Postwar Social Transformation Terms for April Break 4-8-2010

8/7/2019 Postwar Social Transformation Terms for April Break 4-8-2010

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Big Science is a term used by scientists and historians of science to describe a series of changesin science which occurred inindustrialnations during and after World War II, as scientific progressincreasingly came to rely on large-scale projects usually funded by national governments or groups of governments.[1] Individual or small group efforts, or Small Science, is still relevant today as theoreticalresults by individual authors may have a significant impact, but very often the empirical verificationrequires experiments using constructions, such as the Large Hadron Collider costing between $5 and $10billion.

\The 1960s in the United States are often perceived today as a period of profound societal change, one in

which a great many politically minded individuals, who on the whole were young and educated, sought to

influence the status quo.

Attitudes to a variety of issues changed, sometimes radically, throughout the decade. The urge to 'find

oneself' the activsm of the 1960's and the quest for autonomy were characterised by the changes towards

sexual attitudes at the time. [1] These changes to sexual attitudes and behavior during the period are oftentoday referred to generally under the blanket metaphor of 'sexual revolution'. [2]

Whilst the term 'revolution' implies radical and widespread change, this was not necessarily the case.

Even in the 'liberal' sixties, conservative, traditionalist views were widely held, and many modern

historians and social scientists are beginning to think that 'revolution' is too much of an overstatement.[3]

Most of the empirical data pertinent to the area only dates back to 1965, somewhat muddying the waters.[4] Despite this, there were changes in sexual attitudes and practices, particularly among the young. Like

much of the radicalism from the 1960s, the sexual revolution was often seen to have been centered

around the university campus, amongst students.

With its roots in the first perceived sexual revolution in the 1920s, this'revolution' in 1960s America

encompassed many groups who are now synonymous with the era. Feminists, gay rights

campaigners, hippies and many other political movements were all important components and facilitators

of change.

Sputnik 1 (Russian: "-1" Russian pronunciation: [sputnk] , "Satellite-1",-1 (PS-1, i.e." -1", or Elementary Satellite-1)) was the first Earth-orbiting artificialsatellite. It was

launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Unionon 4 October 1957, and was the first in aseries of satellites collectively known as theSputnik program. The unanticipated announcementof Sputnik 1' s success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the SpaceRace within theCold War .
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A leading figure in the "Second Wave" of the U.S. Women's Movement, her 1963 book The Feminine

Mystiqueis sometimes credited with sparking the "second wave" of feminism. Friedan co-

founded National Organization for Womenin 1966 which aimed to bring women "into the mainstream of

American society now [in] fully equal partnership with men". She also wrote the bookOur Wayward Sons.

In 1970, after stepping down as NOW's first president in 1969, Friedan organized the nation-

wide Women's Strike for Equalityon August 26, the 50th anniversary of the Nineteenth Amendment to the

United States Constitution granting women the right to vote. The national strike was successful beyond

expectations in broadening the feminist movement. The New York Citymarch alone attracted over 50,000

women.

Friedan joined other leading feminists (including Gloria Steinem, Shirley Chisholm, Fannie Lou

Hamer , Bella Abzug, and Myrlie Evers-Williams) in founding theNational Women's Political Caucusin

1971. In 1977 she joined some of the movement's most visible and influential leaders, and 20,000 other

women, at the International Women's Year federally-funded convention, the National Women's

Conference, a legislative conference which sent a report to President Jimmy Carter , the United States

Congress , and all the states on how to achieve equality.

Friedan was a strong proponent of the repeal of abortion laws, founding the National Association for the

Repeal of Abortion Laws, which after abortion was legalized in 1973, became the National Abortion

Rights Action League. She was also a strong supporter of the Equal Rights Amendmentto the

Constitution and of many women's laws.

Though somewhat eclipsed by Gloria Steinem as America's preeminent feminist, Friedan continued to be

an influentialauthor and intellectualand remained active in politics and advocacy for the rest of her life,

authoring six books. One of her later books, The Second Stage , critiqued what Friedan saw as the

extremist excesses of some feminists who could be broadly classified as gender feminists.

Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher , LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925) served

as Prime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from

1975 to 1990. She is the only woman to have held either post.[2]

Born in Grantham in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom, she read chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford and

later trained as a barrister . She won a seat in the 1959 general election, becoming the MP for Finchleyas

a Conservative. When Edward Heath formed a government in 1970, he appointed Thatcher Secretary of

State for Education and Science . Four years later, she backed Keith Joseph in his bid to become
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Conservative Party leader but he was forced to drop out of the election. In 1975 Thatcher entered the

contest herself and became leader of the Conservative Party. At the 1979 general election she became

Britain's first female Prime Minister.

In her foreword to the 1979 Conservative manifesto, Thatcher had written of "a feeling of helplessness,

that a once great nation has somehow fallen behind." [3] She entered 10 Downing Streetdetermined to

reverse what she perceived as a precipitate national decline, characterised by a combination of high

inflation, high unemployment and stagnant or slow growth. Her political philosophy and economic policies

emphasised deregulation, particularly of the financial sector, flexible labour markets, and the selling off

of state owned companies . Amid a recession and high unemployment, Thatcher's popularity declined,

though economic recovery and the 1982 Falklands War brought a resurgence of support and she was re-

elected in 1983. She took a hard line against trade unions, survived the Brighton hotel

bombing assassination attempt and opposed the Soviet Union (her tough-talking rhetoric gained her the

nickname the "Iron Lady"); she was re-elected for an unprecedented third term in 1987. The followingyears would prove difficult, as her Poll taxplan was largely unpopular, and her views regarding

the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet. She resigned as Prime Minister in

November 1990 after Michael Heseltine's challenge to her leadership of the Conservative Party.

Thatcher's tenure as Prime Minister was the longest since that of Lord Salisburyand the longest

continuous period in office sinceLord Liverpool in the early 19th century.[4] She was the first woman to

lead a major political party in the United Kingdom, and the first of only three women to hold any of the

four great offices of state. She holds a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of

Lincolnshire, which entitles her to sit in theHouse of Lords.

The Beat Generation is a term used to describe a group of American writerswho came to prominence in

the 1950s, and the cultural phenomena that they wrote about and inspired (later sometimes called

"beatniks"). Central elements of "Beat" culture include a rejection of mainstream values, experimentation

with drugs and alternate forms of sexuality, and an interest in Eastern religion.

The major works of Beat writing areAllen Ginsberg's Howl (1956), William S. Burroughs's Naked

Lunch (1959) and Jack Kerouac's On the Road (1957).[1] Both Howl and Naked Lunch were the focus

of obscenity trials that ultimately helped to liberalize what could be published in the United States.On the

Road transformed Kerouac's friend Neal Cassady into a youth-culture hero. The members of the Beat

Generation quickly developed a reputation as new bohemian hedonists, who celebrated non-conformity

and spontaneous creativity.
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The original "Beat Generation" writers met in New York. Later, the central figures (with the exception of

Burroughs) ended up together in San Francisco in the mid-1950s where they met and became friends

with figures associated with theSan Francisco Renaissance . During the 1960s, the rapidly expanding

Beat culture underwent a transformation: the Beat Generation gave way to the Sixties Counterculture,

which was accompanied by a shift in public terminology from "beatnik" to "hippie."

The Tonkin Gulf Resolution (officially, the Southeast Asia Resolution, Public Law 88-408) was a jointresolution of the United States Congress passed on August 7, 1964 in response to a sea battle betweenthe North Vietnamese Navy's Torpedo Squadron 135 [1] and the destroyer USS Maddox on 02 August1964, and an alleged second naval engagement between North Vietnamese torpedo boats and the USdestroyersUSS Maddox and USS Turner Joy on 04 August 1964, in the Tonkin Gulf ; both naval actionsare known collectively as theGulf of Tonkin Incident. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution is of historical

significance because it gave U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson authorization, without aformal declaration of war by Congress, for the use of conventional military force inSoutheast Asia. Specifically, the resolution authorized the President to do whatever necessary in order to assist "anymember or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty." This included involving armedforces. The unanimous affirmative vote in theHouse of Representatives was 416-0. (However,Congressman Eugene Siler of Kentucky, who was not present but opposed the measure,was "paired" with another member who favored the resolution i.e., his opposition was not counted, butthe vote in favor was one less than it would have been.) [2] It was opposed in the Senate only bySenators Wayne Morse (D-OR) andErnest Gruening (D-AK). Senator Gruening objected to "sending our American boys into combat in a war in which we have no business, which is not our war, into which wehave been misguidedly drawn, which is steadily being escalated." [3] The Johnson administrationsubsequently relied upon the resolution to begin its rapid escalation of U.S. military involvement inSouthVietnam and open warfare between North Vietnam and the United States. [4]

