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CHAPTER 3

REVEW OF LITERATURE ON SCHEDULED CASTE

Indian society is highly stratified, with many glaring inequalities among

different social groups. The worst positioned among them are the Dalits and tribals. The

caste system segregated the Dalits from the rest of the society to such an extent that they

were denied even the basic human rights that one must enjoy in order to ensure one’s

bare assistance. The caste system has created and sustained an unequal opportunity

structure, which is an anathema to the egalitarian principles, which are the basis of a

modern democratic society. What is worse, it intensifies and perpetuates the sufferings

and servitude of disadvantage caste class groups by reducing their access to development

benefits vis-a-vis the higher caste class groups.1 Thus, after the five decades of planned

economic development and all the rhetoric of the socialistic pattern of society, the

economic status of these communities is pathetic. Importantly, the Dalits came to be

placed at the lowest rung of the hierarchical caste order from where there was no scope

for upward mobility. Moreover, religious injunctions blunt even the limited scope for

resistance. Thus, the power and privilege accorded to the upper castes in the ‘Varna’

social order in course of time resulted in the appropriation of wealth and resources. Since

wealth, power and resources were under their disposal, they could have more resources,

these resources could be converted into power, and power ensured acquisition of

resources.2 In the ultimate analysis resources, wealth, power, position, privileges, higher

status, authority, education, employment, services, land and labour got

1. Mungekar, B.L., State, Market and the Dalits: Analytics of the New Economic Policy, in S.M. Michael (ed.), Dalits in Modern India : Culture and Vision, Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1999,Pp.287-302).

2. Louis,Prakash, The political sociology of Dalit Assertion,Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 2003,p.53

125

concentrated in the hands of upper castes landed gentry.3 The Dalits and the down

trodden of the society on the other hand were denied any place in the society and were

out casted not only in terms of physical space, social distance but also from the mindset.

Above all, they were denied and deprived from economic resources, political

participation, social interaction and cultural articulation.4 The Indian Constitution has

made provisions for the weaker sections while various acts and legal provisions were

made for protection, development and welfare and weaker sections including scheduled

castes in India. The constitutional measures conceived in favour of the welfare of the

scheduled castes and scheduled tribes can be grouped under three areas:

(i) Development measures;

(ii) Protective measures;

(iii) Positive discrimination measures.

Development measures include centrally sponsored schemes for educational,

economic and cultural development. The Special Component Plan was adopted in 1979-

80 onwards for the developments and welfare of the Scheduled Castes. The Scheduled

Caste Finance and Development Corporation’s (SCFDC’s) was established in 1979 to

encourage interfere between the poor scheduled caste entrepreneurs and the financial

institutions in respect of bankable schemes of economic development. Similarly, National

Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation were

established in 1989 to play a major role in promoting self-employment and to develop

entrepreneurial and skilled abilities among the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes. The

National Scheme of Liberation and Rehabilitation of Scavengers and their Dependents,

which was launched in March 1992, have been extended up to Eleventh Five Year Plan

period. Importantly, the National Safai Karmcharis Finance & Development Corporation

has been made operative on January 24, 1997 to promote economic development/ self

employment for the training in technical and entrepreneurial skills and extending loans to

students from the Safai Karmchari Community for pursuing higher education.

3. Ibid

4. Ibid,p.54

126

Significantly, the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, National Commission for Scheduled Castes

and Scheduled Tribes, established in 1990, are a few examples of legal measures for the

protection of interest of weaker sections. The positive discrimination measures are known

as reservation in education at institutions, reservation of services and post in government

services and reservation of seats in the legislatures.

Review of Literature

The present work is an attempt to assess the socio economic status of the most

deprived, excluded, downtrodden section of the society to whom the economic

development bypassed because of their socio-economic isolation. It differs from existing

literature by differences in geographic coverage, time span, and use of self-reported

household benefits across a broad range of programmes. Socio- Economic Status can be

defined as ranking of the family in the surroundings to which the family belongs, in

respect of defined variables viz., physical assets, economic status, education, occupation,

social position, social participation, caste, muscle power, political influence, etc.5 Socio-

economic status influences the accessibility, affordability, acceptability and actual

utilization of various available facilities. There have been several attempts to develop

different scales to measure the socio-economic status. The earliest attempts to find out the

social class of an individual were from the standpoint of psychologists.

