Presidents, Presidents, Parties, and Parties, and Interest GroupsInterest Groups

Presidents and Presidents and Political PartiesPolitical Parties

Presidential leadership depends on Presidential leadership depends on the presidentthe president’’s ability to mobilize s ability to mobilize support for policies and programs.support for policies and programs.

A potential major source of influence A potential major source of influence for the president is his ability to for the president is his ability to count on support from supportive count on support from supportive party constituencies and interest party constituencies and interest groups.groups.

The president must establish a base The president must establish a base of support to have any chance of of support to have any chance of success in office.success in office.

A natural source of support is the A natural source of support is the presidentpresident’’s own partisans and s own partisans and naturally supportive interest groups.naturally supportive interest groups.

Consider a historical perspective on potential presidential support. Here is a graph of party control of the House, Senate, and Presidency from 1855.

However, presidents cannot always However, presidents cannot always count on support from their own count on support from their own partisans.partisans.

A classic example is ClintonA classic example is Clinton’’s s support for NAFTA in 1994 when the support for NAFTA in 1994 when the president mobilized support from president mobilized support from the Republican side to overcome a the Republican side to overcome a Democratic party majority, labor Democratic party majority, labor unions, and others who opposed the unions, and others who opposed the bill. Another example, is George W. bill. Another example, is George W. Bush’s bank bailout in 2007. He got Bush’s bank bailout in 2007. He got insufficient Republican support and insufficient Republican support and had to rely on Democrats. had to rely on Democrats.

Consider the following more Consider the following more systematic analysis.systematic analysis.

The graphs suggest that The graphs suggest that presidents can count on support presidents can count on support from their own partisans in from their own partisans in Congress about 2/3 of the time.Congress about 2/3 of the time.

Indeed, political parties and Indeed, political parties and interest groups can impede interest groups can impede presidential leadership efforts presidential leadership efforts when they view things from a when they view things from a different perspective. Thus, Bill different perspective. Thus, Bill Clinton in 1994 was not Clinton in 1994 was not successful in pressing the issue successful in pressing the issue of health care reform, despite of health care reform, despite the fact that large majorities of the fact that large majorities of Americans favored reform. Americans favored reform. Partisan and group interests Partisan and group interests mobilized against the presidentmobilized against the president’’s s plan.plan.

Perspectives on Perspectives on Political PartiesPolitical Parties

In the previous lecture we In the previous lecture we discussed the importance of discussed the importance of parties to selecting the parties to selecting the president.president.

We noted that parties emerged We noted that parties emerged by 1800 in response to greater by 1800 in response to greater suffrage rights for Americans.suffrage rights for Americans.

Parties evolved as Parties evolved as communication and patronage communication and patronage mechanisms for electing the mechanisms for electing the president.president.

They were and are very broad They were and are very broad aggregations of interests aggregations of interests intended to capture the election.intended to capture the election.

The The ““DownsianDownsian”” view is that view is that political parties manipulate their political parties manipulate their policy positions in a policy space policy positions in a policy space in order to win elections.in order to win elections.

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Figure 2.1: The Centrist Model and Citizen Preferences

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Political parties are broader Political parties are broader representation mechanisms than representation mechanisms than interest groups. interest groups.

However, both parties and However, both parties and interest groups can both be interest groups can both be viewed as primarily self viewed as primarily self interested entities with goals interested entities with goals that are inconsistent with the that are inconsistent with the national interest.national interest.

An incumbent president represents An incumbent president represents broad diverse interests. A question broad diverse interests. A question in democratic theory concerns in democratic theory concerns whether the president just whether the president just represents those who elected him, represents those who elected him, or the interests of the nation at or the interests of the nation at large.large.

Regardless of the presidentRegardless of the president’’s role in s role in democratic representation, the democratic representation, the president always desires to have president always desires to have party support. Party support is a party support. Party support is a resource for success in government.resource for success in government.

Presidential Presidential Leadership of Leadership of PartiesParties

An incumbent president is usually An incumbent president is usually viewed as symbolic leader of his viewed as symbolic leader of his political party. The non-incumbent political party. The non-incumbent party is typically leaderless during party is typically leaderless during the period of non-incumbency. the period of non-incumbency. Various people vie for the title of Various people vie for the title of party leader, but none typically party leader, but none typically succeeds. Who is the current succeeds. Who is the current leader of the Republican party?leader of the Republican party?