The Vietnam War , also known as the Second Indochina War , the Vietnam Conflict or the American

War ,[14] was a Cold War military conflictthat occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from September

26, 1959,[1] to April 30, 1975. This war followed theFirst Indochina War and was fought between

the communist North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam,

supported by the United States and other anti-communist nations.[15]

The Viet Cong, a lightly-armed South Vietnamese communist-controlledcommon front, largely fought

a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The North Vietnamese Armyengaged in amore conventional war , at times committing large units into battle. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces

relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conductsearch and destroy operations,

involvingground forces, artilleryand airstrikes.

The United States entered the war to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their

wider strategy of containment. Military advisorsarrived beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in
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the early 1960s, with U.S. troop levels tripling in 1961 and tripling again in 1962.[16] U.S. combat

units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations spanned borders, with Laos and Cambodia heavily

bombed. Involvement peaked in 1968 at the time of the Tet Offensive. After this, U.S. ground forces were

withdrawn as part of a policy calledVietnamization. Despite the Paris Peace Accords , signed by all

parties in January 1973, fighting continued.

The Case-Church Amendment, passed by the U.S. Congress in response to the anti-war movement,

prohibited direct U.S. military involvement without congressional authorization after August 15, 1973. U.S.

military and economic aid continued until 1975.[17] The capture of Saigon by North Vietnamese army in

April 1975 marked the end of Vietnam War. North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year.

The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (See: Vietnam War casualties), including 3 to 4

million Vietnamese from both sides, 1.5 to 2 millionLaotians and Cambodians, and 58,159 U.S. soldiers.[18] By this war's end, the Vietnamese had been fighting foreign involvement or occupation in various wars

for over a hundred years.

The Vit Minh pronunciation (helpinfo) (abbreviated from Vit Nam c Lp ng Minh Hi , English"League for the Independence of Vietnam") was a national liberationmovement founded in South Chinaon May 19, 1941 .[1] The Vit Minh initially formed to seek independence for Vietnam fromFrance andlater to oppose Japanese occupation .

The Viet Cong (Vit Cng ), or National Liberation Front (NLF), was a political organisation and armyin South Vietnam and Cambodia that fought the United States and South Vietnamese governments

during the Vietnam War (1959-1975). It had both guerrilla and regular army units, as well as a network

of cadres who organized peasants in the territory it controlled. Many soldiers were recruited in South

Vietnam, but others were attached to the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), the regular North

Vietnamese army. During the war, communists and anti-war spokesmen insisted the Vietcong was an

insurgency indigenous to the South, while the U.S. and South Vietnamese governments disputed this and

portrayed the group as a tool of Hanoi.[citation needed ] This allowed writers to distinguish northern communists

from the southern communists. However, northerners and southerners were always under the same

command structure.[5]

Southern Vietnamese communists established the National Liberation Front in 1960 to encourage the

participation of non-communists in the insurgency. Many of the Vietcong's core members were

"regroupees," southern Vietminhwho had resettled in the North after the Geneva Accord (1954). Hanoi

gave the regroupees military training and sent them back to the South along the Ho Chi Minh trailin the
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8/18


9/18

In his retirement, Nixon became a prolific author and undertook many foreign trips. His work as an elder

statesman helped to rehabilitate his public image. He suffered a debilitatingstroke on April 18, 1994,

anddied four days later at the age of 81.

Vietnamization

Soon after taking office. President Richard Nixon introduced his policy of "vietnamization". The plan was to encourage the South Vietnamese to take moreresponsibility for fighting the war. It was hoped that this policy would eventually enablethe United States to withdraw gradually all their soldiers from Vietnam.

