . . . . .

Airport Operations

I

EXERCISES 3-23

MANEUVER 14 3-20CROSSWINO ApPROACH ANO LANOING

MANEUVER 13 3-12NORMAL ApPROACH ANO LANOING

MANEUVER 10 . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2NORMAL TAKEOFF ANO CLlMB

MANEUVER 12 ...TRAFFIC PATTERNS

MANEUVER 11 .3-4CROSSWINO TAKEOFF ANO CLlMB


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•••

• Check the engine instruments to ensure the engine is developing full power and is func-tioning within its operationallimits. Slow acceleration or any hesitation in power is suf-ficient reason lo discontinue the takeoff.

Each takeoff is affected by the wind conditions, runway surface and length, and possible obstruc-tions at the end of the runway. The takeoff procedures outlined here are provided as general guide-lines only. Be sure to consult your airplane's POH for the proper checklists and procedures .

Complete the befare takeoff check. With the exception of the oil temperature gallge, aIlengine instruments must register within the normal operating range prior to takeoff .

Ensure that the runway, as weIl as the approach and departure paths are clear of other aircraft.

• At an uncontroIled airport, broadcast your intentions for departure on the common trafficadvisory frequency (CTAF) .

• At a controIled airport, contact the tower and inform them you are ready for departure .You must obtain a clearance from the control tower prior to taxiing anta the runway, andprior to takeoff .

Taxi anta the runway, line up with the runway centerline, center the nosewheel, and neu-tralize the ailerons. Check the windsock to determine the wind position in relation to therunway and then begin the takeoff roll.

• Advance the throttle smoothly to takeoff power, and as the airplane starts to roIl, selecl apoint on the cowl through which the centerline of the runway passes and use it as a refer-ence point for directional control. Apply righl rudder to counteract engine torque .

ause the airplane to yaw sharply lo the left due lo lhe lorque effecls 01 lhe engine and

ni ltlroughoul lhe lakeoff lo ensure lhal it does not slide back during Ihe takeoff roll.

iXtle QvickJy 1Iyou decide lo aborl lhe takeoff.

" r, 't..:,í =Jj'~j lrU¡JID:~@f!¡o ~ .. ., I ~ r ~ll(r:TrTrIIT:l¡,-rr].:t{J ¡r.~H

. .t::,.:;~~~II~][f.&lf.=-lrili:T_, _ ......-

3-2

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3-3

Objeetive: To determine thallhe applieant:

NORMAL TAKEOFF ANO CLlMB

Accelerate to the climb speed recornmended by the manufacturer and adjust the pitch attitudeto maintain the climb speed. Fly the departure leg of the traffic pattern straight out on an exten-sion of the runway centerline. Use right rudder to counteract the airplane's left-turning tendency .

he airplane lIap posilion and local eonditions, sueh as Ihe presenee 01obslaeles in Ihe

al (he obslaele elearanee speed, besl angle-ol.elimb speed (Vx), or besl rale-ol-elimb

Exhibits knowledge 01 the elemenls related lo a normal and crosswind takeoff, climb operations, and rejected

takeoff proeedures .

Positions the flight controls lor the existing wind conditions.

Clears Ihe area; taxies inlo the takeoff position and aligns Ihe airplane on Ihe runway eenler/takeoff palh .

Lilts off at the recommended alrspeed and accelerates to VV.

Establishes a pitch anitude Ihat will maintain VY +10/-5 knots .

Retraets the landing gear, if appropriale. and f1aps alter a positive rate 01climb is established .

Maintains lakeoff power to a sale maneuvering allilude .

Maintains direelional control and proper wind-drift correetion throughoul Ihe lakeofl and c1imb.

Complies wilh naise abalemenl proeedures,

Compleles Ihe appropriale eheekllst.

Once you have reached a safe altitude, adjust the power to the recommended climb settingand trim to relieve any control pressures. Complete the appropriate checklist procedures,and depart or remain in the traffic pattern.

you can request and usually reeeive approval lor any Iype 01departure. The slandard pro-

olled airporl is lo fly slraighl out or lo make a 45° lurn in Ihe direclion 01Ihe Iraffie panern .

As speed increases and the controls become more effective, reduce rudder pressure to main-tain directional control and apply slight back pressure to the yoke .

Establish the takeoff attitude at the speed recommended by the manufacturero As the airplanelifts off the runway, note the nose position in relation to the horizon and then maintain thisattitude by using elevator (or stabilator) pressure .

t Jlce it IS a eompromise belween holding the nos e on Ihe ground and seleeting an alti-

W'heells he Id on Ihe ground loo long, Ihe airplane lends lo build exeess airspeed,

ItR ¡ln exeessively nose-high altilude, Ihe airplane may be loreed inlo Ihe air pre-

nwa Also, Ihe a rplane may be al sueh a high angle 01altaek (high drag eondilion)

• Maintain directional control with the rudder pedals and use a neutral aileron position ifthe wind is aligned with the runway .

e' brakes inadvertently. rest your leel on the 1I00r with Ihe balls 01 your leel on Ihe bOI-

NORMAL TAKEOFF AND CLlMB- - -. -----.~...•.~.- - _._---

1 ,.- ¡ I~~I' .' [" 1~1[2Jr::l:~~~ill~r-:' .-, .t", 1: 11~1Yt~:'J][ll:-~rir:)a~.J."~,' ., ",/ ,,~i'...: ~í':ill) f o

TAKEOFF EMERGENCIESAlthough an engine malfunction on takeoff is rare, the possibility does existo If you experience a powerloss on the takeoff roll, abort the takeoff quickly by moving the throttle to the idle position. Use therudder to maintain directional control and the brakes as necessary to stop the airplane. If the enginemalfunction occurs just after liftoff, you should reduce the pitch attitude slightly and allow the airplaneto settle back to the runway. If sufficient runway does not exist, and you have not yet attained a safemaneuvering altitude, you have no choice but to land straight ahead. In this situation, you should makeonly small heading changes to avoid obstacles and should not attempt to turn back to the nmway .

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LIM

Ensure that the runway, as well as lhe approach and departure paths are clear of other aircraft .

• FuIly turn the yoke in the direclion of the wind, placing the upwind aileron in the up posi-tion. For example, if the crosswind is blowing from your left, fuIly lurn lhe yoke to the left,placing the left aileron in the up position. This control deflection compensates for the cross-wind's tendency to push and roIl the airplane to the downwind side of the runway .

After obtaining a clearance (at a controIled airportl or seU announcing your intentions (at anuncontroIled airportl, taxi anta the runway and line up with the runway centerline. Center thenosewheel and check the windsock to determine the wind position in relation to the runway .

Complete the before takeoff check. With the exception of the oil temperature gauge, aHengine instruments must register within the normal operating range prior to takeoff.

A crosswind takeoff is much like a normal takeoff, except you have to use the flight controls tocounteract the crosswind component. The term crosswind component refers to that part of the windwhich acts at a right angle to the airplane's path on takeoff or landing. You can calculate this com-ponent with a crosswind component chart or with a flight computer .

You should always use t~e aircraft manufacturer's recommended takeoff checklist. Takeoffs withstrong crosswinds are normally made with the minimum flap setting necessary for the field length .This helps reduce the drift angle immediately after takeoff. The POH normally lists a maximumdemonstrated crosswind component for takeoff and landing. Your personal crosswind limit is basedon your skilllevel, as weIl as any limitation specified by your instructor during training. In addition,flight training operators often have specified limits based on pilot experience and/or proficiency .

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•••••••••l-••l.

CAOSSWIND TAKEOFF ANO CLlMB

Objeclive: To delermlne thal Ihe applicant:

CROSSWINO TAKEOFF ANO CLlMB m• Advance the throttle smoothly to takeoff power, and as the airplane starts to roll, select a

point on the cowl through which the centerline of the runway passes and use it as a refer-ence point for directional control.

3-5

ralion you can requesl and usually receive approval lor a nonslandard departure. The standard pro-

lrolled airport is lo lIy slraighl-Qul or lo make a 45° lurn in Ihe direction 01Ihe lraffic pattern .

To allow the airplane to have a greater airspeed on liftoff with increased control capabilities,hold the aiJ:plane on the runway until you attain a slightly higher-than-normal liftoff speed.Then, lift the airplane off the runway promptly and establish a normal climb attitude. Thistechnique also reduces the chance of the airplane being lifted off prematurely by a suddengust of wind .

Once you have reached a safe altitude, adjust the power to the recommended climb settingand trim the aircraft to relieve any control pressures. Complete the appropriate checklist pro-cedures and depart or remain in the traffic pattern .

Accelerate to the initial climb speed recommended by the manufacturer anel adjust the pitchattitude to maintain that airspeed. To track straight out on an imaginary extension of the run-way centerline, enter a crab by making a coordinated turn into the wind .

• Check the engine instruments to ensure the engine is developing full power and is func-tioning within its operationallimits. Slow acceleration or any hesitation in power is suf-ficient reason to discontinue the takeoff .

fld rudder delleclion required lo compensale lor a crosswind depends on Ihe crosswind compo-

1'11a¡nounl 01crosswind correclion. Ihe airplane lracks slraighl down Ihe runway and you leel no

ro

• Counteract the airplane's weathervaning tendency with rudder application .

As the airplane accelerates and the controls become more effective, reduce the aileron deflec-tion gradually so it 'is just sufficient to counteract the rolling tendency. Apply right rudderpressure as necessary to compensate for engine torque .

• Exhibils knowledge of !he elemenls relaled lo a normal and crosswjnd lakeoff, climb operations, and

rejecled takeolf procedures .

• Positions Ihe flight controls for the existlng wlnd conditions .

• Clears Ihe area; taxies into the takeofl position and aligns Ihe airplane on the runway cenlerltakeoff path .

• Lifts off at the recommended airspeed and accelarates to VY.

• Eslablishas a pitch attitude Ihat will mainlain VY +10/-5 knols .

• Retracls the landing gear. If appropriate, and flaps aftar a positive rate 01 climb is established .

• Maintains lakeoff power lo a sale maneuvering altitude .

• Maintains directional control and proper wind.drlft correclion Ihroughoul the takeoff and climb .

• Complies with noise abatemenl procedures .

• Completes the appropriate checklist.

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I •

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E

Cros~wind

\

PAIA

LEFT-HANDTRAFFIC PATIERN

Enlry-

T

Downwind

lliii W oollision avoidanee proeedures you can use al bolh eonlrolled and uneonlrolled airports .

landing lighls in Ihe traltie pallern and wilhin a 10-mile radius 01 Ihe airport .

at'Cél'erate 10 erUlse elimb airspeed as soon as practica!.

for I[altle.

radio Irequeney and listen lor information eoneeming other air traffie .

Standard traffic patterns are used to improve both the safety and efficiency of airport operations .They are particularly important at airports without operating control towers. The standard trafficpattern is rectangular and has five named legs; downwind, base, final, departure, and crosswind.The direction of the pattern refers to the orientation of the pattern turns. For example, aircraft in aleft-hand traffic pattern make left turns to base, final, crosswind, and downwind. Normally, a left-hand pattern is used to give the left-seat pilot the best view of the runway and the surrounding envi-ronment. In sorne cases, a right-hand traffic pattern may be used to avoid obstades, terrain,restricted airspace, noise sensitive areas, or other runways. Both left-hand and right-hand trafficpatterns normally are uS!ld when simultaneous operations are conducted on parallel runways.Gther special considerations may require additional variations to the standard traffic pattern. Youcan find information regarding specific airport traffic patterns in the Airport/Facilit y Directory,Aeronautical Information Manual, FAR Part 93, and Notices to Airmen (NGTAMs) .

Collision avoidance rests with you, the pilot in command. Airport operations require a constanteffort to see and avoid other aircraft. You should make a point of checking both the approach anddeparture ends of the runway prior to takeoff or landing .

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3-7

TRAFFIC PATTERNS

RIGHT-HANDTRAFFIC PATIERN

Crosswind

/

G unen (NOTAMs) regarding airport eonslruelion and lighting .

prop~iate radio frequeney and eoneenlrate on your primary responsibilities. Do nol beeome

nversation whlle Ihe aireraft is moving .

s te of your position. request progressive taxi inslruelions.

Ity, or at night, make sure olhers can see you. Use your exterior landing/laxi Iights,

t wh~n required .

r~ness. take lime to familiarize yoursell wilh the airport layout by sludying Ihe airport

fewlecommended proeedures that are beneficial in avoiding runway ineursions .

-"-' ---~¡;-- ----- - J..;¡

A runway incursion is an occurrence at an airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object onthe ground that creates a collision hazard or results in loss of proper separation with an aircraft tak-ing off or landing. Runway incursions usually are caused by errors associated with clearances, com-munications, airport surface movement, and positional awareness .

In addition to coll~sion avoidance precautions, anytime you operate in close proximity to other air-craft, such as in the traffic pattern, you should be aware of the increased potential for wake turbu-lence encounters. When possible, avoiding the are a below and behind other aircraft should preventYOldrom experiencing most of the in-flight hazards associated with wake turbulence .

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•••••

Since wind shear can occur during traffic pattern operations, you also should be knowledgeable ofthe conditions favorable far wind shear. Anticipate wind shear when frontal systems and thunder-storms are in the area .

At airports with operating control towers (controlled airparts), you are required by regulations toestablish and maintain radio communication with the tower. At airports without control towers(uncontrolled airparts), you are not required to have ar use a radio. However, if your aircraft isradio equipped while operating within 10 miles of any airport, you should monitor and commu-ni cate on the common traffic advisary frequency (CTAF). The CTAF may be a UNICOM, MULTI-COM, flight service station (FSS), or tower frequency. Befare you transmit on the CTAF, youshould monitor the frequency for a short period of time to get a picture of the traffic situation anddetermine a plan of action for entry to the pattern. When making your radio calls, always repartyour aircraft identification, position, and intentions. AIso be sure to inelude the name of the air-part in broadcasts, since more than one airport may be assigned the same frequency. An exampleof a radio call requesting airpart information is as follows: "Coronado UNICOM, Cessna 23455,10 miJes northwest deseending through 4,000, Janding Coronado, request wind and runwayinformation Coronado."

In the absence of an FSS, UNICOM operatar, or operating control tower, you should overfly the air-part at least 500 f~et aboye the traffic pattern altitude to determine the landing runway and the asso-ciated pattern direction. Use visual indicatars such as the segmented circle, wind directionindicatar, landing direction indicatar, ar traffic pattern indicator. An example of a radio call for anaircraft conducting an overflight of the airpart to determine the landing information is as follows:"Coronado traffie, Cessna 23455, 10 miJes south deseending through 4,000, overflying for JandingCoronado ...

_ ~_. .__ -.--._~JI6o.¿: - - --~--_. -~ .~..:;

3-9

~6h h your alrcraft al pattem allilude while well c1ear 01 lhe pattem prior lo enlry .

s ou a lj .:omplished using approximalely 30. angle 01 bank. Adjust lhe base leg lo lollow other tral-

e p evalllng wind condilions. For example, wilh a slrong wind you will need lo begin your lum to

~maJS0 Ihal you do not drift loo lar downwind during your lurn .

TRAFFIC PAT,TERNS

y l"e start 01 your desee nI lo lollow olher lraffic in the pattern .

Enter the traffie pattern at a 450 angle to the downwind leg, abeam the midpoint of the run-way, at pattern altitude (normally 1,000 feet AGL). An example of a radio eall at an uneon-trolled airport is as follows: "Coronado traffic, Cessna 23455, entering downwind forRunway 9, touch-and-go, Coronado."

Fly the downwind leg parallel to the runway. Maintain pattern altitude until at the 1800

position, or position abeam the intended landing point. At the 1800 position, begin yourdeseent for landing~

Turn onto the base leg when the touehdown point is approximately 45° behind the insidewingtip. An example of a radio eall at an uneontrolled airport is as follows: "Coronado traJ-fic Cessna 23455, base, Runway 9, touch-and-go, Coronado."

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•

ati@,9 rom one 01a sel 01parallel runways, be sure your ground lrack does nol pcnelrale lhe departure palh

~(s) I:Jnless regulalions or local procedures diclale olherwise, you should monilor/communicale on Ihe

e fr.om lhe airport

eck 101'other traffic in lhe pattem belore slarting your turn lo crosswind. If necessary, extend your departure

U1ertliraraft

ol:lId be accomplished by using between 20. and 30. angle of bank. The tum should be compleled al

lerrain, obslruclions, and lhe airport elevalion. When approaching a sel 01parallel runways, it is

nt 103void ovetshooling lhe final approach and inlerfering wilh the parallel runway Iraffic .

Complete the turn to final approaeh at least one-quarter of a mile from the approach end ofthe runway. Fly along an imaginary extension of the runway centerline, compensating forcrosswind conditions as needed. An example of a radio call at an uncontrolled airport is asfollows: "Coronado tmffie, Cessna 23455, final, Runway 9, toueh and go, Coronado."

On the departure lego climb out on runway heading until you are beyond the departure endof lhe runway and within 300 feet of pattern altitude. An example of a radio call at an uncon-trolled airport for an aircraft remaining in lhe pattern is as follows: "Coronado tmffie, Cessna23455, departing Rumvay 9, remaining in the pattern, Coronado."

If you are staying in the traffic pattern, continue your climb to pattern altitude on the eros s-wind lego Once at pattern altitude, level off and continue to fly 90° to the runway until youare ready to turn downwind .

If you are departing lhe traffic pattern, continue your climb to pattern altitude, then flystraight out, or exit with a 45° turn to the pattern side of lhe runway. In either case, youshould comply with the departure procedures established for thal airport. An example of aradio call at an uncontrolled airport for an aircraft departing the traffic pattern is as follows:"Coronado tmffie, Cessna 23455, departing Rumvay 9, departing the tmffie pattern to thenortheast, climbing to 5,500, Coronado."

s r.eot6 malnta n a track over lhe ground lhal corresponds to Ihe runway extended cenlerline. 11you are familiar wilh

y'Qu may wanl lO use ground checkpoinls lo mainlain your lrack; a crosswind can cause you to drift off lhe

El Irte tlvan lhough you mainlain runway heading. If lraffic causes you lo exlend your departure, be sure lo

maltitut1e

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l ••••••••l.' .••••

TRAF'F'IC PATTERNS._----=-- ..-- J

TRAFFIC PATTERNS


Exhibits knowledge 01 the elements related to traffic patterns. This shall include procedures at airports

with and without operating control towers, prevention 01 runway incursions, collision avoidance, wake

turbulence avoidance, and wind shear .

Complies with proper traffic pattern procedures .