5. Tiwari, S.C., Kumar Aditya, Kumar Ambrish, “Development & standardization

of a scale to measure socio-economic status in urban & rural communities in

India”, Indian Journal of Medical Research, 122, October 2005, pp 309-314

127

Cattell (1942), in his article6 mentioned about five most important definers of

social status namely prestige rating, intelligence quotient, income (annual), years of

education and inter-correlated them with 25 occupations.

Based on social status, Cantril (1943)7 classified the American people into upper,

upper middle, middle lower middle and lower social classes. He concluded that there is

by no means a close one to one correspondence between each social class identification

and income group identification.

Warner, et. al., (1960)8 used two methods to provide accurate measurement of

social class. These methods are ____ (i) Evaluated Participation Method and (ii) Index of

Status Characteristics Method. Evaluated participation comprised several rating

techniques based on the proposition that those who interact in the social system of a

community evaluate the participation of those around them and that the members of a

community are explicitly or implicitly aware of their rankings and translate their

evaluation of such social participation into social class ratings. The Index of Status

Characteristics used occupation, source of income, house type and dwelling area, which

are then rated on a seven-point scale.

Based on Index of Social Position, Hollingshed, et. al., (1958)9 placed individuals and

families in different classes. This index used three indicators namely i) residential address

of the household, ii) the occupational position of its head, and iii) the years of school the

head of the family had completed.

6. Cattell, R.B., The Concept of Social Status, Journal of Social Psychology, 15, 1942, Pp.293-308.

7. Cantirl, H., Identification with social and economic class, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, American Psychological Association, 1943, P.38.

8. Warner W.L., Meeken, M., & Eells, K.,(ed.) ,Social class in America. A manual of procedures for measure of social status, Harper Torch books, Harper and Brothers Publishers. New York. 1960, Pp.1-44.

9. Hollingshead, A.B., and Redlich, F.C.,(ed.), Social class and mental illness, New John Wiley and Sons Inc, London, 1958, P.158.

128

In Indian studies, the classification of British Registrar General based on

occupation was tried earlier. In the later period Prasad’s (1961) 10 classification based on

per capita monthly income and later modified in 1968 and 1970 has been extensively

used. Nowadays Kuppuswami scale (1981)11 is widely used to measure the socio-

economic status of an individual in urban community based on three variables namely

education, occupation and income. The modification of Kuppuswami scale (Mahajan,

1995)12 meant to determine the socio-economic status of family based on education,

occupation of head of the family and per capita income per month. Recently, Mishra, et.

al., (2003)13 have suggested an economic revision of Kuppuswami's scale in order to

account for the devaluation of rupee.

In the rural areas, Pareekh (1981)14 classified the socio-economic status in the

rural areas based on nine characteristics namely caste, occupation of family head,

education of family head, level of social participation of family head, landholding,

housing, farm power, material possessions and type of family.

10. Prasad, B.G., Social Classification of Indian families, Journal of Indian Medical Association, 1961; Pp.250-251.

11. Kuppuswami B. Mannual of socio economic scale (Urban). Mansayan 32, Netaji Subhash Marg, Delhi. 1981.

12. Mahajan, B.K., Gupta, M.C., Text book of Preventive and Social Medicine. Jaypee Brothers, Delhi. Third Edition, 1995, Pp.134-135.

13. Mishra, D. Singh, H.P. Kuppuswami's socio-economic status scale: A Revision. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 2003; Pp.273-274.

14. Pareekh, U., Mannual of socio-economic status (rural), Mansayan, 32, Netaji Subhash Marg, Delhi,1981.

129

In this context, it is worth mentioning of some other studies related to socio-

economic status scale. Bharadwaj Scale on students (2001),15 Srivastava scale (1978),16

Kulshrestha Scale (1972),17 Jalota, et.al. Scale on urban families (1970)18 Shirpurkar

Scale (1967)19 and Rahudkar’s Scale on farm families (1960)20

After review of literature it was felt that the currently available scales were either

outdated or there was a need for redefinition of some relevant items for indicating the

socio-economic status accurately. Moreover, these scales were developed on smaller

samples drawn from sub-strata of population and not on larger representative cross-

section of the community; each scale has its own merits and demerits.

