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Pre-Pathway Program:
SGIC PPP Book A
Written by Allison Guymer
Edited by J. Banton & K. Popiolek
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Table of Contents
Unit 1: Passive Voice…………………………………………………………………………………3
Forming the Passive Common Mistakes, Verbs with Two Objects Using the
Passive in Academic Writing The Impersonal Passive in Academic Writing The Passive Voice in Process Writing
Unit 2: Modals & Passive Modals………………………………………………………………..15
Review of Modals Modals and Phrasal Modals Modals of Speculation
Passive Modals Review of Perfect Modals Perfect Modals in Passive Voice
Unit 3: Noun Clauses…………………………………………………………………………………26
Noun Clauses Beginning with ‘That’ and ‘It’ Noun Clauses with Subjunctive Noun Clauses Beginning with ‘WH’ Question Words Noun Clauses Beginning
with ‘If’ or ‘Whether’
Unit 4: Adjective Clauses…………………………………………………………………………..40
Defining and Non-Defining Adjective Clauses Four Types of Relative
Pronouns Combining Sentences to Form Adjective Clauses Adjective Clauses with ‘That’, ‘Which’, ‘Who’, ‘Whom’, ‘Whose’, ‘When’, ‘Where’
Adjective Clauses of Quantity Adjective Clauses of Quality Omitting Object Relative Pronouns Reducing Adjective Clauses
Unit 5: Adverb Clauses……………………………………………………………………………..68
Time Clauses & Reason Clauses Time Clause Reductions Reason Clause
Reductions Results Clauses (so/such … that) Forming Results Clauses
Unit 6: Cause & Effect Writing……………………………………………………………………82
Causative Verbs Showing Cause with ‘Make’ Cause & Effect Paragraphs
Cause & Effect Paragraphs Cause & Effect Paragraph Planning Cause & Effect Essays
Unit 7: Sentence Skills…………………………………………………………………………….100
Sentence Patterns Compound Sentences with Co-ordinating Conjunctions Conjunctive Adverbs Subordinating Conjunctions The Comma The Semi-
colon Run-on Sentences Sentence Fragments Parallel Structure
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Unit 1: Passive Voice
Forming the Passive
Passive voice sentences are formed by moving the object of the verb to the subject position in the sentence. The verb is then put into passive voice. Verbs with no object
cannot be put into passive voice.
NOTE: passive future continuous or past, present, and future perfect continuous do not
exist.
To Form the Passive: be (conjugated) + past participle
Aspect
Past
Present
Future
Simple
made ↓
was / were made
make(s) ↓
am / is / are made
will make ↓
will be made
Continuous
was / were making ↓
was / were being made
am / is / are making ↓
am / is / are being made
Perfect
Simple
had made ↓
had been made
have / has made ↓
have / has been made
will have made ↓
will have been made
When to Use the Passive in a Sentence
1) Use the passive voice when you do not know who the actor is.
Active: Someone stole my sandwich. Passive: My sandwich was stolen.
In this case, the passive is used to emphasise what happened to my sandwich.
2) Use the passive voice when you do not care who the actor / agent is.
Active: Jim will prosecute shoplifters.
Passive: Shoplifters will be prosecuted.
In this case, it is not necessary to say who will be doing the prosecuting. The point of the sentence is to let people know what will happen to shoplifters.
3) Use the passive voice when you are writing in disciplines such as the sciences. This
form is called the objective passive.
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Active: Dr. Cranium thought that Thalidomide was perfect for treating morning sickness in pregnant women; later, he learned that it had serious side
effects.
Passive: Thalidomide was thought to be perfect for treating morning sickness in pregnant women; later, it was learned that it had serious side effects.
Writers in the sciences often use the passive voice when they want to sound objective. In the first sentence, the active voice suggests that Dr. Cranium made a serious mistake. In the second sentence, the passive voice tells us
about the drug, but doesn’t blame or praise Dr. Cranium.
Common Mistakes
Changing the verb to an incorrect form of the passive voice.
Active: Someone had invited me to the party.
Incorrect: I was been invited to the party.
Correct: I had been invited to the party.
You MUST learn the correct for of the passive tenses.
Changing the verb to passive voice without moving the object to the subject position.
Active: He made the cookies.
Incorrect: He had been made the cookies.
Correct: The cookies had been made (by him).
This is a common error. You MUST put the object in the subject position.
Trying to make a passive sentence with an intransitive verb (a verb that can’t take an
object).
Incorrect: The accident was happened yesterday.
Correct: The accident happened yesterday.
Incorrect: A man was died in the accident.
Correct: A man died in the accident.
This error is similar to the one above, but here, passive voice is impossible.
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Practice 1: Transitive or Intransitive?
Label the following verbs T for transitive or I for intransitive.
1. _____ become
2. _____ come
3. _____ die
4. _____ disappear
5. _____ escape
6. _____ fall
7. _____ go
8. _____ happen
9. _____ live
10. _____ occur
11. _____ sit
12. _____ sleep
13. _____ talk
14. _____ wait
15. _____ work
Practice 2: Active to Passive
Change each verb from active to passive voice.
1. Jim hunts zombies.
1. Zombies ________________________ (by Jim).
2. Jim is hunting zombies.
2. Zombies ________________________ (by Jim).
3. Jim has hunted zombies.
3. Zombies ___________________________________ (by Jim).
4. Jim hunted zombies.
4. Zombies ___________________________________ (by Jim).
5. Jim was hunting zombies.
5. Zombies ___________________________________ (by Jim).
6. Jim had hunted zombies.
6. Zombies ___________________________________ (by Jim).
7. Jim will hunt zombies.
7. Zombies ___________________________________ (by Jim).
8. Jim will have hunted zombies.
8. Zombies ___________________________________ (by Jim).
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Verbs with Two Objects
Sometimes a verb has a direct object and an indirect object. In these cases, you may use either object as the subject of a passive voice sentence.
Direct object as subject
Active: Jim gave flowers to Anna.
Passive: Flowers were given to Anna (by Jim).
Indirect object as subject
Active: Jim gave Anna flowers.
Passive: Anna was given flowers (by Jim).
NOTE: that when the direct object is the subject of a passive voice sentence, the
preposition MUST be included before the indirect object.
Practice 3: Verbs with two Objects
Change the following sentences to passive voice. Use the direct object as the subject in
your first sentence. Use the indirect object as the subject in your second sentence. Do not add a ‘by’ phrase to your sentences.
1. The doctor gave a flu shot to Serena.
(a) _______________________________________________________________.
(b) _______________________________________________________________.
2. Jim’s accountant sent a tax form to him.
(a) _______________________________________________________________.
(b) _______________________________________________________________.
3. Santa left a toy for Tommy under the Christmas tree.
(a) _______________________________________________________________.
(b) _______________________________________________________________.
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4. Patricia lent a pencil to Sam.
(a) _______________________________________________________________.
(b) _______________________________________________________________.
5. Allison gave a yellow card to the new student.
(a) _______________________________________________________________.
(b) _______________________________________________________________.
6. Jim showed a picture of Casa Loma to Jake.
(a) _______________________________________________________________.
(b) _______________________________________________________________.
7. SGIC sold amazing PPP binders to the PPP students.
(a) _______________________________________________________________.
(b) _______________________________________________________________.
8. The teacher gave a homework assignment to the class.
(a) _______________________________________________________________.
(b) _______________________________________________________________.
9. My students owe me a lot of money.
(a) _______________________________________________________________.
(b) _______________________________________________________________.
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Practice 4: Verbs with two Objects
Use the following verbs and objects to make passive voice sentences. Use the direct object as the subject in your first sentence. Use the indirect object as the subject in your
second sentence.
verbs direct objects indirect objects
bring beer Anna
cook blanket Batman
find gum the cat
make ketchup the children
offer money Sam
pass pizza the spy
pour present the students
promise secret the vampire
read story Wayne
tell vacation the zombie
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
3. __________________________________________________________________.
4. __________________________________________________________________.
5. __________________________________________________________________.
6. __________________________________________________________________.
7. __________________________________________________________________.
8. __________________________________________________________________.
9. __________________________________________________________________.
10. __________________________________________________________________.
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Using the Passive in Academic Writing The following are common examples of what we use the passive voice to talk or write
about:
► To describe origins, locations
o When and where someone was born
Jimi Hendrix was born on 27 November.
o When a place was established/built
The C.N. Tower was built in 1976
o Where something is situated (pseudo-passive)
The Parliament Buildings are situated near the Ottawa river.
► To describe customs or traditions
o These things happen the same way each year
Christmas trees are decorated each December.
► To write about movies, art, literature, architecture, etc.
o Who directed, produced, painted, sculpted, designed, built something
Hamlet was written by William Shakespeare.
► To write about crime
o What happened to an object/victim
The bank was robbed.
The teller was shot.
o What the police, judge, jury did
The suspect was arrested by the police.
The robber was sentenced to 10 years in prison.
► To describe changes
o What happened to a room, building, city, country, etc.
The classroom had been painted.
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► To describe a process
o How something is made or done. (This could include steps)
Ice is made by reducing the temperature of water to 0° Celsius.
o This could include how to spell or pronounce words
‘Colour’ is spelled with a ‘u’ in The U.K.
► To express a belief, thought, feeling, claim, argument, et cetera
o This structure is formal and is called the impersonal passive
It was once thought that the Earth was flat.
The Impersonal Passive in Academic Writing
Verbs that cannot take an object (intransitive verbs) normally cannot be used to form a passive tense because there is no object that can become the subject of the passive
sentence. If you want to use an intransitive verb in the passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.
Example: He believes → It is believed that …
The impersonal passive allows a writer to state a belief, argument, feeling, etc. without having to say who believes, argues, or feels the things being written about.
The impersonal passive is used when the writer doesn’t know the source of the beliefs, arguments, etc. or when the source is not credible. In other words, it helps the writer
make the information more convincing.
Common Verbs used in Impersonal Passive
agree
allege argue assume
believe claim
discover
estimate
expect feel find
known mention
prove
propose
recommend say show
suppose suggest
think
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Practice 5: Impersonal Passive
Read the following pairs of sentences. Which sentence is more convincing? What makes it more convincing?
1. a) Three old women in Starbucks believe that extraterrestrials have visited Earth.
b) It is believed that extraterrestrials have visited Earth.
2. a) Some people think that we will have a very hot summer this year.
b) It is thought that we will have a very hot summer this year.
3. a) The Police Chief claimed that the crime rate in Toronto is decreasing. b) It was claimed that the crime rate in Toronto is decreasing.
4. a) Research shows that climate change may be caused in part by pollution. b) It is shown that climate change may be caused in part by pollution.
5. a) Students feel that the passive voice is difficult.
b) It is felt that the passive voice is difficult.
6. a) Three of my friends argue that Niagara Falls can be seen from the C.N. Tower.
b) It is argued that Niagara Falls can be seen from the C.N. Tower.
7. a) Scientists have proven that colds are caused by a virus.
b) It has been proven that colds are caused by a virus.
Practice 6: Impersonal Passive
Change the following sentences to passive voice only if doing so makes the information more credible. If there is an expert, do not change the sentence to passive. Note that for some sentences, part can be active voice and part can be passive voice.
1. Some dishonest students alleged that I stole $5 from a homeless man.
__________________________________________________________________
2. A drunk guy on the subway has argued that The TTC’s service is improving.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Six dentists believe that the government should not have legalized marijuana.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Scientists claim that they have discovered a cure for hiccups.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Many teenagers consider the TTC to be the worst public transit system ever.
__________________________________________________________________
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6. Business Weekly declared that monkeys designed the new iPhone.
__________________________________________________________________
7. Dr. Steinfranken discovered that drinking Tim Hortons coffee causes baldness.
__________________________________________________________________
8. My grandmother estimated that Toronto received 10 cm of rain yesterday.
__________________________________________________________________
9. Five single guys expect the Blue Jays to win the game tonight.
__________________________________________________________________
10. Many Canadians feel that everyone should play hockey.
__________________________________________________________________
11. Anna’s friend found that the advertisement for wrinkle cream was misleading.
__________________________________________________________________
12. Nobody knows how the Egyptians built the pyramids.
__________________________________________________________________
13. Four out of five dentists recommend that people floss their teeth every day.
__________________________________________________________________
14. Some people have said that time flies when you’re having fun.
__________________________________________________________________
15. Studies have shown that Timbits cause obesity in lab rats.
__________________________________________________________________
The Passive Voice in Process Writing
Process writing is used to describe the steps in a process. In other words, it explains how something is done (by everyone), and is written in a step-by-step format. Processes are performed the same way by everyone. Therefore, the simple present tense, used for
facts, is used in process writing.
The imperative is not used in process writing. Likewise, modals are not used unless there is an optional step, or there is more than one way to perform a particular step.
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Practice 7: The Passive Voice in Process Writing
Underline all the verbs in the paragraph below. Decide which ones can be changed to passive voice, then change them to passive voice.
How Maple Syrup is Made
Maple syrup is very popular in Canada, and the process for making this
delicious treat involves several steps. First, someone inserts small metal tubes
into the trunks of sugar maple trees. This allows the sap to drip out of the tree
and into a metal bucket or into a hose connected to a storage tank. After people
have harvested enough sap, they send it to a special building called a sugar
house. Then, someone at the sugar house pours the sap into an evaporator, a
special machine that boils the sap. The evaporator boils the sap until the water
evaporates and the sap becomes thicker. This process requires about 40 litres of
sap in order to make 1 litre of maple syrup. Next, someone filters the maple
syrup in order to remove any impurities. Finally, a person or a machine pours
the maple syrup into bottles or containers. Someone now sends the maple
syrup to stores, where many Canadians will purchase and enjoy it.
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Practice 8a: The Passive Voice in Process Writing
Write 5 steps involved in the process of making toast. Be sure to use discourse markers (first, then, next, after that, finally).
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 8b: Now write your process out in paragraph form. Add an introductory sentence, a concluding sentence, and a title.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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Practice 9a: The Passive Voice in Process Writing.
Choose a food that is easy to make. Write 5 steps involved in the process of making that food. Be sure to use discourse markers (first, then, next, after that, finally).
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 9b: Now write your process out in paragraph form. Add an introductory sentence, a concluding sentence, and a title.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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Unit 2: Modals & Passive Modals
Review of Modals
Modals are auxiliary verbs that can have more than one meaning. It is essential that you know how to use modal verbs correctly. Many students are not familiar with the various meanings and usages of some modal verbs; as a result, their ability to express
themselves in English is limited.
