Tropical Biodiversity 8(1): 41- 49 (2003)

DISPLACED HYLOBATIDS: BIOLOGICAL,CULTURAL, AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE

PRIMATE TRADE IN JAWA AND BALI, INDONESIA

N.M. Malone1, A. Fuentes2, A.R. Purnama,3 and I.M.W. Adi Putra3

1. Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-12182. Department of Anthropology, Notre Dame University, Notre Dame, IN 46556-56393. Yayasan Konservasi Alam Nusantara (KONUS), Bandung, West Jawa-Indonesia

ABSTRACT

The present study examines the status and relevant implications of displaced members of the familyHylobatidae in Jawa and Bali, Indonesia. We assessed the sale of displaced nonhuman primates in general,and illegally traded hylobatids in particular, by way of a general survey of public animal markets. A total of181 nonhuman primates were observed for sale in 21 markets across ten cities. The observed speciesrepresentation, trade volume, and market value, in combination with information from informal discussionswith sellers, emphasize the role of Jawa and Bali in the regional trade. Further, networks of trade both toand within Jawa are discussed. This report establishes a preliminary methodology and database for futureinvestigations into nonhuman primate trade activities.

Key words: nonhuman primate trade, Hylobatidae, bird markets, Jawa, Indonesia

Received: October 27th 2001; Accepted: June 26th, 2002

INTRODUCTION

All free-living populations of gibbons (Hylobatidae: Bunopithecus spp., Hylobates spp.,Nomascus spp., Symphalangus syndactylus) in Southeast Asia are vulnerable to the threat ofextinction. In addition to widespread habitat destruction, these declining populations sufferfrom the continued demand for illegally traded primates (Eudey, 1999; Mack and Eudey,1984). These pressures contribute to the loss of genetic variability, and reduce the population’sability to adapt to environmental change. This potential biodiversity crisis stimulates theneed for focused conservation strategies based on sound scientific principles (Woodruff,1992).

Species of endangered gibbons have historically been misidentified throughout theworld, and the need for accurate individual identification is vital in the genetic managementof these rare primates (Garza and Woodruff, 1994; Mootnick et al., 1987). Theoretical andmethodological developments in the field of conservation biology have provided the abilityto examine the effects of hybridization and address forensic questions surrounding the originof illegally traded animals (Morin et al., 1992). For example, recent studies have been suc-cessful in identifying genetic variation and species-specific markers through the examination ofboth genomic and mitochondrial DNA, the latter being extracted from noninvasivelycollected hair in some instances (see Garza and Woodruff, 1992; Hayashi et al., 1995; VanTuinen et al., 1999). An accurate assessment of the illegal trade in gibbons may aid conservationistsattempting to preserve the genetic and reproductive viability of endangered species.

42. Displaced Hylobatids.

Illegal traffic in Asian primates has continued to satisfy the demand for pets andtraditional medicines (Eudey, 1995). In 1998, Konservasi Satwa Bagi Kehidupan (KSBK), anIndonesian nongovernmental organization (NGO), studied the trade of primates at birdmarkets in Jawa and Bali. Their results indicated substantial numbers of gibbons of variousspecies for sale at markets throughout the island of Jawa, in direct violation of IndonesianLaw 5/1990 concerning conservation of endangered species. The following markets wereidentified as openly selling gibbons: Pramuka in Jakarta, Bratang and Pasar Turi in Surabaya,Gebang Jember, and Malang. Also, the availability of nonindigenous gibbon species for salein Jawa suggests the central role of these markets in the exploitation of Indonesian’sendangered fauna.

Many of Indonesia’s bird markets are on the island of Jawa. Individuals for sale are notonly collected on Jawa but also captured on the neighboring islands of Sumatra and Borneo.Live animals are sold for both pets and for traditional medicine. Protected turtle shells,stuffed cobras, and nonhuman primate skulls are sold to tourists as souvenirs (Stark, 1989).The purpose of the present study was to further document the illegal trade of nonhumanprimates in Jawa and Bali. Detailed observations of species representation, trade volume, andmarket value, in combination with information from informal discussions with sellers maylead to a increased understanding of the trade’s impact, connection to source populations,and detrimental role in the conservation and management of endangered species.

METHODS

During June and July 2000, ten cities were visited and subsequently searched for birdmarkets across Jawa and Bali, Indonesia (Figure 1). We monitored bird markets by having twoindependent observers identify and count all of the gibbons present. We engaged in informaldiscussions with the sellers to obtain more information about the trade in nonhumanprimates, and the details of those discussions were recorded onto data sheets. Thesediscussions were aimed at revealing prices, age, origin, and path of travel to the market fortraded primates, especially for protected hylobatids. Our discussions led to the discovery ofother animals for sale in nearby homes and off-market stalls. Such animals are recorded underthe market from which the connection was established.