However, the instrument developed by Agrawal, O.P., et. al., (2005)21 is

applicable for both urban as well as rural families. Moreover, the instrument has been

developed for all sections of the Society. Various scales developed by different

15. Bhardwaj, R. L., Manual for Socio-economic status scale, National Psychological Corporation, Agra, 2001.

16. Srivastava G.P. Socio-economic Status Scale (Urban) Agra: National Psychological Corporation, Agra, 1978.

17. Kulshrestha S.P., Day, P., Socio-economic Status Scale (Urban) form-A, National Psychological Corporation, Agra, 1972.

18. Jalota, S., Pandey, R.N., Kapoor, S.D., Singh, R.N., (ed.), Socio-economic status scale questionnaire (Urban), New Delhi: Psycho-Centre, 1970.

19. Shirpurkar, G.R.I., Construction and standardization of a scale for measuring status for farm families. Indian Journal of Extension Education, 1967, Pp. 16-24.

20. Rahudkar, W. B., A scale for measuring socio-economic status of Indian farm families, Agricultural College Magazine, Nagpur 1960, p. 34.

21. Agrawal, O.P., Bhasin, S.K., Sharma, A.K., Chhabra, P., Agrawal, K., Rajoura, O.P., (ed.), “ A New Instrument (Scale) for Measuring the Socioeconomic Status of a Family: Preliminary Study,” Indian Journal of Community Medicine,Vol.30.No.4, October-December, 2005, Pp.111-114.)

researcher mentioned above to measure socio- economic status of any section of the

society individually focuses on different variables. Total number of variables is more

130

than twenty. However, NSSO22 uses very peculiar profile termed as MPCE (Monthly Per

Capita Expenditure) of a household to assess the socio-economic status of a section of the

society. This profile is best suitable for the purpose because directly or indirectly it

incorporates all variables used in various scales mentioned above. That is why beside

other variables, MPCE has been used in this work to analyze the socio-economic status of

Scheduled Caste people in the rural areas of Assam with special reference to the district

of Nagaon, the central region of Assam.

Many studies and research surveys have been carried out by various academic

institutions, which depict the status of scheduled caste in India. These studies are done

generally on macro level but there is paucity of empirical data, literature and studies,

which can be utilized for the analysis at micro level as well as to assess the impact of

programmes and policies on the status of scheduled castes in India and particularly in

Uttar Pradesh. In this part of report, an attempt has been made to review the pertinent

literature to find the academic gaps and suggesting the areas of future research.

Bhadra (1989)23 in his study on Caste and Class: Social Stratification in Assam,

has analyzed the structure and process of social stratification in Assam theoretically,

historically and empirically. He showed that the social structure of Assam consists of

various castes and Hinduised and semihinduised tribes. The synthesis of three traditions:

Orthodox Hinduism, Vaishnava Sectarianism and Tribalism have moulded the

22. NSSO Report No 514, 61st Round Survey, 2004-05.

23. Bhadra, K. Ranjit, CASTE AND CLASS: Social Stratification in Assam, Hindustan Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1991 Pp.1-173.

131

stratification system in a unique form displaying simultaneously rigidity, flexibility,

mobility and egalitarianism. The forces of modernization have further affected this plural

structure in recent years.

Chetty (1991)24 in his study on Scheduled Castes and Development Programmes

in India, stated that the failure of the big industries strategy compelled the Indian planners

to switch over to growth with social justice strategy and this strategy required

programmes of reducing absolute poverty. Chetty in his study on Integrated Rural

Development Project (IRDP) in Andhra Pradesh has found that the majority of the

scheduled castes in rural areas are still engaged in traditional low status occupation and

very few of them own land. He has found that the amount of loan sanctioned to this group

was inadequate and some of these beneficiaries found it very difficult to produce surplus

income. He also highlighted the inadequacy of follow-ups of programmes and recovery

of loan sanctioned.

Singh (1995)25 in his paper on Social Justice and Reservation Policy in Uttar

Pradesh concluded that the state has been a nerve centre for Indian political but the

segment of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and OBC population (around 60 per cent)

still suffer from alienation, inferiority and socio-economic status. Despite the provision of

reservations in government, Public sector and private, the share of SC’s and OBC’s has

been found to be very low in comparison to high castes. The ruling elite are still

constituted by the higher castes and especially by Brahmins. Since economic and political

development are the two important pillars of social justice, unless depressed classes get

their due share in these fields, social justice in real sense will not be achieved.

24. Chetty, V. B. Krishnaiah, Scheduled Castes And Development Programmes In India, Vohra Publishers & Distributors , Indraprastha, Delhi,1991.