To increase the size of the ARVN, a mobilisation la\v was passed that called up into thearmy all men in South Vietnam aged between seventeen and forty-three.

In June, 1969, Nixon announced the first of the US troop withdrawals. The 540,000 UStroops were to be reduced by 25,000. Another 60,000 were to leave the followingDecember.

Nixon's advisers told him that they feared that the gradual removal of all US troopswould eventually result in aNational Liberation Frontvictory. It was therefore agreedthat the only way that America could avoid a humiliating defeat was to negotiate apeace agreement in the talks that were taking place in Paris. In an effort to put pressureon North

Vietnam in these talks, Nixon developed what has become known as the MadmanTheory. Bob Haldeman, one of the US chief negotiators, was told to give the impressionthat President Nixon was mentally unstable and that his hatred of communism was sofanatical that if the war continued for much longer he was liable to resort to nuclear weapons against North Vietnam.

Another Nixon innovation was the secret Phoenix Program. Vietnamese were trained bythe CIAto infiltrate peasant communities and discover the names of NLF sympathisers.When they had been identified, Death Squads were sent in to execute them. Between1968 and 1971, an estimated 40,974 members of of the NLF were killed in this way. Itwas hoped that the Phoenix Program would result in the destruction of the NLForganisation, but, as on previous occasions, the NLF was able to replace its losses byrecruiting from the local population and by arranging for volunteers to be sent fromNorth Vietnam.
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10/18

Vietnamization was a policy of the Richard M. Nixon administration, as a result of Tet, to "expand, equip,

and train South Vietnam's forces and assign to them an ever-increasing combat role, at the same time

steadily reducing the number of U.S. combat troops."[2] This referred to U.S. combat troops specifically in

the ground combat role, but did not reject combat by U.S. air forces, as well as the support to South

Vietnam, consistent with the policies of U.S. foreign military assistance organizations. The mistrust of thegovernment that had begun after Tet worsened with the release of news about US soldiers massacring

civilians at My Lai (1969), the invasion of Cambodia (1970), and the leaking of the Pentagon

Papers (1971).

After Nixon's election in 1968, this became the policy of the United States. While it was a deliberate

policy, the name was rather accidental. At a January 28, 1969, meeting of the National Security Council,

GEN Andrew Goodpaster , deputy to GEN Creighton Abrams, commander of the Military Assistance

Command, Vietnam, said the Army of the Republic of Viet Nam (ARVN) had been steadily improving, and

the point at which the war could be "de-Americanized" was close.Melvin Laird, the Secretary of Defense ,agreed with the point, but not with the language: "what we need is a term like 'Vietnamizing' to put the

emphasis on the right issues." Nixon immediately liked Laird's word.[3]

Vietnamization fit into the broader Nixon Administration detente policy, in which the United States no

longer regarded its fundamental stategy as containment of Communism, but a cooperative world order in

which Nixon and his chief adviser Henry Kissinger were basically "realists" in world affairs, interested in

the broader constellation of forces, and the biggest powers. [4] Nixon had ordered Kissinger to negotiate

basic U.S.-Soviet policy between the heads of state via Kissinger and Dobrynin, with the agreements then

transferred to diplomats for implementation. In like manner, Nixon opened high-level contact with China.U.S. relations with theSoviet Unionand China were seen as far more important than the fate of South

Vietnam, which certainly did not preclude South Vietnam maintaining its own independence.

Nixon said Vietnamization had two components. The first was "strengthening the armed force of the

South Vietnamese in numbers, equipment, leadership and combat skills. The second component is the

extension of the pacification program in South Vietnam." The first was achievable, but it would take time.