While the president is leader of his While the president is leader of his political party, there are obstacles political party, there are obstacles to presidential leadership.to presidential leadership.

Party discipline is difficult to Party discipline is difficult to enforce due to changes in the party enforce due to changes in the party system that we discussed last system that we discussed last week. Presidents are not beholding week. Presidents are not beholding the party for their election. the party for their election. Likewise, members of Congress are Likewise, members of Congress are generally on their own in getting generally on their own in getting election.election.

Ours is not a responsible party Ours is not a responsible party system as occurs in Europe as system as occurs in Europe as shown by the earlier graphs.shown by the earlier graphs.

Presidents and their parties also Presidents and their parties also have different organizational have different organizational needs. Presidents seek loyalty to needs. Presidents seek loyalty to their administration, while parties their administration, while parties want to disperse benefits across want to disperse benefits across their diverse constituencies.their diverse constituencies.

Presidents and their parties may Presidents and their parties may also have different temporal also have different temporal horizons. Parties last for many horizons. Parties last for many decades, while presidents serve decades, while presidents serve only 4 or 8 years.only 4 or 8 years.

As noted earlier, through time As noted earlier, through time there have been various reforms there have been various reforms that have weakened the influence that have weakened the influence of political parties and the of political parties and the presidentpresident’’s ability to lead. These s ability to lead. These include:include:– Party reforms and resulting Party reforms and resulting

primary elections.primary elections.– Candidate centered elections.Candidate centered elections.– Campaign finance limitations.Campaign finance limitations.

Other changes weakening Other changes weakening presidential influence over parties presidential influence over parties relate to changes in Congress.relate to changes in Congress.

– Weakening of the reward system in Weakening of the reward system in Congress and the decline of seniority. Congress and the decline of seniority. Party leaders are elected in caucus.Party leaders are elected in caucus.

– The evolution of subcommittee The evolution of subcommittee government and the dispersion of government and the dispersion of power in Congress. Congress has power in Congress. Congress has become increasingly fragmented by become increasingly fragmented by the evolution of subcommittee the evolution of subcommittee government. The presidentgovernment. The president’’s s program is now subject to more program is now subject to more cross-cutting influences in Congress. cross-cutting influences in Congress. Multiple committees responsible for Multiple committees responsible for most policies. most policies.

– Increased number of roll call votes Increased number of roll call votes due to electronic voting makes due to electronic voting makes position taking more visible and position taking more visible and subject to constituent scrutiny. subject to constituent scrutiny. Higher visibility for voting decisions. Higher visibility for voting decisions. Opening of committee hearings to Opening of committee hearings to the public have also increased the public have also increased visibility. visibility.

– Newer breed of legislators are less Newer breed of legislators are less susceptible to leadership. Anti-susceptible to leadership. Anti-Washington in their outlook.Washington in their outlook.

While presidential leadership is While presidential leadership is not assured, the president does not assured, the president does bring some assets to the game.bring some assets to the game.

Presidential coat-tail effects can Presidential coat-tail effects can produce those who are beholding produce those who are beholding to the president. Thus, to the president. Thus, sometimes presidents campaign sometimes presidents campaign for other elected officials. This is for other elected officials. This is not always effective.not always effective.

Having the ear of the president Having the ear of the president can build prestige and standing can build prestige and standing among partisans. Thus, among partisans. Thus, presidents issue invitations, hold presidents issue invitations, hold meetings with, and manipulate meetings with, and manipulate symbols.symbols.

Case work is also an important Case work is also an important advantage for the presidency.advantage for the presidency.

More broadly, presidential More broadly, presidential visibility can affect the image of visibility can affect the image of the party for many years to the party for many years to come.come.

Presidents typically share beliefs Presidents typically share beliefs with members of their own party, with members of their own party, and this engenders loyalty and this engenders loyalty through rhetoricthrough rhetoric

While patronage such as existed While patronage such as existed in the 19in the 19thth century is gone, century is gone, presidents do have some control presidents do have some control of political appointments and of political appointments and federal jobs.federal jobs.

Presidents also raise money for Presidents also raise money for the political parties through the political parties through public appearances and appeals.public appearances and appeals.

Presidents also influence the Presidents also influence the party organization. Usually select party organization. Usually select the chair of the party the chair of the party organization. May also influence organization. May also influence party platforms and rules.party platforms and rules.