Maintains proper spacing Irom other aircraft.

Corrects lor wind drift to maintain the proper ground track .

Maintains orientation with the runway/landing area in use .

Maintains traffic pattern altitude, :t100 feet (30 meters), and the appropriate airspeed, :!::10knots .

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3-12

The successfullanding of an aircraft is probably the most challenging, as well as satisfying, phase of aflight. Every landing is different due to varying wind conditions, runway surface and length, and possi-ble obstructions at the approach end of the runway. In addition, the airplane can be configured for land-ing with no flaps, partial flaps, or full flaps. When you use full flaps for landing, you will typicallyextend the first increment of flaps on the downwind leg and the next on base lego Usually, you willextend full flaps on the final approach legoSince the full-flap stall speed is less than the no-flap or par-tial-flap stall speed, landing with full flaps results in a slower touchdown speed and shorter ground roll.The following discussion provides general procedures for a no-flap landing in a tricycle gear airplane .

ApPRClACHPrior to each landing, you should complete a before landing check using a printed checklist as rec-ommended by the aircraft manufacturero As you fly the traffic pattern and approach to landing, besure to self-announce your position and/or intentions on the appropriate frequency in accordancewith recommended procedures or communicate with the control tower, as appropriate.

Gn downwind, ensure that the before landing checklist is completed and clear the are a aheadand to the.left and right of your flight path for other traffic. In addition, check for trafficwhich may be aboye and descending or below and climbing through your flight path .

• As you approach the 1800 position, or position abeam the intended landing point, yaushould be at the designated traffic pattern altitude near the airplane's cruising speed .

• At the 1800 position, cstablish the descent power setting while maintaining altitude toallow the airplane to slow to approach speed .

• Maintain the approach speed recommended by the manufacturer and initiate a descent.

•

3-13

TOOHIGH

If you maintain a constant descent angle, theapparent shape of Ihe runway will remainunchanged. If your approach becomes shal-lower. the runway will appear lo shorten andbewme wider. Conversely. if your approach issteepened. Ihe runway will appear lo be longerand narrower. If you maintain a constantdescent angle. the sides of Ihe runway will

intajn the same relationship and the thrcsh-iIl remaill in a fixed position in rclation to

1 e's llose .

• Maintain the recommended approach speed. If anapproach speed is not recommended in the POH, usea final approach speed that is 1.3 times the power-offstall speed in the landing configuration (1.3V so),

• Use outside visual references to determine theproper descent angle, or glide path .

Ilymg an airplane with relraclable landing gear. re-check Ihal Ihe

gear is down and locked .

e aescent if the downwind leg musl be exlended lo lollow Iraffic. Avoid becoming so engrossed

a y "lire unable to mainlain siluational awareness .

- - ...~--=------ ~.::..- .-~----NORMAL ApPROACH AND LANDING

Check for traffic on the base leg and on the extended runway centerline ofthe final approach.Begin your turn to the base leg afier the airplane has descended 100 to 200 feet and the land-ing point is approximately 45° behind the wing .

d tends lo push the airplane away from Ihe runway. Therelore. il usually is necessary lo lurn

apptopriale crab angle .

As the airplane rolls out on base, you are at the key position, an early decision point whereyou must assess your situation. At the key position you should make any adjustments to alti-tude, airspeed, and ¿istance from the runway to ensure a smooth approach and to avoid largeor abrupt last minute corrections on short final.

lQe key posltion, you should either reduce power, exlend addilional lIaps. or both lo avoid landing

iií íXlinl. 1IIhe airplane is low or wide on base leg, or illhe wind is stronger Ihan normal. you

pain!. Therelore, you should eilher begin your lurn lo linal sooner. or add power. Relracling

FIBC eplable correclion .

Check the final approach path for traffic and, if cIear, start your turno

• Roll out on final approach between 300 and 500 feet above ground level, and approxi-mately one-quarter mile from the end of the runway .

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Oislanee Traveled in Fiare

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•••••

• Simultaneously adjust pitch and power as necessary to control descent angle and air-speed. If a deviation in pitch attitude, power, airspeed, 01' wind condition occurs, make anappropriate control change to maintain the proper descent angle .

f10wmg leehniques are reeommended lo correcl lor devialions from Ihe correcl descenl angle and airspeed on

pfeac

le IS loo sleep (airplane is loo high) and airspeed ís loo high; reduce power and gradually increase lhe

15 foo sleep and alrspeed is correel; reduce power and mainlain pilch attilude.

i 00 steep and airspeed is loo low; reduce power and deerease Ihe pilch attilude .

is op shaUow (airplane is too low) and airspeed is correel; add power and maintain Ihe pilch attilude .

i Shallow and airspeed is loo low; add power and decrease Ihe pilch attilude slightly. You should

n:ne lhe airplane is low and slow. Do nol Iry lo slrelch a glide by applying back pressure on the

t\ttpude withoul adding power .

p~r/:Iascent angle and airspeed alter making a correclion, readjusl lhe power and pitch lo main-

e and lrim lo relieve conlrol pressures .

• Estimate the point at which the airplane will actuaIly touch down by finding the pointwhere the descenl angle intersects lhe ground and adding lhe approximate distance to betraveled in the fiare. The descent angle intersection point, also caIled lhe aiming poinl, isthe spot on the ground that has no apparent relative movement. As the airplane descends,aIl objects beyond the aiming point appear to move away from the airplane, while objectscloser appear to move toward it.

SIDE VIEW OF AIMING POINT

LANDINGDuring !he landing you use a combination of visual and kinesthetic cues. Practicing descents, slowflight, and power-off staIls helps to increase your sensitivity to control responses and aIlows you todevelop smooth control application. However, your kinesthetic sense may not be fuIly developed atthe time you begin landing practice and you must rely primarily on visual cues. The landing con-sists of three elements - the fiare, the touchdown, and the roIl-out. The term fiare refers to the

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3-' 5

rison 01 the size 01 known objects on the ground, or deplh perceplion, lo delermine Ihe attilude lar Ihe

<wghoul Ihe fiare. The area where yau lacus yaur vision during Ihe approach is importan!. Far exam-

e la the airplane, Ihe airspeed blurs objecls on the ground and yaur aclians may be too abrup!. 1I

e runway, yau may be unable lo accurately judge height abave the ground and your reactions will

you may allow the airplane ta fly onlo the runway withoul f1aring .

• Touch down on the main landing gear in a nose-high attitude with the engine idling andthe airplane at minimum controllable airspeed.

• Attempt to hold the airplane just off the runway by increasing back pressure. Thiscauses the airplane to settle slowly to the runway in a slightly nose-high attitude as itapproaches stall speed .

FLARE

NORMAL ApPROACH AND LANDING'

• The airplane should reach a near-zero rate of descent appraximately 1 foot aboye the run-way at about 8 to 10 knots aboye a stall speed with the power at idle .

• Begin the fIare approximately 10 to 20 feet aboye the runway by gradually increasing backpressure on the yoke to reduce speed and decrease the rate of descent.

TOUCHDOWN

• Focus at an intermediate point between the nose of the airplane and a distance down therunway. During the fIare, you must look to one side of the airplane, since its nos e mayblock your yiew ahead. .

pro ces s of changing the attitude of the airplane fram a glide or descent to a landing attitude. Its pur-pose is to reduce speed and decrease the rate of descent. The fIare begins at different altitudes forairplanes at yarying weights and appraach speeds. Howeyer, for most training airplanes it begins atappraximately 10 to 20 feet aboye the graund .

SIDE VIEW OF FLARE

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NORMAL APPROACH ANO LANOING

the runway with excess speed can cause f10ating or skipping and may result in a 1055 01

Objective: To determine thal the applicant:

• Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a normal and crosswind approach and landing .

• As the airplane decelerates, gradually relax back pressure to allow the nosewheel to gen-tly settle onto thé runway .

o.wn. your heels should be on the 1I00r so there is no tendency to use the brakes inadvertently .

ROLL-OUT

• Maintain directional control with the rudder to keep the airplane on the centerline ofthe runway .

• Clear the runway and complete the after landing checklist. Taxi lo the designatedparking or refueling area .

Establishes the recommended approach and landing conliguratlon and alrspeed, and adjusts pitch

attitude and power as required .

• Use the rudder to keep the airplane's longitudinal axis parallel to the direction the air-plane is moving along the runway .

• Hold back pressure on the yoke to maintain a positive angle of attack for aerodynarnicbraking and to hold the nosewheel off the ground .

• Considers !he wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and selects a suitable touchdown poínt.

• Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing sequence .

• Touches down at or within 400 leet (120 meters) beyond a specilied point, with no drift, and with lhe

airplane's longitudinal axis aligned wilh and over the runway cenlerllanding path .

• Maintains a stabllized approach and recommended airspeed. or in Its absence, nol more than 1.3 Vso'

+10/-5 knots, wi!h wind gust factor applied .

• Makes smooth. timely, and correct control appllcation during the roundout and touchdown .

• Touches down smoothly at approximate stalling speed .


FORWARD SLIP TO A LANDINGA forward slip may be used to steepen the airplane's descent angle to dissipate altitude withoulincreasing airspeed. This is accomplished by exposing as much of the airplane's surface to theoncoming air as possible, so the airplane's frontal area produces considerable drago A forward slip

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NORMAL ApPROACH ANO LANOING

can be valuable when you are landing in fields with obstructions. In an airplane with side-by-sideseating, you will usually slip to the left since this provides you with an excellent view of the land-ing area during the entire slip .

You should perform forward slips with the engine at idle power to increase the rate of descent. Toinitiate a forward slip, lower one wing by turning the yoke and at the same time, apply opposite rud-del' to keep the airplane from turning in the direction of the lowered wing. The airplane's nose willangle away from the runway, however the airplane's ground track rernains in alignment with theextended centerline of the runway. To prevent Lheairspeed from increasing, raise the nose slightlyaboye the normal gliding position. As soon as you lose sufficient altitude, begin the recovery byraising the low wing and simultaneously easing rudder pressure. Level the wings and adjust thepitch atlitude to a normal glide .

Another type of slip is the sideslip which is used to compensate for drift during crosswind landings .During a sideslip, the airplane's longitudinal axis remains parallelto the original flight path and isaligned with the runway. You will learn more about performing sideslips when you examinecrosswind landings .

FORWARD SLIP TO A LANDING


• Exhibits knowledge 01 the elements related lo a normal and crosswind approach and landing .

• Considers the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and selects a suitable touchdown poin!.

• Establishes the slipping attitude al the point from which a landing can be made using the recommended

approach and landing conliguration and airspeed; adjusts pitch altitude and power as required .

• Maintains a ground track aligned with lhe runway cenlerlland/ng path and an airspeed, which results in

mínimum float during lhe roundou!.

• Makes smooth, limely, and correct control application during the recovery from !he slip, !he roundout and

the touchdown .

• Touches down smoothly at approximate stalling speed, at or withing 400 leet (120 meters) beyond a

specified point, with no s/de drift, and with the airplana's longitudinal axis aJigned with and over the

runway canler/landing path .

• Mainta/ns crosswind correction and dírectionaJ control throughoul tha approach and landing sequence .


GO-AROUNDGenerally, if the airplane has not touched down in the first third of the runway, you should executea go-around, and set up for another landing. The go-around also may be necessary when obstaclesare on the runway or when you feel uncomfortable with the approach due to incorrect proceduresal' other unsafe conditions. At times, you may perform landings that cause the airplane to bouneeinto the airo Usually, it is wise not to attempt to saIvage these landings and you should make animmediate go-around. The decision to make a go-around should be positive, and you should makeit before a critical situation develops. Once the decision has been made, it should be implementedwithout hesitation . 3-17

•

Retract the landing gear (if applicable), and accelerate to Vy befare retracting the remainingflaps. Trim to relieve control pressures .

or&drag Ihan extended landing gear, it is generally recommended lhat the f1aps be alleast par-

e gear. This al so prevenls damage il Ihe airplane inadvertently louches down on the run-

s !he l:ISeof parallel runways, may prevent you Irom making a turno

t v(iJ1gIhe flaps. Typically il is recommended lhat Ihe f1aps be retracted in small increments

erate as they are raised. A premature retraction 01 f1aps causes a loss 01 lift which could result

e runway .

iJ?j!1 ea il is usuaJly necessary lo hold a considerable amounl 01 lorward pressure on Ihe yoke since

lo approach. In addilion, righl rudder pressure musl be applied lo counleracllorque and P-fac-

a fa e in a safe climbing altilude, Irim Ihe airplane lo relieve Ihe heavy control pressures .

Apply takeoff power immediately, place the carburetar heat in the OFF position, and adjustthe airplane's pitch attitude to slow ar stop the descent. After the descent has been stopped,partially retract the flaps (if applicable) as recommended by the manufacturero

Establish a positive rate of climb. If another aircraft is on the runway, make a shallow tum tothe non-pattem side of the runway, then tum parallel to the runway. In this position, you cansee the runway and other aircraft clearly .

3-1 B

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NORMAL ApPROACH ANO LANOING___ -- _~ __ . 1

J

After you have the airplane under control and ha ve reached a safe altitude. self-announceyour position and/or intentions on the appropriate frequency in accordance with recom-mended procedures or communicate with the control tower, as appropriate. Maintain direc-tional control and apply proper wind drift as you continue the flight parallel lo lhe departurelego When you reach the crosswind leg allow for proper spacing. check for traffic, and thenreenler the traffic pattern as appropriate .

GO-AROUND

Objeclive: To delermine Ihal the applicant:

Exhibits knowledge 01the elements relaled lo a go-around/rejected landing .

• Makes a timely decision lo discontinue lhe approach lo landing .

• Applies lakeoff power immediately and transitions lo cfimb pilch attitude for Vy, and mainlains Vy -+10/-5

knols .

Relracts the flaps as appropriale .

Relracts the landing gear, il appropriate, alter a positive rate 01 climb is eslablished .

• Maneuvers to the side 01the runway/landing area to clear and avoid conllicting Iraffic .

Maintains takeoff power to a safe maneuvering altitude .

• Mainlains directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the c1imb.

• Completes !he appropriate checklist.

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3-20

CROSSWINO ApPROACH ANO LANOING------ -~--~--_ .•. _-~- -

IThere are two basic techniques used to accomplish a crosswind approach and landing - the crabmethod and the wing-Iow, or sideslip, method. The crab method requires you to establish a heading(crab) into the wind on final approach with the wings level so that the airplane's ground trackremains aligned with the extended centerline of the runway. The crab angle is maintained until justprior to touchdown, when the longitudinal axis of the airplane must be quickly aligned with therunway to avoid imposing any side loads on the main landing gear .

Since the crab method requires a high degree of judgment and timing, the wing-Iow method is nor-mally preferred for executing crosswind landings. The wing-Iow method of crosswind approachand landing is described here. Since the same general procedures used to execute a normalapproach and landing apply to a crosswind approach and landing, only the additional techniquesrequired for wind correction are explained in this discussion. The wing-Iow method enables you tosimultaneously keep the airplane's ground track and the longitudinal axis aligned with the runwaycenterline lhroughout the final approach, flare, touchdown, and roIl-out. This technique prevenlsthe airplane from touching down sideways, imposing damaging side loads on the landing gear .

The degree to which flaps should be extended in a crosswind varies with the airplane's handlingcharacteristics, as well as the wind velocity. Full fIaps may be used if Ihe crosswind component isnol in excess of the airplane's cflpability or unless the manufacturer recommcnds otherwise .

ApPRCJACHIf the crosswind exists at traffic pattern altitude as well as near the surface, you must apply the properwind correction (crab) in the traffic pattern so your ground track remains rectangular. Since the winddirection is perpendicular to the runway, you must crab into the wind on the downwind leg to remainparallel to the runway. On base leg, you will either encounter a tailwind or headwind. Your groundspeedincreases with a tailwind component and you may need to start your turn lo final sooner than normal

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3-21

CROSSWINO APPROACH ANO LANOING

FLARE

11;11 n shes, ~ou wind correclion must be reduced or Ihe airplane will no longer be aligned with Ihe runway

i ..¡ery strong, you may nol have sufficient rudder Iravel available lo compensate for Ihe slrong

lhe lowered wing. In Ihis silualion, you musl go-around and land on a runway wilh more favor-

• Maintain directional control with the rudder while keeping the upwind wing from risingby use of the aileron .

• As the airplane decelerates and the controls become less effective, increase your wind cor-rection with the ailerons. Turn the yoke fully into the wind as the airplane slows to a taxispeed. Clear the runway and complete the after landing checklist .

ROLL-OUT

• Maintain the crosswind correction as the airplane touches down. Initially, the airplane willtouch down on the upwind wheel and then as forward momentum decreases, the weight ofthe airplane causes the downwind main wheel to gradually settle onto the runway .

• Since you are holding opposite rudder pressure to correct for the crosswind, the nosewheelmay not be aligned with the runway as the airplane touches down. To prevent swerving on therunway, you must relax the corrective rudder pressure just as the nosewheel touches down .

TOUCHOOWN

• As airspeed decreases in the flare, the flight controls become less effective and you must gradu-ally increase the rudder and aileron deflection to maintain the proper amount of wind correction .

CRD55WINO ApPRDACH ANO LANOING

Align the airplane's heading with the runway centerline, note the rate and direction of drift,and then apply correction by lowering the upwind wing. Simultaneously apply oppositerudder to prevent the airplane from turning and keep the longitudinal axis aligned with therunway. For example, if the crosswind is blowing from your left, turn the yoke to the left,placing the left aileron in the up position and apply right rudder .

Objeclive: To determine thal Ihe applicant:

• Exhibits knowledge of Ihe elemenls relaled lo a normal and crosswind approach and landing .

• Adequately surveys the inlended landing area .

• Considers Ihe wind condilions, landing surface. obslructions, and selecl a suitable touchdown poin!.

• Establishes the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed, and adjusts pitch attitude

and power as required .

• Maintains a stabilized approach and recommended airspeed, or in il absence. nol more Ihan 1.3 Vso' +10/.5

knots, with wind gusl factor applied .

• Makes smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundoul and touchdown .

• Touches down smoothly at approximale slalling speed .

• Touches down al or within 400 feet (120 meters) beyond a specified point, with no drift, and with Ihe airplane's

longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway cenlerllandlng path .

• Maintains crosswind correction and directiona1 conlrol throughout the approach and landing sequence.

• Completes the appropriale checklist.

LANDING

and/or use up to 30° ofbank to avoid overshooting the runway. When encountering a headwind on baseleg, avoid turning too early or using too much bank angle so you do not undershoot the runway .