For the U.S., it was trivial to have a U.S. helicopter pilot fly in support, but helicopter operations were too

much part of ground operations to involve U.S. personnel. As observed by LTG Dave Palmer, to qualify

an ARVN candidate for U.S. helicopter school, he first needed months of English language training to beable to follow the months-long training, and then additional field time to become proficient. In other words,

adding new capabilities to the ARVN would often take two or more years.[5] Palmer did not disagree that

the first component, given time and resources, was achievable. "Pacification, the second component,

presented the real challenge...it was benevolent government action in areas where the government

should always have been benevolently active...doing both was necessary if Vietnamization were to work."
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11/18

Operation Menu was the codename of a covert United States Strategic Air Command (SAC) bombing

campaign conducted in eastern Cambodia from 18 March 1969 until 26 May 1970, during theVietnam

War . The supposed targets of these attacks were sanctuaries and Base Areas of the People's Army of

Vietnam (PAVN) and forces of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam(NLF or

derogatively, Viet Cong ), which utilized them for resupply, training, and resting between campaigns

across the border in the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). However, in practice some of the bombing

was indiscriminate,[1] and hundreds of thousands of civilians may have been killed as a result. [citation needed ]

The campaign failed in its objective of preventing North Vietnamese offensives, which continued during

Operation Menu. It also enraged the Cambodian public and helped created a climate that allowed

the Khmer Rouge to come to power.

The operation was devised as a method of sending messages to the leadership of the Democratic

Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam)[citation needed ] that the newly-installed administration of US

president Richard M. Nixonwas serious about its continued support for the Saigon government while

simultaneously serving as a shield for the withdrawal of US forces from South Vietnam.

The campaign was devised and conducted in secrecy, since an aerial campaign against "neutral"

Cambodia is a war crime and would have created a political firestorm in the US (where the war was

already deeply unpopular) had it been carried out overtly. In the aftermath of the operation, details

surrounding it became known by the United States Congress and the US public, leading to dire

consequences for the Nixon administration.

An officialUnited States Air Force record of some US bombing activity over Indochina from 1964 to 1973

was declassified by US president William Clintonin 2000.Citation needed! The data reveals the true

extent of the bombing of Cambodia, as well as Laos and Vietnam. According to the data, the Air Force

began bombing the rural regions of Cambodia along its South Vietnam border in 1965 under theJohnson

administration. This was four years earlier than previously believed. A report by historian Ben Kiernan and

Taylor Owen states 2,756,941 tons of ordnance was dropped in 230,516 sorties on 113,716 sites. Just

over 10 percent of this bombing was indiscriminate, with 3,580 of the sites listed as having unknowntargets and another 8,238 sites having no target listed at all. [2][3]The Menu bombings were an escalation of

these air attacks. Nixon authorized the use of long-range B-52 bombers to carpet bomb the region.

Historians now classify the campaign as a mere fourteen month phase in an extensive series of secretive

bombing raids that spanned a period of eleven years.
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The Cambodian Campaign (also known as the Cambodian Incursion ) was a series of military

operations conducted in eastern Cambodia during mid-1970 by the United States (U.S.) and theRepublic

of Vietnam(South Vietnam) during theVietnam War . A total of 13 major operations were conducted by

the Army of the Republic of Vietnam(ARVN) between 29 April and 22 July and by U.S. forces between 1

May and 30 June.

The objective of the campaign was the defeat of the approximately 40,000 troops of the People's Army of

Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, also known as Viet

Cong ) who were ensconced in the eastern border regions of Cambodia. As great a prize as the defeat of

these forces was the possibility of the occupation and destruction of large communistbase areas and

sanctuaries, which had been protected by Cambodian neutrality since their establishment in 1966. As far

as the U.S. was concerned, such a course of action would provide a shield behind which the policy

of Vietnamizationand the withdrawal of U.S. forces from South Vietnam could proceed unmolested.

A change in the Cambodian government allowed a window of opportunity for the destruction of the base

areas in 1970 when Prince Norodom Sihanoukwas deposed and replaced by pro-American General Lon

Nol. Allied military operations failed to eliminate many communist troops or to capture their elusive

headquarters, known as the Central Office for South Vietnam(COSVN), but the haul of captured material

in Cambodia prompted claims of success and victory which remain controversial to this day.

The Watergate scandal was a political scandalin the United States in the 1970s, resulting from the

break-in into the Democratic National Committeeheadquarters at the Watergate officecomplex in Washington, D.C. Effects of the scandal ultimately led to the resignation of the United States

President Richard Nixonon August 9, 1974. It also resulted in the indictmentand convictionof several

Nixon administration officials.