Identification of species based on morphological characteristics, including body sizeand pelage color/patterns, was based on information compiled by both Haimoff et al. (1984)and Rowe (1996). Detailed photographs were taken in order to document the trade in primatesand to assist in morphological identification of species, if necessary. Behaviors andvocalizations were also considered, however, given the generally poor mental and physicalcondition of the traded animals, were of limited value towards the identification of species.

RESULTS

A total of 21 markets were located and surveyed in the ten cities visited (Table 1). A totalof 181 nonhuman primates were observed for sale in and around the markets. Seven taxonomicgroups were represented in the following percentages of the overall trade: Macaca fascicularis(49%), Nycticebus coucang (22%), Macaca nemestrina (15%), Trachypithecus auratus (7%),Hylobates spp. (3%), Symphalangus syndactylus (3%), and Pongo pygmaeus (1%) (Table 2).

Tropical Biodiversity 8(1):43 (2003)

Preliminary species identification within the genus Hylobates is limited to agile gibbons (H.agilis) and Mueller’s gibbons (H. muelleri). However, distinction between these two speciesis withheld due to the potential for both developmental pelage changes and naturally occurringhybrids. Genetic analysis (from noninvasively obtained hair samples collected in collaborationwith this research, and pending further analysis) may confirm the apparent presence of bothagile gibbons and Mueller’s gibbons. No other species from within this genus were identified.

Unequal distributions of nonhuman primates were observed in the markets within thelarge cities of West, Central, and East Jawa, and Bali. Of the observed taxa, four of the sevenwere nonindigenous to Jawa, Bali, or both. However, more individuals were observed fromwithin the three indigenous taxa (M. fascicularis, N. coucang, and T. auratus).

Figure 1. The islands of Jawa and Bali, and the cities containing the bird markets surveyed duringthis study.

44. Displaced Hylobatids.

Table 1. Monitoring Information for Bird Markets in Jawa and Bali

City Market Name Number of Visits Dates

Jakarta Pramuka1 2 13.6.00Barito 1 13.6.00

Bogor Taman Topi 2 14.6.00Pasar Bogor 3 14.6.00Jl. Ciawi 1 14.6.00

Bandung Bandung Indah Plaza 2 16.6.00Kebon Kalapa 1 16.6.00Sukahaji 1 16.6.00Jl. Dr. Rajiman 1 17.6.00

Purwokerto Pasar Wage 1 20.6.00Yogyakarta Pasar Ngasem2 2 21-22.6.00Semarang Kariamata 1 23.6.00

Johar 1 23.6.00Malang Pasar Burung Malang 2 25-27.6.00Surabaya Pasar Turi 1 26.6.00

Kupang 1 26.6.00Bratang 1 26.6.00

Jember Gebang 1 28.6.00Pasar Jaya 1 28.6.00

Denpasar Satria 3 29.6-16.7.00Pasar Sanglah 2 4.7-16.7.00

Note:1. The second visit completed by an independent researcher (L. Engels) on 30.6.00.2. The second visit here consists of a trip to a distant residence made possible by a connection made

at Pasar Ngasem.

Requested purchase price was dependent upon age of the animals, with infants andjuveniles drawing higher prices than older individuals (Table 3). It is important to note thatno prices were negotiated. Therefore, reported prices are most likely high in comparison toactual purchase prices that would include an extensive negotiation that is inherent in manymarket purchases. Sellers attempted to conceal certain species, demonstrating that they wereprobably aware of Indonesian Law 5/1990 and the risk of being caught. Despite this caution,locating protected species either just off the market or at nearby private residences was notdifficult. The benefit from the potential sale of a protected animal seemed to outweigh anysuspicions generated by our inquiries.

The conditions of all animals within the bird markets were highly variable. The livingconditions of nonhuman primates ranged from living in surrogate mother/infant relationshipswith vendors’ families on the market periphery to short, chain-tethers that afford little protectionfrom the elements. Correspondingly, the physical health of the animal was correlated with

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Table 2. Locations of Source Populations for the Nonhuman Primate Taxa Observed for Saleduring the Present Market Assessment.