Practice 1: Modals Diagnostic Quiz.
Read the whole sentence first and then fill in the blanks with the modals that make the most sense.
1. You ____________________ speak your first language, or you will get a yellow card.
2. Anna ____________________ tell anyone about the surprise party, but she told
three people anyway.
3. That sports announcer ____________________ had Botox. That’s the only
explanation for why face looks frozen.
4. Joe ____________________ very unhappy right now. His wife just left him.
5. Kevin got frostbite on his ears yesterday. He ____________________ worn a hat.
6. Leo ____________________ at the party last night. He was working from 6 p.m.
until 6 a.m.
7. Pedestrians ____________________ look both ways before they cross the street.
8. I’m sure that the Toronto Maple Leafs____________________ get into the
playoffs this year.
9. Jim was late for work. He ____________________ stuck in traffic.
10. The sky looks very grey right now. It ____________________ snow later today.
11. I don’t know where Anna is. She ____________________ here at 9:00 a.m.
12. Joe is dressed up today, and he is wearing cologne. He ____________________ have a date after school.
13. I always wear a medium, and this t-shirt is a medium. I won’t try it on because it
____________________ fit me.
14. You ____________________ put your phone away, or the teacher will freak out.
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The following are modals and phrasal modals that often present problems for students.
Modals and Phrasal Modals
Function
Modal or Phrasal Modal
Deduction
must; must have; have to; had to;
Expectation
should; should have; be supposed to
Impossibility
can’t; couldn’t have
Obligation
must; should; should have (unfulfilled) ; have to; had to
Possibility
can; could; could have; may; may have; might; might have
Prediction
will; be going to
Probability
could; may; might
Recommendation
could; might; should; had better
Modals of expectation: ‘should’ and ‘be supposed to’ both express expectation. The difference is that ‘be supposed to’ expresses general expectations based on laws, rules,
policies, and cultural norms. ‘Should’ expresses specific expectations based on information that we know about a person, thing, or situation.
o You are supposed to be in class at 9:00 a.m.
This expectation is based on school policy
o The counsellor should be at her desk right now.
This expectation is based on information that we know about the
counsellor’s normal routine.
Modals of obligation: ‘must’, ‘have to’ and ‘should’. ‘Must’ and ‘have to’ mean there is no choice. (In Canada, we don’t use ‘must’ unless we want to stress that there is no choice; otherwise, we use ‘have to’.) ‘Should’ means it’s a very good idea, but there is still a choice. Do not use ‘should’ when there is no choice.
o People must / have to breathe oxygen.
There is no choice here.
o You should call your mother.
I think this is a very good idea, but you can choose not to call her.
Modals of recommendation: ‘had better’. This phrasal modal is used when giving a
warning or making a threat. In both cases, there will be a negative consequence if the warning or threat is ignored. Often, English speakers don’t say what the consequence
is; the consequence is either obvious or better left to the imagination.
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o You had better take an umbrella with you.
This is a warning. The speaker wants to protect you.
o You had better not say that to me again!
This is a threat. The speaker wants to control you.
Modals of speculation: These include modals of probability and prediction, and modals
of possibility and deduction. These modals are used to speculate (form a conclusion or an educated guess) about past, present, or future events. All of these modals allow us
to express how certain we are about our speculation.
Modals of Speculation
Certainty
Past
Present
Future
100% sure
must (not) have + pp
must (not) + base
will + base
good chance
might (not) have + pp
might (not) + base
might (not) + base
fair chance
could have + pp
could + base
could + base
small chance
may (not) have + pp
may (not) + base
may (not) + base
impossible
couldn’t have + pp
can’t + base
won’t + base
The Fearless Loser
Once upon a time, there was a guy who claimed that he wasn’t afraid of anything. He
was fearless. At least, that’s the story he told his friends. He always bragged to them that he
was the bravest man in the world. Every day, he would strut around as if he were better than
everyone else. He would often laugh when people were afraid of things. However, he wasn’t
really as brave as he pretended to be; in fact, he was a loser.
His friends were sick and tired of his attitude. One day, they were sitting around at the
pub and they admitted that they wanted to teach the loser a lesson. They wanted to prove
that the loser was afraid of something so that he would stop being such a jerk. One of his
friends said that they should dare him to kiss a police officer. Another friend said they should
dare him to swim across Lake Ontario. However, a third friend had a better idea. He said that
they should dare the loser to go over Niagara Falls in a barrel. The friends all agreed that this
was a fantastic plan.
The next day, they suggested their idea to the loser. The loser, who did not want to
look like a coward, had to agree. They went to Niagara Falls on the weekend. The loser got in
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a barrel, which was in the water next to the bank of the Niagara River. His friends closed the
barrel’s lid and pushed the barrel towards the Falls. As they watched the barrel go over the
Falls, the loser’s friends all laughed, clapped, cheered, and high-fived each other.
After their little celebration, they went to see what had happened to the loser.
Amazingly, the loser was still alive, but he was badly hurt. His friends took him to the nearest
hospital. One of the doctors there said that the loser needed a shot and took out a needle.
When the loser saw the needle, he began to scream like a little girl and hid behind the
examination table. As it turns out, the loser was afraid of something after all!
Practice 2: Modals and Phrasal Modals.
Using modals and phrasal modals, write as many sentences as you can about The Fearless
Loser. Try to use as many different functions and tenses as you can. Do not use the same modal or phrasal modal twice.
Example: The fearless loser may not have a girlfriend.
1. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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9. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
10. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
11. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
12. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Passive Modals The passive voice can be formed with modal verbs or phrasal modals. In these cases,
the base form of ‘be’ is used after the modal or phrasal modal, followed by the past participle of the main verb.
Passive Modals
Passive Phrasal Modals
Can be pp Could be pp May be pp Might be pp
Must be pp
Should be pp Will be pp Would be pp
Be able to be pp Be allowed to be pp Be going to be pp Be supposed to be pp
Had better be pp
Had to be pp Have to be pp
Practice 3: Passive Modals.
Change each sentence to passive voice.
1. Anyone can buy Presto cards at most Gateway stores.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Your bank may charge you additional service fees if you use another bank’s ATM.
__________________________________________________________________
3. The airport might cancel flights if the weather is bad.
__________________________________________________________________
4. You must use the coupons by 31 March.
__________________________________________________________________
5. If it rains, someone will reschedule the barbecue.
__________________________________________________________________
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6. Customers are able to return all sale items.
__________________________________________________________________
7. Teachers do not allow students to use phones during the exam.
__________________________________________________________________
8. Someone is going to collect money for victims of the hurricane.
__________________________________________________________________
9. TTC passengers are supposed to show Metropasses to the bus driver.
__________________________________________________________________
10. Reminders had better be sent out before the meeting, or people will forget about it.
__________________________________________________________________
11. Hotel staff have to change the sheets before the next guests check in.
__________________________________________________________________
12. Diners couldn’t eat the soup until it had cooled down a bit.
__________________________________________________________________
Review of Perfect Modals
Perfect modals are modals that express ideas about the past. They are called perfect
modals because they are use a past perfect form (‘have’ + pp). Note that because ‘have’ follows a modal, we must use the base form instead of ‘had’.
Perfect Modals (deduction and past possibility)
Certainty
Perfect Modal
Usage
100% sure
must (not) have + pp
conclusions about the past
good chance
might (not) have + pp
past possibility
fair chance
could have + pp
past possibility
small chance
may (not) have + pp
past possibility
Impossible
couldn’t have + pp
past impossibility
Perfect Modals (other)
Perfect Modal
Usage
could have + pp
possible in the past, but not done
should (not) have + pp
Unfulfilled past obligation
should (not) have + pp
Unfulfilled past expectation
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Practice 4: Perfect Modals.
Fill in the blanks with the correct perfect modal. Use the clues in parentheses to help you.
1. Anna didn’t go to the party? She ________________ gotten an invitation. (I am
sure that she didn’t.)
2. George ________________ been angry at the man he punched. (I am sure that he
was.)
3. George ________________ punched that guy. (He had a social obligation not to.)
4. Jake ordered a pizza. He ________________ gotten 2 for the price of 1, but he
only wanted one. (It was possible in the past, but not done.)
5. Jim was really sick. He went to work although he ________________ gone to the
hospital. (He had an obligation to himself.)
6. Joe ________________ seen a unicorn. They don’t exist. (It’s not possible that he
did.)
7. My students ________________ failed the quiz. Their homework was perfect. (I
expected them to pass the test.)
8. Sam wasn’t wearing his glasses. He ________________ brought them. (There’s a
good chance that he didn’t.)
9. Serena was sneezing a lot. She ________________ had an allergy to my perfume.
(There’s a good chance that she did.)
10. She didn’t answer the question. She ________________ understood it. (There’s a
small possibility that she didn’t.)
11. The book I ordered from Amazon ________________ been here this morning. I’m
surprised that it hasn’t been delivered yet. (I expected it to be delivered by now.)
12. The MP3 player isn’t here. Someone ________________ borrowed it. (There’s a
fair chance that someone did.)
13. The woman on the subway ________________ been going to the Eaton Centre.
(There’s a small chance that she was.)
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Practice 5: Evidence Supporting Perfect Modals.
When using modals of deduction or possibility, we first need to have some information about the situation. The more information we have, the more certain we are. For the
following perfect modal sentences, write down the evidence that supports the sentence.
Example: The couple must have been tourists.
Evidence:
- They were taking a lot of pictures - They were looking at a map of Toronto - They were wearing Toronto Blue Jays shirts
- They were surprised when the TTC had a delay
1. She must have forgotten to brush her teeth.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. He might not have eaten for a long time.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. She could have been American.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. He couldn’t have been in a very good mood.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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5. The lesson may have been boring.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. The couple might have been tourists.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. She may have broken up with her boyfriend.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. He must not have understood the instructions.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. She might have hurt her hand.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. The dog may have been scared.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Perfect Modals in Passive Voice Perfect modals can also be expressed passive form. In these cases, the ‘be’ form of the passive perfect modal is always ‘have been’. Once again, because ‘have’ follows a
modal, we must use the base form instead of ‘had’.
Perfect Modals in Passive Voice
Certainty
Passive Perfect Modal
Usage
100% sure
must (not) have been + pp
conclusions about the past
good chance
might (not) have been + pp
past possibility
fair chance
could have been + pp
past possibility
small chance
may (not) have been + pp
past possibility
Impossible
couldn’t have been + pp
past impossibility
Passive Perfect Modal
Usage
could have been + pp
possible in the past, but not done
should (not) have been + pp
Unfulfilled past obligation
should (not) have been + pp
Unfulfilled past expectation
Practice 6: Perfect Modals in Active or Passive Voice.
Write possible explanations for the following situations. Use perfect modals in active and
passive voice.
1. Anna went to Dollarama. She planned to spend lots of money. Half an hour later,
she left Dollarama without buying anything.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Dr. Cranium looked at his patient’s x-rays. As soon as he saw them, he turned pale
and fainted.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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3. The fire alarm went off during break. Allison looked guilty. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Sam came home after being away for the weekend. When he opened the door, his
wife slapped his face.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. Jim has been working out. He decided to go to the beach to show off his new body.
When he walked past a group of teenage girls, they all pointed at Jim and laughed.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. Students heard loud dance music coming from the teachers’ room. Jessa came out of the teachers’ room with balloons in her hand. She was smiling
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. There were police cars in front of SGIC. A police officer was talking to several
students from the PPP class. An ambulance arrived and two paramedics entered the
school. They had a stretcher with them. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. Sam and Anna were driving to the cinema. Anna was really looking forward to
seeing the movie. Suddenly, Sam turned the car around and drove home. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
27
Unit 3: Noun Clauses
Noun clauses are a type of dependent clause. To form a noun clause, you must
have a subordinator followed by a subject and a verb.
Subordinators used in Noun Clauses
That Who
Whose What
Where
When Which
Why How
If / Whether
NOTE: some of these subordinators are also used at the beginning of adjective clauses
and adverb clauses. Therefore, you MUST know the functions of the various clauses in order to use them all correctly.
Noun clauses have the same function as nouns: they act as subjects or objects.
Practice 1: Noun Clauses as Subjects.
Underline the subjects in each sentence.
o That teachers like noun clauses is not surprising.
o Who Anna dates is none of Joe’s business.
o What the celebrity wore was criticized in the media.
o Where the fox hid her babies was surprising.
o When the road will be reopened is not mentioned on the city’s website.
o Why Serena quit her job is unknown.
o How much a house costs in Toronto shocked Jake.
o Whether or not you eat meat doesn’t matter to me.
Practice 2: Noun Clause as Objects.
Underline the objects in each sentence.
o It is not surprising that teachers like noun clauses.
o It is none of Joe’s business who Anna dates.
o The media criticised what the celebrity wore.
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o It was surprising where the fox hid her babies.
o It is not mentioned on the city’s website when the road will be reopened.
o Nobody knows why Serena quit her job.
o Jake was shocked by how much a house costs in Toronto.
o It doesn’t matter to me whether or not you eat meat.
Noun Clauses Beginning with ‘That’ and ‘It’ Noun clauses beginning with ‘that’ follow four patterns:
o Pattern 1: verb + ‘that’ clause
o Pattern 2: subject + ‘be’ + adjective + ‘that’ clause
o Pattern 3: It + ‘be’ + adjective + ‘that’ clause
o Pattern 4: ‘That’ clause used as a subject
Pattern # 1: verb + ‘that’ clauses
Example: Kumiko agrees that SGIC has great teachers.
Common Verbs used in
verb + ‘that’ clauses
agree allege
argue assume believe
claim decide
discover estimate
expect explain
feel find hear
hope that know that
learn notice
promise prove that
read say state
show suppose
think understand
Practice 3: verb + ‘that’ clause.
Write sentences about the following facts. Use appropriate verbs and use experts as the
subject of your sentences.
1. The human body has 206 bones.
__________________________________________________________________.
2. On average, people lose between 60-100 strands of hair every day.
__________________________________________________________________.
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3. The human nose never stops growing.
__________________________________________________________________.
4. The most common blood type worldwide is type O.
__________________________________________________________________.
5. Colourblindness is more common in men than in women.
__________________________________________________________________.
Practice 4: verb + ‘that’ clause.
Re-write your sentences above; use the impersonal passive to introduce them.
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
3. __________________________________________________________________.