The scandal began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the Democratic National

Committee headquarters at the Watergate complex on June 17, 1972. The subsequent investigation by

the FBI connected the men to the 1972 Committee to Re-elect the President by a slush fund.[1][2] As

evidence mounted against the president's staff, which included former staff members testifying against

them in an investigation conducted by theSenate Watergate Committee , it was revealed that President

Nixon had a tape recording system in his offices and that he had recorded many conversations. [3]

[4] Recordings from these tapes implicated the president, revealing that he had attempted to cover up the

break-in.[2][5] After a series of court battles, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the president had to hand

over the tapes; he ultimately complied.
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Facing near-certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and a strong possibility of a conviction

in the Senate , Nixon resigned the office of the presidency on August 9, 1974.[6][7] His successor, Gerald

Ford, issued a pardon to President Nixon after his resignation.

Dtente is the easing of strained relations, especially in a political situation. The term is often used inreference to the general easing of relations between the Soviet Unionand the United States, a thawing ata period roughly in the middle of theCold War . In the Soviet Union, dtente was known inRussian: as ("razryadka", loosely meaning relaxation, discharge).

Willy Brandt , born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm (German pronunciation: [vli bant] ; 18 December 1913 - 8

October 1992), was a German politician,Chancellor of West Germany 19691974, and leader of

the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) 19641987.

Brandt's most important legacy was Ostpolitik , a policy aimed at improving relations withEast

Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union. This policy caused considerable controversy in West Germany,

but won Brandt the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.

In 1974, Brandt resigned as Chancellor after Gnter Guillaume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as

an agent of the Stasi, the East German secret police.

The Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe , known as the HelsinkiFinal Act , Helsinki Accords or Helsinki Declaration , was the final act of the Conference on Securityand Co-operation in Europe held in Helsinki, Finland during July and August of 1975. Thirty-five states,

including theUSA, Canada , and all European states except Albaniaand Andorra, signed the declarationin an attempt to improve relations between the Communist bloc and the West.

Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United

States (19811989) and the 33rd Governor of California (19671975).

Born in Tampico, Illinois, Reagan moved to Los Angeles, California in the 1930s. He began a career as

an actor, first in films and later television, appearing in 52 movie productions and gaining enough success

to become a household name. Though largely a B film actor, two of his most notable roles are in KnuteRockne, All Americanand Kings Row . Reagan served as president of the Screen Actors Guild, and later

spokesman for General Electric (GE); his start in politics occurred during his work for GE. Originally a

member of the Democratic Party, he switched to the Republican Party in 1962. After delivering arousing

speech in support of Barry Goldwater 's presidential candidacy in 1964, he was persuaded to seek the

California governorship, winningtwo years later and again in 1970. He was defeated in his run for the
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manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_(Federal_Republic_of_Germany)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostpolitikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Guillaumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stasihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conference_on_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conference_on_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinkihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Californiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_Californiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampico,_Illinoishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles,_Californiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_moviehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knute_Rockne,_All_Americanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knute_Rockne,_All_Americanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_Rowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Time_for_Choosinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Time_for_Choosinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Goldwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_gubernatorial_election,_1966http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_gubernatorial_election,_1970


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OPEC's influence on the market has been widely criticized, since it became effective in determining

production and prices. Arab members of OPEC alarmed the developed world when they used the oil

weapon during the Yom Kippur War by implementing oil embargoes and initiating the1973 oil crisis.

Although largely political explanations for the timing and extent of the OPEC price increases are also

valid, from OPECs point of view, these changes were triggered largely by previousunilateral changes inthe world financial system and the ensuing period of high inflation in both the developed and developing

world. This explanation encompasses OPEC actions both before and after the outbreak of hostilities in

October 1973, and concludes that OPEC countries were only staying even by dramatically raising the

dollar price of oil.[5]

OPEC's ability to control theprice of oil has diminished somewhat since then, due to the subsequent

discovery and development of large oil reserves in Alaska, the North Sea, Canada , the Gulf of Mexico,

the opening up of Russia, and market modernization. OPEC nations still account for two-thirds of the

world's oil reserves, and, as of April 2009, 33.3% of the world's oil production, affording themconsiderable control over the global market. The next largest group of producers, members of

the OECDand the Post-Soviet states produced only 23.8% and 14.8%, respectively, of the world's total

oil production.[6] As early as 2003, concerns that OPEC members had little excess pumping capacity

sparked speculation that their influence on crude oil prices would begin to slip.[7][8]