The President and The President and Interest GroupsInterest Groups Interest group: A group with a Interest group: A group with a

common interest that seeks to common interest that seeks to influence government. influence government.

Pluralism: The growth of interest Pluralism: The growth of interest groups prevents the concentration groups prevents the concentration of excessive power in the hands of of excessive power in the hands of few, and thus enhances democracy. few, and thus enhances democracy.

During the 19During the 19thth century most century most interest groups turned their interest groups turned their attention to the center of gravity of attention to the center of gravity of the political system which was the political system which was congress.congress.

Until the 1960s, the number of Until the 1960s, the number of interest groups that were influential interest groups that were influential in Washington was small. Major in Washington was small. Major interests were represented such as interests were represented such as agriculture, business, and agriculture, business, and organized labor. Indeed, one can organized labor. Indeed, one can track the expansion of government track the expansion of government from the 19from the 19thth century as a function century as a function of group interests.of group interests.

With few interest groups, the With few interest groups, the president could oppose interest president could oppose interest group positions on one issue, but group positions on one issue, but curry favor by supporting them on curry favor by supporting them on others. Interest group politics was others. Interest group politics was one of negotiation and one of negotiation and compromise.compromise.

Beginning in the 1960s and Beginning in the 1960s and expanding in the 1970s, the expanding in the 1970s, the number of interest groups number of interest groups operating in Washington exploded.operating in Washington exploded.

Many of the new groups were Many of the new groups were single issue groups, and single issue groups, and compromise became difficult.compromise became difficult.

After the rise in the number of After the rise in the number of interest groups, coalition building, interest groups, coalition building, negotiation, and compromise negotiation, and compromise became much more complex and became much more complex and difficult.difficult.

Tocqueville saw early on that Tocqueville saw early on that Americans had a propensity for Americans had a propensity for joining groups. joining groups.

Economic development and quality Economic development and quality of life concerns. In the 1960s of life concerns. In the 1960s people became a lot more people became a lot more concerned with the environment, concerned with the environment, worker safety, consumer worker safety, consumer protection, etc. Perhaps a post-protection, etc. Perhaps a post-modernist revolution. Prior to this modernist revolution. Prior to this people just wanted to eek out a people just wanted to eek out a living.living.

Diversity of population. We have Diversity of population. We have countless social, racial, economic countless social, racial, economic and geographic groups. and geographic groups.

Government policies. Whenever Government policies. Whenever government creates an agency, it government creates an agency, it creates an entry point for interest creates an entry point for interest groups. Iron triangles and groups. Iron triangles and subsystems.subsystems.

Reasons for Reasons for Growth of Interest Growth of Interest GroupsGroups

Diffusion of power in government. Diffusion of power in government. Political power is shared by many Political power is shared by many which leads to plenty of places in which leads to plenty of places in which a group can argue its case. which a group can argue its case. The more places there are to The more places there are to influence policy, the more influence policy, the more organizations there will be to organizations there will be to exercise that influence.exercise that influence.

Weaknesses of political parties- Weaknesses of political parties- when parties are unable to get when parties are unable to get things done, interest groups have things done, interest groups have filled the power vacuum. filled the power vacuum.

Campaign finance reforms of the Campaign finance reforms of the 1970's have opened up and brought 1970's have opened up and brought out into the open the lobbying out into the open the lobbying process. Prior to 1974 it was illegal process. Prior to 1974 it was illegal for corporations to donate money to for corporations to donate money to candidates for federal office. The candidates for federal office. The FECA enacted reforms that changed FECA enacted reforms that changed this by allowing corporations and this by allowing corporations and groups to form independent bodies groups to form independent bodies called Political Action Committees called Political Action Committees (PACs) that could donate money to (PACs) that could donate money to candidates. PACS became among candidates. PACS became among the most important group influences the most important group influences in Washington.in Washington.

Corporate Political Action Committees

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Reaction of conservative and Reaction of conservative and business groups to what they business groups to what they saw as the excesses of liberal saw as the excesses of liberal activism of the 1960's and activism of the 1960's and 1970's 1970's

Interest groups tend to beget Interest groups tend to beget interest groups. interest groups.

Technology. Technology.