Complete the turn to final on an extension of the runway centerline with the airplane in acrab to correct for wind drift.

Maintaining accurate directional control while the airplane's speed is decreasing is a challengeduring crosswind landings .

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EXERCISES - AIRPDRT OPERATIDNS ;:;-:1~

10- NORMAL TAKEOFF ANO CLIMB

1. What action should ~ou take if the engine is not developing sufficient power for takeoff? ?

2. How can you counteract the left-turning tendency caused by engine torgue on takeoff?

3. Why should you keep your hand on the throttle throughout the takeoff?

4. What can occur if you attempt to lift off with an excessively nose-high attitude?

5. After a normal takeoff at an uncontrolled airport, what are the recommended procedures for

leaving the local area?

1 1 - CROSSWINO TAKEOFF ANO CLIMB

1. How can you determine the maximum demonstrated crosswind component for your airplane?

2. True/False. To counteract the effects of a crosswind from the left during takeoff, you should

turn lhe yoke lo the right, placing the left aileron in the down position. _

3. As the airplane accelerates during the takeoff rol!, will you normally need to increase or

decrease aileron deflection used to compensate for a crosswind? _

4. How can you determine if are using the proper amount of crosswind correction?

5. After takeoff, whal action can you lake to track straight out on an imaginary extension of the

runway centerline?

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3-24

12 - TRAFFIC PATTERNS

1. What are the five named legs of the traffic pattern?

2. True/False. Both left-hand and right-hand traffic patterns are normally used when simultane-

ous operations are conducted on parallel runways. _

3. To aid in collision avoidance, you should turn on your airplane's landing light within how

many miles of the airpart? _

4. In the absence of an FSS, UNICOM operator, ar operating control tower, you should overfly the

airpart at least how many feet aboye the traffic pattern altitude? _

5. Your airplane is Piper 9163K and you are practicing touch-and-go landings to Runway 26 at Front

Range Airpart (uncontrolled). Provide an example of the proper radio call after completing the

turn to final.

13 - NORMAL ApPROACH ANO LANOING

1. True/False. Landing with full flaps extended results in a faster touchdown speed and ground

roll. _

2. At what position on the downwind should you normally begin your descent far landing?

3. What corrective actions can you take if the airplane is high when you reach the key position?

4. While on final approach, if the airplane's descent angle is too shallow and the airspeed is too

low, what action should you take?

5. The landing phase of flight can be divided into what three elements?

6. While maintaining directional control with the rudder pedals, why should your heels be on

the floar as the airplane touches down?

•---- ~~-:;:- ..~--~-,..

3. If you encounter a crosswind from the right on final approach and landing, how should you

po sitian the controls to compensate for wind drift?

A. Turn the yoke to the left and apply left rudder pressure .

B. Turn the yoke to the left and apply right rudder pressure .

C. Turn the yoke to the right and apply left rudder pressure .

3-25

2. If you experience a tailwind on base leg, what action(s) can you take to avoid overshooting the

runway when turning anta final approach?

EXERCISES - AIRPORT CJPERATIONS t~17. During landing, floating can be caused by what error?

9. True/False. While executing a forward slip, the airplane's longitudinal axis is aligned with

the runway. _

5. As lhe airplane decelerates during the roIl-out, will you need to increase or decrease aileron

deflection lo counteract a steady crosswind?

8. What is the primary purpose of the forward slip?

4. While making a crosswind correction on final approach, what action should you take if you

do nol have sufficient rudder travel available?

1. What are the two basic methods used for crosswind landings?

10. What is the first step,you should take when initiating a go-around?

14- CROSSWINO ApPROACHANO LANOING

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Emergency Landing Procedures


EXERCISES ••••.••••••••.•• 4-9

MANEUVER 15 •.•••••.•••••. 4-2SYSTEMS ANO EQUIPMENTMALF"UNCTIONS

MANEUVER 16 ••••.•••••••.• 4-4EMERGENCY ApPROACH ANO LANOING

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Alternatively, your airplane's performance with partia1 power may not be sufficient to maintaina1titude. In this case, a forced 1anding is imminent. Consequently, you will need to declare anemergency with ATC and begin the emergency approach and landing procedures specified in yourairplane's checklist.

TYSUIP

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DOOR OPENING IN FLIGHTA cabin or baggage compartment door opening in flight can be a disconcerting event. Although adoor generally willnot open very far, the sudden noise can be startling. Regardless of the noise andconfusion, it is important to maintain control of the airp1ane, particularly during departure .Accidents have occurred on takeoff because pilots have stopped flying the airplane to concentrateon closing cabin or baggage doors .

PARTIAL POWER LossIt is possible that during a flight you may experience a partia1 loss of engine power. Two optionsmight be available to you, depending on the degree of power 10ss and the airp1ane's resu1tingdecrease in performance. You nlay be able to continue the flight in a reduced power condition aslong as you are able to hold altitud e or climb. In this situation, maintain an airspeed that will pro-vide the best airplane performance available. In most cases, the best performance airspeed will beapproximately the best glide speed. However, it is also possible the engine will not continue to runin this condition and a forced 1anding will still need to be made. With an engine problem, youshould continually monitor your engine instruments and update your choice of landing options .

IN-FLIGHT FIREIfyou experience a fire while in flight, follow the checklist procedures specified in the POH for yourairplane and declare an emergency by radio. The checklist may address only one type of in-flightfire or it might include procedures for different types of fires ranging from cabin and electrical firesto engine fires. In any event, folIow the appropriate pro cedure for the situation. In addition, a gen-eral recommendation may be ofbenefit to you during such an emergency. Should the fire and flamesbe visible outside the cabin during the emergency descent, attempt to slip away from the fire asmuch as possible. For example, if the fire is observed on the left side of the airplane, slip to the right.This may move t~e fire away from the cabin .

There are sorne emergency conditions that do not appear in checklists or in your airplane's POH .Although these situations are not specificalIy addressed, the FAA provides sorne general recommen-dations for dealing with them. The procedures are not intended to be used in lieu of the particularrecommendations that may be provided by a manufacturer, but rather in their absence .

While an open door does not normalIy compromise airplane control, it is possible that control willbecome more difficult. If such a condition should occur it may be necessary to increase airspeed inalI phases of flight, including the approach, in order to ensure that you can control the airplane .Once you have adequate airplane control, land as soon as practica1 and secure the door .

ASYMMETRICAL FLAP EXTENSIONAn unexpected rolling motion during flap extension may be due to an asymmetrical or split flapcondition. If one flap extends while the other remains in place, a differential in lift across the wingis the cause of the rolling motion. A split flap condition can be hazardous, particularly in the trafficpattern or during a turn at low altitude .

SVSTEMS ANO E~UIPMENT MALFUNCTIONS

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Follows the appropriate checklist or procedure .

SYSTEMS AND El:\IUIPMENT MALF"UNCTIONS ~ImI

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4-3

SYSTEMS ANO EOUlPMENT MALFUNCTlONS

ObJective: To determine thallhe applicant:

s dunng a tum can resull in a dangerous situation should an asymmetrical flap extension occur. 1Ithe

li1 motion occurs during Ilap extension. immedialely relurn Ihe flap conlrol to Ihe up. or Ihe previous

81.(llalnl1l9oontrOl 01 Ihe airplane. Should you be in the approach phase 01 lhe traffic pattern when an

e ens on occurs. execule a go-around and adjusl your airspeed lor approach and landing .

Analyzes Ihe situation and takes appropriate action lor simulaled emergencies approprlate to the

airplane provided lor Ihe practical test lor at least three (3) 01the lollowing:

a. Partial or complete power loss.

b. Engine roughness or overhea!.

c. Carburelor or ¡nduction icing .

d. Loss 01oi! pressure .

e. Fuel starvation .

1. Electrical mallunction .

g. Vacuumlpressure, and assoclated lIighl instruments malfunction .

h. Pitotlstatic .

i. Landing gear or Ilap malfunction.

j. Inoperative trim .

k. Inauvertent door or window opening .

1.Structural icing .

m. Smokelfire/engine compartment lire .

n. Any other emergency appropriate lO the airplane .

Exhibits knowledge 01 the elements related to system and equipment mallunc1ions approprlate to Ihe

airplane provided lor Ihe practicar test.

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Modern airplane engines are extremely reliable and actual mechanical malfunctions are rareoHowever, due to inadvertent fuel exhaustion or an engine component malfunction you could findyourself making an emergency approach and landing. Using a checklist is the best way to ensurethat items are not omitted £rom an emergency procedure. In sorne cases, however, you may not havetime to review or even.'access a checklisL To help you respond quickly to an emergency, sornechecklists have immediate action items printed in bold type which should be committed to mem-ory. In addition, you should always maintain situational awareness and be constantly on the alertfor suitable emergency landing fields. The following guidelines, as well as frequent practice withyour flight instructor, will help you develop the ability to plan and methodically execute emergencylanding procedures .

Since most practice emergency landing approaches terminate in a go-around, it is possible for youto fall into the habit of considering the procedure as just another training exercise. To avoid this,assume that each simulated emergency may actually result in a landing. The following general stepsare used to copé with an emergency landing situation .

1. Maintain control of the airplane and adjust the pitch to achieve best glide speed. Once the glidespeed is attained, trim to relieve control pressures and to aid in maintaining the proper attitudeand airspeed .

roediale aclion ilem, Normaliy, you will need lo apply back pressure lo Ihe yoke lo slow

i 9 a fu<le ali1dspeed. However. il your airspeed is below lhe besl glide speed at the

OS: immedlalely lo oblain besl glide speed and Irim lo relieve control pressures .

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EMERGENCY ApPROACH ANO LANDING

4-5

fJeld lo Ihe lerrain ahead 01 Ihe airplane. since you may have jusI f10wn by a lield

9 á rplane. Ihe wlng blocks Ihe area lo lhe righl and left 01 Ihe airplane so you may

sean !he area.

• Advise your passengers to fasten their seatbelts and shoulder harnesses .

• A circling approach over the field allows you to make adjustments for altitude and keeps youin a position from which you can reach the field .

• Dissipate any excess altitude near the field so you are in a good position to observe the fieldcarefully for wires, fences, hales, tree stumps, or other hazards .

11reduce your groundspeed and glide distance. Conversely. lurning downwind will ¡ncrease

e d' ~nce The estimalion 01glide dislance is difficult so il is inadvisable lo circle away lrom

a[{~ a long slraighl-in glide lo lhe lield.

• Evaluate your option~ if a field with ideal landing features is not available. For example, itmay be better to accept a crosswind landing on a long field, rather than attempt to land intothe wind on a very short field. On al10ther occasion, a downwind landing with light winds andno obstructions may be preferable to a landing into the wil1d with numerous obstacles .

• When selecting a field, you must consider the wind direction and speed, length of the field,obstructions, and surface condition. A long field positioned into the wind, with a firm, smoothsurface that is free of obstructions is the most desirable .

• Avoid fields which have large boulders, ditches, or other landing hazards. If you chao se aplowed field, the landing should be made parallel to the furrows. When considering a road, bealert for powerlines, signs, and automobile traffic .

3. Turn toward the intended landing field .

2. Sean the terrain around the airplane and select a suitable field that is within gliding distancefrom your present altitude .

. - ,,-; '¡r,'r¡~r 11,: Il:T.;;1l ~"'~:~.!.Í1~"'li..17~'r]ík'iii:.: :.....1•. 1'- ClI_ilj_,<"iJ;-I1:..thl'lf (1.:' ll:~(JI"o t t- . - .2 .:¡J~ .....rJ tOJlJi,:-:)",(,:;:~".J.lli;.",::¡ •. -

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•

Ignition Switch on 80THMixture Control RICH

Fuel Selector on 80TH or Fullest Tank

11,. malée a quick check lor obvious problems, lhen carelully lollow lhe appropriale emergency

s are nol omitted. Be melhodical and perform your lroubleshooling in a delinile sequence .

reslarl lhe engine, you normally will nol need lo use Ihe slarler since lhe propeller usually conlinues

n a power-off glide .

eartluretor Heal Control ON

• Place the carburetor heat control to the ON position .

• Move the fuel selector to the BOTH position or select the fullest tank.

• Adjust the mixture to the full RICH position .

• Check the ignition switch and select the BOTH position, or engage the starter if the propelleris stopped .

• Switch the fuel pump ON (if installed) .

4. Follow an appropriale emergency checklist and attempl to determine the cause of the power fail-ure. Restarl the engine, if possible .

4-6

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EMERGENCY ApPROACH ANO LANOING

5. Set up a landing approach to the selected field. Attempt to maneuver the airplane to be at the1800 position on downwind when you reach a normal traffic pattern altitude. From this point,you can perform a normal power-off approach .

failure occurs is loo low or Ihe dislance lO a suilable landing field is loo great, you may

o If Ihís siluation occurs, plan Ihe approach so Ihe airplane can intercepl Ihe nor-

ext besl place for inlerceplion may be Ihe key posilion. Keep in mind Ihe dislance

landíng poi nI IS juSI beyond a dilch, the aiming poi nI musí be on Ihe near side

• If time permits, use your radio and declare an emergency, giving your position as accurately aspossible. In addition, set your transponder to the emergency code of 7700 .

6. Most POHs provide a checklist for shutting down the engine and configuring the airplane oncethe landing is assured. During a practice emergency landing procedure, your instructor mayhave you simulate performing items on the checklist.

• Set the mixture to roLE CUT OFF .

• Move the fuel selector to the OFF position .

• Turn the ignition switch to the OFF position .

4-7

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4-8

• Position the flaps as recommended by the POH .

e t!istanee, they should no! be lowered unlil you are conlidenl 01 reaehing the

• Toggle the master switch to the OFF position .

7. In an actual emergency landing. touch down on the main wheels first, then gently lower the nos eof the airplane. Apply the brakes as required to stop the airplane. During a practice emergencylanding, initiate a go-around when your instructor specifies .

EMERGENCY APPROACH ANO LANOING

Objective: To determine tha! the applicant:

Exhibits knowledge 01 the elernents related to emergeney approach and landing proeedures .

• Analyzes the situation and selects an appropriate eourse 01action .

• Es!ablishes and maintains the reeommended best-glide airspeed. +1-10 knots .

• Seleets a suitable landing area .

Plans and lollows a Ilight pattern lo the seleeted land¡ng area considering altitude. wind, terrain, and

obstructions .

• Prepares lor landing, or go-around, as specilied by the examiner

• Follows the appropriate cheekJist.

•--.-

EXERCISES - EMERGENCY LANDING PRDCEDURES ~I

1. What shou1d you do if you experience an in-flight fire?

4-9

4. How can you counter a sudden, unexpected rolling motion following flap extension?

2. If you experience a partia1 power 10ss, what options do you have?

3. What action is advised if a door opens in flight?

5. Why shou1d you avoid flap extension during turns in the traffic pattern?

2. What are sorne of factors that you need to consider when se1ecting an appropriate field for an

emergency 1anding'?

3. True/False. When making an emergency 1anding, it is recommended that you circle away from

the fie1d and then execute a long straight-in approach to the 1anding area. _

4. What code should you set in your transponder to indicate an emergency'?

5. Why should you wait to lower the flaps until you are confident of making the 1anding field'?

1. What is the first action you should take when an engine failure occurs'?

1S - SYSTEMS ANO E~UIPMENTMALFUNC:rIONS

16 - EMERGENCY ApPROACHANO LANOING

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MANEUVER 21STEEP TURNS

EXERCISES

Volume IJ - Flight Maneuvers, Ground Reference Maneuvers,Performance Takeoffs and Landings, and Special FlightOperations

MANEUVER 19 5-8POWER-ON STALLS

MANEUVER 18 5-4POWER-OFF STALLS

MANEUVER 17 5-2SLOW FUGHT

Flight Maneuvers

MANEUVER 20. . 5-1 1DEMONSTRATED STALLS

Collision avoidance is an important safety consideration every time you flyandparticularly when maneuvering your airplane in the practice area. In the prac-tice environment you can be easily distracted so you should make a spedaleffort to maintain your visual scan while maneuvering. Your instructor will helpyou with your scanning technique and encourage you to concentrate your visionoutside the airplane. Your instructor also will show you how to clear the areaprior to maneuvering .

Before you begin a maneuver, you should make clearing turns that usuallyconsist of at least a 1800 change in direction, such as two 900 turns. Clearingturns provide you with a view of the are a around your flight path and make iteasier to maintain visual contact with other aircraft in the practice area .

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Upon reaching your desired airspeed, increase power to maintain altitude and airspeed .Trim to relieve control pressures .

~ r:ighl rudder to offset the left-turning tendencies associated with the low-airspeed,.~...." ".-r! "T""1r ,"

~"l v1 l"'7j.L 1 ) E s~~lrf.~C" l1)~il' 1111",,,,, ~l fJt;.lJ \1'l.£~~'I(~I(::1'1'j..•.. ~;

,"- .~ .

As the airplane reaches the maximum airspeed for flap operation, lower flaps in increments .As the flaps extend, adjust pitch attitude and power to maintain altitude. Extend the landinggear (if applicable) as you reach VLE• Trim to relieve control pressures after each configura-lion change .

Upon completion of your clearing turns, apply carburetor heat (if applicable), reduce power,and gradually apply back pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude. As airspeed decreases,maintain coordinated flight with increasing right rudder. Trim to relieve control pressures .

Before beginning a slow flight maneuver, you should do a clearing turn to check for traffic. You mayeither execute one 180° turn or two 90° turns in opposite directions. Start the maneuver at an altitudewhicq will allow you_to recover no lower than 1,500 feet AGL. It is a goochdea toselect anentry alti-tu& and heading which ca; b~ easily read on your instruments, such as 3,500 feet and 090° .

While in slow flight, any change in flight attitude, such as a level turn or increase in pitch atti-tude, in creases the airplane's load factor, as well as its stall speed. Since the airspeed is justaboye a stall speed during slow flight, any maneuvering should be accompanied by a corre-sponding change in power to prevent the aircraft from stalling. Coordinated flight is essentialthroughout all slow flight maneuvers .

The purpose of maneuvering during slow flight is to help you develop a feel for the airplane's controlsat slow airspeeds, as well as gain an understanding of how load factor, pitch attitude, airspeed, andaltitude control relate to each other. Slow flight may be broadly defined as flight at an airspeed belowthe normal cruise speed. However, during training you will normally practice this maneuver at air-speeds well below the normal cruise speed. The speed used to demonstrate slow flight for the practi-cal test is sufficiently slow so that any significant reduction in speed or power, or increase in loadfactor, results in stall indications .