The Yom Kippur War , Ramadan War or October War (Hebrew:

;transliterated: Mil emet Yom HaKipurim or ,Mil emet Yom Kipur ; Arabic:

;transliterated:arb October or ,arb Tishrin), also known as the 1973 Arab-Israeli

War and the Fourth Arab-Israeli War , was fought from October 6 to October 26, 1973,

between Israel and a coalition of Arab states backing Egypt and Syria. The war began with a joint

surprise attack on Yom Kippur , the holiest day in Judaism, which coincided with the Muslim holy month of

Ramadan. Egypt and Syria respectively crossed cease-fire lines to enter the Israeli-held Sinai

Peninsula and Golan Heights, which had been captured and occupied since the 1967 Six-Day War . The

conflict had all the elements of a severe international crisis, and ended with a near-confrontation between

the two nuclear superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union,[19] both of whom launched massive

resupply efforts to their allies during the war.

The war began with a massive and successful Egyptian attack across the heavily-fortified Suez

Canal during the first three days, after which they dug in, and the southern front settled into astalemate .

In the north, the Syrians simultaneously attacked the criticalGolan Heights and initially achieved

threatening gains, after which their momentum waned. Within a week, Israel repelled the Syrian attack

and launched a four-day counter-offensive, driving deeper into Syria. To relieve this pressure, the
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Egyptians renewed their offensive, but decisively failed to advance; the Israelis then counterattacked at

the seam between two Egyptian armies, crossed the Suez Canal, and advanced southward in over a

week of heavy fighting. Israel encircled elements of Egypt's Third Army after an agreed United

Nations ceasefire resolution. This initially prompted tension between the superpowers, but a ceasefire

was imposed cooperatively on October 25 to end the war. By the end of the fighting, Israeli forces were40 kilometers fromDamascus and 101 kilometers fromCairo.

The war had far-reaching implications for many nations. TheArab World, which had been humiliated by

the lopsided defeat of the Egyptian-Syrian-Jordanian alliance during the Six-Day War, felt psychologically

vindicated by successes early in the conflict. This paved the way for economic reform and liberalizations

in Egypt under the infitahpolicy. In Israel, the war effectively ended the sense of invincibility and

complacency. The war also challenged many American assumptions and it pursued newfound efforts at

mediation and peacemaking. These changes combined paved the way for the subsequent peace

process. The Camp David Accords that followed brought the return of the Sinai to Egypt and normalizedrelationsthe first peaceful recognition of Israel by an Arab country. Egypt continued its drift away from

the Soviet Union and left the Soviet sphere entirely.

The ArabIsraeli conflict (Hebrew: - HaSikhsukh HaYisre'eli-Aravi , Arabic:

A-ir al-Arab al-'Isr'l ) spans roughly one century of political tensions and open

hostilities, thoughIsrael itself only was established as a sovereign state in 1948. Some trace the

beginning of the conflict to large-scale Jewish immigration to Palestine, especially after the establishment

of the Zionist movementand which intensified with the creation of the modern State of Israel in territory

regarded by the Jewish people as their historical homeland, and by the Pan-Arabmovement as belongingto the Palestinians, be they Muslim, Christian, Druze or other (and in thePan-Islamic context, in territory

regarded as Muslim lands).

The conflict, which started as a political and nationalist conflict over competing territorial ambitions

following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, has shifted over the years from the large scale regional

ArabIsraeli conflict to a more local Israeli-Palestinian conflict, though the Arab Worldand Israel generally

remain at odds with each other over specific territory.

Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher , LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925) served

as Prime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from1975 to 1990. She is the only woman to have held either post.[2]

Born in Grantham in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom, she read chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford and

later trained as a barrister . She won a seat in the 1959 general election, becoming the MP for Finchleyas

a Conservative. When Edward Heath formed a government in 1970, he appointed Thatcher Secretary of

State for Education and Science . Four years later, she backed Keith Joseph in his bid to become
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Documents

Postwar Social Transformation Terms for April Break 4-8-2010