Taxonomic Group1 Market Trade Volume Potential Source Populations2

Macaca fascicularis 89 Southeast Asia including Borneo, Sumatra,Java, Bali, Lombok, and the Lesser SundaIslands

Nycticebus coucang 40 Southeast Asia including Borneo,Sumatra, Java, and Bali

Trachypithecus auratus 13 Java, Bali, Lombok

Hylobates spp.3 5 Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo

Symphalangus syndactylus 5 Malay Peninsula, Sumatra

M. nemestrina 27 Burma to Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,Borneo

Pongo pygmaeus 2 Borneo

Note:1. Taxonomic groups in bold represent species indigenous to Jawa and Bali. Parsimonious reasoning

would suggest that these individuals arrive at Javanese and Balinese markets via these localpopulations.

2. Data derived from Rowe, N. (1996).3. Preliminarily, only H. agilis and H. muelleri considered here.

both the general market conditions and the specific care provided by the seller. Thepsychological well-being of animals ranged from relatively stable and healthy to overtlydistressed.

DISCUSSION

Our findings support the hypothesis that the economically important islands of Jawaand Bali are central to the regional trade of nonhuman primates. The sale of nonhumanprimates at bird markets in Jawa and Bali may primarily act to satisfy the domestic demand forexotic pets. As these islands are home to greater than 60% of Indonesia’s human population,it appears that much of the demand for the purchase of nonhuman primates is centered onthese islands as well. The prices for protected, endangered hylobatids are quite substantial inrelation to the average income (GDP per capita, US$ 2,800) of most Indonesians (Dahlby,2001). In addition, intentional violation of Indonesian Law 5/1990 concerning the trading orpossession of endangered species may lead to a fine of up to US$ 10,000 (KSBK, 1998). Theprices for nonprotected species are relatively low and readily obtainable by many domesticbuyers.

46. Displaced Hylobatids.

The trade in protected species has obvious financial benefits to local peoples nearsource populations, regional dealers, and individual market vendors. Most likely, the highprice for protected species reflects not only the status associated with owning a rare animal,but also several levels of financial gain within the extraction and transportation process. Inaddition, the final market price may or may not include payments to local officers for protectionfrom enforcement or confiscation. In either case, the potential sale of a protected hylobatidoutweighed any of the potential risks inherent in offering and displaying protected animals.

The ownership of an endangered nonhuman primate is portrayed as a symbol of statusand economic success. It is reported that many government officials, army officers, andentertainers own pet nonhuman primates, especially orangutans (KSBK, 1998). This practiceencourages others to purchase nonhuman primates, and strengthens the symbolic nature ofthe ownership of such animals. The reported public display of nonhuman primate pets by thewealthy and influential may act as a demonstration of political power, and a glaring exampleof the selective enforcement of Indonesian law. These groups of high profile owners shouldbe arrested to demonstrate that the law functions in Indonesia, and targeted for educationalawareness campaigns.

Network of Trade

Within Indonesia: The observed species representation and interview data reveal southernSumatra, and possibly southwestern and central Kalimantan as especially vulnerable primatesource areas. Twice we were informed that the siamangs for sale had come from Kalimantan.As siamangs are not indigenous to Kalimantan, this may reflect either the lack of market sellerparticipation in the extraction and transportation of primates, or the possibility of a traderoute from Sumatra, through Kalimantan, and finally to Jawa . If the former statement is true,conservationists and forestry officials should focus their efforts on deciphering the participants

Table 3. Requested Purchase Price for Nonhuman Primates in Javanese and Balinese Bird Markets

Species Price Range in Rupiah N Mean Mean in US$1

H. agilis2 600,000 to 1,500,000 3 1,100,000 $122.22H. muelleri2 900,000 to 1,000,000 2 950,000 $105.55S. syndactylus 1,300,000 to 2,000,000 5 1,575,000 $175.00M. fascicularis 50,000 to 250,000 89 122,272 $13.58M. nemestrina 90,000 to 450,000 27 285,625 $31.74 N. coucang 60,000 to 250,000 40 103,684 $11.52P. pygmaeus - 2 - -T. auratus 90,000 to 500,000 13 227,142 $25.24

Note:1. Based on an average 9000 rupiah/1 US$ exchange during period of study (6/00-7/00).2. Species identification within the genus Hylobates is assigned here, but this distinction is speculative

(see text).

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Figure 2. Network of primate trade in Indonesia.

Note: dotted lines represent connections with evidence of bi-directional trade.

in, and methods of, the extraction of nonhuman primates rather than on the actions ofindividual market sellers. Appropriate focus should also be centered on the economic andcultural aspects of coastal Kalimantan trade activity.