4. __________________________________________________________________.
5. __________________________________________________________________.
Pattern # 2: Subject + be + Adjective + ‘that’ clause
Example: Jinsu was convinced that he lost his wallet on the train.
Common Adjectives used in Subject + be + Adjective + ‘that’ clause
afraid
amazed angry
aware certain
confident
convinced disappointed
happy pleased
proud
sorry sure
surprised worried
Practice 5: Subject + adjective + ‘that’ clause.
Write sentences about your experiences at SCIC. Be sure to write about the past, the present, and the future.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
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3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
7. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
8. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
9. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
10. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
Pattern # 3: It + be + Adjective + ‘that’ clause
Example: It was fortunate that Mario woke up when he did otherwise he’d be late
for school .
Common Adjectives used in
It + be + Adjective + ‘that’ clause
apparent
amazing clear good
doubtful fortunate
interesting
likely lucky obvious
possible strange
surprising
true undeniable unfortunate
unlikely well known
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Practice 6: It + ‘be’ + adjective + ‘that’ clause.
Complete each statement below with a ‘that’ clause. Your ‘that’ clause should indicate how sure you are about the truth of each statement. It is possible to use ‘not’ in front of some
adjectives above.
1. _____________________ polar bears have black skin.
2. _____________________ Canadians speak English and French fluently.
3. _____________________ artificial vanilla flavouring comes from beavers.
4. _____________________ Canada geese will attack people.
5. _____________________ The C.N. tower is the tallest building in Canada.
6. _____________________ Canada’s national sport is hockey.
7. _____________________ the zipper was invented by a Canadian.
8. _____________________ Toronto is the capital of Canada.
9. _____________________ moose are one of Canada’s most dangerous animals.
10. _____________________ the Loonie was invented by Pierre Trudeau.
Practice 7: It + ‘be’ + adjective + ‘that’ clause.
Now complete each sentence clause indicating how you feel about the statements below.
1. _____________________ polar bears have black skin.
2. _____________________ Canadians speak English and French fluently.
3. _____________________ artificial vanilla flavouring comes from beavers.
4. _____________________ Canada geese will attack people.
5. _____________________ The C.N. tower is the tallest building in Canada.
6. _____________________ Canada’s national sport is hockey.
7. _____________________ the zipper was invented by a Canadian.
8. _____________________ Toronto is the capital of Canada.
9. _____________________ moose are one of Canada’s most dangerous animals.
10. _____________________ the Loonie was invented by Pierre Trudeau.
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Pattern # 4: ‘That’ Clause Used as a Subject
► That + S + V is more formal, and therefore less common in everyday English.
► When we use ‘that’ clauses as the subject of a sentence, the following two patterns are
more common, even in formal writing:
The fact that + S + V OR It is a fact that + S + V
Examples: The fact that Vikings lived in Canada over 1000 years ago is amazing. It is a fact that Vikings lived in Canada over 1000 years ago.
Practice 8: ‘That’ clause used as a subject.
Write new sentences using the information from the previous two exercises. Use ‘that’ clauses as subjects. Be sure to use all three patterns shown above.
1. Polar bears have black skin.
a) It is a fact that ___________________________________________________.
b) The fact that ____________________________________________________.
c) That ___________________________________________________________.
2. Artificial vanilla flavouring comes from beavers.
a) _______________________________________________________________.
b) _______________________________________________________________.
c) _______________________________________________________________.
3. Canada geese will attack people.
a) _______________________________________________________________.
b) _______________________________________________________________.
c) _______________________________________________________________.
4. The C.N. tower is the tallest building in Canada.
a) _______________________________________________________________.
b) _______________________________________________________________.
c) _______________________________________________________________.
5. Canada’s national sport is hockey.
a) _______________________________________________________________.
b) _______________________________________________________________.
c) _______________________________________________________________.
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6. Moose are one of Canada’s most dangerous animals.
_______________________________________________________________.
_______________________________________________________________.
_______________________________________________________________.
Practice 9: Noun clause patterns.
Write sentences containing ‘that’ clauses. Use the prompts and information from the
article to write your sentences. Use an appropriate tense in both clauses. After that, use ‘that’ and ‘it’ clauses to write your own sentences commenting on the information in the
article.
Who Are Happier – Single Women or Married Women?
Neither group is happier than the other; the benefits they enjoy are just different, experts
say. For example, single women gain less weight than married women. Therefore, they are happier
with their bodies. However, according to psychologists, married women should not worry that they
will gain weight and feel bad about themselves because married women experience less loneliness
and depression than single women. Another difference between single and married women is free
time. Many married women, especially those with families, believe that single women have more
free time and can enjoy more hobbies or time with friends. Indeed, single women have, on
average, three hobbies, whereas married women tend to have only one. That being said, according
to latest research, single women spend more time in stressful careers. On the other hand, married
women who also have jobs report feeling more satisfied with their lives. Psychologists agree that
this is because married women who work outside the home do not think of their jobs as the most
important thing in their lives. Instead, they look forward to spending time with their husbands and
children, and this relieves a lot of work stress.
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1. Experts /claim _________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Psychologists / agree ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. It /know ______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Research / prove _______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Psychologists / believe ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Noun Clauses with Subjunctive
The subjunctive mood is used in noun clauses to express four things: advisability,
desirability, necessity, and urgency (ADNU). Only certain verbs and adjectives need the subjunctive mood.
Verbs Adjectives
advise
ask demand insist
order
propose
recommend request suggest
urge
advisable
desirable critical crucial
essential
imperative
important necessary urgent
vital
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The subjunctive verb form in noun clauses is BASE VERB. Auxiliary verbs cannot be
used. To express a negative, use ‘not’ in front of the verb or adjective. Although the subjunctive often expresses ideas that can also be expressed with modals and phrasal
modals, modals and phrasal modals cannot be used in subjunctive noun clauses.
When using noun clauses with subjunctive, it is possible to put the verb into passive voice. This is used when we do not want to say (or do not know) who performs the action.
Practice 10: noun clauses with subjunctive:
Write the verbs and adjectives from the list above that express the following.
Advisability
Verbs: _____________________________________________________________
Adjectives: _________________________________________________________
Desirability
Verbs: _____________________________________________________________
Adjectives: _________________________________________________________
Necessity
Verbs: _____________________________________________________________
Adjectives: _________________________________________________________
Urgency
Verbs: _____________________________________________________________
Adjectives: _________________________________________________________
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Practice 11: noun clauses with subjunctive.
For the following situations, write sentences using the subjunctive. Use verbs in active and passive voice. Use adjectives.
1. How to find out if a boy/girlfriend is cheating. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. How to successfully cheat on a test. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. How to deal with a house fire. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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4. How to take the perfect selfie.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. How to stream movies online.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
38
Noun Clauses Beginning with ‘WH’ Question Words Noun clauses can have ‘WH’ question words as subordinators. These noun clauses, however, do not always function as questions (as indirect or imbedded questions do).
Note that sometimes, the ‘WH’ question word can also function as the subject in a noun
clause.
‘WH’ Question Words
used in Noun Clauses
Who Whose What
Where
When Which Why
How
Practice 12: Noun Clauses with ‘WH’ question words.
Underline the noun clause in each sentence. How many of them are asking questions?
a) Who employers hire is determined in the first minute of an interview.
b) Consumers can’t decide whose products are the best.
c) Further studies may reveal what causes non-smokers to develop lung cancer.
d) Advertisers need to know where their target market likes to shop.
e) The developers have estimated when the new condo will be finished.
f) The optometrist explained which glaucoma treatment would be most effective.
g) Psychologists don’t fully understand why some people can’t be hypnotized.
h) A recent newspaper article revealed how much CEOs are paid in Canada.
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Practice 13: Noun Clauses with ‘WH’ question words.
Complete the sentences below with a WH noun clause.
1. Students agree ___________________________________________________.
2. Students aren’t sure _______________________________________________.
3. Students can decide _______________________________________________.
4. Students have determined __________________________________________.
5. Students may discover _____________________________________________.
6. Students often estimate ____________________________________________.
7. Students should be able to explain ____________________________________.
8. Students will be able to understand ___________________________________.
9. Student quizzes show ______________________________________________.
10. Students need to know _____________________________________________.
Noun Clauses Beginning with ‘If’ or ‘Whether’
Noun clauses can have ‘if’ or ‘whether’ as subordinators. These noun clauses do not express a condition; they usually express doubt about a yes/no situation. The phrase ‘or not’ can be used with both ‘if’ and ‘whether’. However, it can only be used immediately
after ‘whether’.
o I don’t know if you like this sentence or not.
o I don’t know whether you like this sentence or not.
o I don’t know whether or not you like this sentence.
Practice 14: Noun Clauses with ‘if’ and ‘whether’. Underline the noun clause in each sentence. Which subordinator is used most often? Why
do you think this is the case?
a) Employers can’t always be sure if a candidate is being honest or not.
b) Consumers can’t decide whether or not low calorie frozen meals are healthy.
40
c) Further studies may reveal whether pollution leads to lung cancer or not.
d) Advertisers need to know if their target market earns a lot of money.
e) The developers haven’t revealed whether or not the condo will be finished this year.
f) The optometrist wasn’t confident whether glaucoma treatment would be effective.
g) Psychologists don’t agree about whether or not long-term social media use is
harmful.
h) A recent newspaper article questioned whether or not CEOs in Canada deserve to
be paid extremely high salaries.
Practice 15: Noun Clauses with ‘if’ and ‘whether’.
Complete the sentences with a noun clause containing ‘if’ or ‘whether’.
1. Students can’t always be sure __________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
2. Students can’t decide _________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
3. Students need to know _______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
4. Students don’t agree about ____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
5. Students sometimes question __________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
41
Unit 4: Adjective Clauses
Adjective clauses are a type of dependent clause. They have the same function as
adjectives: they describe nouns. However, unlike adjectives, adjective clauses must be placed directly after the nouns that they are describing.
adj. noun
Adjective placement: I like meeting new people.
noun adjective clause Adjective clause placement: I like meeting people who are from other countries.
There are several subordinators that begin an adjective clause. Most of them are relative pronouns, but two of them are relative adverbs.
Subordinators Used in
Defining Adjective Clauses
That
Which
Who
Whom
Whose
When
Where
Subordinators Used in
Non-Defining Adjective Clauses
--
, Which
, Who
, Whom
, Whose
, When
, Where
Defining and Non-Defining Adjective Clauses Defining adjective clauses define which specific noun you are writing about. This is necessary because the reader won’t know which noun you are writing about
otherwise. Commas cannot be used with this type of adjective clause.
How to know when you need to define a noun:
o You haven’t mentioned it in a previous sentence o You haven’t given the name o There are many of them in the world and you need to show which one you’re
writing about o You are writing about a specific group
o You are writing about a specific kind of person, place, or thing
Non-defining adjective clauses do not define which specific noun you are writing about because the noun is already specific. Instead, non-defining adjective clauses give
extra information about the noun. This information is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas – one after the noun, and one at the end of the non-defining
adjective clause.
How to know what makes a noun specific:
o You have mentioned it before in a previous sentence. o The noun has a name (this could be the name of a person, a place, an
object, a machine, a disease, etc.) o There is only one of them in the world
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Practice 1: Defining and Non-Defining Adjective Clauses.
Read each sentence and underline the adjective clause(s). Decide whether or not the adjective clause is defining or non-defining. If it is non-defining, put commas before and
after the adjective clause.
NOTE: You cannot use commas with ‘that’. This particular subordinator is only used in defining adjective clauses.
1. Joe opened a box of Cornflakes which is his favourite cereal and found a cockroach inside the box.
2. Anna still drives the car that she bought when she was working at Google.
3. Steven Spielberg whose movies are popular won an Academy Award.
4. Sarah bought her coat at the Eaton Centre where everything is expensive.
5. The farmer was angry with the beavers that chewed all of his trees.
6. The man who lives next door to Joe wanted to borrow the lawnmower that Joe had
just stolen from his cousin.
7. The physics teacher had a difficult time explaining the theory of relativity to his
class.
8. Jed and Joe went to Quebec in the spring when maple syrup is made.
9. The chef mixed the ingredients with a whisk which was a gift from Gordon Ramsey
who likes to swear a lot.
10. Mr. Snore who is the physics teacher at Jim’s high school probably needs to drink more coffee.
11. Some students tried to give gum to the cat that they found on Dundas St.
12. The apples which were grown in Ontario were on sale at Sobey’s last week.
13. The man who worked for the Toronto Humane Society captured the coyote that
was bothering people in High Park.
14. Jim downloaded a self-help book which was about how to stop wasting time on the internet.
15. After Anna cut up her visa card which she used much too often she borrowed
money from Serena who was married to Anna’s brother.
16. Don Monotone whose voice could put an insomniac to sleep was scheduled to give a
speech at York University.
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Four Types of Relative Pronouns
There are four types of relative pronouns. Learning them will be very important as you
write your own adjective clause sentences.
Relative pronouns used as the subject in an adjective clause
I hit the man. He ate my sandwich.
I hit the man who ate my sandwich.
S V O
I hit the man that ate my sandwich.
S V O
Relative pronouns used as the object of a verb in an adjective clause. These object
pronouns may be omitted (left out).
The man was drunk. I hit him.
The man who(m) I hit was drunk
O S V
The man that I hit was drunk.
O S V
The man Ø I hit was drunk. S V
Relative pronouns used as the object of a preposition in an adjective clause. These
object pronouns may also be omitted (left out), but the preposition must remain at the end of the adjective clause.
Justin is the man. I told you about him.
Justin is the man about whom I told you.
preposition + O of Prep. + S V O
Justin is the man who(m) I told you about.
O of Prep. S V O preposition
Justin is the man that I told you about.
O of Prep. S V O preposition
Justin is the man Ø I told you about.
S V O preposition
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Relative pronouns used as a possessive in an adjective clause
You know the teacher. Her sandwich was eaten.
You know the teacher whose sandwich was eaten. possessive + noun
Combining Sentences to Form Adjective Clauses
To combine sentences and make a new sentence containing an adjective clause, it is important to follow the steps below.
Step 1: Find all the nouns or pronouns in the first sentence.
o Jim took his dog to the park. The dog likes to bark.
Step 2: Find all the nouns or pronouns in the second sentence.
o Jim took his dog to the park. The dog likes to bark.
Step 3: Decide which noun or pronoun is mentioned in both sentences.
o Jim took his dog to the park. The dog likes to bark.