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MANEUVERING DURING SLOW FLlGHT

5-3

SLDW FLlGHT 0


- - . - --_ ....•~~ ------_. .-"

Establishes and maintains an airspeed at whlch any further increase in angle 01attack, ,"crease in

load lactor, or reduction in power, would result in an immediate stall.

Selects an entry altitude that will allow that task to be completed no lower than 1,500 feet (460 meters)

AGL.

Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to maneuvering during slow llighl.

u primarily maintain airspeed and altitud e by making small power adjustments as nec-

attitude, you should divide your attention between outside relerences and instrument

egaining lost altitude is to apply power. When you do this, it will also be necessary

attltlilde to maintain the desired airspeed. To lose altitude, reduce power and, at the

Ig"t

As you reach your desired airspeed, reduce power and trim to relieve control pressures .

Divides attention between airplane control and orientation .

F\9duripg slow llight, you will get a sensation 01 insufficient control response. The controls leel

l'Jse gfeater control movements lor corrections than are normally required .

When directed by your instructor, sel the carburetor heal to COLD (if applicable) and addfuH power to return to cruise flight. While maintaining your heading and altitude, raise theflaps slowly in increments. Also, raise the landing gear (if applicable), As the airplaneaccelerates, lower the nose attitude and anticipate the need for less right rudder to maintaincoordinated flight.

Once the airplane is stabilized, perform turns, climbs (if possible), and descents as directedby your instructor. To climb, you musl coordinate a pitch and power increase to maintain air-speed. Correspondingly, a descent requires a coordinated pitch and power decrease to main-tain airspeed. The sha110w turns you execute during slow flight will require you to addpower to maintain a:irspeed and avoid a sta11.

• Accomplishes coordinated straight-and-Ievel f1ight, turns, c1imbs, and descents with landing gear and

flap conliguration specified by the examiner .

• Malntains the specified altitude, +/- 100 leet (30 meters); specified heading +/- 10 degrees; alrspeed

+/-0 knots; and specified angle of bank, +/- 10 degrees .

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••••

After you become proficient in straight-and-Ievel slall entries and recoveries, you willlearn how tohan dIe turning (up lo 30° angle of bank) power-off stalls. Before you begin the maneuver, youshould perform clearing turns and establish the airplane at an altitude which will allow you torecover by 1,500 feet AGL.

-

1

Stalls are practiced with two goals in mind. One objective is to help you gain familiarity with thestall characteristics of your airplane so you can better avoid entering an inadvertent stal!. The otherreason for stall practice is to condition you to recover from an inadvertent stall quickly and with aminimal loss of altitude. Power-off stalls are performed in the landing configuration and are used losimulate an accidental stall during approach. therefore you normally practice power-off stalls usingthe airplane's normal approach speed .

As the airplane approaches a stall, the control feel is sometimes described as "mushy" or "soft" ascompared to the more solid feel ofthe controls at cruise speed. Consequently. you must use a grealerdisplacement of lhe conlrols lo achieve the desired results. As the airplane slows you also willnotice a decrease in engine sound as well as lhe lone and intensity of the slipstream noise. The air-plane's mechanical slall warning, which may be a lighl, buzzer, horn, or olher device, usuallybegins 5 lo 10 knols before the stal!. You may notice buffeting and further decay of control effec-tiveness just before the stall, .

5-4

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5-5

POWER-OFF STALLS f ,. ~\~

Wll. the airplane may lend lo roll lo one sida. If Ihis occurs, use coordinaled aileron and rudder

wings al Ihe sama lime you apply power and adjusl Ihe pilCh attilude .

--- ---. ~ _.---,~~~~~ --. ---_. ....•

-.1

Once you eslablish a positive rate of climb, retracl lhe landing gear (if applicable). Uponreaching Vy, retract the remainder of the £lapsoTrim to relieve control pressures .

~Q Y Ihe correcl amounl 01 back pressure during slall recoveries. Applying back pressure loo rapidly

all whila nol applying il quickly enough may cause Ihe airplane lo build excassive airspeed

amounl 01allllude .

As flying speed is regained, adjust the pitch attitude to stop the descent and initiate a climb .

Upon completion of your clearing turns, apply carburetor heat (if applicable), reduce power,and gradually apply back pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude. As you reach lhe safeflap extension speed, lower £Ull flaps and eslablish a normal glide. Extend the landing gear(if applicable). Trim lo relieve conlrol pressures .

Simultaneously release back pressure, level the wings (if necessary), add full power, and setlhe carburetor heat lo COLD (if applicable). Adjust the rudder lo maintain coordinated flight.Retract lhe flaps to an intermediate setting .

Mainlain coordinated flight using righl rudder and apply back pressure on the yoke lo raisethe airplane's nose to an attitude which will induce a stall. Maintain the pitch attitude unlila full slall occurs. .

Upon reaching the desired altitude, level off and accelerate to the desired airspeed. Ensureyou return to the proper heading, if necessary. Once you attain the proper airspeed, adjustlhe power and lrim lo relieve control pressures .

STRAIGHT-AHEAD STALL

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5-6

!,!em t 10 sIal! Ihe airplane on a particular heading. However, lo simulale Ihe lurn from base lo final, Ihe

ullÍ be made lo occur wilhin 90. of lum .

Upon completion ofyour clearing turns, apply carburetor heat (if applicable), reduce power,and gradually apply back pressure on lhe yoke to maintain altitude. As you reach the safeflap extension speed, lower full flaps and establish a normal glide. Extend the landing gear(if applicable). Trim lo relieve control pressures .

Begin a turn to the left or right (up to 30° angle of bank). Once established in the turn, main-tain coordinated flight and apply back pressure on the yoke to raise the airplane's nos e to anattitude which will induce a stall .

Ensure you maintain the desired angle of bank and coordinated flight. Mainlain the pitchattitude until a full stall occurs .

TURNING STALLThe power-off, turning stall is a variation of the power-off straight-ahead stall. It is designed to sim-ulate an accidental stall during a turn from base to final. Entry procedures are the same as thestraight-ahead, power-off stall except with the addition of up to a 30° angle of bank.

-.•.~• r\~••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

POWER-OFF STALLS

5-7

POWER-OFF STALLS f .~~ñ1inated flight dunng all slalls. particularly Ihose which incorporate a lurn. 11not in

Q9Wer-off stall, the airplane may wallow when the slall occurs oro il the airplane is in a

a bl'\;Jptly whip downward .


__• - •.• __ ••_••:.,¡~f'_ ~----

~

Upon reaening the desired altitude, level off and aeeelerate to the desired airspeed. Ensureyou return to the proper heading, if neeessary. Once you attain the proper airspeed, adjustlhe power and trim to relieve control pressures .

'ttect amount 01 back pressure during stall recoveries. Applying back pressure loo rapidly

wl]t1 nol applying it quickly enough may cause Ihe airplane to build excessive airspeed

t El altltude .

Once you establish a positive rate of climb, retraet the landing gear (if applieable). Uponreaehing Vy, retraet the remainder of the flaps, Trim to relieve control pressures .

As flying speed is regained, adjust the piteh attitude to stop the deseent and initiate a climb .

To reeover £rom the staIl, simultaneously releas e baek pressure, level the wings, add fuIlpower, and set the earburetor heat to COLD (if applieable). Adjust the rudder to maintaineoordinated flight. Retraet the flaps to an intermediate setting .

• Accelerates lo Vx or Vy speed befo re the linal flap retraction; returns lo the altilude, heading, and

airspeed specified by the examiner .

• Retracls Ihe flaps to Ihe recommended setting; retracls Ihe landing gear, if retractable. alter a positive

rale of climb is established .

• Maintalns a specified heading, :t 10 degrees. in straight f1ight; maintains a specified angle of bank nol

lo exceed 20 degrees, :t 10 degrees; in turning f1ight, while inducing the slall.

• Transilions smoolhly lrom Ihe approach or landing attitude lo a pitch attitude Ihat will induce a stall.

• Recognizes and recovers promptly alter the stall occurs by simultaneously reducing the angle of attack,

increasing power lo maximum allowable, and leveling Ihe wings lo relurn lo a straight-and.level f1ighl

attitude wilh a minimum loss of altilude appropriale lor Ihe airplane .

• Selecls an enlry altitude Ihal allows Ihe task to be completed no lower than 1,500 feet (460 meters) AGL.

• Exhibits knowledge 01 the elements related lo power-off stalls .

• Establishes a stabilized descent in the approach or landing configuralion, as specified by the examiner .

,.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

-wL

1

STRAIGHT-AHEAD STALL

Upon completion of your clearing turns, reduce power and slow the airplane while usingback pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude .

As you reach liftoff speed, simultaneously set takeoff power (ar the recommended climbpower setting) and smoothly apply back pressure on the yoke to raise the airplane's nose toan attitude which will induce a stal1. Maintain the pitch attitude until a £Ull stall occurs.Ensure you maintain coardinated £light.

Power-on sta11s are usua11y practiced from straight climbs and climbing turns to simulate an acci-dental stall during takeoffs and departure climbs. The straight-ahead stall can occur if youattempt to take off at too slow an airspeed and apply excessive back pressure on the yoke. Thisproduces an extreme noso-high attitude and high angle of attack. The power-on, turning sta11 nar-ma11y occurs during the departure turn following takeoff and results from distractions whichdivert your attention fram flying tho airplane. The indications of the approaching sta11 are similarto thoso you exporience during a power-off stall (see Maneuver #18). As with a11stalls, power-onsta11s should be practiced at an entry altitude which permits a safe recovery no lower than 1,500feet AGL. Norma11y, you will practice in the takeoff and departure configuration and at the air-craft's takeoff spood. This may involvo the extension of landing gear and/or £laps, depending onthe situation .

Although you use a high power setting during this sta11, do not entor it fram a high airspeed. Anextremoly nose-high pitch attitude can result fram high-power, high-airspeed sta11 entries .

S-B

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•••••••••••••••••

5-9

POWER-ON STALLS l. ~¡

Simultaneously release back pressure and apply full power (if not already at full power). Ifflaps were lowered, retract them to an intermediate setting .

Upon completion of your clearing turns, reduce power and slow the airplane while usingback pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude .

As you approach liftoff speed, begin a turn to the left or right (up to 20° angle of bank). Onceestablished, and upon reaching liftoff speed, simultaneously set takeoff power (or the rec-ommended climb power setting) and smoo!hly apply back pressure on the yoke to raise !heairplane's nose to an attitude which will induce a stall. Ensure you maintain the desiredangle of bank and coordinated flight.

Upon reaching the desired altitude, level off and accelerate to the desired airspeed. Ensureyou return to the proper heading, if necessary. Once you attain the proper airspeed, adjustthe power and trim to relieve control pressures .

. ches li1own, Ihe airplane may lend lo roll lo one side. 1IIhis oecurs. use coordinaled aileron and rudder

o level fhe wlngs al Ihe same lime you apply power and adjusl Ihe pilch attilude .

n~(easlng rígt'll rudder pressure lo mainlain coordinated Ilighl as you increase !he power and pilch atti-

'tplanes. Ihe elevalor (or slabilalor) may be lully deflecled by Ihe lime Ihe airplane lully slalls .

Once you establish a positive rate of climb, retract the landing gear (if applicable). Uponreaching Vy, retract the remainder of the flaps. Trim to relieve control pressures .

o aJ;>ply Ihe correcl amounl 01 back pressure duríng slall recoveríes. Applying back pressure loo rapidly

a S'eli:o!'\liary slall. while nol applying 11quickly enough may cause Ihe airplane lo build excessive airspeed

iglil1lcanl amounl 01altilude .

~ As flying speed is regained, adjust the pitch attitude to stop the descent and initiate a climb .

TURNING STALLThe power-on, turning stall is a variation of the power-on straight-ahead stall. Entry procedures arethe same as the straighl-ahead, power-on stall except with the addition of up to a 20° angle of bank .

~__. _~~-l.-..-.~7-- -~-' -.I _J

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••, .••

••

5-10

POWER-ON STALLS

angle 01 bank lends lo sleepen in a left lurn and become shallower in a righl lurn. This

.:faCtor lend lo roll Ihe airplane lo Ihe left .

Objeelive: To delermine thal Ihe applicant:

Exhibits knowledge 01 Ihe elements related to power-on sta lis .

As flying speed is regained, adjust the pitch attitude to stop the descent and initiate a climb .

Once you establish a positive rate of climb, retract the landing gear (if applicable). Uponreaching Vy, retracl the remainder of the flaps. Trim to relieve control pressures .

To recover fram the staIl, simultaneously release back pressure, roIl wings-level using coor-dinated rudder and aileron pressure, and apply fuIl power (if not already at fuIl power). Ifflaps were lowered, retract them to an intermediate setting .

Establishes Ihe takeoH or departure configuration. Sets power lo no less Ihan 65 pereent available

power.

Upon reaching the desired altitude, level off and accelerate to the desired airspeed. Ensureyou return lo the proper heading, if necessary. Once you attain the proper airspeed, adjustthe power and trim to relieve control pressures .

t e correel amount 01 back pressure during slall recoveries. Applying baek pressure loo rapidly

a1V tall, while nol applying it quickly enough may cause Ihe airplane to build excessive airspeed

amolilnt 01 altitude .

• Aceelerates to Vx or Vy speed befo re the final flap relraction; relurns lo the altitude, heading, and air

speed speeified by the examiner .

• Retracts the flap s lo the recommended setling; retracts the landing gear, if retractable, after a positive

rate of climb is established .

• Seleets an enlry altitude Ihal allows the task to be completed no lower Ihan 1,500 feel (460 melers)

AGL .

• Reeognizes and recovers promptly after the stall occurs by simultaneously reducing !he angle of

atlack, inereasing power to maximum allowable, and leveling the wings to return to a straighl-and-Ievei

f1ight atlitude with a mínimum loss 01 altitude appropriate lor !he airplane .

• Maintains a specilied heading, :!: 10 degrees, in straight f1ighl; malntalns a specified angle of bank not

to exceed 20 degrees, :!: 10 degrees; in turning f1ighl, while induelng Ihe stall .

• Transilions smoothly Irom Ihe lakeoH or departure attitude to the pitch attitude thal wíll induce a stall.

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5-1 1

.,.__.. -..~--- - J•:,•••••••••••••••••••••••••,.••••••••••••••••••••

DEMONSTRATED STALLS

A regulatory requirement for every recreational, private, and commercial pilot applicantincludes aeronautical knowledge training in stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recov-ery techniques. A thorough discussion of these topics is contained in Chapter 3, Section B of thePrivate Pilot Manual. As an applicant for a private pilot certificate, you are not required todemonstrate flight proficiency in spin entries, spins, or spin recovery procedures. However, yourflight instructor may demonstrate a spin sometime during your private pilot training. Spinsshould never be attempted without an experienced instructor on board. Demonstrated ability toperform power-off and power-on stalIs are required for private pilot certification, whereas sec-ondary, accelerated maneuver stalIs, crossed-control stalIs, and elevator trim stalIs may only bedemonstrated by your instructor and only if your airplane is certificated for these types of oper-ations. The procedures contained in the following discussion are only presented so you canmore completely understand how and why the stalls occur and how the associated recoveryshould be accomplished. You should never practice these maneuvers solo .

SECO.NDARY STALLSA secondary stalI is caused by trying to recover from a stalI before the airplane has obtained suffi-cient flying speed. This type of stalI also may occur if you attempt to return to straight-and-Ievelflight prematurely during a spin recovery. The objective of demonstrating a secondary stalI is toshow you how to recognize the characteristics of the stall and the correct methods of recovery. Afterclearing turns, your instructor will start the demonstration using the listed procedures at an altitudethat will ensure a safe recovery no lower than 1,500 feet AGL.

1. Execute a normal power-on or power-off stall.

2. During recovery from the stalI, quickly increase the pitch attitude again while maintainingdirectional control with aileron and rudder pressure. AlIow the airplane to enter the sec-ondary stall.

3. Recover from the secondary stalI by releasing back pressure on the yoke to lower the nose .Simultaneously, in crease power (if not already at fulI power) .

4. Return to straight-and-Ievel, coordinated flight.

ACCELERATED MANEUVERSTALLAn accelerated maneuver, or excessive back pressure, stalI occurs at a higher-than-normal air-speed in steep turns, pullups, or other abrupt changes in your flight attitude. The stalIs whichoccur from these types of maneuvers tend to develop faster than normal unaccelerated stalIs. Theobjective of demonstrating accelerated maneuver sta lIs is to show you how to recognize the char-acteristics leading up to the stalI and correct methods of recovery. It is important to recover at thefirst indication of the stall. A prolonged stalI, with excessive airspeed may lead to a spin. Afterclearing turns, your instructor will start the demonstration using the listed procedures at an alti-tude that will ensure a safe recovery no lower than 1,500 feet AGL.

5-12

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••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

1. Establish straight-and-level flight at VA or less .

2. Roll into a 45° angle of bank level turn while gradually increasing back pressure to maintainaltitude .

3. Once the turn and bank are established, slowly increase back pressure while maintaining alti-tude until the airplane stalls .

4. When the airplane stal1s, recover immediately by releasing back pressure on the yoke andincreasing power. If the turn is not coordinated, one wing may drop suddenly. causing the air-plane to roll in that direction. If this occurs, the excessive back pressure must be released tobreak the stall before the addition of power .

5. Return to straight-and-leve!, coordinated flight.

CROSSED-CONTROL STALLSA crossed-control stall is most likely to occur during a poorly planned and executed base to finalapproach turno Often this is the result of overshooting the extended runway centerline during theturno Typically, this happens when you apply aileron pressure in one direction. rudder pressure inthe opposite direction. and use excessive elevator (or stabilator) back pressure. An example is whenyou attempt to increase the rate of turn with rudder and back pressure while trying to keep the bankangle £rom steepening with the use of ailerons. In a crossed-control stal!, the airplane often stallswith little warning. The nos e may pitch down. the inside wing may suddenly drop, and the airplanemay continue to roll to an inverted attitude. This is usually the beginning of a spin which is verydangerous at lower altitudes. It is important that this type of stal! does not occur during an actualapproach to a landing, since a safe recovery may be impossible due to the amount of altitudeneeded. After clearing turns. your instructor will start the demonstration using the listed proce-dures at an altitude that en sures a safe recovery no lower than 1,500 feet AGL .