25. (Singh, A.K., Social Justice & Reservation Policy in Uttar Pradesh, Contemporary Social Work, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Vol. XII, April, 1995.)

132

Lakshmaiah et. al (1995)26 in their study on programmes for scheduled caste

labourers have examined whether the benefits of development are reaching the targeted

group and evaluated the efficacy of existing programmes.

Michael (1999) 27 in his edited volume on Dalits in Modern India stated that one of

the profound changes in contemporary Indian Society has been the emergence of a new

sense of identity among the Dalits. The Dalit Movement not only rejects the vary ideas of

pollution, impurity and untouchability but in the process is forging a new vision for

Indian society which is different from that espoused by the higher castes. The volume

explores the social, economic, political and cultural content of the Dalit articulation and

its relevance for the nation.

Singh (2000)28 in his study on Dalit women in Uttar Pradesh highlighted the issues of

socio-economic conditions of scheduled caste female sweepers and scavengers in the

municipal bodies of Uttar Pradesh. He lamented upon the poor status of scheduled castes

females and rehabilitation of Scheduled Caste female sweepers and scavengers in the

state.

Jogdand (2000)29 in his edited volume on New Economic Policy and Dalits stated

that the package of macro-economic policies advocates the withdrawal of state

involvements in the social sectors. The evidences suggest that this has produced adverse

effects on marginalized sectors. The volume contained the papers on economic reforms

and dalits, economic reforms and their impact on employment and their status.

26. Lakshmaiah, T. & S.Reddy, Programmes for Scheduled Caste Labourers, Printwell, Jaipur,1995.

27. Michael, S. M., (ed.), Dalits in Modern India: Vision and Values, Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi,1999.

28. Singh, S.K.,Dalit Women: Socio-economic Status And Issues, New Royal Book Comp., Lucknow, 2000.

29. Jogdand, P.G. (ed.),New economic policy and dalits. New Delhi: Rawat Publications, 2000.

133

discussion is conducted in the framework of four fairly recent development in the world

of dalits: (i) equality for Dalits is increasingly being recognized as a desirable norm, in

Indian society; (ii) capitalist development has begun to weaken the caste system; (iii)

Dalits are beginning to experience a modicum of social mobility thanks to policies of

positive discrimination; (iv) there has been an unprecedented rise in political

consciousness among Dalits in recent times.

Shah (2001)30 in his edited volume on Dalit Identity and politics highlighted the

issues of caste system and economic equality, dalit movement, dalit identity, political

consciousness and elected mobilization of scheduled castes etc. Bringing together

scholars and activists, the volume has examined the many facets of on going Dalit

struggle to improve their position. The

Singh (2001)31 in his paper on casteism and its implication for National Integration

stated that despite protective measures, the Dalits still suffer from the stigma of

inferiority and low socio-economic status. He said that various socio-economic and legal

measures are needed to be adopted for accelerating overall development of Scheduled

Castes and particularly for economically backward class. In a country like India, social

democracy should be ensured to provide opportunities for each caste, small and big, to

equally participate in decision making process

Mohanty(2001)32 in his paper Land Distribution among Scheduled Castes and Tribes

envisaged that the Scheduled caste groups continued to be disadvantaged section with respect to

land and there has been no substantial

30. Shah, Ghanshyam, (ed.), Dalit identity and politics : Cultural subordination and the Dalit challenge, vol. 2, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2001.

31. Singh, A.K., Casteism And Its Implication in C.P. Barthwal (ed.), National Integration In National Integration in India Since Independence, New Royal Book Company, Lucknow, 2001.

32. Mohanty,B.B., ‘Land Distribution among Scheduled Castes and Tribes’, Economic & Political Weekly, October 6, 2001, Pp.3857 – 3868.

134

improvement in their landholding position over the years. Rather, in some states, it has

declined further. Even after more than 50 years of planned initiatives and policy

measures, fair distribution of land among these backward communities appears merely

hoping against hope. It is confirmed by many studies in both India and elsewhere that

land reforms lead to the reduction of socio-economic in- equalities, poverty as well as

agricultural growth. The underprivileged communities are seldom able to take advantage of

social legislation conferring new privileges on them. Despite this, land reforms with respect

to the scheduled groups explicate lugubrious performance, which raises doubts about the

nature of the commitment of Indian government towards upliftment of scheduled castes

and tribes. The much-awaited legislative measures to protect and promote the landholdings

of the scheduled groups were formulated only in response to their strong and widespread

resistance and movements.