Step 4: Replace the noun or pronoun in the second sentence with the appropriate relative pronoun or relative adverb.
that/which
o Jim took his dog to the park. The dog likes to bark.
Step 5: If necessary, move your new adjective clause so that it is directly after the noun or pronoun it is giving information about.
o Jim took his dog that/which likes to bark to the park.
Step 6: If necessary, add commas before and after the adjective clause. Remember that if you need commas, you cannot use ‘that’. ‘That’ hates commas.
o Jim took his dog, which likes to bark, to the park.
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Adjective Clauses with ‘That’ In formal writing, ‘that’ is used for animals, places, and things, but not for people.
Example: Anna has a cat that loves to smell red roses.
Practice 2: Adjective clauses with ‘that’.
Combine the two sentences below to make a new sentence containing an adjective clause.
Use the first sentence as the main clause. Remember: there are never commas before ‘that’.
1. Jim was wearing a tie. He bought the tie at Walmart.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Anna grew up in a small town. The small town is near Stratford.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Serena met a vampire at a pub. She will always remember that pub.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Joe failed the course. He took the course at George Brown College.
__________________________________________________________________
It is important to note that when writing about what things are in a particular place, we
use ‘that’ + ‘have’ + the thing or things that are in that place.
Example: Room 411 is a classroom. It has 3 large tables and 4 small tables.
Room 411 is a classroom that has 3 large tables and 4 small tables.
Practice 3: Places + ‘that’ + ‘have’.
Combine the two sentences below to make a new sentence containing an adjective clause.
Use the first sentence as the main clause. Add commas if necessary.
1. Jim went to a hotel. The hotel has a shuttle bus to the airport.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Anna grew up in a small town. The small town has 1 cinema.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Serena met a man at a pub. The pub has a pool table.
__________________________________________________________________
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Practice 4: Adjective clauses with ‘that’.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause beginning with ‘that’. Be sure to use some sentences with ‘that’ + ‘has’.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Adjective Clauses with ‘Which’ In North American English, ‘which’ is used only in non-defining adjective clauses. In
British English, it is used in both defining and non-defining adjective clauses.
Practice 5: Adjective clauses with ‘which’.
Combine the two sentences below to make a new sentence containing an adjective clause.
Use the first sentence as the main clause. Add commas.
1. The classroom clock said that it was 8:30. The clock always ran slow.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Casa Loma is a fake castle. Casa Loma is in Toronto.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Anna’s dog bit her. The dog was a poodle.
__________________________________________________________________
NOTE: ‘Which’ can also modify an entire sentence; in this case, there is always a comma
before it.
Practice 6: Adjective clauses with ‘which’.
Combine the two sentences below to make a new sentence containing an adjective clause. Use the first sentence as the main clause. Add commas as needed.
1. Jim told his boss to shut up. Telling his boss to shut up was stupid.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Joe’s last job paid minimum wage. That isn’t enough to live on in Toronto.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Serena’s boyfriend broke up with her. That made her cry.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 7: Adjective clauses with ‘which’.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause starting with ‘which’. Be sure to use some ‘which’ clauses to modify the entire sentence. Add commas when necessary.
48
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Adjective Clauses with ‘Who’
In formal writing, ‘who’, not ‘that’, is used for people. ‘That’ is used for objects and is
considered rude when talking about a person. In both formal and informal writing, ‘who’ must be used in non-defining adjective clauses; ‘that’ cannot be used.
Practice 8: Adjective clauses with ‘who’.
Combine the two sentences below to make a new sentence containing an adjective clause. Use the first sentence as the main clause. Add commas if necessary.
1. Steve and Sarah missed the quiz. They were absent from class.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Anna is shopping at Dollarama. She really likes to get a bargain.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Jake received a cat calendar from his friend. Jake loves cats.
__________________________________________________________________
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Practice 9: Adjective clauses with ‘who’.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause starting with ‘who’. Be sure to
use both defining and non-defining adjective clauses.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Adjective Clauses with ‘Whom’ In formal writing, ‘whom’ is always used as an object pronoun SPECIFICALLY for people.
NOTE: ‘Whom’ can be the object of the verb, or the object of prepositions such as: to, for, from, with, about, et cetera.
Practice 10: Adjective clauses with ‘whom’.
Combine the two sentences below to make a new sentence containing an adjective clause.
Use the first sentence as the main clause. Add commas if necessary.
1. Serena likes the man. She had dinner with him last weekend.
__________________________________________________________________
2. The server was very friendly. Joe bought a coffee from her.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Jake’s lawyer wasn’t in her office. Jake wanted to speak to her.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 11: Adjective clauses with ‘whom’.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause starting with ‘whom’. Be sure to
use both defining and non-defining adjective clauses.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Adjective Clauses with ‘Whose’
Who? Whose? Who’s? What’s the difference? When we use ‘who’ it is done to refer to other
people or when we ask about a person or a group of people. ‘Whose’ is used to show possession; it is used for people, places, and things. The contraction ‘who’s’ is who + is together.
Whose is used to show ownership of something. It replaces possessive determiners and
nouns with ’s. ‘Whose’ is ALWAYS followed by a noun. NOTE: ‘Whose’ DOES NOT mean ‘who is’. Whose shows possession for people, places,
and things.
Example: Canada is a country whose weather is unpredictable.
Practice 12: Adjective clauses with ‘whose’.
Combine the two sentences below to make a new sentence containing an adjective clause.
Use the first sentence as the main clause. Add commas if necessary.
1. I am in the PPP course. The course’s teacher is a genius.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jim wants to move to a bigger place. His apartment is very small.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Serena danced with a man. His breath was terrible.
__________________________________________________________________
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Practice 13: Adjective clauses with ‘whose’.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause starting with ‘whose’. Be sure to use both defining and non-defining adjective clauses. Write about places and things as
well as about people.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Adjective Clauses with ‘When’ ‘When’ is used for times. What happened/happens/will happen (modals of ability and
possibility are sometimes used as well) is expressed after ‘when’. DO NOT use ‘that’ after a time unless you are adding information that is NOT about what happened/happens/will
happen at that time.
That or When?
Monday is the day that nobody likes. (information about that day)
Monday is a day when people need extra coffee. (what happens on that day)
Practice 14: Adjective clauses with ‘when’.
Combine the two sentences below to make a new sentence containing an adjective clause. Use the first sentence as the main clause. Add commas if necessary.
1. Anna went skiing one day. It snows a lot that day.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jim met Joe at the cinema on Tuesday. Tickets are cheaper on Tuesdays.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Sam lost his Metropass on Friday the 13th. Everyone has bad luck then.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 15: Adjective clauses with ‘when’.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause starting with ‘when’. Be sure to use both defining and non-defining adjective clauses. Don’t forget: you must say what
happened/happens/will happen in your adjective clauses.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Adjective Clauses with ‘Where’
‘Where’ is used for places. What there is/are, or what happened/happens/will happen is expressed after ‘where’. In addition, what there is/are in that place can also be expressed after ‘where’.
That, Where, or When?
Starbucks is a place that has a lot of coffee. (what it has)
Starbucks is a place where there is a lot of coffee. (what is there)
Starbucks is a place where people buy coffee. (what happens there)
Practice 16: Adjective clauses with ‘where’.
Combine the two sentences below to make a new sentence containing an adjective clause. Use the first sentence as the main clause. Add commas if necessary.
1. For his anniversary, Jake took his wife to Italy. They first met there.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jim ate at a restaurant. He got food poisoning there.
__________________________________________________________________
3. SGIC is a language school. Students can prepare for college there.
__________________________________________________________________
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Practice 17: Adjective clauses with ‘where’.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause starting with ‘where’. Be sure to
use both defining and non-defining adjective clauses.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Adjective Clauses of Quantity
Adjective clauses can be used to express quantity. Quantity means how much or how
many. These clauses are always non-restrictive. The quantity always comes before ‘of whom’ for people and before ‘of which’ for animals, places, and things.
Example: Jill has five friends. Two of them are lawyers. Jill has five friends, two of whom are lawyers.
Jill has several hobbies. One of them is reading. Jill has several hobbies, one of which is reading.
Practice 18: Adjective clauses of quality.
Combine the two sentences in each pair to make a new sentence that contains an adjective clause. Use the first sentence as the main clause. Don’t forget to add commas.
1. Jake has three brothers. One of them is a doctor.
__________________________________________________________________.
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2. The students took a test. Most of them studied.
__________________________________________________________________.
3. Anna asked 7 questions. All of the questions were stupid.
__________________________________________________________________.
4. There are 14 players on Sam’s baseball team. Three of them are from Korea.
__________________________________________________________________.
5. Joe’s cell phone has many applications. One app is the hair-swap.
__________________________________________________________________.
6. All of the students came to class today. Some of them have hangovers.
__________________________________________________________________.
Practice 19: Adjective clauses of quantity - people.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause of quantity. Be sure to use
commas.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 20: Adjective clauses of quantity – places and things.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause of quantity. Be sure to use commas.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Adjective Clauses of Quality Adjective clauses can be used to express quality. These clauses are always non- restrictive. The quality always comes before ‘of whom’ for people and before ‘of which’ for
animals, places, and things.
Example: Jack has five friends. The richest friends are lawyers. Jack has five friends, the richest of whom are lawyers.
Jack plays several sports. The most dangerous of them is rugby. Jack plays several sports, the most dangerous of which is rugby.
Practice 21: Adjective clauses of quality.
Combine the two sentences in each pair to make a new sentence that contains an adjective clause. Use the first sentence as the main clause. Don’t forget to add commas.
1. Canada has many animals. The most dangerous animal is the moose.
__________________________________________________________________.
2. Jake has three brothers. The smartest brother moved away from Ottawa.
__________________________________________________________________.
3. Jim has travelled to many countries. The most expensive country was England.
__________________________________________________________________.
4. Sam took many pictures. The funniest picture was posted on Facebook.
__________________________________________________________________.
5. Joe gave many excuses. The lamest excuse was: “My dog ate my homework.”
__________________________________________________________________.
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Practice 22: Adjective clauses of quality - people.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause of quality. Be sure to use
commas.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 23: Adjective clauses of quality – places and things.
Write your own sentences containing an adjective clause of quality. Be sure to use commas.
1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Practice 24: Adjective clauses of quantity & quality.
Correct the errors in the following sentences.
1. Jim bought 3 books, all which of them are colouring books.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Nick has three sisters, two of which own poodles.
__________________________________________________________________
3. SGIC has 3 photocopiers; one of which is on the second floor.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 25: Sentence Combining.
Combine sentences from the story below to make sentences containing adjective clauses.
Use the appropriate relative pronoun to introduce each adjective clause, and use commas where necessary. Use: that, which, who, whose, quantity clauses, quality clauses.
The Sale
There is the store. It had a big sale last weekend. A woman was in the store during the
sale. Her brother is my neighbour. The woman wore a black dress. It made her look very
slim. The woman wanted to buy a winter coat. She had a stolen Visa card. The
salesperson showed the woman some coats. The salesperson had black hair. The woman
tried on several coats. Three of them were wool. The woman chose a grey coat. The coat
was made in China. The woman tried to pay for the coats with the stolen Visa card. That
was stupid. The salesperson called the police. She knew the Visa card was stolen. One
other customer was laughing at the woman. The customer was drunk. Two police officers
entered the store. Both of them were very strong. The police officers arrested the woman.
The tallest policeman put handcuffs on the women. The woman was very embarrassed.
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1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
11. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
12. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Omitting Object Relative Pronouns Omitting is not the same as reducing. Omitting means leaving out the relative pronoun ONLY. The pronoun can be omitted ONLY when the relative pronoun is the OBJECT of the
adjective clause.
Examples: o Do you know the teacher whom Joe is talking to?
o Where's the money that I lent you yesterday?
o I haven't read any of the books that I got for Christmas.
o Anna didn't like that guy that Jim brought to the party.
o Jake liked the movie that he saw last weekend.
We CANNOT omit the relative pronoun:
► if it starts a non-defining relative clause
o That man, who(m) Serena was talking to yesterday, is a teacher.
o My neighbour’s dog, which I’ve mentioned before, is very friendly.
► if it is the subject of a defining relative clause.
o Do you know the man who invented the post-it note?
o Sned is the student who got 6 speeding tickets.
► if it shows possession
o Do you know the student whose question I answered?
o Sned is the guy whose sister went to U of T.
Practice 26: Omitting the object relative pronoun.
Cross out the relative pronouns that can be omitted from the sentences below.
1. What was the name of the park that you went to?
2. Do you know the man who Serena is dancing with?
3. Sophie Trudeau, whose husband you’ve heard about, speaks French.
4. Italy is a country that Joe would love to visit one day.
5. Prince William, whom you’ve read about, has two dogs.
6. Anna read the detective story that Jim wrote when he was in Montreal.
7. SGIC is the school that you chose because it has sexy teachers.
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8. The man whose hairstyle is ridiculous should be fired.
9. Jim couldn’t finish the meal that Gordon Ramsay cooked.
10. Where’s the story that you were writing two weeks ago?
Reducing Adjective Clauses Defining and non-defining clauses with SUBJECT relative pronouns can be reduced.
Clauses containing the possessive relative pronoun (whose) cannot be reduced. The 5 possible reductions are as follows:
If the clause contains ‘be’ as the auxiliary verb: remove the relative pronoun and
the auxiliary verb ‘be’ (including ‘be’ in passive voice) provided that the time is obvious
from the context.
o The man who is talking to Joe is from Montreal.
o Pierre, who was talking to Joe yesterday, is from Montreal.
o The man who had been talking to Joe before I arrived is from Montreal.
o Beer that is brewed locally tastes better.
o Experiments which were conducted last year were inconclusive.
o Experiments which had been conducted the year before last were flawed.
If the clause contains ‘be’ as the main verb: remove the relative pronoun and the
verb ‘be’.
o The book that is on the table is mine.
o The politician, who was accused of corruption, resigned.
o Russia, which is the largest country in the world, gets a lot of snow.
If the clause contains ‘be’ followed by an adjective: remove the relative pronoun
and the verb ‘be’; move the adjective in front of the noun.
o The windows that were dirty were cleaned. The dirty windows were cleaned.
o The student who was confused asked a question. The confused student asked a question.