1. Slowly reduce power and extend the landing gear (if applicable) .

2. Continue reducing the power to IDLE.

3. Maintain altitud e until a normal glide speed is reached .

4. Establish a normal glide and trim to relieve control pressures .

5. Once established in the descent. rol! into a medium bank turno During the turn, apply heavyrudder pressure in the direction of the turno Maintain the bank by applying opposite aileronpressure. As you do so, increase back pressure on the yoke to keep the nos e £rom lowering .

6. Increase all flight control pressures until the airplane stal!s .

7. When the stal! occurs. releas e the control pressures. If necessary. al!ow the roll to continue untilthe airplane reaches upright and level flight .

8. Increase power to maintain straight-and-level flight.

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••I •

••••

DEMONSTRATED STALLS~--- _.---- '--'-- ]

ELEVATOR TRIM STALLSThe elevator trim stall is a maneuver that demonstrates what can happen when full power is appliedduring a go-around and positive control of the airplane has not been established. This can happenduring a normallanding approach, a simulated forced landing approach, or immediately after take-off. The objective of the demonstration is to show the recovery procedures for overcoming strongtrim forces and how to maintain control of the airplane by using proper and timely trim techniques .The approaching stall should be recognized immediately and prompt recovery procedures shouldbe implemented to prevent the stall. It is important that a power-on stall not occur from an actualgo-around because the amount of pitch change and altitude required for a safe recovery may not beavailable. After clearing turns, your instructor will start the demonstration using the listed proce-dures at an altitude that en sures a safe recovery no lower than 1,500 feet AGL.

1. Slowly reduce power and extend the landing gear (if applicable) .

2. Lower one-haH to full ilapso

3. Continue reducing the power to IDLE.

4. Maintain altitude until normal glide speed is reached .

5. Eslablish a normal glide and trim the nose up to simulate a landing approach .

6. Once established in the simulated final approach glide, apply full power lo simulate a go-around. The combined forces of power, engine lorque, and back elevalor (or stabilator) trim willmake the nose pitch up sharply with a left-turning lendency. As the pitch attitude increases toa point well aboye the normal climb attitude, the potential for a stall exists .

7. To recover from the approaching stall, apply positive forward pressure on the yoke to lower thenos e and return to a normal climbing attitude .

8. Trim to relieve excessive control pressure .

9. Continue normal go-around procedures and level off at the desired altitude .

SPIN AWARENESS

When sludying slalls and spins, you should nol only reler lo Ihe inlormalion conlained in Ihis

manual, bul you should also consull Chapler 3, Seclion B 01 Ihe Priva te Pilot Manual. The PTS requires

you lo be able lo explain:

• Aerodynamic faclors relaled lo spins .

• Flight sltuations where unintenlional spins may occur.

• Procedures lor recovery from unintentional spins .

5-13

Upon completion of your clearing turns, select a reference point on the horizon and noteyour heading and altitude .

s Itle bank al a moderale rale. 1Iyou roll Ihe airplane loo rapidly. you may have ditticully

essary lo mainlain allilude. Do nol apply loo much back pressure while inilially enlering

o ever, as you become established in Ihe turn, grealer back pressure will be needed

Maintain your angle of bank and altitude. Confirm your attitude by referring to both the nat-ural horizon and attitude indicator. Use your altimeter and vertical speed indicator to deter-mine if changes in pitch are required .

Roll into a 45° angle of bank turn at or below VA' During roll-in, smoothly add power andslowly increase back pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude. Maintain coordinated flightand trim to relieve control pressures .

A steep turn is a high performance maneuver which is usually conducted in either direction withan angle of bank of 45°, :t5°. Due to high load factors, these turns should be accomplished at an air-speed that does not exceed the airplane's maneuvering speed (VA)' The objective of performingsteep turns is to develop smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of attention, and controltechniques. It is a good idea to use section lines or prominent landmarks to aid in orientation. Aswith most flight maneuvers, you should select an entry altitude which will allow you to perform themaneuver no lower than 1,500 feet AGL.

5-14

•• 1)0'• r~••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

STEEPTURNS

Objetlive: To delermine lhal the applicant:

5-15

11e counler an overbanking lendency which is less apparenl in righllurns lhan il is in left

a P-Iaclor lend lo roll lhe aircraft lo lhe lell and work againsl lhe overbanking len-

try yOlJ will need more rudder and aileron pressure during lhe roll.out lhan you

.oecause lhe control pressures exerted during lhe roll-oul musl overcome lhe air-

• RolIs inlo a coordinaled 360 degree lum; mainlains a 45 degree bank .

• Eslablishes Ihe manufaclurer's recommended airspeed or íl one is nol slaled. a sale airspeed nol to

exceed VA'

ExhibilS knowledge 01 lhe elemenls relaled lo sleep lums,

• Performs Ihe lask in Ihe opposile dlreclion, as specilied by the examiner .

Anticipate the roil-out by leading the roil-out heading by approximately 20°. Roll out on theentry heading and altitude. During roil-out, graduaily decrease back pressure on the yokeand reduce power to maintain altitude and airspeed. Trim to relieve control pressures .

!TI, decrease Ihe angle 01 bank lirst, then ¡ncrease back pressure on the yoke lo raise

ifl3$ired altitude, roll back lo lhe des/red angle 01bank .

• Divides allention belween airplane conlrol and orienlation .

• Maintains Ihe enlry altilude, :t 100 leel (30 meters), airspeed,:t 10 knols, bank,:t 5 degrees: and

rolls oul on lhe enlry heading, :l: 10 degrees .

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••••••••••••

4. When recovering fram slow flight, what technique should you use to raise the flaps?

3. True/False. You should execute a power-on stall at a high airspeed using high power. _

5-17

sEUV

EXERCISES - FLlGHT MANEUVERS ?':I~

2. What is the minimum AGL altitude you should plan to recover from slow flight?

2. When does a typical mechanical stall warning activate?

3. True/False. As your airspeed decreases you should anticipate the need for increasing right

rudder pressure .

1. What speed should you maintain during slow flight?

2. How should the airplane be configured when performing a power-on stall?

3. What are the indications that a stall has occurred?

5. What are the performance standards for maneuvering during slow flight?

4. What is the cause of a secondary stall?

5. True/False. After recovering fram a stal1, you should climb at Vx. _

1. In what airplane configuration are power-off stalls performed?

5. What is the maximum angle of bank you should use in a turning, power-on stall? _

4. As you approach a power-on stall in a right turn, will the angle of bank tend to increase or

decrease? _

1. In which phase(s) of flight would a power-on stall most likely occur?

17- SLOW FLIGHT

1 B - POWER-OFF STALLS

19 - POWER-ON STALLS

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20 - DEMONSTRATED STALLS

1. True/False. An applicant for a private pilot certificate is required to demonstrate flight profi-

ciency with regard to stalls and spins. _

2. 'fiue/False. A private pilot applicant must be able to demonstrate flight proficiency in eleva-

tor trim stalls. _

3. True/False. Any airplane can be used to perform an accelerated stall. _

4. What is another name for an accelerated maneuver stall?

5. When is a crossed-control stalllikely to occur?

2 1 - STEEP TURNE

1. What angle ofbank is normally used for steep turns? . _

2. Is overbanking tendency more apparent in a right or left turn? _

3. How should you correct for a loss of altitude during a steep turn?

4. How much should you lead your roll-out from a steep turn? _

5. True/False. In comparison to the roll-in, you need more rudder and aileron pressure during the

roll-out from a steep turno _

5-1 B

MANEUVER 22 6-2RECTANGULAR COURSE

...... 6-9

........ 6-4. . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

Ground Reference Maneuvers

MANEUVER 24 6-6TURNS AROUND A POINT

EXERCISES

MANEUVER 23S-TURNS

Volume II - Flight Maneuvers, Ground Reference Maneuvers,Performance Takeoffs and Landings, and Special FlighfOperations

Since the ground reference maneuvers you are going to learn during your flighttraining are practiced at relatively low altitude, you should always be vigilant forappropriate emergency landing sites. Good choices for emergency landing sitesmight be open pastures, turf farms, and hard-packed dirt fields. A road is notalways a good option because sorne may have power lines, trees, or heavy traffic .

r:•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.,••••

SteepestBank

AuECT2

Enter tho maneuver at a 45° angle lo [he downwind leg, al an allitude of 600 to 1,000 feetACL. Fly parallel lo the field boundary .

The objective of the rectangular course is to help you develop the skill to compensate for effects ofthe wind and fly a unifarm traffic pattern by visual reference to the ground. This maneuver requiresyou to combine several flight techniques. First, you may need to use varying crab angles throughoutthe straight flight segments. Second, you must track an imaginary line paraIlel to a fixed line. Third,you neod to plan ahead and use different anglos ofbank in ardor to roIl out of the turns at the properdistance from tho field boundary. Finally, you must maintain a constant altitude throughout themaneuver. To help you accomplish theso tasks, do not farget to maintain coardinated flight and trimlo relieve control pressures, as needed .

Befare starting tho maneuver, select a fiold away £rom a populated are a which is bounded on foursides by section lines ar roads. The field should have sides botween one-half and one mile in length.If possible, the wind should be blowing parallel to the long side of the rectangle. Clear tho area fortraffic and check lo ensure there are no obstructions such as towers ar power lines. AIso, select anemergency landing area within gliding dislance. The pattern is typicaIly flown using left turns(although you should also practice right-hand patterns) and at a distance of approximately one-quarter to one-half mile outside the field boundary. If you fly loo close lo the boundaries, your angleof bank in the turns will be excessive (greater than 45°) and you may have difficulty keeping theedges of the field in sight.

•• ~)f).r ..;....••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-2

•••••

•

6-3

RECTANGULAR COURSE r:-:;;I).J~(

a:dwl",d and decreasing groundspeed, you should progressively decrease your angle 01bank as Ihe

RECTANGULAR COURSE

Objeclive: To delermine Ihal Ihe applicant:

- . . - - -~-- J

- j

When you are abeam the downwind segment of the field boundary, begin a turn to the down-wind lego Since you were holding a crab angle to compensate for the crosswind, you willneed to turn greater than 90° to parallel the downwind field boundary .

:is important that you accuralely estimate the wind direction belore starting the maneuver. While

wlnd al your departure airport as a guide. you should check lor other signs 01wind direc-

s iñdicators include blowing trees. smoke. and dusl. as well as advancing wave patterns

J:Igain valuable inlormalion aboul Ihe wind by lIying a 3600 conslant airspeed, con-

r.ttl lo ero SWlnd requires lhe shallowesl angle 01 bank. As lhe headwind componenl decreases, you

Q s your angle 01 bank as Ihe lurn progresses. Once eslablished on lhe crosswind leg, adjusI your

ecessary lo maintain Ihe proper dislance Irom Ihe field boundary .

When you are abeam the next crosswind segment of the field boundary, begin a turn to thecrosswind lego To counteract the effect of wind and remain parallel to the crosswind fieldboundary, you should turn less than 90°.

When you are abeam the crosswind segment of the field boundary, begin a turn to the cross-wind lego To counteract the effect of the wind and rema in parallel to the crosswind fieldboundary. you should continue the turn beyond 90° .

IlcrEl'asing tailwind and groundspeed, you should progressively increase your angle 01bank as lhe lurn progresses .

When you are abeam the upwind segment of the field boundary, begin a turn to the upwindlego Since you were holding a crab angle into the wind on the crosswind leg, your turn to theupwind leg will be less than 90° .

IS a funclion 01 groundspeed; the grealer Ihe groundspeed, Ihe grealer Ihe angle 01 bank

vi<;leSIhe grealesl groundspeed, Ihe lurn from Ihe downwind lo Ihe crosswind leg will require

~ 0# Ihe lour lurns. As you proceed Ihrough Ihe firsl lurn, your groundspeed decreases .

al decreass your angla 01 bank as Ihe lurn progresses. Once eslablished on Ihe crosswind

ml<:essary lO mainlain Ihe proper dislance from the lield boundary .

• Maínlains allitude, :f: 100 leel (30 melers); mainlains airspeed, :t 10 knols .

• Divides attenlion between airplane conlrol and the ground Irack while maintaining coordinated llight.

• Exhibits knowledge 01 the elemenls related lo a reclangular course .

• Plans Ihe maneuver so as lo enler a left or righl pattern, 600 lo 1.000 leel AGL (180 lo 300 melers) at

an appropriate dislance lrom Ihe selecled relerence area, 45 degrees lo Ihe downwind leg .

• Selecls a suilable relerence area .

• Applies adequale wind-drift correction during slraighl-and-turníng llighl lo mainlaln a conslanl ground

Irack around Ihe reclangular relerence area .

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

6-4

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An S-turn is a ground reference maneuver which is intended to help you improve your ability tocompensate for wind drift during turns. It consists of a series of uniform 180° turns in oppositedirections crossing and recrossing a straight road, fence line, or section lineo The maneuver requiresyou to divide your attention between the ground reference line and airplane control. When select-ing your ground reference, the road, fence line, or section line should be long enough to aIlow aseries of turns. Since this maneuver should be started on a downwind heading, try to find a groundreference line which is oriented perpendicular to the wind. Clear the area for traffic and check loensure there are no obstructions such as towers or power lines. You should fly lhe maneuver at analtitud e low enough to easily recognize wind drift, but not any lower than 500 feet aboye the high-est obstruction. As with most ground reference maneuvers which are performed al an altitude ofbetween 600 lo 1,000 feet AGL, you should select an emergency landing area within gliding dis-tance prior to starting the maneuver. While flying the maneuver, maintain coordinated flight andtrim to relieve control pressures, as needed .

Upon crossing the reference line, roIl immediately into a left turno The downwind entry pro-vides the highest groundspeed in the first 90° of turno This requires a rapid roIl into a rela-tively steep angle of bank.

Continue the turn, adjusting the angle of bank to compensate for the effect of the wind. Asyou turn past the 90° point, the airplane's groundspeed begins to decrease, requiring you toprogressively reduce the angle of bank to track a symmetrical half-circle .

6-5

S-TURNS

8-TURNS

Objeclive: Ta delermine lhal Ihe appllcant:

You should cross the reference line after 1800 of turn with the wings level. Atthe instant youcross the reference line, begin a turn in the opposite direction .

____ __~~~----~. 'Il

J

You should cross the reference line after the second 1800 of turn wilh the wings level.

to Increase Ihe angle 01 bank loo rapidly during Ihe ¡nilial parl 01 lhe lurn on lhe upwind side,

letion 01 180. 01 lurn belore recrossing lhe relerence line. To avaid lhis error, you shauld visu-

CI<a remember Ihal a slow groundspeed requires a shallower angle 01bank and, conversely, a high

Itates a sleeper angle 01bank .

Continue the turn, adjusting the angle of bank lo compensate for the effecl of wind. As youturn past the 900 painl, the airplane's groundspeed begins to increase, requiring you to pro-gressively increase the angle of bank to track a symmetrical half-circle .

• Malnlains allilude, :!: 100 leel (30 melers): maintains airspeed,:!: 10 knols .

• Divides allenlion between airplane conlrol and the ground lrack while mainlaining coordinaled f1ight.

• Plans lhe maneuver so as lo enter al 600 to 1,000 leel AGL (180 lo 300 melers) AGL, perpendicular to

the selected reference line.

• Selecls a suilable ground relerence line .

• Applies adequale wind-drilt carreclian during slraighl-and-lurning IIíght lo mainlain a canstanl ground

lrack around the selected reference line.

• Exhibils knowledge 01the elemenls related lo S-lurns .

••••••••••••••••••••••••¡.l.l.1:•••••••••••••••••••••

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4

Turns around a point are intended to help you develop the ability to control the airplane whiledividing your attention between the flight path and a ground reference point. During the maneu-ver, you are required to maintain a constant radius turn around a reference poinl while remain-ing at a constant altitude. The ground reference point you select should be easily identifiable,away from populated areas, and within gliding distance of a suitable emergency landing field .You can use trees, isolated haystacks, or other srnall landmarks as reference points, but they arenot as effective as the intersections of roads or fence lines. The latter items are more desirable,because Ihe wing may momentarily block your view of the reference point during the maneuver .By selecting a road or fence line intersection, you can mentally project these lines to their logi-cal intersection and maintain your orientation. You should plan to begin the maneuver from adownwind entry at 600 feet to 1,000 feel AGL. The lurns are initially executed to the left and nor-mally should not exceed a 45° angle of bank .

If any wind exists, a constantly changing angle of bank will be required lo maintain a uniformradius around a point. The closer the airplane is to a direct downwind heading where the ground-speed is the greatest, the steeper the bank required. Conversely, the more nearly the airplane is loa direct upwind heading where the groundspeed is least, the shallower the bank required. Asalways, you should maintain coordinated flight and trim to relieve conlrol pressures, as needed,throughout Ihe maneuver .

TURNS AROUND A POINT

••• rJl• f)

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-6

••••••

•

TURNS AROUND A POINT

Objective: To determine !hat the applicant

I g direclly upwlnd. you normally wllI be at or near level fligh!.

6-7

TURNS AROUND A POINT---- ---~. --- -

el lateral distance between your position and the reference point. Failure to do so may result in

iAg you view of the referenee point.

Plans the maneuver so as to enter at 600 to 1,000 feet AGL (180 to 300 meters) AGL, at an appropriate

dlstanee from the reference point.

As you turn crosswind. gradually reduce the angle of bank to compensate for the decreasingtailwind .

Heading upwind. your bank angle will be at its shallowest due to the slow groundspeed .

When the reference point is abeam the airplane on the downwind heading. roll to the left tobegin the maneuver. Flying a downwind entry provides the highest groundspeed andrequires the steepest initial angle of bank.

As you turn crosswind. gradually increase the angle of bank to maintain a uniform groundtrack .

• Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to turns around a poin!.

• Seleets a suitable ground referenee point.

• Divides altention between airplane control and Ihe ground Irack while mainlaining eoordinaled f1ight.

• Applies adequate wind-drift eorreelion lo traek a constan! radius lurn around Ihe seleeted reference

poin!.

• Mainlains altilude. ;t 100 feet (30 meters); maintains airspeed. ;t 10 knots .

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.,••••

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

EXERCISES - GROUND REF'ERENCE MANEUVERS--- -~~.-~ -~._~

CEUVE22 - RECTANGULAR COURSE,

1. What other maneuver does the rectangular course simulate?

2. True/False. When you select an area to perform a rectangular course, you should also select an

emergency landing field which is within gliding distance. _

3. What is the maximum angle of bank you should use when performing a rectangular course?

4. When should you begin your turn from the downwind leg to the crosswind leg?

5. Relative to angle ofbank, which turn should be the shallowest when f1ying a rectangular course?

23 - S-TURNS

1. During S-turns, how should the ground reference line be oriented with regard to the wind

direction?