Presidential Presidential Relations with Relations with Interest GroupsInterest Groups With the decline of parties, With the decline of parties,

presidents need interest group presidents need interest group support to get elected. support to get elected. – Money (go back to FEC reports Money (go back to FEC reports

on Political Money Line or on Political Money Line or http://www.opensecrets.org/industries/index.php )

– Organizational support Organizational support – Mobilization of faithful (the Mobilization of faithful (the

Christian Right, the NRA, etc.)Christian Right, the NRA, etc.)

With the decline of parties, With the decline of parties, presidents also need interest presidents also need interest group support for governing.group support for governing.

Yet, governing has become more Yet, governing has become more difficult with the proliferation of difficult with the proliferation of interest groups. interest groups.

In our system it is easier to block In our system it is easier to block action than to take action. action than to take action.

Decentralization of Congress and Decentralization of Congress and decline of seniority and movement decline of seniority and movement to subcommittee, rather than to subcommittee, rather than committee government makes committee government makes blocking action easier.blocking action easier.

The proliferation of interest groups The proliferation of interest groups has made policy making more has made policy making more complex as policy makers attempt complex as policy makers attempt to satisfy more cross-cutting to satisfy more cross-cutting interests.interests.

The proliferation of interest groups The proliferation of interest groups has taxed the system, as more has taxed the system, as more and more groups seek a piece of and more groups seek a piece of the pie.the pie.

The rise of ideologically The rise of ideologically motivated groups has made motivated groups has made compromise less feasible and compromise less feasible and increased conflict in the system.increased conflict in the system.

It is now harder to build It is now harder to build coalitions than in earlier times, coalitions than in earlier times, because of the increased because of the increased number of groups, as well as number of groups, as well as polarization.polarization.

Traditionally, interest groups Traditionally, interest groups sought influence through sought influence through Congress and its committees and Congress and its committees and subcommittees.subcommittees.

However, with increasing However, with increasing centralization of power to the centralization of power to the presidency, interest groups also presidency, interest groups also attempt to influence the White attempt to influence the White House.House.– The president is a centralizing force The president is a centralizing force

in public policy making. in public policy making. – Through the OMB, the president Through the OMB, the president

exercises central clearance of new exercises central clearance of new policy proposals coming from the policy proposals coming from the bureaucracy.bureaucracy.

– The president has the first move in The president has the first move in budgeting.budgeting.

– Through the Office of Information Through the Office of Information and Regulatory Assessment in the and Regulatory Assessment in the OMB, the president has substantial OMB, the president has substantial influence over new regulations.influence over new regulations.

– Through political appointments and Through political appointments and staffing the president can shape staffing the president can shape policy implementation.policy implementation.

Thus, the relationship between Thus, the relationship between the president and interest the president and interest groups is mutually endogenous. groups is mutually endogenous. Groups seek influence through Groups seek influence through the presidency. And presidents the presidency. And presidents seek influence and support from seek influence and support from interest groups.interest groups.

Presidents need group support Presidents need group support and use various strategies to and use various strategies to obtain it.obtain it.

Modern presidents interact more Modern presidents interact more with the leadership of interest with the leadership of interest groups. It is not uncommon for groups. It is not uncommon for group leaders to visit or spend group leaders to visit or spend time at the White House.time at the White House.

Presidents give speeches before Presidents give speeches before meetings of interest groups.meetings of interest groups.

Presidents from Nixon through George W. Presidents from Nixon through George W. Bush maintained an office in the White Bush maintained an office in the White House for the purpose of liason with House for the purpose of liason with interest groups. It was called the Office of interest groups. It was called the Office of Public Liason.Public Liason.

The Office of Public Liason was intended The Office of Public Liason was intended to provide an institutional mechanism for to provide an institutional mechanism for the president to reach out to interest the president to reach out to interest groups, as well as allow access to the groups, as well as allow access to the president.president.

However, Barack Obama Barack Obama However, Barack Obama Barack Obama resolutely refused during the 2008 resolutely refused during the 2008 election campaign to accept contributions election campaign to accept contributions from lobbyists and PACs. His campaign from lobbyists and PACs. His campaign was not funded by interest groups or was not funded by interest groups or political action committees, but political action committees, but contributions from ordinary citizens.contributions from ordinary citizens.

He did away with the Office of Public He did away with the Office of Public Liason, creating a new Office of Public Liason, creating a new Office of Public Engagement.Engagement.

http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/President-Obama-Launches-Office-of-Public-Engagement