If the clause has a main verb that is not ‘be’: it is often possible to remove the
relative pronoun and change the verb to the present participle.
o English has an alphabet that contains 26 letters. English has an alphabet containing 26 letters.
o The man who resembles Donald Trump is very unlucky. The man resembling Donald Trump is very unlucky.
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If the clause contains the main verb ‘have’ (indicating possession): remove the
relative pronoun and the verb ‘have’ and replace them by ‘with’.
o I met a man who had a rose tattoo. I met a man with a rose tattoo.
o Anna prefers hotels that have room service. Anna prefers hotels with room service.
Practice 27: Reducing adjective clauses.
If possible, reduce the adjective clauses in the sentences below.
1. Anna, who is not able to speak Italian, didn’t enjoy her trip to Rome.
2. Phillip, who is an idiot, jumped onto the subway tracks.
3. Curling, which is a popular sport in Canada, is only played by drunk people.
4. Dr. Smink gave a lecture that was boring at the conference.
5. Serena, who was seriously considering a divorce, poured herself another drink.
6. The man who had a briefcase in his hand ran down the street and fell on the ice.
7. Jim’s brothers are volunteers who collect money for cancer research.
8. Serena, who didn’t realise her mistake, threw her new passport in the garbage.
9. The dog, which wanted to play fetch, brought its ball to its master.
10. Jake sent the steak that was undercooked back to the kitchen.
11. Phillip, who was known for being an idiot, overslept on the day of the exam.
12. Some of the cars that were sold last year had to be recalled.
13. Anna’s sister is an actress who has a lot of talent.
14. No one wanted to buy the house that had two broken windows.
15. The students, who didn’t want to study, didn’t go to the library after school.
16. Anna was angry at the man who was staring at her on the bus.
17. Dr. Smink is a professor whose sense of humour is bizarre.
18. Phillip, who wasn’t watching where he was going, walked into a wall.
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19. Anyone who plans to adopt a puppy should be prepared to go for a lot of walks.
20. The squirrel that was sitting in the grass was being fed peanuts.
21. Joe bought a guitar that had been signed by Elvis.
22. Anna, who was expecting a gift, was disappointed when she received nothing.
23. No one likes people who have bad manners.
24. The insurance salesman recommended a policy that was inexpensive.
Practice 28: Adjective Clauses – Omissions and Reductions.
Where possible, omit the relative pronouns OR reduce the adjective clauses.
1. A wallet that had been dropped on the subway was turned into the police.
2. Anyone who is planning to live in Montreal should learn French.
3. Hockey is a sport that many Canadians watch.
4. Joe was interested in the woman who Jim was dating.
5. The TTC passenger, who was unable to stay awake, missed his stop.
6. Jim went drinking with Rick, who is captain of his baseball team.
7. The hairstylist, who was bored with her look, decided to dye her hair blue.
8. Justin Bieber is the celebrity that Canadians are ashamed of.
9. People who donate money to charity are extremely kind.
10. SGIC is the school that has a sexy PPP teacher.
11. The guy who was walking his dog looked like he’d just gotten out of bed.
12. The crowd, who was singing along to the music, was enjoying the concert.
13. Phillip, who is sleeping on the sidewalk, is pretending to be homeless.
14. No one can explain what happens to the socks that go missing from the laundry.
15. Jim finally threw out the milk that was sour and the bacon that was rotten.
16. The PPP students, whom I enjoy teaching, begged me for more homework.
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17. The number of raccoons that are taking food from garbage bins is growing.
18. The picture that was published on the cover of Time magazine won an award.
19. The police officer that Joe yelled at threatened to arrest him.
20. This morning, Serena bought the dress that she saw last week in Zara.
21. Jim wanted to drink the coffee that he had bought, but it was still too hot.
22. Two out of three people who live in Toronto hate the TTC.
23. Anna finally went to the library and borrowed the book that Joe had recommended.
24. Canada is a country whose citizens are always sorry for everything.
Practice 29: Adjective Clauses – Omissions and Reductions.
Where possible, omit the relative pronouns OR reduce the adjective clauses.
1. A bag that had been lost was turned into the TTC’s ‘lost articles’ office.
2. Anyone who is going skiing this year should book a hotel now.
3. Beavers, which are found in Canada, are nature’s engineers.
4. Dave Snide, who is a film critic, hated the new action movie.
5. Do you like the classroom that you’re studying in?
6. Emmanuel Macron, who is the President of France, hates McDonalds.
7. Everyone who was eating pizza yesterday got sick today.
8. James Bond, who has a secret crush on Moneypenny, is licensed to kill.
9. Jethro, who is often seen riding his bike in High Park, got into the Olympics,
but his mother who is a control freak wouldn’t let him go.
10. Jim heard strange noises which came from his new car, which made him very
annoyed because the car, which was an Audi, was expensive.
11. Jim’s friend, who is a linguistics expert, can speak 8 languages fluently.
12. Joe, who was not happy that his car broke down, took the TTC today.
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13. Justin Bieber, whom I’ve never met, is from Stratford, Ontario.
14. Karl, who is concerned about his health, joined a gym and goes every day.
15. My cousin, whose son works at Walmart, lives in Mississauga.
16. Never trust a person whose job is in politics.
17. No one knows how Phillip, who isn’t very smart, got into Seneca.
18. Normally, people who show respect for the rules are good employees.
19. Obama wrote a speech that everyone admired.
20. Philip went to a party that was hosted by his cousin, who is a lawyer.
21. Poverty, which is in the news a lot, is a serious problem.
22. Sam and Anna are from Ottawa, which is the capital of Canada.
23. Sam’s cousin, whom we gave our old sofa to, was very grateful.
24. Someone must have moved the book that I left on my desk.
25. The bench, which was painted, looks much better now.
26. The cat videos that were posted on YouTube were very funny.
27. The CEO got a lot of work done on the business trip that he went on.
28. The crowd, who were mostly students, cheered loudly at the baseball game.
29. The detective that had been called to looked for clues was Sherlock Holmes.
30. The guy that is sitting across from me on the subway looks like Obama.
31. The homeless man, who looked hungry, asked everyone for spare change.
32. The house that was on the corner was sold to a condo developer.
33. The Montreal Canadians, who won’t get into the playoffs, feel ashamed.
34. The number of people who are donating to charity in Toronto is growing.
35. The people who work on the 4th floor at SGIC hate taking the stairs.
36. There is no reason why Jim, who has two university degrees and plenty of
experience, shouldn’t be able to get the job that he’s interviewing for.
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37. The student who is always on his phone in class will probably fail the course.
38. The TTC passengers, who were unable to hear the announcement, were confused.
39. The woman who is married to my brother is very fortunate.
40. This morning, Anna saw a woman who was wearing shorts.
41. Two out of three students who were surveyed said that they like Toronto.
42. Women who wear high-heeled boots in winter are crazy.
43. Whatever you do, don’t talk to the guy who is in room 601; he’s the kind of guy
who will gossip about you to the boss.
44. Zeke, whom I met in biology class, planned to go to the Toronto Zoo.
45. Zoos, which are always popular with children, cost a lot of money to run
Practice 30: Exam review.
Can you write your own adjective clauses? Can you reduce any of your sentences?
1. (That) _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (Which) ____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. (Which - sentence) ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. (Whom) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. (Whose) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. (When) ____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. (Where) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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8. (quantity - people) ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. (quantity - places) ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. (quantity - things) ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
11. (quality - people) ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
12. (quality - places) ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
13. (quality - things) ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Unit 5: Adverb Clauses
Adverb clauses are dependent clauses, which means that they must be joined to an independent clause. Adverb clauses do the same job as an adverb: they modify verbs; sp
ecifically, they modify the verb in the independent clause that they are attached to.
Time Clauses & Reason Clauses ► Adverb clauses of time answer the question ‘when?’
► Adverb clauses of reason answer the question ‘why?’
Reducing Adverb Clauses to Modifying Adverbial Phrases
Subordinator
Delete
1. before
no
2. after
no
3. while*
not usually
4. as (time)
yes
5. when**
yes (but add ‘upon’ or ‘on’)
6. since (time)
no
7. because / since / as (reason)***
yes
* ‘While’ is kept if deleting it makes the meaning unclear
**Only when it means ‘after’
***If the dependent clause contains the ‘be’ verb, you can change it to ‘being’.
To reduce adverb clauses, omit the subject and change the verb to participle form.
Examples:
1. Before coming to Canada, I needed to get a Visa.
2. After getting a Visa, I was able to go to Canada.
3. (While) working on a cruise ship, I got a tropical disease.
4. Drinking a lot of beer throughout the night, Justin became drunk.
5. Upon/On hearing about the hurricane, Jack went to the basement.
6. Since getting a divorce, Paul has been living in Toronto.
7. Believing that she loved him, he asked her to marry him.
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Time Clause Reductions Adverb clauses can only be reduced if the subject is the same in both clauses.
► To reduce an adverb clause of time: o omit or change the subordinator if necessary
o omit the noun or pronoun after the subordinator o omit the auxiliary ‘be’ if there is one
o change the main verb to present participle form OR change the auxiliary ‘have’ to present participle form
o if you remove the noun from the adverb clause, you must put it in the main
clause
Practice 1: Reducing adverb clauses with ‘before’.
If possible, reduce the following adverb clauses. Use the example to help you.
Before Jake started the car, he put his seatbelt on.
Before Jake started starting the car, he Jake put his seatbelt on.
1. Serena took a shower before she made breakfast.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Anna’s boyfriend had worked for the TTC before she met him.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Before Jim went to Dollarama, he stopped at a bank machine.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Anna finished the report before she went to bed.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Before Joe moved to Toronto, he lived in Ottawa.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 2: Reducing adverb clauses with ‘after’.
If possible, reduce the following adverb clauses. Use the example to help you.
After Jim watched a zombie movie, he couldn’t sleep.
After Jim watched watching a zombie movie, he Jim couldn’t sleep.
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1. Serena was disappointed after she watched her hockey team lose.
__________________________________________________________________
2. After Anna had a stressful day at work, she updated her resume.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Joe was very happy after his friends gave him a birthday party.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Jake went to the gym after he finished the grocery shopping.
__________________________________________________________________
5. After he had gotten up, Jim made breakfast.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 3: Reducing adverb clauses with ‘while’.
If possible, reduce the following adverb clauses. Use the example to help you.
Anna watched TV while she folded the laundry.
Anna watched TV while she folded folding the laundry.
1. While Jim was talking on the phone, he drew little men on his note pad.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Joe sent a text message to Serena while he was driving.
__________________________________________________________________
3. While Jack was trying to study, he was called repeatedly by his roommate.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Anna’s friends laughed while she was describing her ex-boyfriend.
__________________________________________________________________
5. While Serena was reading the text from Jim, she realised that he was an idiot.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 4: Reducing adverb clauses with ‘as’.
If possible, reduce the following adverb clauses. Use the example to help you. You may need to change the sentence order so that it is clear what the adverbial phrase is modifying.
Jake walked his dogs as he was talking on the phone.
Jake walked his dogs as he was talking on the phone. (misplaced modifier – the dogs are not talking on the phone)
Talking on the phone, Jake walked his dogs.
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1. As Joe was looking at himself in the mirror, he noticed that he had gained weight.
__________________________________________________________________
2. As Anna watched the pizza commercial, she got hungry.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Jim listened to his iPod as he was walking to work.
__________________________________________________________________
4. As Serena listened to her date talk endlessly about himself, she rolled her eyes.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Jethro felt embarrassed as his mother continued to shout loudly in the restaurant.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 5: Reducing adverb clauses with ‘when’ (meaning ‘after’).
If possible, reduce the following adverb clauses. Use the example to help you.
Note: if you’re unsure whether or not ‘when’ means after,
try substituting ‘after’ and see if it makes sense in the sentence.
Anna was still hungry when she finished her breakfast.
Anna was still hungry when she finished on/upon finishing her breakfast.
1. When Jim got home from the meeting, he took a Tylenol and went to bed.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jim didn’t want to go home when the movie was over.
__________________________________________________________________
3. When Joe checked Google maps, he told Jim how to get to Dollarama.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Serena left the restaurant when she saw her ex-boyfriend there on a date.
__________________________________________________________________
5. When Jake got a divorce, he moved into his own apartment.
__________________________________________________________________
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Practice 6: Reducing adverb clauses with ‘since’.
If possible, reduce the following adverb clauses. Use the example to help you.
Note: when we use ‘since’ for time, the main clause is in present perfect or present perfect continuous.
Since Joe left Ottawa, he has been much happier.
Since Joe left leaving Ottawa, he Joe has been much happier.
1. Since Jim’s cousin got married, he hasn’t seen her.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jim has lost weight since he went on a diet.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Since Anna started her new job, she has been saving more money every month.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Jake has been dating a lot of women since he got a divorce.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Since Serena joined the hockey team, she has played three different positions.
__________________________________________________________________
Reason Clause Reductions
Why do we reduce adverb clauses? Reducing adverb clauses allows you to make your writing more
concise. To reduce an adverb clause of reason follow these steps:
o Always omit the subordinator o Omit the noun or pronoun after the subordinator
o Change main verb ‘be’ to ‘being’ o Change main verbs to the present participle. o If ‘have’ is the auxiliary verb, change the verb to having + p.p.
Practice 7: Reducing adverb clauses with ‘because’.
If possible, reduce the following adverb clauses. Use the example to help you. You may need to change the sentence order.
Jim was fired because he is lazy.
Jim was fired because he is being lazy. Being lazy, Jim was fired.
1. Because Serena has a nice smile, many people like her.
__________________________________________________________________
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2. Because Jake is handsome, he thinks he’s wonderful.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Anna won’t go to the Toronto Zoo because she doesn’t like animals.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Because Joe is lazy, he didn’t get a promotion at work.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Jethro went to the AGO because he is interested in art.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 8: Reducing adverb clauses with ‘since’.
If possible, reduce the following adverb clauses. Use the example to help you.
Since Joe doesn’t have a car, he has to take the TTC.
Since Joe doesn’t have Not having a car, he Joe has to take the TTC.
1. Serena goes to the gym since she wants to stay in shape.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Since Anna is from England, she likes football and rugby.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Jake went shopping since he needs some new clothes for work.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Since Jim doesn’t like to clean, his apartment is a mess.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Jethro didn’t go to the party on Saturday since his hockey team was playing then.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 9: Reducing adverb clauses with ‘as’.
If possible, reduce the following adverb clauses. Use the example to help you.
As Joe has eaten too much, he feels sick.
As Joe has Having eaten too much, he Joe feels sick.