We were informed that three likely points of entry into Jawa are the capital city of Jakartain West Jawa, and ports in Surabaya and Banyuwangi in East Jawa. The use of Banyuwangi,with subsequent travel to Jember, Malang, and Surabaya, is thought to be a response to thestricter enforcement of shipping regulations in Surabaya. Further, the identification of thesale of Javan ebony langurs (Trachypithecus auratus) in North Sumatra suggests the trademay be bi-directional (KSBK, 2001).

Within Jawa: Nonhuman primates are distributed to bird markets through a seller’snetwork that extends both between and within cities on the island of Jawa. Transportation ofanimals from the above mentioned entry points, to the markets throughout Jawa, is done bycar. It is suggested that animals entering through Jakarta will end up in markets throughoutWest Jawa while those entering through Surabaya and Banyuwangi may remain in East Jawa.We found that travel to Central Jawa originates in Jakarta, specifically Pasar Pramuka. Allprimate traders that did not presently offer hylobatids said they could obtain these animalswithin a period of one week. This finding suggests that the connections readily exist totransport animals both to and within Jawa.

Within cities: Most cities have more than one animal market, and differences may existin the amount of buyer traffic, size, prices for traded animals, and degree of monitoring byconservation officials. The best example of this can be seen between Pasar Bratang and PasarKupang in Surabaya. The former market is centrally located and receives a high degree ofboth buyer and monitoring activity, while the latter is quite small and less active. The livingconditions of the animals at Pasar Kupang were the worst encountered during this survey. The

48. Displaced Hylobatids.

prices for primates at these two markets reflected these differences. At Kupang, we were toldof a particular siamang that had recently been involved in a transaction between a vendorfrom Bratang and one from Kupang. We were informed that it was common for sellers fromBratang to purchase animals from Kupang for sale at the larger market at an increased price.The large number of primates (17) for sale at Kupang, despite its small size, may indicate thesignificance of this market as a safe primate supplier for the greater trade throughout Surabayaand East Jawa.

Implications for Source Populations

The high volume of trade encountered during this relatively brief study suggests thatthe impact on wild populations could be substantial. Repeat visits to the same market usuallyrevealed daily fluctuations in the number of primates present. This finding may reflect thetraffic by different sellers frequenting the markets with varying inventories. The presentobservation of the primate trade is assuredly limited given the logistics of the samplingprocedures.

The ability of most sellers to obtain protected animals within one week’s notice suggeststhat the market trade is continuous and directly connected to source origins. The capture ofinfant nonhuman primates usually is accomplished by the shooting of the mother. As mostnonhuman primates observed in the markets were either infants or juveniles, the capture ofthese individuals may represent the deaths of substantial numbers of reproductively viablefemales. In addition, considering both the conditions and stress encountered duringtransportation and within the markets, several animals may have perished for everyindividual that was observed during this study. Hence, this trade undoubtedly has deleteriousimplications for source populations.

An interesting finding from the present study that deserves further investigation isthe absence of the critically endangered Silvery Javan gibbon (H. moloch) in bird markets onJawa. Given the rampant deforestation and density of human population on the island, itseems likely that some individuals from this indigenous species would have been observedduring the market survey. The comparison of human cultural influences that lead to theextraction, transportation, and sale of nonindigenous species of gibbons with thosesurrounding the remaining populations of Javan gibbons is certainly an avenue for futureresearch.

CONCLUSION

The present study obtained an assessment of nonhuman primates in bird markets onJawa and Bali, with a focus on the hylobatids. Trade monitoring projects should be continuedin Indonesia, and in other areas where human activities are directly affecting populations ofthreatened or endangered species. The collaboration and involvement of local peoples, in-cluding governmental and nongovernmental organizations, is essential for the effectivemonitoring of certain activities that have inherent connections to cultural and economicsystems. Further investigations into the sellers network and, ultimately, connections toprimate source origins are needed to understand the economic and social implications of thistrade, as well as the ecological implications for source populations.

Tropical Biodiversity 8(1):49 (2003)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks to Suparno and Konservasi Satwa Bagi Kehidupan (KSBK) for guidance in JawaTimur. Special thanks to Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI), the Universitas Udayana(UNUD) Primate Research Center, Juan Carlos Morales and Don Melnick at ColumbiaUniversity and the Center for Environmental Research and Conservation (CERC). Thismanuscript was greatly improved thanks to the diligent efforts of two anonymous reviewers,and these efforts are much appreciated. This research was supported by a Grant-in-Aid ofResearch from Sigma Xi, the Primate Conservation and Welfare Society, The Balinese MacaqueProject, and the Central Washington University Office of Graduate Studies and Research.

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