Athaparia and Pandey (2001)33 in their study on scheduled castes of Assam

as the victim of poverty observed that most of the scheduled castes in Assam either do

not have their residential plot or have a very small land holdings which is not sufficient

for Scheduled Caste people to maintain their family. Most of the Scheduled Caste

communities in Assam pursue agriculture as their main occupation. They engage

themselves in cultivation during the rainy season keeping other months in other

occupations. Very small land holdings of the Scheduled Caste people of Assam indicate

the unemployment and poverty of the Scheduled caste people of Assam.Fish Catching in

Assam is practiced mostly by the Scheduled Caste communities like Kaivartas, Jalia,

Namasudrs, Jhalo-Malo etc. But the fishing sources like rivers, beels etc. remains

inaccessible to the poor fisherman as the same are auctioned to the big traders or

Mahajans. Consequently, the local fisherman are suffering from the economic hardship.

33. Athaparia, R.P. and Pandey,D.N., Victims of Poverty:A case Study of

Scheduled Castes in Assam in Datt-Ray, B., (ed.), Population, poverty,and

environment in Nort-East India, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi,

2000, Pp. 344-348)

135

Singh and Malik (2001)34 in their study on socio-economic development of

scheduled caste in India lamented upon the poor status of scheduled castes. They said that

the scheduled casts in the country are the economically, socially and culturally down

trodden sections of society which in turn has been the outcome of neglect and negation of

benefits that should have accrued to them. In spite of planned development for nearly

four and half decades and constitutional provisions as well as agreed policy priorities, the

development effort for scheduled castes has so far been too small to make any major

impact on their socio-economic conditions. Hence, most of them continue to be below the

poverty line and suffer from all the age-old disabilities. They conducted a study of SCP in

Haryana state to assess the impact of various programmes adopted for the development of

scheduled castes in Haryana.

Singh (2001)35 in his study on surplus land distribution and its impact on socio-

economic status of scheduled castes in Uttar Pradesh highlighted the issues of

backwardness, poverty, indebtedness and implementation of poverty alleviation

programmes for scheduled castes in Uttar Pradesh. He said that surplus land distribution

scheme as poverty alleviation scheme has no doubt significantly contributed in enhancing

the socio-economic status of scheduled caste, however, the benefits of land could not

availed due to poor quality of land, inability to cultivate the land and poor access to

institutional support. In a vast country like India, the efforts for poverty alleviation are

highly inefficient and inadequate. The government programmes aimed at poverty

alleviation could not dent effectively on poverty, as our experience shows. Importantly, a

large chunk of rural population is dependent on agriculture for sustenance. However, the

land ownership has been reported in favour of rich class, while

34. Singh, H. and Malik, A.S., Socio-economic Development of Scheduled Castes in India, Aalekh Pub., Jaipur, 2001.

35. Singh,A.K., Surplus Land Distribution And Its Impact on Socio- economic Status of Scheduled Castes in Uttar Pradesh, Poorvanchal Manav Kalyan Sansthan, Mahrajganj, Uttar Pradesh., Feb. 2001.

136

land holdings of Dalits and weaker sections of society are preponderance small and

marginal as well as high proportion of landlessness. Surplus land distribution as a scheme

of rural poverty alleviation was launch in 1975-76 in the state of Uttar Pradesh. It has

improved the lot of rural poor and has reduced the dependency on agricultural land to

others.

Pathak (2002)36 in his study on Special Component Plan in Uttar Pradesh envisaged

the existing socio-economic conditions of scheduled castes in respect of their economic

activities, occupational patterns and source of livelihood. The study has presented the

processes through which the Special Component Plan has been functioning in Uttar

Pradesh including assessment of the various activities for which financial assistance is

given to the members of scheduled caste communities. He said that there are many

obstacles in the implementation of Special Component Plan.

Sudha Pai (2002)37 in her study on Dalit Assertion and the Unfinished Democratic

Revolution in Uttar Pradesh stated that the recent emergence of the Bahujan Samaj Party

(BSP) has been one of the most significant developments in the political and social

landscape of Uttar Pradesh. Many had hailed it as a revolutionary movement where goal

was to break the caste system and introduce social transformation. However, the Bahujan

Samaj Party (BSP) has failed to displace upper caste forces and, in several instances, has

actually made compromises with them. Its leadership is today forced with a difficult

decision. She examined the emergence, ideology and programmes, mobilizational

strategies, electoral progress and political significance of Bahujan Samaj Party

(BSP)against the backdrop of a strong wave of Dalit assertion in Uttar Pradesh.