1. As Jake is popular with the ladies, other men envy him.
__________________________________________________________________
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2. As Jake is popular with the ladies, he is envied by other men.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Jim quit his job as he won the lottery.
__________________________________________________________________
4. As Serena had a lot of energy, she went to the gym to exercise.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Anna doesn’t want to go out after work as she is tired.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 10: Adverb clause reductions.
Reduce the adverb clauses. You may change the sentence order.
1. Since Jethro came to SGIC, he has made many friends.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Before he went to bed, Jake set his phone alarm for 6:00 a.m.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Because Jim had been to Niagara Falls before, he didn’t want to go again.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Serena took a selfie after she finished her workout.
__________________________________________________________________
5. While Jake was living in Italy, he met the Pope.
__________________________________________________________________
6. The police pulled Jim off the sidewalk as they told him that he was under arrest.
__________________________________________________________________
7. Because she was a great student, Anna’s English skills improved.
__________________________________________________________________
8. When Jim opened the door, he saw his cat run out.
__________________________________________________________________
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Results Clauses (so/such … that)
Adverb clauses of results answer the question ‘what is the effect?’,‘ what is the outcome?’ They are used to write about cause and effect relationships.
NOTE: a result is an effect, a consequence, or an outcome. Do not be fooled by the langu
age. They are all the same thing.
Results Clause Subordinators
1. so + adjective + that
2. so + adverb + that
3. so + quantifier* + noun + that
4. such + (a/an) + (adjective ) + noun + that
*Quantifiers used: much/many/little/few
Examples:
1. Igor is so strong that he can lift a car.
2. Usain Bolt ran so quickly that the crowd couldn’t see him.
3. Jim drank so much beer that Molson sent him a thank you note.
4. Anna was such a shy child that she never spoke to anyone.
Forming Results Clauses ► In order to form a results clause, you need two pieces of information:
o A fact containing an adjective, adverb, quantifier or noun o A results clause
► So + adjective + that
Fact: Igor is strong. Result: He can lift a car.
Igor is so strong that he can lift a car
► So + adverb + that
Fact: Usain Bolt ran quickly. Result: The crowd couldn’t see him.
Usain Bolt ran so quickly that the crowd couldn’t see him.
► So + quantifier + noun + that
Fact: Jim drank a lot of beer. Result: Molsons sent him a thank you note.
Jim drank so much beer that Molsons sent him a thank you note.
► Such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun + that
Fact: Anna was a shy child. Result: She never spoke to anyone.
Anna was such a shy child that she never spoke to anyone.
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Practice 11: Forming ‘so + adjective + that’ clauses.
Use the facts and results below to make sentences using ‘so … that’.
Example:
Fact: Result:
I am hungry. I could eat 3 pizzas by myself.
I am so hungry that I could eat 3 pizzas by myself.
Fact: Result:
1. Jim is lazy. He has a nap before going to bed.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jake is handsome. He could be a model.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Anna is busy. She sleeps 2 hours per night.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Serena is friendly. She makes friends everywhere.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Joe is stupid. He thinks 2 + 2 equals 5.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 12: Forming ‘so + adverb + that’ clauses.
Use the facts and results below to make sentences using ‘so … that’.
Example:
Fact: Result:
I sing so beautifully. I make my bird jealous.
I sing so beautifully that I make my bird jealous.
1. Jim works slowly. He looks like he’s not moving.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jake gets plastic surgery frequently. His surgeon paid off his house in 3 months.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Anna talks quickly. It’s hard to understand what she says.
_________________________________________________________________
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4. Serena smiles warmly. She makes everyone feel at ease.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Joe eats noisily. His neighbours can’t hear their TV.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 13: Forming ‘so + quantifier + noun + that’ clauses.
Use the facts and results below to make sentences using ‘so … that’. Use ‘many’ for countable nouns. Use ‘much’ for uncountable nouns.
Example:
Fact: Result: I have a lot of books. I could open my own library.
I have so many books that I could open my own library.
1. Jim sold a lot of cars. His boss gave him a raise.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jake’s phone has a lot of apps. The battery always needs to be charged.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Anna has a lot of shoes. She rented a storage locker to keep them in.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Serena gets a lot of exercise. She looks like an Olympic athlete.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Joe eats a lot of pizza. Italy named a holiday after him.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 14: Forming ‘so + quantifier + noun + that’ clauses.
Use the facts and results below to make sentences using ‘so … that’. Use ‘few’ for countable nouns. Use ‘little’ for uncountable nouns.
NOTE: You MUST turn the negative in the fact to a positive with ‘few’ or ‘little’
Example: Fact: Result:
I don’t know many English songs. I sing ‘Happy Birthday’ at Karaoke.
I know so few English songs that I sing ‘Happy Birthday’ at Karaoke.
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1. Jim hasn’t had many dates lately. His mother sent him a sympathy card.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jake doesn’t have much free time. He hasn’t brushed his teeth in 2 years.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Anna doesn’t like many animals. The Toronto Zoo won’t let her visit.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Serena hasn’t read a lot of books. She doesn’t know who Harry Potter is.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Joe hasn’t done a lot of housework. The cockroaches moved out of his house.
__________________________________________________________________
Practice 15: Forming ‘so + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun + that’ clauses.
Use the facts and results below to make sentences using ‘so … that’. NOTE: Words like ‘really’ and ‘very’ are usually omitted.
Example:
Fact: Result: This is a great sentence. I should get it put on a t-shirt.
This is such a great sentence that I should get it put on a t-shirt.
1. Jim is a good friend. He helps everyone he knows.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jake is a great comedian. He even tells jokes in his sleep.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Anna is very* honest. She won’t even tell white lies.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Serena is a good hockey player. She could play professionally.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Joe is a really* bad host. He ignores his guests when they come over.
__________________________________________________________________
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Practice 16: Adding results clauses.
Add a result. Then make a results clause with ‘so/such … that’.
1. Anna has a successful business.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence: __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Jim cooks delicious food.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Joe doesn’t have a lot of free time.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Serena was drunk last night.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. The students were very smart.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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6. Jake’s car is in bad condition.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
7. There are a lot of holes in Jim’s shirt.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. There are not many honest politicians.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. Jim doesn’t have a lot of money.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. The sidewalks outside SGIC are very slippery.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
11. There were a lot of people on the subway this morning.
Result: ____________________________________________________________
Sentence:__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Practice 17: Time and results clause review.
Write about what you did on the weekend. Use reduced time and results clauses.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Practice 18: Results clauses with ‘so/such … that’ review.
Write a review about your favourite movie or favourite restaurant. Use results clause with
‘so/such … that’.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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Unit 6: Cause & Effect Writing
Causative Verbs
The causative is used in English when one person/thing causes another person/thing to do an action. Below are active voice causative sentences.
Subject
Causative Verb
Actor
Action Verb
Object
The teacher
GOT (persuaded)
her students
TO finish
their homework.
The teacher
HAD (requested)
her students
finish
their homework.
The teacher
MADE (gave no choice)
her students
finish
their homework.
The teacher
HELPED (assisted)
her students
(to) finish
their homework.
The teacher
LET (allowed)
her students
finish
their homework.
NOTE: that ‘get’ always needs the infinitive. The rest of the causative verbs use base
verbs. ‘Help’ can take either infinitive or base form.
Also note that ‘make’ can also be used with adjectives. We eliminate the verb ‘feel’. Often, it is an action or a situation that is the subject of ‘make’ in these cases.
Example: Using the causative makes me (feel) happy and excited.
Practice 1: The causative in real life.
Answer the following questions using the causative. Write your answers in full sentences
and pay attention to the form of the action verb.
1. What do children sometimes get their parents to do?
a) _Children sometimes get their parents to buy them a new toy._____________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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2. What do bosses sometimes make their employees do?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. What does your teacher sometimes have you do?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. What are some things that teachers usually do not let their students do in the classroom?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. What do your classmates or friends sometimes help you do?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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6. What did your parents let you do when you were a child?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. Will you let your children do those things? If you are a parent, do you let your
children do those things?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. Did your parents make you do certain things when you were a child?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. What do you sometimes have the server at a restaurant do?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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10. What do you sometimes have the sales clerk in a store do?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
11. What do you sometimes get your friends to do?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
12. What do men sometimes get women to do and vice versa?
a) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Showing Cause with ‘Make’ There are 4 common patterns that use ‘make’ in order to show a cause/effect
relationship:
Pattern # 1: Subject (the cause) + make + noun + base verb.
This is the same pattern as other causative verbs (have, help, let).
o Jokes make people laugh. o Sad movies make people cry.
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Pattern # 2: Subject (the cause) + make + noun + adjective.
This pattern is similar to the other causative verb patterns, but it replaces an action
with a feeling or a quality.
o Studying grammar makes students happy.
o Beer makes life enjoyable.
Pattern # 3: Subject (the cause) + make + doing something + adjective + for + noun.
This pattern is similar to the one above, but it includes the person or people
affected. This pattern usually focuses on how easy or difficult something is for people.
o Beer makes socializing easier for shy people. o Icy sidewalks make walking harder for elderly people.
Pattern # 4: Subject (the cause) + make + it + adjective + for + noun + infinitive.
o Beer makes it easier for shy people to socialize. o Icy sidewalks make it harder for elderly people to walk.
Practice 2: Showing cause with ‘make’.
Write your own examples below.
1. __________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Cause & Effect Paragraphs Cause & Effect paragraphs discuss the causes (reasons) for something, or they discuss the
effects (results) of something. They do not do both. Therefore, it is necessary to decide whether to discuss causes or effects in your paragraph.
Cause & Effect paragraphs, like all academic paragraphs, follow a particular structure. This structure is explained on the next page.
Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is the most important sentence in your paragraph because it tells the reader whether you are writing about causes or
effects. In other words, it introduces your topic It also tells your reader what your central controlling idea is. The central
controlling idea is the main idea of your paragraph.
The topic sentence must contain 3 things: o It must mention both the cause and the effect
o It must contain your topic (the causes or effects you are writing about)
o It must contain a central, controlling idea
Supporting Sentences
These sentences introduce a point that supports your topic sentence These sentences must contain cause/effect signal words There are 3 main points that support your topic sentence
Examples/Evidence
Examples must be clear and they must be as specific as possible Examples must also be a logical example of a cause or of an effect They must prove that the cause-effect relationship that you are writing
about actually exists Explanations
Examples MUST be explained to your reader. Do not assume they will understand why your example proves a cause-effect relationship
Explain to the reader how your example illustrates the cause-effect
relationship that you are writing about So What?
The ‘so what?’ is like a mini-conclusion It tells your reader why the point you made and gave evidence for is
important; it basically answers the question: so what?
Do not assume that your reader understands why your point is important A good ‘so what’ does more than just repeat the supporting sentence; it
links what you wrote to the main idea in the topic sentence
Concluding Sentence The concluding sentence sums up your paragraph without repeating your
topic sentence, or repeating your supporting points
The concluding sentence contains your final comment on the topic
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Cause & Effect Paragraphs: Topic Sentences A good cause & effect paragraph starts with an effective topic sentence. If the topic
sentence is weak (too general, or not logical), then your entire paragraph will be weak. This is because everything you write after your topic sentence must support what you said
in your topic sentence. Weak: Obesity is caused by three things.
This is too general. The writer didn’t say what those three things are.
Also, ‘things’ is too general.
Weak: Obesity is the cause of overeating, poor nutrition, and genetics.
This is illogical. Obesity doesn’t cause any of these things.
An effective topic sentence contains a central controlling idea that contains some kind of
specific evaluation. No Evaluation:
There are three main effects of obesity.
So what? What is a ‘main’ effect?
What are the three effects? Are these effects short-term effects or long-term effects? Who, specifically, is affected?
Limited Evaluation:
There are three long-term effects of obesity.
This is a bit better, but the writer just substituted ‘long-term’ for ‘main’
Who, specifically, is affected?
Specific Evaluation:
Obesity in older adults has three serious long-term effects on their cardio-vascular
health.
This topic sentence focuses on a specific group of people who are affected
It focuses on specific kinds of effects (serious and long-term) It focuses on what obesity affects (cardio-vascular health)
Specific Evaluation:
Obesity in older adults can lead to serious health problems, low self-esteem, and increased social isolation.
This topic sentence focuses on a specific group of people who are affected
It focuses on 3 specific effects (problems with health, self esteem, and isolation)
It evaluates the effects (serious, low, increased)
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Practice 3: Cause & effect topic sentences.
Write cause & effect topic sentences for the following topics. Be sure that you’ve stated
your topic (cause or effect) and that your central controlling idea contains some specific evaluation.
1. Causes of insomnia.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Causes of arguments.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Causes of popularity.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Effects of a snow storm.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. Effects of having a pet.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. Effects of playing a sport.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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The Effects of Smoking Smoking affects people socially, physically, and financially. To begin with, one of the
consequences of smoking is the damage it does to a person’s social life. Dating, in particular,
presents challenges for smokers as non-smokers generally prefer to date other non-smokers.
Simply put, people who smoke limit their dating options due to the fact that many people will
reject them based on their nicotine habit. This means that their social life is hampered by their
dependency on tobacco. With regard to health, smoking clearly has detrimental effects on a
person’s body. From smoker’s cough to smoking-related illnesses such as lung cancer, the
evidence is all too clear: smoking is not healthy. Indeed, smokers risk developing short-term
and long-term health issues, including death, by smoking. Consequently, the longer one
smokes, the greater the risk of chronic illness and death becomes. Similarly, the longer one
smokes, the more money they spend. To illustrate, the price of a carton of cigarettes in
Ontario is $100; anyone smoking one carton per week would spend $5 200 per year on
cigarettes. That same person, smoking for 50 years, would spend $260 000, and that’s only if
the price of cigarettes never increases. Needless to say, that is unlikely to be the case. It is
clear that smokers regularly make a poor financial choice resulting from their addiction to
cigarettes. Ultimately, it is vital that smokers free themselves of this pernicious habit so that
they can begin leading longer, more satisfying lives.
Practice 4: Cause & effect paragraphs.
Underline all of the transitional/linking words and phrases .Write down which ones introduce the following:
1. Supporting points: ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Examples: __________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
3. Explanations: _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. So whats: __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Cause & Effect Paragraph Planning
A cause and effect paragraph examines the causes of a particular effect (the reasons why
something happened) or the effects of a particular cause (the results of a particular event).