2. True/False. To begin an S-turn, you should roIl into a relatively shaIlow bank as you cross the

ground reference lineo _

3. When you turn from a downwind heading to an upwind heading, how will your ground-

speed change?

4. Why should you change your angle of bank when turning from a tailwind to a headwind?

5. True/False. The ground track of the S-turn should be the same size on the upwind side as the

ground track on the downwind side. _

6-9

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••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6-10

•••••

24 - TURNS AROUND A POINT

1. In which direction should you initially begin your turns around a point?

2. What is the maximum angle of bank normally used when flying turns around a point?

3. When flying turns arpund a point, where does the steepest angle of bank occur?

4. When flying turns around a point, where does the shallowest angle of bank occur?

5. How many feet can you deviate from your entry altitude during turns around a point and still

meet the PTS requirements?

. 7-1 1

MANEUVER 2S 7-2SHORT-FIELO TAKEOFF ANO CLlMB

MANEUVER 26 7-4SHORT-FIELO ApPROACH ANO LANOING

MAN EUVE R 27 7-6SOFT-FIELO TAKEOFF ANO CLlMB

MANEUVER 28 7-8SOFT-FIELO ApPROACH ANO LANOING

EXERCISES

Volume 11- Flight Maneuvers, Ground Reference Maneuvers,Performance Takeoffs and Landings, and Special FlightOperations

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•

-

ou achieve full power enables you to determine Ihallhe engine is functioning properly before you

power availability is critical and dislance lo abort a lakeoff is limiled .

Set the flaps as recommended by the manufacturero The appropriate flap setting variesbetween airplanes and can range from no flaps to approximately one-half flaps. While hold-ing the brakes, add full power smoothly and continuously and then releas e the brakes tobegin the takeoff rollo

Complete the before takeoff check. Ensure that the runway, as well as the approach anddeparture paths are clear of other aircraft. After obtaining a clearance (at a controlled airport)or self announcing your intentions (at an uncontrolled airport), taxi into position at thebeginning of the runway so as to allow maximum utilization of the available runway. Alignthe airplane on the runway centerline .

Short-field takeoff and climb procedures may be required when the usable runway length is short,or when the runway available for takeoff is restricted by obstructions, such as trees, powerlines, orbuildings, at the departure end. During short-field practice sessions, it is usually assumed that youare departing from a short runway and that you must clear an obstacle which is 50 feet in height. Toaccomplish successful short-field takeoffs and climbs you must be familiar with the best angle-of-climb speed (Vx) and the b,est rate-of-climb speed (Vy) for your airplane's. Many manufacturers alsospecify a best obstacle clearance speed. You should consult your airplane's POH for the appropriatespeeds and specific procedures for performing short-field takeoffs. Since the same general proce-dures used to execute a normal takeoff and climb apply to this discussion, only the additional tech-niques required to perform a takeoff and climb from a short runway are explained here .

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7-2

•••••

• Completes Ihe appropriate checklist.

7-3

e recommended liftoff speed. A premature nose.high attilude produces drag and results

pt to lilt Ihe airplane off Ihe runway prematurely. or lo climb loo steeply. Ihe airplane may

mon, a slall may result or the airplane may impacl the obstacle.

I lift and settling 01 the airplane, retract the Ilaps in increments.

SHORT-FIELO TAKEOFF ANO MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE CLIMB


Maintains takeoff power to a safe maneuverlng altitude .

• Retracts the landing gear, if appropriate. and f1aps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by

the manufacturer .

• Lifts off at !he recommended airspeed. and aecelerates to the recommended obstacle clearance

airspeed or Vx .

• Applies brakes (if appropriate), while advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff power .

• Clears the area: taxies into takeoff position utilizing maximum available takeoff area and aligns the

airplane on !he runway centerltakeoff path .

• Positions the flight controls for the existing wind conditions: sets Ihe Ilaps as recommended .

Allow the airplane to accelerate with its full weight on the main wheels by holding the yoketo maintain the elevator (or stabilator) in a neutral position. Smoothly and firmly apply backpressure to the yoke to liftoff at the recommended airspeed. Since the airplane acceleratesquickly after liftoff, you may need to apply additionaI back pressure to establish and main-tain Vx (or best obstacle clearance speed) .

• Exhibits knowledge 01 the elements related lo a short.lield lakeoff and maximum performance climb .

Once you have cleafed the obstacle and reached a safe altitude, lower the nos e and acceler-ate to Vy. Retract the landing gear (if applicable) and then retract the flaps (if applicable). Ifno obstacles are present during training, you should maintain Vx until you are at least 50 feetabove the runway surface. Trim to relieve control pressures .

• Establishes a pitch attitude Ihat will malntain the recommended obstacle clearance airspeed, or Vx,

+ 10/-5 knots, until the obstacle is cleared, or until the airplane is 50 leet (20 meters) above the surface .

• Alter clearing !he obstac1e, establishes the pitch attitude for Vy, accelerates to Vy, and maintains Vy•

+ 10/-5 knots, during Ihe climb .

• Maintains directional control and proper wind.drilt correclion throughout the takeoff and climb .

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Ensure that the before landing checklist is completed and that the area is clear. Extend approx-imately one-third of the available flap s during the lalter portion of the downwind leg and two-thirds on base, while progressively reducing the airspeed. Trim to relieve control pressures .

Begin the final approach at least 500 feet higher than the touchdown area. Maintain the rec-ommended approach speed ancl extend the remaining flaps .

ApPROACH

A short-field landing is necessary when you have a relatively short landing are a or when anapproach must be made over obstaeles which limit the available landing area. A short-field landingconsists of a steep approach over an obstaele, using power and flaps (normally full flaps). A mini-mum landing speed is desired with a touchdown point as elose to the threshold as possible. Duringshort-field landing practice, assume you are making the approach and landing over a 50-foot obsta-ele. You should consult your airplane's POH for the appropriate speeds and specific procedures forperforming short-field takeoffs. Since the same general procedures used to execute a normalapproach and landing apply to this discussion, only the additional techniques required to performa short-field approach and landing are explained here .

7-4

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SHORT-FIELO APPROACH ANO LANOING

~mend retraction 01 flaps on lhe landing roll. This translers more weightto the main gear and

Objeclive: To determine thatthe applicant:

• Applies brakes as necessary. to stop in lhe shortest distance consistenl with salely .

• Completes the appropriate checklisl.

Maintains crosswind correclion and directional control throughoutthe approach and landing sequence .

• Makes smooth. timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown .

7-5

• Touches down at or within 200 leet (60 meters) beyond a specified point. with no side drift. minimum

f10at and with !he airplane's longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway cenler/landing path .

e Sbort-field approach is sleeper lhan lhal used 101'a normal approach. This allows you to

6 approach end 01 lhe runway. Exlending lull flaps allows a sleeper deseenl angle wilh-

ich results in a decrease in the dislance required lo bring the airplane to a lull stop .

• Touches down smoothly al minimum control airspeed .

• Exhibits knowledge 01the elements related to a short-field approach and landing .

When the airplane is firmly on the runway. lower the nose, retraet the flaps (if reeom-mended) and apply the brakes, as neeessary to further shorten the roll-out.

As you begin the flare. reduce power smoothly to idle and allow the airplane to toueh downin a full-stall eondition. Sinee the short-field approaeh is made at a steep deseent angle andclose to the airplane's stalling speed, you must judge the initiation of the flare aeeurately toavoid flying into the ground or stalling prematurely and sinking rapidly .

-- ,--"----~" - ---- l.....i

ay resull in an immediate increase in lhe rale 01descenl and a hard landing. On the other

oown Wlth little or no floal. An excessive amounl 01airspeed may result in touchdown

and a roll.out which exceeds the available landing area. As your training pro-

o GAclown beyond and within 200 leet 01a poi nI specified by your instructor .

SHORT-FIELD APPROACH ANO LANDING

• Considers the wind conditions, landing surface. obstructions, and selects the most suitable 10uchdown

poin!.

• Establishes the recommended appl'oach and landing configuration and airspeed; adJust pltch attitude


• Maintains a stabilized approach and recommended approach airspeed. 01'in its absence nol more

lhan 1.3 Vso. +10/-5 knols. with wind gust factor applied .

LANDING

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ear 01 the runway, nosewheel sleering becomes inelfeetive. However, due lo the increasing air

rsulfieient lor malntaining direclional control.

7

• Clear the approach and departure areas and the traffic pattern prior to taxiing onto therunway. Afier obtaining a clearance (at a control!ed airpart) or self announcing your inten-tions (at an uncontrol!ed airpart], taxi into position for takeoff without stopping .

• Set the flap position as recommended by the manufacturer .

Complete the befare takeoff check on a paved or firm surface area, if practical. This helps toavoid propel!er damage and the possibility of the airplane becoming stuck.

• As you increase speed and the elevator (or stabilator) becomes more effective, reduce backpressure slightly. Continue to use back pressure on the yoke to hold the nose up and toreduce the amount of weight on the nosewheel.

Align the airplane with the center of the runway and while still rolling, advance the throttlesmoothly to takeoff power. Maintain full back pressure on the yoke to raise the nosewheelfrom the soft surface .

A soft field may be defined as any runway that measurably retards acceleration during the takeoffroll. The objective of the soft-field takeoff is to transfer the weight of the airplane from the landinggear to the wings as quickly and smoothly as possible to eliminate the drag caused by surfaces suchas tal! grass, soft dirt, or snow. Takeoffs and climbs from soft fields require special procedures, aswel! as kl10wledge of your aircraft's performance characteristics including Vx and Vv.

You actually begin the soft-field pro cedure during the taxi phase. If the taxi area surface is soft, useful! back pressure on the yoke to maintain ful!-up elevator (or stabilator) deflection with a slightamount of power to keep the airplane moving. This technique transfers sorne of the airplane'sweight from the nosewheel to the main wheels, resulting in lower power requirements and greaterease in taxiing .

7-6

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7-7

SOFT-FIELO TAKEOFF ANO CLlMB

Objective: To delermine that the applicant:

Mainlains directional control and proper wind-drift correction Ihroughout the takeoff and c1imb.

Exhibits knowledge of !he elements related lo a soft-field lakeoff and climb .

ses, lit! ¡ncreases and more 01 the aircralt's weight is Iranslerred lo Ihe wings. This causes Ihe air-

al an airspeed slower than safe climb speed. The airplane is now flying in ground effect.

Establlshes and maintains a pitch attitude that will transfer the weighl of Ihe airplane lrom the wheels

lo the wings as rapidly as possible .

Allow the airplane'to accelerate in level flight, within ground eHect, to Vx befare startinga dimb .

'ijlIplane may skip or bounce ¡nto the air before ils full weight can be supporled aerodynamically.

ilt8nl to hold the pitch attitude as constant as possible (an importanl applicalion 01 slow IIight). II you

er a bQunce, the nosewheel may slrike Ihe ground. On the olher hand, sharply increasing the

nE:&trlay cause the airplane to stall .

Once aH obstad es are deared (if applicable), accelerate to Vv. Retract the landing gear (ifapplicablef and raise the flaps (if applicable) once you have attained a safe altitude and air-speed. Trim to relieve control pressures .

me back pressure while accelerating during the takeoff roll, the airplane may assume an

~, Wh1chcan cause the tail skid to come in contact with the runway .

SOFT-FIELO TAKEOFF ANO CLIMB

As the airplane lifts from the runway surface, reduce back pressure to achieve a levelflight attitude .

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• Positions the f1ight controls for existing wind conditions and to maximize lift as quickly as possible .

• Mainlains takeoff power to a safe maneuvering altitude .

• Clears the area; taxies onto the lakeoff surface at a speed consistenl with safety without stopping

while advancing Ihe throttle smoothly to takeoff power .

• Retracts the landing gear. if appropriate, and f1aps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by

the manufacturer .

• Completes Ihe appropriale checklist.

• Lifts off at the lowest possible airspeed and remains in ground effect while accelerating to Vx or Vy, as

appropriale .

• Establishes a pitch altitude for Vx or Vy, as appropriate, and maintains selecled airspeed +101-5 knots,

during the c1imb.

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Ensure that the before landing checklist is completed and that the area is dear. Extend approx-imately one-third of the available flaps during the latter portion of the downwind leg and two-thirds on base, while progressively reducing the airspeed. Trim to relieve control pressures .

Unless obstades are in the approach path, maintain the same descent angle on final as youwould during a normal approach. Maintain the recommended approach speed and extendthe remaining flaps .

ApPROACH

The objective of a soft-field landing is to ease the weight of the airplane from the wings to the mainlanding gear as gently and slowly as possible while keeping the nosewheel off the soft surface dur-ing most of the landing roll. This technique will prevent the nosewheel from sinking into the softsurface and reduce the possibility of an abrupt stop during the landing roll. You should consult yourairplane's POH for the appropriate speeds and specific procedures for performing soft-field land-ings. Since the same general procedures used to execute a normal approach and landing apply tothis discussion, only the additional techniques required to perform a soft-field approach and land-ing are explained here .

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50FT-riELO APPROACH ANO LANOING

8!sott-field landing is normally recommended lo allow Ihe airplane to louch down al a mínimum

~se consider \he runway condilions when delermining whelher lo use lull lIaps. For example,

El aps may suffer damage Irom mudo slush, or slones Ihrown up Irom Ihe wheels .

LANDINGHold the airplane one to two feet above the surface as long as possible to dissipate forwardspeed. Maintain that attitude with power and slowly continue the descent until the airplanetouches down at the lowest possible airspeed with the airplane in a nose-high attitude .

After touchdown, maintain back pressure on the yoke to hold the nosewheel off the surfaceas long as practica!. As the airspeed decreases on the roll-out, smoothly and gently lower thenosewheel to the surface .

all amounl 01 power after louchdown will help you lo ea se Ihe nosewheel down, under conlrol.

Increase the power slightly, if necessary, to keep the aircraft moving and prevent it from stop-ping suddenly on the soft surface. Avoid using the brakes since braking action may cause thenosewheel to dig into the soft surface and may damage the landing gear. The soft surfaceshould provide sufficient braking action to slow the aircraft down .

SOFT-FIELO APPROACH ANO LANOING

Objeclive: To delermine Ihal Ihe applicant:

• Exhibits knowledge 01 Ihe elemenls related lo a soft-lield approach and landing .

• Considers Ihe wind condilions, landing surface and obslruetions, and selecls the mosl suitable louch

down area .

Eslablishes the recommended approach and landing conliguration, and airspeed; adjust pitch attilude


• Mainlains a slablized approach and recommended airspeed, or in its absence nol more than 1.3 Vso,

+ 101-5 knols, with wind gust lactor applied .

Makes smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown .

• Touches down softly with no drift, and with the airplane's longitudinal axis aligned with the runwayl

landing path .

• Maintains crosswind correction and directional controlthoughout the approach and landing sequence .

• Maintains proper position 01 the f1ighl conlrols and sufficienl speed lo taxi on Ihe soft surface .

• Completes Ihe appropriale checklist.

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3. What is the purpose of extending £Ull fiaps when executing a short-field approach?

4. True/False. While executing a short-field landing. you should reduce power to idIe in the fiare

and allow the airplane to touch down in a £Ull-stall condition. _

3. True/Falsc. You should use the best rale-of-climb speed to clear obstacles at lhe deparlure end

ofthe runway. _

2. Is the descent angIe for a short-field approach steeper, shallower. or the same as that fiown for

a normal approach to a landing? _

EXERCISES - PERFORMANCE TAKEOFFS ANO LANOINGS~ -:r-- ~

2. During short-field practice sessions. it is assumed that you must clear an obstacle which is

how many f~et in heighl? _

x

5. What can occur if you maintain an excessive amounl of airspeed during the short-field

approach and landing?

4. Why should you hold the brakes until you achieve full power prior lo beginning the takeoff

rol!?

5. Why should you avoid raising the nos e prior to the recommended liftoff speed?

1. In what situations wouId executing a short-field approach and landing be necessary?

1. Name two situations which require the use of a short-field takeoff and climb .

26 - SHORT-FIELO ApPROACH ANOLANOING

2S - SHORT-FIELOTAKEOFF ANO CLIMB

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27 - SOFT-FIELOTAKEOFF ANO CLIMB

1. What is the objective of a soft-field takeoff?

2. What is the definition of a soft field?

3. True/False. The sofl"field procedure begins during the taxi phase. _

4. What can occur if you do not release sorne back pressure while accelerating during the takeoff

rol!?

5. Since liftoff norrnally occurs at a speed below the safe clirnb speed, what action should you

take before starting a clirnb?

28 - SOFT-FIELOApPROACH ANO LANOING

1. What is the objective of a soft-field landing?

2. Why is the extension of flap s norrnally recornmended for a soft-field approach and landing?

3. When executing a soft-field landing, why should you hold the airplane one to two feet aboye

the runway as long as possible?

4. True/False. During a soft-field landing, you should lower the nosewheel to the surface as

quickly as possible after touchdown. _

5. What is the correct procedure for the roll-out after a soft-field landing? _

A. Maintain power at idle and apply heavy braking .

B. Hold forward pressure on the yoke and avoid braking .

C. Maintain back pressure on the yoke and increase power slightly, if necessary .

MANEUVER 29 8-2ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

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MANEUVER 30 ....NIGHT OPERATIONS

Volume II - Flight Maneuvers, Ground Reference Maneuvers,Performance Takeoffs and Landings, and Special FlightOperations

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ATTITUUME T

Attitude instrument flying is a fundamental method for controlling an airplane by reference toinstruments. Basic instrument maneuver training is not intended to prepare you for unrestrictedflight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Rather, it is an emergency procedure to pre-pare you for an inadvertent incursion into IMC. For example, if you inadvertently en ter an overcastlayer of clouds, the procedure calls for a 1800 standard-rate turn to fly out of IMC. During your train-ing, you will develop a good understanding of the flight instruments and systems which will helpyou build the skills required to interpret and translate the information presented into precise air-plane control. Qne such skill is the instrument scan, which is a methodical cross-check of the flightinstruments. Your scan should resemble a wagon wheel with the attitude indicator as the hub andthe spokes extending out to the other instruments. A typical scan might progress as follows: attitudeindicator, altimeter, attitude indicator, VSI, attitude indicator, heading indicator, attitude indicator,turn coordinator, attitude in di catar, airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, and so on. At first, youmay have a tendency to scan rapidly, looking directly at the instruments withoul knowing exactlywhal information you are seeking. However, with familiarity and practice, the instrument scanreveals definite trends during specific flight conditions. These trends will help you control the air-plane as it makes a transition from one flight condition to another .