36. Pathak, S.N., A Study of SCP in Enhancing the Income of Scheduled Castes by setting up Village in Cottage Industry in Uttar Pradesh. Report Centre for Development Research and Action, Lucknow, 2000.

37. Pai, Sudha., Dalit Assertion and the Unfinished Democratic Revolution: The Bahujan Samaj Party in Uttar Pradesh, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2002)

137

Louis (2003)38 in his book on Political Sociology of Dalit Assertion highlighted the

issues of caste discrimination, constitutional provisions, dalit identity, dalit discourse (in

Durban and post Durban) and dalit assertion and emancipation. Louis said that the

institutional forms of discrimination and deprivation reduced the Dalit and the down

trodden to a state of lesser being, won being and exist only for the well-being of the

dominant caste and class. It is not simply illiteracy, poverty, malnutrition, ill health that

became the bit of the Dalits, but in the ultimate analysis, they are reduced to resources,

powerless and baseless people.

Ashokvardhan (2004) 39 envisaged the existing socio-economic conditions of

scheduled castes people of Assam in respect of their economic activities, occupational

patterns and source of livelihood. He viewed that, with the increase in the number of

people in Assam, the members of ‘middle class’ in Assamese society stood exposed to a

hitherto unknown competition as avenues for advancement in various economic spheres

were not expanding at an identical pace. On the other hand, social discriminations, the

superiority complex of the caste Hindu Assamese society and the caste based social

equations gradually started pushing them away from the larger Assamese society

resulting in the sufferings of the lower caste people in the society from the stigma of

inferiority and low socio-economic status.

Singh 2004 40 in his report on A Study of The Functioning of Coaching and Allied

38. (Louis, Prakash, The Political Sociology of Dalit Assertion, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 2003.

39. Ashokvardhan, C.,(ed.), Socio-economic profile of rural India. Volume two, North-East India (Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland),Concept publishing Company, New Delhi, 2004, Pp.60-68.

40. Singh, A.K., Functioning of Centrally Sponsored Scheme of oaching and llied Services in Tamilnadu, Poorvanchal, Manav Kalyan Sansthan, Mahrajganj, Uttar Pradesh, 2004.

138

Services Scheme under Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes component in Tamil

Nadu highlighted the issues of educational empowerment of Scheduled Caste people. He

reviewed the educational development programmes while discussing their impact on

educational development of Scheduled Castes in the state. He further investigated the

functioning of coaching and allied services scheme for civil services aspirants belonging

to Scheduled Castes. He lamented upon the poor functioning of scheme and its limited

coverage.

Saxena 2004 41 in his paper on Issues concerning vulnerable groups: Vision 2020 dealt

with demographic trends, development process, new economic policy and its impact on

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other concerning issues. He stated that the

process of gaining education, economic diversification, development in levels of

economy, empowerment through participation in political processes and government jobs

has inevitably led to the formation of an elite class among the scheduled castes.

Bhuimali and Biswas (2004)42 in their paper on Development and Empowerment of

Disadvantaged People of India concluded that scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are

far behind compared to the rest of the population in respect of literacy and educational

development. The enrollment rates among scheduled caste students are low. Even some

states have enjoyed the benefits of post matric scholarship scheme. The employment of

scheduled caste and scheduled tribes in government services and public sector

undertaking is not in line with their percentage in the total population. They further stated

that the disadvantaged group of people cannot be the gainers of the globalization,

liberalization and privatization. They are, in fact, the worst suffers in respect of obtaining

employment opportunities in the context of reformed regime.

41. Saxena, H.S., Issues Concerning Vulnerable Groups: Vision 2020 IN India Vision 2020, Planning Commission, Government of India, 2004.

42. Bhuimali, A. and Biswas, A.K., Development and Empowerment of Disadvantaged People of India,Indian Journal of Economics & Business, Vol. 3 (1), June, 2004.

139

Singh and Gadkar (2004)43 edited a volume on Restoration of Human Rights and

Dignity to Dalits. The volume has examined the issues related to human rights in the

context of changes in the socio-economic structure of the country. While analyzing the

atrocities perpetrated on the dalits, it also describes their aspirations and achievements

during the last five decades of independence. The volume also deals with the status of

scavengers in various states of India. It especially examines the issues related to

liberation and rehabilitation of scavengers in different parts of the country.