In both cases, causal relationships are based on logic. Therefore, it is vital that you clearly understand all the causes or all the effects before you begin writing.
Brainstorming Brainstorming and writing a clear outline are also essential because you must present a
series of logical causes or logical effects.
1) Write a question about the causes of something; next, write a question about the effects of that same thing.
2) After that, answer the questions by writing down all the causes and effects.
3) Do NOT stop at 3 answers. Write down as many answers as you can think of. Below is an example.
Question: ______________________________________________________
Question: ______________________________________________________
Causes
Effects
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Choosing Supporting Points
After brainstorming, decide whether you want to write about causes or effects. Usually, it is best to choose the one for which you have more ideas. Choose the strongest three
points. Be sure that you can offer good examples for each point that you choose. Next, decide which order to put your points in. You may want to start with your strongest
point first. You can also use your strongest point as your final point.
Cause & Effect Paragraph Outline
Topic Sentence: ________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Supporting Sentence 1: _________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Example: _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Explanation: ____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
So What? _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Supporting Sentence 2: _________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Example: _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
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Explanation: ____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
So What? _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Supporting Sentence 3: _________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Example: _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Explanation: ____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
So What? _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
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Cause & Effect Essays A cause and effect essay examines the causes of a particular effect (the reasons why something happened) or the effects of a particular cause (the results of a particular
event). In both cases, causal relationships are based on logic. Therefore, it is vital that you clearly understand all the causes or all the effects before you begin writing.
Brainstorming and writing a clear outline are also essential because you must present a series of logical causes or logical effects.
How to Brainstorm
Follow these steps to help you come up with a good brainstorm.
1) Write a question about the causes of something; next, write a question about the
effects of that same thing. 2) After that, answer the questions by writing down all the causes and effects.
3) Do NOT stop at 3 answers. Write down as many answers as you can think of. Below is an example.
What are the causes of
drunk driving?
- Impaired judgement
- Lack of public transportation
(rural areas)
- Selfishness
- Financial restraints
- A sense of entitlement
- A reluctance to leave one’s car
somewhere overnight
- Lack of serious consequences
- Feeling pressured to drive
friends home
What are the effects of
drunk driving?
- Reduced reaction times for drunk
drivers
- Increased possibility of an
accident
- Increased car insurance premiums
- Increased need for police
- Increase in court cases related to
drunk driving
- Licence suspensions, fines, or jail
time for drunk drivers
- Increased need for public
awareness campaigns
Always format your brainstorming like this so that you can choose the best causes or effects as you plan your outline. Be sure that you can give and clearly explain specific
examples for each of the points you choose.
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Choose your three main points BEFORE you begin to write your outline.
Outline of Sample Essay
Thesis Statement: Drunk driving is caused by three main factors: lack of awareness, lack of consideration, and lack of concern.
TS 1: On factor leading to impaired driving is a lack of awareness of one’s level of drunkenness.
Evidence: For instance, many studies have shown that people, after consuming alcohol,
cannot accurately judge how impaired they are. Rather, they tend to underestimate their
levels of impairment. One study highlighted this by asking people to drink several shots of
vodka, rate their intoxication level, then try to drive between pylons. Most of the drivers
who said they were not very drunk couldn’t manage to drive without running over some of
the pylons, which surprised them.
Explanation: Given that people who drink are not able to assess how drunk they are, it
is not surprising that many people deem themselves fit to drive after drinking alcohol.
Indeed, one often hears someone telling their friends that they’ve only had a few drinks
and that they feel ok to drive. As the above-mention study shows, these people are not
able to accurately assess how drunk they are.
So what: As a result, many people believe that they are capable of driving safely after
drinking and they end up driving after drinking.
TS 2: Similarly, many people drive after drinking because they don’t consider the safety of
other.
Evidence: It is not uncommon to hear someone who drives drunk regularly excuse their
behaviour by declaring that they actually drive better when they’re drunk.
Explanation: While this is another example of impaired judgement, it is also an example
of selfishness. These types of drunk drivers show not only a blatant disregard for the law,
but also a blatant disregard for others’ safety. To them, the only thing that matters is
themselves and what they decide is best for them. They display no consideration for
others; the idea that they might actually kill someone doesn’t matter to them.
So what: Because of some people’s belief that they should be able to do whatever they
want, including driving while drunk, the number of drunk drivers on the road has increased.
TS 3: Most importantly, drunk drivers are not concerned about the punishments for drunk
driving.
Evidence: It is widely known that anyone caught drunk driving the first time is often
only given a small fine. Even repeat offenders often do not serve jail time. Worst of all,
drunk drivers who kill someone while driving drunk receive minimal jail time for their
crime. Additionally, the number of people caught drinking and driving is steadily increasing.
Explanation: Since drivers know that there will not be serious repercussions for drunk
driving, they do not worry about being punished for it. Therefore, more people are
choosing to drive after drinking.
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So what: As a result, many people who drink are not afraid of what will happen to them if
they get caught driving while intoxicated.
Cause & Effect Essays: The Introductory Paragraph Basically, an introductory paragraph must have a hook, some background, and a thesis statement. At minimum, an introductory paragraph must be at least 5 sentences long.
They must start with general information and keep getting more specific with each sentence. This effectively leads readers to the thesis statement.
Hook: interesting general
statement
General introductory Information
Thesis
Statement
► The first sentence should be general,
but get the reader’s attention.
► The middle sentences should give
background information, define
terms, establish context, etc. They
should become more specific as the
paragraph continues.
► The last sentence is the thesis
statement, which must contain the
topic and the central controlling
idea.
Practice 5: Read and Respond.
With your partner, look at the examples below. Do they fulfil the requirements of a good introductory paragraph? If so, why? If not, why not?
Example 1
Do you like to drink? Do you drive after you drink? Do you think this is a good idea?
Many people drink and drive nowadays. There are three main reasons why people drink
and drive.
Good points: _______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Bad points: ________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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Example 2
Are you drinking and driving right now? If yes, you should stop. Every year, people
get killed by people just like you. This is not fair. An examination of the effects of
drinking and driving reveals that drinking and driving causes accidents, traffic fines, and
death.
Good points: _______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Bad points: ________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Example 3
With the weekend quickly approaching, many people will be running out to get a
case of beer. Many of those people will drink and drive. Every year, the police catch
people drinking and driving. Why? Because people don’t understand the effects of drinking
and driving. Drinking and driving has three main effects.
Good points: _______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Bad points: ________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Example 4
CRASH!!! You’ve just been killed by a drunk driver! Many people are killed by drunk
driving all the time. While this is alarming, many things can be done to prevent this. For
one thing, people can obey the law. For another thing people can think about what causes
them to drink and drive. In this essay, I’m doing to examine the three main causes of
drinking and driving.
Good points: _______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Bad points: ________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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Example 5
In Ontario alone, 856 preventable accidents or deaths were caused by impaired
drivers last year. According to the Ontario Ministry of Transportation, impaired driving
occurs when a driver has over 80 milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood.* Police
say that the number of people driving over this legal blood-alcohol limit has increased
over the last ten years. Alarmingly, this number is expected to increase again next year,
which suggests that many drivers are making irresponsible decisions regarding drinking
and driving. The decision to drive while drunk results from three main factors: lack of
awareness, lack of consideration, and lack of concern.
Good points: _______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Bad points: ________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Which introduction is the best one? What makes it a good introduction?
*In UCPP, you will learn how to cite the sources you get information from.
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Introductory Paragraph Planning Hook: __________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Background information, context, definitions of terms: ___________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Thesis Statement: _______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Introductory Paragraph
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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Unit 7: Sentence Skills
Sentence Patterns Writing well in English is not just about writing grammatically correct sentences. When
you use a variety of different sentence patterns, your writing flows more smoothly for the reader. Changing the pattern of your sentences is like making music. If you planed the
same note or same song over and over again, the note or song would become boring and irritating. When you change the note or the song, you add variety.
There are four sentence patterns in English that you can use:
Simple sentences contain one independent clause. An independent clause can stand
alone as a complete sentence because it contains a subject, a verb, and expresses a completed thought.
Sam petted the dog. (expresses a complete thought)
S V O
Compound sentences contain two (or more) independent clauses. These clauses
are joined by: a comma followed by a co-ordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet); a semi-colon and a conjunctive
adverb followed by a comma; or a semi-colon only.
Sam petted the dog, but he didn’t pet the cat. S V O S aux.V V O
Sam petted the dog; however, he didn’t pet the cat.
Sam petted the dog; he didn’t pet the cat.
Complex sentences contain one independent clause, and at least one dependent
(also called subordinate) clause.
Sam didn’t pet the cat because he’s allergic to cats. S aux.V V O adv.V S V O
independent clause
independent clause independent clause
independent clause dependent clause
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Compound-complex sentences contain two (or more) independent clauses, and at
least one dependent clause.
Sam petted the dog; however, he didn’t pet the cat because he’s allergic to cats. S V O advbial S aux.V V O advbial S V O
NOTE: clauses in compound-complex sentence can be written in any order. This is
just one example of clause order.
Practice 1: Mixed Sentence.
Underline all the clauses; label the clauses as independent clauses or dependent clauses. After that, identify the following sentences as simple, compound, complex, or compound-
complex.
1. Don’t forget to check your sentences for correct punctuation.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
2. I don’t care what you say; this sentence is awesome.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
3. If you cannot come to school, all your classmates will be disappointed.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
4. Jim was getting drunk while Anna was studying the passive voice.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
5. Jim wrote an essay in UCPP, but he received a score of zero when his teacher discovered that he had plagiarized part of it.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
6. Many people like to go to High Park in the spring; they enjoy seeing the cherry blossoms there.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
7. No one will be allowed into UCPP unless he or she has passed two months of PPP.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
8. On Tuesday, the students studied the passive voice, wrote sentences using the passive, and gave their homework to the teacher.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
independent clause independent clause dependent clause
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9. Sam is smart, but he is very lazy.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
10. While Joe was on the subway, he read all the advertisements; it helped him to learn some new English words.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
11. You should stop drinking now, or you will get alcohol poisoning and you will end up in the Emergency room.
Type of sentence: _____________________________
Compound Sentences with Co-ordinating Conjunctions A conjunction is a word or a group of words used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. Using conjunctions correctly is very important. Co-ordinating conjunctions are used to
connect words, phrases, or two independent clauses. They cannot be used at the beginning of a sentence.
There are only 7 co-ordinating conjunctions. To help you remember them, teachers often call them the “fanboys” words: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.
NOTE: you must use a comma before all co-ordinating conjunctions except ‘and’; in this
case, the comma is optional. NOTE: using co-ordinating conjunctions incorrectly (without a comma or at the start of a
sentence) will result in a loss of marks on your writing assignments. It is important that you learn how to write correctly in English.
For is used to show cause – one thing is a cause of the other. It has the same
meaning as ‘because’, but works in a different way. In addition, ‘for’ is more formal than ‘because’.
Example: Jim ran away, for he was frightened by the spider.
And is used to join clauses in order to stress what they have in common.
Example: Jim saw a spider and Anna saw a ghost.
Nor is used when the alternative is negative. It is mainly used in very formal
writing. Note that the subject and verb are inverted after ‘nor’.
Example: Jim did not stop running, nor did he look back over his shoulder.
But is used to emphasise the difference between the clauses it joins.
Example: Jim felt stupid, but he couldn’t do anything.
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Or is used to show an alternative.
Example: Jim must stay out of haunted houses, or he will have a heart attack.
Yet emphasises the difference between the clauses it joins. Unlike but, it also suggests that the second clause is something that the reader or listener might
not ordinarily expect.
Example: Anna warned Jim that the house was haunted, yet he went in anyway.
So shows a result of the situation described in the first clause.
Example: Jim was curious, so he ignored Anna’s warning.
► DON’T FORGET: co-ordinating conjunctions cannot be used to begin a sentence.
Practice 2: FANBOYS.
Write your own examples of sentences using co-ordinating conjunctions. Be sure to use the correct punctuation.
1. (for) ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (and) ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. (nor) ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. (but) ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. (or) _______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. (yet) ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. (so) _______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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NOTE: do not use ‘so’ in place of ‘so that’. ‘So’ introduces a result. ‘So that’ introduces the purpose of doing an action.
NOTE: using co-ordinating conjunctions incorrectly (without a comma or at the start of a
sentence) will result in a loss of marks on your writing assignments. It is important that you learn how to write correctly in English.
Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are used to join two independent clauses in a compound sentence. When connecting two independent clauses, conjunctive adverbs need a semi-colon before
them and a comma after them.
Batman likes to drive; however, Superman likes to take the TTC.
Conjunctive adverbs can also show logical transition between separate sentences. For this reason, they can be used at the beginning of an independent clause.
Batman likes to drive. However, Superman likes to take the TTC.
In a few cases, they can be used in the middle or at the end of an independent clause.
Batman likes to drive. Superman, however, likes to take the TTC.
Batman likes to drive. Superman likes to take the TTC, however.
independent clause independent clause
conjunctive adverb
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The following are some of the more common conjunctive adverbs:
To show addition
again also
besides finally
furthermore moreover
To show contrast
however instead
nevertheless nonetheless
otherwise still
To show a result
accordingly consequently
hence subsequently
therefore thus
To show time
meanwhile next
now then
thereafter
To show comparison
likewise similarly
To show a specific
case
specifically
To strengthen a point
indeed
To return to your point after a concession
nevertheless
nonetheless
still
Practice 3: Adverbial Conjunction.
Write examples that contain conjunctive adverbs and that express the following meanings.
Addition
1. (again) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (also)______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. (besides) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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4. (finally) ____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. (furthermore) _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. (moreover) _________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Contrast
1. (however) __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (instead) __________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. (nevertheless) ______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. (nonetheless) ______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. (otherwise) _________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. (still) _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Result
1. (accordingly) _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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2. (consequently) ______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. (hence) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. (subsequently) ______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. (therefore) ________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. (thus) _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Time
1. (meanwhile) _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (next) ____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. (now) _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. (then) _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. (thereafter) _________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Comparison
1. (likewise) __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (similarly) _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Show a specific case
1. (specifically) _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Strengthen a Point
1. (indeed) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Return to your point after a concession
1. (nevertheless) ______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (nonetheless) ______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. (still) _____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Now write sentences with the conjunctive adverb after the subject. (See ‘however’ above)
1. (moreover) _________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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2. (however) __________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. (therefore) _________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. (meanwhile) ________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. (specifically) _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. (nevertheless) ______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions (or subordinators) can turn an independent clause into a dependent clause; they become part of the sentence that follows them. Subordinating conjunctions connect dependent clauses to the main clause.