If you apply your full concentration to a single instrument, you will encounter a problem called fix-ation. This results from a natural human inclination to observe a specific instrument carefully andaccurately, afien to the exclusion of other instruments. Fixation on a single instrument usuallyresults in poor control. For example, while performing a turn, you may have a tendency to watchonly the turn coordinator instead of including other instruments in your cross-check. This fixationon the turn coordinator may lead to a los s of altitude through poor pitch and bank control. Youshould look at each instrument only long enough to understand the information it presents, thencontinue on to the next one. Similarly, you may find yourself placing too much emphasis on a sin-gle instrument, instead of relying on a combination of instruments necessary for airplane perfor-mance information. This differs from fixation in thal you are using other instruments, but are giving

too much attention to a particular one .

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using the attltude indicator. you should initially restriet Ihe displacemenl 01 Ihe horizon bar lo a one-

W'%progressing laler lo a lull bar widlh. Use grealer displace me ni only when large attilude

ll'le deslred altllude is less Ihan 100 leel, you can make Ihe attilude adjuslmenl you need lo relurn

Wi1fu>utchanging the power setting. However, il Ihe deviation Irom Ihe desired altilude is greater

ufd make a change in power setting and an appropriale Irim adjuslment.

• The altimeter provides an indication of pitch attitude. At a constant airspeed and power set-ting, altitude is contro11ed by pitch. Since the altitud e should remain constant when the air-plane is in level flight, any deviation from the desired altitude indica tes the need for a pitchchange. Obviously, if the altitude is increasing, the nos e must be lowered. The rate of move-ment of the altimeter needle is as important as its direction of movement in maintaining levelflight. Large pitch attitude deviations from level flight result in rapid altitude changes; slightpitch deviations produce much slower changes in the altimeter needle movement. Rememberto make a11adjuslments to pitch by using the attitude indicator .

1. With your view limiting device in place, set the power for normal cruise flight.

• The attitude indicator is the only instrument which provides a pictorial display of the air-plane's overa11 attitude. During instrument flight, a11changes in pitch and bank are made byreference to this instrument. The other instruments are used to indicate when a change in atti-tIlde is required .

2. Adjust the pitch attitude for level flight by positioning the miniature airplane on the horizon barof the attitude indicator. Hold the pitch attitude and trim to relieve control pressures. Maintainthe proper pitch attitude using the attitude indicator, altimeter, VSI, and the airspeed indicator .

STRAIGHT-ANO-LEVELStraight-and-Ievel flight is the starting point and building block for a11attitude instrument flying.You wi11be cha11enged by your flight instructor to develop your instrument scanning technique andthe skills required to accurately control the airplane .

Basic attitude instrument training provides you with the foundation for further instrument trainingwhich could lead to the addition of an instrument rating. Specific instrument maneuvers which youwill perform during your private pilot training include straight-and-Ievel flight, constant airspeedclimbs and descents, turns to headings, and recovery from unusual flight attitudes. When flyingwith a view limiting device such as a hood or JeppShades, your flight instructor will act as safetypilot; never practice attitude instrument flight solo .

ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

During performance of a maneuver, you may sometimes fail to anticipate significant instrumentindications fo11owing attitude changes. For example, during leveloff from a climb or descent, youmay concentrate on pitch control, while forgetting about heading or ro11 information. This error,ca11ed omission, results in erratic control of heading and bank.

To fly effectively by instrument reference, you should understand each instrument's operating prin-cipies and limitations. In addition, you need to know what each instrument reveals about the air-plane's performance. Each flight maneuver involves the use of combinations of instruments that youmust read and interpret in order to control the airplane. For example, if you want to control pitchattitude, primarily use the attitude indicator, airspeed indicator, a1timeter, and vertical speed indica-toro To control bank attitude, primarily use the attitude indicator, turn coordinator, and heading indi-cator. To control an airplane by reference to instruments, you must continue perfecting thetechniques of proper pitch, bank, and power control that you practiced during flight by visual refer-ence. Maintain a light touch on the controls and tri m to relieve any control pressures once the air-plane has stabilized in a particular attitude .

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STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLlGHT

Objectlve: To determine Ihat Ihe applicant:

• Exhibits knowledge 01 Ihe elements relaled lo attitude instrumenl flying during straighl-and-Ievel f1ighl.

• Mainlains straighl-and.level f1ighl solely by relerence lo inslrumenls using proper instrument cross-

check and inlerprelalion. and coordínaled control application .

• Maintains altítude. :t 200 feel (60 melers); heading, :t 20 degrees; and airspeed, :t 10 knots .

eran e, use a bank angle equal lo one-hall 01 Ihe difference between Ihe presenl heading and Ihe

'RfN r,ll:le angle you use should nol exceed Ihal necessary lor a slandard.rale lurn. For example, if

Sl)Q and your presenl heading is 290', you need lo change your heading by lO •. Therelore, you

le ~ !1lrealer !han one-hall 01 lO. or, in Ihis example. 5° 01 bank .

• When the miniature airplane of the turn coordinator is in a wings-Ievel position, the airplane ismaintaining a constant heading. If the wings of the miniature airplane are displaced from thelevel flight position, the airplane is turning in the direction that the miniature airplane is bank-ing. Remember that the ball in the inc1inometer indicates whether you are maintaining coordi-nated flight. If the ball is off center, the airplane is slipping or skidding. When this occurs, makecorrections with appropriate coordinated rudder and aileron pressure .

r¡¡il1lalure irplane on Ihe attilude indicalor lo produce a rale 01change which is double Ihe amounl

I!lower as necessary. For example, if an airplane is 100 leel below Ihe desired allilude, selecl

Ilrmale Ihe Inilial amounl 01 pilch change required lo slop lhe deseenl and climb al 200 f.p.m .

tl'!' lelhlI !he vertical speed indicalor displays an accurale rale. Ihen adjusl il as necessary .

• Normally, the vertical speed indicator's function is to help you establish and maintain adesired rate of climb or descent. Due to the design of the instrument, there is a lag of approxi-mately six to nine seconds before the correct rate of change is registered. Even though this lagexists, you may use the vertical speed indicator as a trend instrument for maintaining adesired pitch attitude. As a trend instrument, it indicates the direction of pitch change almostinstantaneously. If the needle deviates from the zero position, the instrument is indicating thatthe pitch is changing. Apply corrective pressures while referring to the attitude indicator. Thispressure will stop the needle movement and place the airplane in a level attitude again .However, you should not try to return the needle to zero, since the lag in the vertical speedindicator will cause a tendency to overcontro!.

• The airspeed indicator also indicates pitch attitude. If you establish a constant pitch attitudeanel power setting and permit the airplane to stabilize, the airspeed remains constant. As youraise the pitch attitude, the airspeed decreases slightly. On the other hand, as you lower thepitch attitude, the airspeed increases somewhat. A rapid change in airspeed indicates that alarge pitch change has occurred; you should apply smooth control pressure in the oppositedirection. Again, however, look at the attitude indicator to note the amount of pitch changecallsed by control pressure. This will help you avoid overcontrolling the airplane. You willknow the airplane is passing through approximately level flight when the needle stops itsmovement in one direction and begins to move in the opposite direction .

3. Confirm wings level on the attitude indicator. Maintain your bank attitllde using the attitudeindicator, heading indicator, and turn coordinator .

• The principal instrument used for bank control is the attitude indicator. The heading indica-tor and turn coordinator are used to indica te when a change in bank is required .

• In coordinated flight, bank attitude also is indicated on the heading indicator. Generally, jf theheading displayed on the indicator is not changing, the wings are leve!. On the other hand, aslow heading change indicates a shallow bank angle, while a rapid change in heading indi-cates a steep bank.

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CONSTANT AIRSPEED CLIMBSThis basic maneuver will help you improve your sean, maintain a heading, and dimb to a specificaltitude. In a constant airspeed dimb you should indude the attitude indicator, airspeed indicator,vertical speed indicator, and altimeter in your sean for pitch information. Refer to the heading in di-cator and turo coordinator for bank and heading information .

1. From straight-and-Ievel cruise flight, initiate a wings-Ievcl dimb by positioning the miniature air-plane to an approximate nose-high indication (about two bar widths). Simultaneously. addpower to maintain the desired dimb spced. Apply right rudder as necessary to counteract theeffect of P-factor. Maintain dircctional control by referring to the attitude indicator, headingindicator, and turo coordinator .

2. Once the dimb is stabilized, trim to relieve control pressures. Continue scanning and make anyrequired corrections by referring to the attitude indicator .

3. Approximately 50 feet prior to reaching your desired altitude, begin the levcloffby applying forwardpressure on the yoke lo adjust the miniature airplane down to the horizon of the attitude indicator .

ot the chmb rate as a rule 01 thumb to determine when to begin your levaloll. For example. il

p.m., begin your leveloff roughly 50 leet belore the desired altitude .

4. As the airplane accelerates, use less right rudder pressure. Trim to relieve control pressures .

5. As you reach cruise speed, reduce power to the recommended cruise setting and trim forstraight-and-Ievel flight.

CONSTANT AIRSPEED CLlMBS


o Exhibits knowledge 01 the elements related to attitude instrument Ilying during constant airspeed climbs .

o Establishes the climb configuration specified by the examiner .

o Transitions to the climb pitch attitude and power setting on an assigned heading using proper inslrument

cross-check and interpretation, and coordinated control application .

o Demonstrates climbs solely by reference to instrumenls al a constant airspeed to specillc altitudes in

straight f1ight and turns .

o Levels 011at the assigned altitude and maintains that altitude, :t 200 leet (60 meters); maintains heading.

:t 20 degrees; maintains airspeed, :t 10 knots . s-s

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CONSTANT AIRSPEEO OESCENTS

Objective: To delermine Ihal Ihe applicant:

• Exhibits knowledge 01 Ihe elemenls relaled lo attilude inslrumenl Ilying during conslant airspeed descents .

• Eslablishes Ihe deseenl conliguralíon specified by Ihe examiner .

• Transillons lo the descent pitch altitude and power selting on an assigned heading using proper instrument

cross-check and interpretation, and coordinaled conlrol applicalion .

• Demonstrates descenls solely by reference, lo inslruments at a constant airspeed lo specific altitudes in

straighl f1ight and lums .

• Levels off at Ihe assigned altilude and maintains Ihal altitude, +/. 200 leel (60 melers); rnainlains heading,

:!: 20 degrees; mainlains airspeed, :!: 10 knots.

;tl:IOl!!b to determine when to begin your leveloff. For example, if your deseent rate is 500 f.p.m.,

roug y 50 feel befare Ihe desired altilude .

1. From straight-and-level flight, apply carburetor heat (if applicable) and simultaneously decreasepower while gradually increasing back pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude and slow down .

2. Once the desired airspeed is attained, further reduce the power (if necessary) and simultane-ously lower the nose to maintain the desired airspeed. Trim to relieve control pressures .

3. Maintain a constant airspeed during the descent. Correct for airspeed deviations by adjustingpitch attitude, not power. You can obtain pitch information by cross-checking the airspeed indi-catar, attitude indicator, altimeter, and VSI.

4. Approximately 50 feet prior to your desired attitude, begin the level off by simultaneously addingpower and raising the nose to place the miniature airplane of the attitude indicator on the horizon bar.

CONSTANT AIRSPEEDDESCENTS

5. Once the pitch attitude and airspeed have stabilized in straight-and-level flight, trim to relievecontrol pressures .

This maneuver will help you improve your sean, maintain a heading, and descend to a specific alti-tude. In a constant airspeed descent you should include the attitude indicator, airspeed indicator,vertical speed indicator, and altimeter in your sean for pitch information and the heading indicatorand turn coordinator for bank and heading information .

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ar;nounl 01 lead lor the roll-out Irom the lurn is approximalely 1/2 Ihe angle 01 bank. For

Ak lar your tumo you should begin your rol/-out aboul 9° belore the desired heading .

2. As you establish the turn, adjust the nos e of the miniature airplane so that it is slightly above thelevel flight position on the horizon bar. Add power if necessary to maintain airspeed. Trim torelieve control pressures .


1. From straight-and-Ievel flight, simultaneously apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure inthe direction of the turno Use the attitude indicator to establish the approximate angle of bankrequired for a standard rate turno

'ne lhe approximale angle 01bank required lor a slandard rate turn is to divide your airspeed

l.J.ltFor example. 120 + 10 = 12, 12 + 6 = 18, so 18° is the approximate angle 01 bank

IgtClm al 120 knols. Al 80 knols, a standard rale lurn would require aboul a 12° angle 01bank .

3. Once you are established in a standard rate turn, neutralize the aileron and rudder inputs. Checkthe turn coordinator to determine if you are maintaining a standard rate turno Make any correc-tions using the attitude indicator. Cross-check the altimeter to ensure you are maintaining a con-stant altitude. AIso, include the heading indicator in your scan to determine your progresstoward the desired heading .

4. To roIl out of the turn, apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure opposite the direction ofturno Also, apply forward pressure on the yoke to prevent a gain in altitude. Simultaneously,reduce power to maintain airspeed. Use the attitude indicator as the principal reference instru-ment during the roIl-out.

TURNS To HEADINGS

5. Once you return to straight-and-Ievel flight, continue your instrument scan and trim to relievecontrol pressures.

To further develop your attitude instrument flying skills your will practice level turns to specificheadings. To maintain the desired altitude during the turns you will have to closely coordinate yourpitch and power adjustments .

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TURNS TO HEADlNGS

Objeclive: To determine that the applicant:

2. If the airplane is in a bank, level the wings .

1. Simultaneously. lower the nose to place the miniature airplane on the horizon bar of the attitudeindicator and add power (if available) to prevent a loss of airspeed .

3. Afier you return to straight-and-level flight and airspeed returns to normal, reduce power to acruise setting and tri m to relieve control pressures.

RECOVERY FROM UNUSUALFLIGHT ATTITUDES

• Transitions to the level-tum atlitude using proper instrument cross-check and interprelalion. and

coordinated control application .

• Demonstrates turns to headings solely by relerence 10 instruments; maintains altitude. :t 200 leet (60

metars); mainlains a standard rata tum and rolls out on lhe assigned heading. :t 10 degrees: maintains

airspeed. :t 10 knots .

• Exhibits knowledge 01Ihe elements related to attitude inslrument Ilying during tums to headings .

NOSE-HIGH ATTITUDEYou will recognize a nose-high attitude by the indication of the miniature airplane on the attitudeindicator. as well as a rapidly increasing altimeter. positive rate of climb. and a rapidly dccreasingairspeed. Since a rapid decrease in airspeed can quickly result in a stall. prompt rccognition andrecovery form a nose-high unusual attitude is es sen ti al.

Unusual flight attitudes can be a result of many factors such as turbulence. confusion. preoccupa-tion with cabin duties. carelessness. or a lack of proficiency in basic airplane control. Regardless ofthe cause of an unusual flight attitude. it usually is unintentional and unexpected. There are twobasic scenarios you will practice during your flight training - a nose-high attitude with rapidlydecreasing airspeéd. and a nose-low attitude with a rapidly increasing airspeed. Learning to recog-nize and promptly recover from an unusual attitude is a key part of attitude instrument training:Before initiating any recovery. quickly confirm the indications on the attitude indicator are correctby scanning the other instruments .

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AECOVEAV FAOM UNUSUAL FLIGHT ATI'TUDES

Objeclive: To determine Ihal Ihe applicant:

• Exhibils knowledge 01 Ihe elemenls relaled lo altilude inslrumenl lIying during unusual altiludes .

• Recognizes unusual f1ighl altitudes solely by reference to ínstruments: recovers promplly lO a

stabillzed level flight attitude using proper Inslrument cross-eheck and interpretalion and smoolh,

coordinaled control applieation in the corree! sequenee .


e s,e before you roll wings level, Ihe increased load laclor can resull in acceleraled slall, a

toe alrplane's design limils .

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2. Raise the nos e of the airplane to a level flight attitude .

1. Simultaneously, reduce power and level the wings using coordinated aileron and rudder pres-sure and referencing the miniature airplane of the attitude indicator .

3. After you return the airplane to straight-and-level flight and airspeed returns to normal, addpower to a cruise setting and trim to relieve control pressures .

NOSE-Low AlTlTUDELike a nose-high attitude, a nose-low attitude can be recognized on the attitude indicator by theposition of the miniature airplane. You can confirm a nose-low attitude by a rapid(y decreasing alti-tude, a high rate of descent, and a rapidly increasing airspeed. Airspeed is again a critical elementoHowever, in this case, your airspeed can quickly exceed maneuvering speed with a potential foroverstressing the airplane during the recovery .

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PREF"LIGHTPreparation for a night flight is inherently more detailed than for a daytime flight. For example, thepreflight inspection for a daytime flight normally would not inelude the landing, taxi, position, andcockpit lights. When performing your preflight inspection at night, pay very elose attention to thedetails of the checklist, and, if possible, conduct the preflight inspection in a well-lighted area. Atsorne airports, the ramps are not lighted; therefore, it may be preferable to plan for an earlier depar-ture so you can complete your preflight inspection before dark .

Your airplane may have fuses which are accessible to you during flight. If this is the case you mustensure a spare set is available in the airplane. Ifthe airplane is equipped with circuit breakers, checkto see that they are not tripped. Since most circuit breakers can not be tripped manually, one that istripped may be an indication of an equipment malfunction. To check a tripped circuit breaker, sim-ply reset it and then check the associated equipment for proper operation .

EXTERIOR LIGHTINGDuring your preflight inspection, you should check the lighting systems such as the position lightslocated on the tail and wing tips; however, turn them on only long enough to verify proper opera-tion, then turn each system off to conserve the airplane battery. Sorne airplanes have small plasticattachments on the wing tips which reflect light so you can check the operation of the positionlights from the cockpit. Additionally, your airplane must be equipped with an anticollision lightsystem which must be checked and operational for night flying .

Most airplanes have landing lights, and sorne have taxi lights, which must be checked for operationduring your preflight. These lights may be collocated behind a common lens in the engine cowlingor in the leading edge of the wing. Many high performance airplanes have the landing and taxi lightsmounted on the landing gear. Your preflight check should inelude inspection for proper illumina-tion, condition of the lens, and the correct alignment of each light. When operating the landing andtaxi lights, avoid shining them in the direction of another aircraft, since this can impair the otherpilot's night visiono Even though landing and taxi lights generally are not required for night flying,when they are installed they should be checked for proper operation.

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NIGHT OPERATIONS- ... _-----~=-- ---------

INTERIOR LIGHTINGAnother important part of your preflight inspection is a check of the cabin and in~trument panellighting systems. The instruments and instrument panel may be lighted in one of several ways. Thefirst is commonly referred to as flood lighting, the second is post lighting, and the third method ofinstrument illumination is interna!, with each instrument containing a light within the case. Floodlighting is probably the most common for training type airplanes. This system uses a single cen-trally-mounted light with a rheostat to regulate the intensity. Post lighting provides a light sourceadjacent to each instrument. Each light is directed toward the instruments and is shaded from yourvisiono This system may incorporate two or more rheostats - one for the flight instruments, andanother for the engine instruments. In addition, there may be other controls for illumination of fueltank selectors, switch panels, radios, and convenience lighting. Internal instrument lighting is sim-ilar to post lighting, except that the light so urce is located inside the instrument itself. The magneticcompass and the radios are good examples of internallighting. Luminescent lettering is often usedwith internallighting to enhance clarity .

Before any night flight you should become thoroughly familiar with the airplane's cabin, instru-mentation, and control layout. Since sorne switch es and circuit breaker panel s may be hard to seeat night, be sure that you are able to locate them in poor light conditions. Make sure you have atleast one reliable flashlight. This should be standard equipment for any night flight. Finally, orga-nize and place your flashlighl, plotter, aviation computer, charts, pencil, and other necessities in alocation that is easily accessible .

ENGINE START, TAXI, ANORUNUP

Due to limited visibility and illusions created by low light conditions, night airport operations canbe very differenl than those you are accustomed to during daytime. At night il is difficult for otherpersons to determine that you intend to start the engine. Therefore, in addition to calling out"CLEAR," momentarily turn on the anticollision light, the position lights, or other airplane lights towarn others that the propeller is about to rotate .

Wait until you are actually ready to taxi before you turn on the taxi light. Since taxi and landinglights usually cast a beam which is narrow and concentrated, illumination to the si de of the airplaneis minimal and taxi speed should be slower at night, especially in congested ramp areas. Once inthe runup area, turn the taxi and landing lights offuntil your runup is complete. While you can usu-ally detect any unintended forward movement of the airplane during the day, the airplane maycreep forward at night without you noticing. Therefore, it is important that you maintain constantbrake pressure throughout your runup and stay alert for any unintentional movement.

TAKEOFF ANO CLIMBDuring the takeoff roll, select a reference point down the runway, such as the point where the run-way edge lights seem to converge. As you liftoff, you may notice a lack of reliable outside visual ref-erences. This is particular!y true at small airports located in sparsely populated areas. Tocompensate for this effect, maintain your orientation using the flight instruments in conjunctionwilh available outside visual references. During your initial climbout, maintain a normal climb atti-tude on the attitude indicator. Then, eros s-check the vertical speed indicator, altimeter, and the air-speed indicator. The first 500 feet of altitude gain after takeoff is considered lo be a critical periodsince you are transitioning from the comparatively well-lighted airport area into what sometimesappears as total darkness .

NAVIGATIONNavigation at night is usually fair!y simple because the outlines ofmajor cities and towns are clearlydiscernible. With sufficient altitude, majar metropolitan areas are visible during favorable weatherfrom distances up to 100 miles or more. Major highways tend to stand out al night because of thepresence of numerous automobile headlights. Less traveled roads are usually not so easy to see,

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8-12

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unless the moonlight is bright enough to illuminate them. On clear, moonlit nights, outlines of theterrain and other surface features are dimly visible. For example, you can often discern the outlinesof bodies of water by noting the reflection of the moonlight. However, on extremely dark nights, ter-rain features are nearly invisible, except in brightly lighted, populated areas .

A subdued white cabin light is recommended for reading charts. If a map reading light is not avail-able in the airplane, use your flashlight for reading the charts. Remember, white light adverselyaffects your night vision, so the intensity of the light should be kept to the minimum .

Due to the reduction in outside visual references, you may have a tendency to spend too much timelooking at the flight instruments. Therefore, you must make a special effort to devote enough timeto scan for traffic. You also should make sure the scan pattern you develop covers all the sky youcan see from the cockpit, both horizontally and vertically. However, keep in mind that the off-cen-ter viewing technique is recommended at night. While scanning, look for position light relation-ships of other aircraft to help determine their direction of flight.

LANDINGMany pilots have a tendency to make higher or lower approaches at night than during the daytime.Therefore, give careful consideration to traffic pattern procedures and to the factors that enable youto maintain the proper descenl angle on final approach. Visual glideslope indicators, if available,provide an excellént visual cue for descent angle guidance. Fly a normal approach pattern using thealtimeter and vertical speed indicator to monitor the rate of descent. As you near lhe runway, therunway lights provide an effective peripheral vision cue for beginning the landing flare. Whenviewed with your peripheral vision, runway lights seem to rise and spread laterally as you near thetouchdown point.

It is standard operating procedure to use your landing lights for night landings, even though theymay cause an illusion of runway height. The portion of the runway illuminated by the landing lightsseems higher than the surrounding area, potentially leading to a high flare. In addition, focusingyour attention on the area immediately in front of the airplane is poor practice even though thearrangement of most landing lights tends to encourage this technique. When using landing lights,your sighting point should be near the forward limit of the lighted area .

While you will make most of your night landings using landing lights, you should also practicelandings without the aid of the landing lights. During no-light landings, you should begin your flarewhen the runway lights at the far end of the runway first appear to be rising higher than the air-planeo This technique demands a smooth and timely flare using power and pitch changes as neces-sary for the airplane to settle softly on the runway .

NIGHT EMERGENCIESWhen flying at night, especially during a night cross-country, high cruising altitudes provide animproved margin of safety. There are several reasons for this. First, range is usually greater at higheraltitudes. Second, a higher altitude keeps you well aboye normal obstructions, and third, glidingdistance is greater in the event of engine failure. For example, at 10,000 feet AGL, a light airplanewith a glide ratio of 8 to 1 may glide 13 miles. This distance may place the airplane within range ofan airport.

ENGINE FAILUREProbably the most feared night emergency is an engine failure. If you should find yourself in a situ-ation where a emergency landing at night is required, your first priority is to fly the airplane, main-tain control, and use the same pro ce dures as those recommended for daytime emergency landings.The landing light, if available, may be used during the final approach to assist you in avoidingobstacles in the approach path. Highways may be used as emergency landing strips at night, but youmust exercise extreme caution to avoid power lines and vehicular traffic .

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NIGHT OPERATIONS~--- ~- -~~_. -. -- ;-l

INADVERTENT ENTRY INTO IMCA major safety concern for non-instrument rated pilots flying at night is unintentional flight intoinstrument meteorological conditions (IMC). It is easy to fly into an overcast condition at nightbecause it is difficult to visually detect the clouds. Before you fly at night, obtail1 a thorough weatherbriefing. Give spedal attention to any informatiol1 in the weather briefing that indicates possibleformation of clouds, fog, or precipitation .

There are several guidelines that may help you avoid inadvertel1tly entering IMC at night. If you areapproaching an overcast, you can sometimes detect the presence of clouds when the lights in thedistance disappear. In addition, a luminous glow, or halo, around the position lights indicatesimminent or actual penetration of IMC. If you turn on the lal1ding light, you will notice sorne scat-tering of the beam if there"is considerable haze or if the temperature and dewpoint are convergingrapidly and cloud formation is imminent. If you inadvertently enter a cloud layer, strobe type anti-collision lights can be affected in the same way but the intensity of the light is much greater, possi-bly impairil1g your night visiono If you do penetrate IMC, calmly, but immediately, reference yourflight instruments to initiate a 1800 standard-rate turn to fly out of the weather conditions .

NIGHT PREPARATION

Objective: To determine that the applicant can explain:

• Physiological aspects 01 night Ilying as they relate to visiono

• Lighting systems identilying aírports, runways, taxiways and obslructions, and pilot controlled Iighting .

• Airplane Iighting systems .

• Personal equipment essential lor night f1ighl.

• Nighl orientation, navigalion, and charl reading techniques .

• Safety precautions and emergencies unique to night flying .

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EXERCISES - SPECIAL FLIGHT OPERATIONS %1~

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8-1 S

2. True/False. The attitude indicator provides aH the necessary information for flight during

instrument conditions. _

3. True/False. A tight grip on the yoke ensures smooth and precise attitude control. _

5. During a constant airspeed descent, how should you correct for airspeed deviations?

4. During a constant airspeed climb, what action should you take to counteract the effect of P-factor?

1. What instrument rep~aces the natural horizon during instrument flight?

6. Typically, at what altitude would you begin your level-off if your target altitude is 2,000 feet,

and your rate of descent is 500 feet per minute?

7. What is the approximate angle ofbank which will result in a standard rate tum for an airspeed

of 100 knots? _

9. What is the first step in recovering fram a nose-high unusual attitude .

8. What instrument should be referenced to confirm and maintain a standard rate tum?

10. When recovering from a nose-Iow unusual attitude, why is it recommended that you level the

wings before applying back pressure on the yoke?

29 - ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT F"LYING

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30 - NIGHT OPERATIONS

1. True/False. When checking the airplane lighting system you normally should leave the lights

on only long enough to check for proper operation. _

2. In addition to calling out "CLEAR," what other precaution can you take when starting the air-

plane's engine at night?

3. Why is it important 'to taxi slower at night than during the day?

4. How can you compensate for diminished outside visual reference during a night takeoff and

climbout?

5. During a night flight, what should you do if you inadvertently fly into instrument meteoro-

logical conditions (IMe)?

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ANSWERS__ _ • ~ _ ••.•• ~_s=A~ - -- ~---

1 - PREFLIGHT INSPECTION

1. Use the appropriate checklist for your airplane

2. Airworthiness certifica'te; Registration certificate; Radio station class license (if applicable);Operating instructions, POH, or approved flight manual; Weight and balance data, includingequipment list

3. Water settles to the bottom of the tester since it is heavier than fue!.

4. True

5. B

2 - ENGINE STARTING

1. False

2. The engine cylinders

3. Pilot's operating handbook (POH)

4. 60 seconds

5. Immediately shut down the engine to prevent possible damage .

3 - TAXIING

1. False

2. Decrease

3. Apply the brakes in the direction of the turno

4. Fully turn the yoke to the left, placing the left aileron in the up position. Hold the yoke to main-tain a neutral elevator position .

5. Fully turn the yoke to the left, placing the left aileron in the up position. Hold the yoke full for-ward to maintain the elevator (or stabilator) in the full down position .

4 - BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECK

1. To improve engine cooling .

2. True

3.Decrease

4. Unreliable gyro indications

5. FalseA-'

s - POSTFLIGHT PROCEDURES1. Ta prevent unfiltered air fram being drawn inta the carburetor .

2. Tune 121.5 MHz an a cammunicatian radio .

3. False

5. Cross-check the flight instruments

2. Higher

1. The natural horizon ta the frant and sides af yaur aircraft .

3. False

2. Best rate-af-climb speed

4. At the rib lacatians

3. True

5. In frant af and behind the main wheels

2. It helps yau see and avaid ather aircraft.

1. Best angle-af-climb speed

4. C

4. Decrease

3. 4,050 feet MSL

5.10%

4. False

5. Raise the nase

6 - STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT

1. True

2. False

1. Shallaw: less than 20°; medium: 20° ta 45°; steep: 45° ar more

3. Haw long yau deflect the ailerons

7 - CLIMBS

5. Add pawer

9 -TURNS

B - DESCENTS

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ANSWERS

1 O - NORMAL TAKEOFF ANO CLIMB

1. Close the throttle to abort the takeoff.

2. Apply right rudder .

3. Keep your hand on the throttle throughout the takeoff to ensure that it does not slide back duringthe takeoff roIl and to enable you to close the throttle quickly if you decide to abort the takeoff.

4. The airplane may be forced into the air prematurely and then settle back to the runway. AIso, theairplane may be at such a high angle of attack that it cannot accelerate to climb speed .

5. The standard procedure for departing an uncontroIled airport is to £ly straight out or to make a450 turn in the direction of the traffic pattern .

1 1 - CROSSWINO TAKEOFF ANO CLIMB

1. Refer to your airplane's POH .

2. False

3. Decrease

4. The airplane tracks straight down the runway and you feel no si de load on the landing gear .

5. Enter a crab by making a coordinated turn into the wind .

12 - TRAFFIC PATTERNS

1. Downwind, base, final, departure, and crosswind

2. True

3. 10 miles

4. 500 feet

5. "Front Range traffic, Piper 9163 Kilo, final, Runway 26, touch-and-go, Front Range."

13 - NORMAL ApPROACHANO LANOING

1. False

2. The 1800 position (position abeam the intended landing area)

3. Reduce power, extend £laps, or both .

4. Add power and decrease the pitch attitude slightly .

5. FIare, touchdown, and roIl-out

6. Your heels should be on the £loor so there is no tendency to use the brakes inadvertently .

7. Flying the airplane onto the runway with excess airspeed A-3

SLOW FLIGHT

I

8. A forward slip is used to steepen the airplane's descent angle to dissipate altitude withoutincreasing the airspeed .

3. C

1. Crab method; wing-low (sidelip) method

2. Start your turn to final sooner and/or lIse up to 30° ofbank.

4. Execute a go-around and land on a runway with more favorable wind conditions .

5. Increase

3. False

2. When selecting a field, you must consider the wind direction and speed, length of the field,obstructions, and surface condition

1. Follow the checklist procedures specified in the POH and declare an emergency on the radio .

2. You may be able to continue flight to a suitable airport if you can maintain altitude or climb;otherwise, you must prepare for a forced landing and declare an emergency .

3. Maintain control of the airplane, then land as soon as practical and secure the c1oor.

4. 1mmediately return the f1aps control to the up, 01' previous position .

5. A dangerous situation can resuIt if an asymetrical f1ap extension occurs, resulting in loss ofcontrol at low altitude .

4. 7700

5. Lowering the f1aps shortens the glide distance .

17

1. Maintain control of the airplane and adjust the pitch to achieve best glide speed

1 S - SYSTEMS ANO El¡JUIPMENTMALFUNCTIONS

14 - CROSSWINO ApPROACHANO LANOING

1. An airspeed at which any further increase in angle of attack, increase in load factor, or reductionin power, would result in an immediate stall

9. False

10. Add pow8r immediately .

16 - EMERGENCY ApPROACHANO LANOING

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4.20°

4. In increments

5. False

DEMONSTRATED STALLS

A-S

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3. False

ANSWERS~ -- -----'-~------ - J

5.20°

4. Decrease

5. Altitude:t 100 feet; heading:t 10°, airspeed +10/-5 knots

2. False

2. 1,500 feet AGL

3. True

2. 5 to 10 knots befare the staIl

4. Raising the nose too quickly during staIl recovery

3. Sudden loss of lift; nose dropping below the horizon; a rapid rate of descent

1B - POWER-OFF STALLS

2. In the takeoff configuration

1. Landing configuration

4. Excessive back pressure staIl

3. False

5. During a poarly planned and executed base turn to final approach and is often the result of over-shooting the center of the runway during the turn

19 - POWER-O N STALLS

1. False

2. Left turn

1. During takeoffs and departure climbs

3. Decrease the angle of bank first, then increase back pressure on the yoke to raise the nose. Onceyou regain your desired altitude, roIl back to the desired angle of bank.

5. True

20

2 1 - STEEP TURNS

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22 - RECTANGULAR COURSE

1. Standard traffic pattern

2. True

4. Abeam the crosswind segment of the field boundary

5. The turn from the upwind leg to the crosswind leg

23 - S-TURNS

1. The ground réference Hne should be oriented perpendicular, or 90°, to the wind direction .

2. False

3. It will decrease .

4. When flying from a tailwind to a headwind the groundspeed decreases. Therefore, the angle ofbank should also be decreased as the turn progresses. In this way, the ground track will be a uni-form semicircle .

5. True

24 - TURNS AROUNO A POINT

1. To the left

3. When headed directly downwind

4. When headed directly upwind

5. :!: 100 feet

2S - SHORT-FIELO TAKEOFF ANO CLIMB

1. The usable runway length is short and/or the runway available for takeoff is restricted byobstructions at the departure end .

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ANSWERS•• ...:~. _ --.-..--.-.-_ 1

2. 50 feet

3. False

4. This procedure enables you to determine that the engine is functioning properly befare you talceoff from a field where power availability is critical and distance to abort a takeoff is limited .

5. A premature nose-high attitude produces more drag and results in a longer takeoff roll. In addi-tion, if the airplane lifts off too soon, it may stall, settle back to the runway ar hit the obstade .

26 - SHORT-FIELO ApPROACHANO LANOINGS

1. When there is a relatively short landing area ar when an approach must be made over obstadeswhich limit the available landing area .

2. Steeper

3. Full flaps allow a steeper descent angle without increasing airspeed .

4. True

5. The airplane may touch down too far beyond the runway threshold ar the roll-out may exceedthe available landing area .

27 - SOFT-FIELO TAKEOFF ANO CLIMB

1. To transfer the weight ofthe airplane from the landing gear to the wings as quickly and smoothlyas possible to eliminate drag caused by surfaces such as taIl grass, soft dirt, ar snow .

2. Any surface that measurably retards acceleration during the takeoff roll.

3. True

4. The airplane may as sume an extremely nose-high attitude, which can cause the tail skid to comein contact with the runway .

5. Allow the airplane to accelerate in level flight, within ground effect, to Yx.

28 - SOFT-FIELO ApPROACHANO LANOING

1. To ease the weight of the airplane from the wings to the main landing gear as gently and slowlyas possible, keeping the nosewheel off the soft surface during most of the landing roll.

2. To allow the airplane to touch down at a minimum speed

3. To dissipate farward speed

4. False

5. e

A-7

2. False

3. False

1. The attitude indicator

4. Apply right rudder as necessary to control the left-turning tendency.

9. Simultaneously, add power and lower the nos e

5. By adjusting pitch attitude

6. 2,050 feet

8. The turn cooidinator

2. Turn on the anticollision light, position lights, or other aircraft lights .

29 - ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

1. True

4. Use the flight instruments in conjunction with outside visual reference to maintain a normalclimb attitude .

5. Calmly, but immediately, reference the flight inslruments to initiate a 180°, standard rate turn tofly out of the weather .

3. Because the narrow beam of the taxi light does not illuminate the areas to the left and right of theairplane .

3D - NIGHT OPERATIONS

10. To avoid increased load factor

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Documents

Private Pilot Maneuvers