You MUST use a comma after a subordinate adverb clause if it comes at the beginning
of the sentence. If it comes at the end, you cannot use a comma.
Because I’m happy, I’m smiling.
I’m smiling because I’m happy. The following are some of the more common subordinating conjunctions that are used to
form adverb clauses:
To show cause
as because
because of due to
in that since
To show concession
although even though
except though
To show condition
even if in case
or else otherwise
provided that unless
whether
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To show direct
contrast
whereas
while
To show contrast
(unexpected result)
although even though
though
To show
place/direction
anywhere
everywhere where
wherever
To show purpose
in order that
so that
To show time
After before until
As once when as soon as since while
Practice 4: Subordinating Conjunctions.
Write examples that contain subordinating conjunctions and that express the following
meanings.
Cause
1. (as) ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (because)__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. (because of the fact that) ______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. (due to) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. (due to the fact that) _________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. (in that) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. (since) ____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Unexpected Result
1. (although) __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (even though) ______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. (though) ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
The Comma
Commas are used for multiple reasons. There are some general rules for why we use comma.
Use commas to separate three or more items in a series.
o The article featured information about Curly, Larry, and Moe.
Use commas between two or more adjectives that modify the same noun or pronoun.
o A scalpel is a small, sharp knife used in surgery.
Use commas to separate dates or locations.
o Martin Luther King Jr. was born on January 15, 1929. o SGIC can be found at 150 Dundas Street West, Toronto, Ontario.
Use a comma after a word, phrase, or dependent clause that comes before an
independent clause.
o Yesterday, it was revealed that the Prime Minister had been hospitalized.
o Years from now, children will not believe that there was life before cell phones.
o If funding for research is reduced, many new drug trials will not be possible.
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Use commas between independent clauses that are joined by co-ordinating
conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
o The new tax was unpopular, but the government wanted to keep it.
o The TTC’s service is unreliable, so it’s better to take a cab to the interview.
o Millennials don’t like baby boomers, nor do they like being called Millennials.
Use commas after conjunctive adverbs or phrases working as conjunctive adverbs.
o The new tax was unpopular; however, the government wanted to keep it.
o The people protested the new tax; as a result, the government got rid of it.
Use commas to separate non-defining adjective clauses or phrases.
o The briefcase, which was full of money, was found in the trash.
o The briefcase, full of money, was found in the trash.
Use commas to isolate appositives from the rest of the sentence. An appositive is a
word or phrase that has the same meaning as the preceding noun phrase.
o Sir John A. MacDonald, Canada’s first Prime Minister, is on the $10 bill.
o Hockey, Canada’s official winter sport, is exciting to watch.
Practice 5: Commas.
Add commas wherever necessary in the following sentences:
1. The maple leaf which is a symbol of Canada can be found on the Canadian flag.
2. Despite the fact that Jake is rich he cannot find a wife.
3. Sam and Serena went to Casa Loma but Joe decided not to join them; instead he
went to Dollarama.
4. Whenever you are running late you can be sure that the TTC will experience a
delay.
5. I wrote this sentence because I love commas.
6. There are three ways to kill a cockroach; however I won’t tell you what they are
because I’m evil.
7. Instead of spending your money at the bar why don’t you donate some of it to charity?
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8. Since it was cold outside Anna decided to stay home and watch Netflix.
9. Jim’s father was overweight yet he refused to go on a diet so he developed high
blood pressure.
10. Joe’s father-in-law who works at KFC just bought a new car; however he can’t
afford to put gas in it so he takes the TTC to work.
11. Generally most Halloween costumes are unimaginative so I never answer the door at Halloween.
12. I’m not sure if this is true but I heard that you can pass the PPP class if you study hard if you write well and if you give your teacher $5.
13. There is no chance that Jim who is a chocoholic will share his Toblerone with any of
us; as a result I bought my own Toblerone bar which I’m going to share with
everyone because I’m not selfish.
14. Thomas King one of Canada’s best-known writers is an indigenous rights activist.
15. Even though the house had smoke detectors the family almost died in a fire because they were too lazy to change the batteries in the smoke detectors so now they’re all in the hospital.
16. Due to the fact that Jim is under 25 his car insurance is very expensive; likewise his
brother Joe who is 23 also pays a lot of money for car insurance.
17. Although you all want more practice with commas this is the last practice sentence.
The Semi-colon
Semi-colons are not as difficult as one may think. There are five general reasons why we use semi-colons. With more advanced writing, you may find that you need to use semi-
colons more often. Below are the main reasons we use sem-colons. Use semi-colons to separate a series of items if the items are long, or if they contain commas. (This is not especially common in academic writing; however, it is useful to keep in mind.)
Example: The following people have organised the charity dinner: Conrad Crosshair, the Chief Executive Officer of Nonesuch Incorporated; Mavis Memechose,
Chief Financial Officer of Motts Business Solutions; Dr. Stanley Fish, founder of Whatawig Hair Products; and Susan Sourly, President of Lix Lemondade.
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Use a semi-colon to connect two independent clauses that contain closely related ideas. This is especially useful when you do not want to use a conjunction that shows
some sort of relationship between the ideas in the clauses.
Example: The press conference was a success; the media asked very good questions.
Use a semi-colon to separate two main clauses joined with conjunctive adverbs such as ‘also’, ‘however’, ‘instead’, and ‘thus’.
Example: The cause of the car accident was unclear; therefore, the police were unable
to lay charges.
Use a semi-colon to separate two main clauses joined with transitional phrases such as: ‘on the other hand’, ‘as a result’, ‘in fact’, or ‘for example’. Note that, like conjunctive
adverbs, these phrases also need a comma after them.
Example: Henry didn’t do the job very well; as a result, he was fired.
Do not use a semi-colon in place of a comma (,) or a colon (:). (The colon is used to introduce quotations or items in a list.)
Practice 6: Semi-colons.
Revise the following sentences by adding semi-colons where necessary.
1. At the TTC meeting, some decisions were made, in summary, they decided to raise
the price of Metropasses and reduce the number of buses running on Saturdays.
2. Tim Hortons has cheap coffee, Starbucks has expensive coffee.
3. Anna didn’t get a raise consequently she started looking for another job.
4. Joe was planning a party however the celebration was cancelled when he
discovered that no one wanted to come.
5. Anna’s dog fell asleep for this reason it didn’t bark at the meowing cat outside.
6. The student fell asleep in class, as a consequence, the teacher woke her up.
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7. When the bus finally came down the street, the students were happy
8. Jake dyes his hair as a result he looks younger.
9. Jim’s brother tells really stupid jokes consequently, people avoid him at parties.
10. There are several reasons for TTC delays none of them are very good.
11. I was going to have a cup of tea instead, I wrote this sentence.
12. Everyone knows I’m a great artist you don’t need to tell me.
Practice 7: Punctuation.
Write your own sentences using the following transitional phrases. Be sure to use a semi-colon before each phrase and a comma after each phrase.
1. (in addition) ________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. (for instance) _______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. (in other words) _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. (as a consequence) __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. (as a result) ________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. (for this reason) _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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7. (in contrast) ________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
8. (summing up) ______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. (to summarize) ______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. (to sum up) ________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Run-on Sentences: Fused Sentences and Comma Splices
Run-on sentences occur when independent clauses are not joined properly. A run on sentence is one where there is too much information; the sentence never seems to end.
There are two types of run-on sentence: the fused sentence and the comma splice.
► Fused sentences occur when there is no punctuation and no co-ordinating conjunction
between two independent clauses.
Jim’s alarm went off he got up right away. ► Comma splices occur when two independent clauses are joined with a comma that is
not followed by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
Jim’s alarm went off, he got up right away.
Run-on sentences can be fixe in one of four ways:
Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction to join the independent clauses.
Example: Jim’s alarm went off, so he got up right away.
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Use a semicolon to join the independent clauses
Example: Jim’s alarm went off; he got up right away.
Turn each independent clause into a separate sentence.
Example: Jim’s alarm went off. He got up right away.
Turn one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause.
Example: When Jim’s alarm went off, he got up right away.
Jim got up right away when his alarm went off.
Practice 8: Sentence Corrections.
Change the sentences below to eliminate fused sentences or comma splices.
1. Anna is a lawyer, she has many funny stories about her cases.
2. I have good ideas I can’t put them into a sentence, because I overthink and I can’t write anything.
3. In the past, Canada’s indigenous people played a sport called lacrosse but, now
hockey which is based on lacrosse is the most popular sport in Canada.
4. Jake wanted to go to Hawaii, since he was tired of winter.
5. Jim phoned his fiancée repeatedly but she refused to return his calls.
6. Many North Americans speak English however there are many North Americans who speak Spanish or French as well.
7. New advances in technology are always being made for this reason, it is possible
that one day we will all have microchips implanted in our brains.
8. Sam has spent all of his money, therefore; he can’t go out tonight.
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9. Sam’s boss is going to fire him, because he isn’t happy with the work that Sam did last month.
10. The restaurant might be expensive, the people lined up outside are all wearing
designer clothes.
11. The student missed seven classes in a row, consequently, she failed the course.
12. TTC delays have become a big problem TTC passengers are increasingly frustrated
during their commute.
13. The number 13 is considered to be unlucky hence there are usually no 13th floors in any buildings in Canada.
Sentence Fragments
Complete sentences have a subject, a verb, and they express a complete thought. Sentence fragments often lack a subject or a verb. Sometimes, they are dependent
clauses that do not make sense on their own because they do not express a complete thought; therefore, they must be attached to a main (independent) clause.
Complete sentence: Sam likes dogs.
Sentence fragment: Because Sam likes dogs.
In order to determine if a sentence is a sentence fragment, ask yourself the following:
Who or what is performing the action? If you can answer this question, you have identified the subject.
What is the subject doing or what is the subject’s state?
If you can answer this question, you have identified the verb.
Does the sentence present a complete thought? If not, the sentence is a sentence fragment, even if it contains both
a subject and a verb.
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Incorrect: Because Sam likes dogs.
Subject: Sam
Verb: likes
Complete thought: None. We do not know what is being explained.
Correct: Because Sam likes dogs, he has 3 poodles and 2 labradoodle.
Dependent clause: Because Sam likes dogs,
Independent clause: he has 3 poodles and 2 labradoodles.
NOTE: Although people often speak in sentence fragments when they are having a conversation, sentence fragments are unacceptable in academic writing.
Practice 9: Fragments.
Change the sentences below to eliminate all sentence fragments. You may need to add punctuation or additional words.
1. Jim kept falling asleep in his class. Because he didn’t go to bed early enough.
2. Anna is going to George Brown College. Because she wants to be a chef.
3. While many students must work long hours at jobs in addition to attending classes.
4. Even though Joe offered Jim a ride to school. Jim thinks that Joe doesn’t like him.
5. There are many parks in Toronto. But people usually go to the parks in the summer. When the weather is nice and can enjoy nature.
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6. Some people like to work out at home. Or they start a diet. But other people join a
gym in order to lose weight.
7. Serena complained to her boss that she hadn’t gotten a raise in 5 years. So he
gave her a raise.
8. I asked two students to give me examples. First Jim and then Joe.
9. Seneca College is well-known. And there are many former SGIC students who go
there. Because they passed the UCCP course.
10. Some people like the TTC. Anna isn’t sure why. Nobody told her. Maybe because
they work for the TTC.
Parallel Structure
Parallelism occurs when two or more parts of a sentence are parallel both in meaning and in form (grammatical structure). Parallelism highlights the relationship between the ideas
in a sentence. This structure is used in a series, in contrasts, in comparisons using that or as, and in co-relative conjunctions. Below are some guidelines to help you avoid mistakes with parallel structure.
► In a series: when listing a series of things, actions, or ideas, the items in the list must be expressed in a similar manner. Words such as by, to, that, and because should
be repeated in order to signal parallelism.
Faulty: Jim went to the hairdresser’s, visited the butcher shop, and stopped off at
the movie theatre.
Parallel: Jim went to the hairdresser’s, to the butcher shop, and to the movie
theatre.
► Linking: when linking two words or two word groups by and, each word or word group must have the same grammatical function.
Serena enjoys reading newspapers and novels. two nouns
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Jim sings and dances well. two verbs
Jake chased his dog through the streets and into the park. two prepositional phrases
Sam is a man who works at Dollarama, and who has three children. two adjective clauses
► Contrasts: when making contrasts using the words but, however, etc., each
independent clause should be similar both logically and grammatically.
Jim wants to go to Seneca, but Anna wants to go to George Brown. two independent clauses
► Comparisons: when making comparisons using the words than or as, be sure that the things you compare are similar logically as well as grammatically.
Faulty: The women in Canada are prettier than England.
Parallel: The women in Ontario are prettier than the women in England.
► Correlative conjunctions: when using correlative conjunctions (not only … but also;
both … and; neither … nor; either … or), the construction that follows the first half of the pair should be exactly balanced by the construction that follows the second half of the pair.
Faulty: Jim is not only a student, but also he is a teacher.
Parallel: Jim is not only a student, but also a teacher.
Jim not only is a student, but also is a teacher.
Faulty: Anna is both married and she is a mother.
Parallel: Anna is both a wife and a mother.
Anna has both a husband and a family.
Faulty: He is neither a rich man nor is he famous.
Parallel: He is neither rich nor famous.
Faulty: He is either a police officer or he is a private detective.
Parallel: He is either a police officer or a private detective.
Either he is a police officer, or he is a private detective.
NOTE: Be sure not to omit words that are necessary to balance your sentence.
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Faulty: Sam always has and always will love the Toronto Maple Leafs.
Parallel: Sam always has loved and always will love the Toronto Maple Leafs.
Practice 10: Parallelism.
Re-write the following sentences so that they have parallel structure.
1. This morning, Joe visited the dentist, the doctor, and he also went to his favourite
coffee shop for breakfast.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Vampires are advised to avoid garlic, drink blood regularly, and stay out of the sun.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Football is more popular in Europe than North America.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Bruce not only enjoys singing, he enjoys playing the guitar as well.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Sam enjoys both action movies and movies that are about spies.
__________________________________________________________________
6. Jim neither likes to get up early, nor work hard.
__________________________________________________________________
7. This class may be the smartest class ever or they are the hardest-workers.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