SK Mishra (2005)44 in his study of poverty and inequalities in rural Assam concluded

that the extent of poverty is very high among the backward communities in the rural areas

of Assam. Income inequality is alarming in the villages of Assam and such inequality is

more prevalent than in India. The prime reasons of poverty are excessive dependence on

primary sector, disguised unemployment, poor development of marketing facilities,

connectivity and power supply, poor agricultural productivity, absence of any significant

manufacturing activities, and so on. Any conscious effort to removal of poverty must

aim at the development of the manufacturing sector, creation of infrastructural facilities

and enhancement of agricultural productivity.

Bardhan, P. and Mookherjee, ed. (2006) 45 in their study observed the absence of

equity-based formula for allocation of fiscal grants across different Gaon panchayats in

the states of India. While there are formulas for fiscal devolution from central to state

governments, no corresponding transparent process exists

43. Singh, Ram Gopla. Gadkar, Ravindra D. Restoration of Human Rights And dignity to Dalits, Manak Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2004.

44. Mishra, S. K Mishra, SK "Poverty and Inequality in Rural Assam : An Indicative Study of Seven Villages in Udalguri Subdivision", 2005, SSRN: (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=353253.

45. Bardhan, P.and Mookherjee, D.(Editors), ed. Decentralization and Local Governance in Developing Countries: A Comparative Perspective, MIT Press,55 Hayward Street, Cambridge, USA, 2006.

140

for allocation across panchayats within a state. The actual allocation depends on how

vocal and politically powerful Gaon panchayat officials are when negotiating with upper

levels of panchayat bodies or state government departments. This has resulted in the

perverse situation where villages with greater need for anti-poverty programs (i.e., with a

weaker middle peasantry, with greater landlessness and incidence of low caste status)

have been systematically discriminated against. The difficult problem of implementation

has traditionally been thought to be allocation of power and resources within local

communities, which is difficult to monitor and control owing to problems of lack of

information available to outsiders. The authors favoured equitable allocation of grants

across local communities, based on publicly available information concerning their

relative needs (such as population, infrastructure and demographic composition).

Transparent need-based formulae for grants to Gaon panchayats would substantially

reduce the problem identified above in the system of most of the states in India. Through

case studies, they also uncovered the fact that such formula-based transfers to local

governments have been instituted in many other developing and middle-income countries

(such as Bolivia, Indonesia or South Africa) in recent years leading to substantial

improvement in inter-regional equity.

Karade(2009)46 in his study on occupational mobility among Scheduled Castes in India

focuses on the nature of occupation and factors which are more related to Inter-

generational as well as Intra- generational occupational Mobility in the society. After

independence, Constitution of India has made provision of protective discrimination

policy, especially Reservation policy. Therefore Following the Constitutional provision

of reservation policy in the post-independence period, many persons of Scheduled Castes

left their traditional occupations and took responsibilities of new job or position, but

those who have taken education and those who have developed skills are taking more

benefit and the tremendous change is observed in connection with their family as well as

society. The author has made a systematic attempt to establish a positive co-relation

between education and occupational

48. Karade, Jagan, Occupational Mobility Among Scheduled Castes, Cambridge Scholars

Publishing, 12 Back Chapman Street, U.K., 2009.

141

mobility among the Scheduled Caste people of India. Karade in his study has found that

even those who have secured higher education and obtained better positions in terms of

economic and social status are also not able to overcome the prejudices at the hands of

the upper castes and thus could not totally escape from the discrimination at the latter’s

hands. As far as intra-generational occupational mobility is concerned, Karade rightly

observes that the successive generations of the Scheduled Caste communities aspire for

still better occupational positions as these impart social prestige along with material

empowerment. Karade also has drawn attention to an erosion of the Reservation Policy

due to declining space of the State in the economic activities in the aftermath of the

process of globalization, liberalization and privatization.

Darshan Singh(2009)49 in Development of Scheduled Castes In India – A Review,

viewed that the gap between the mainstream and scheduled caste population still persists

significantly in our traditional society. Therefore, there is an urgent need to reorient and

focus the strategy in order to support the lesser privileged by providing qualitative

education and infusing among them the individualistic and moralistic values of self-

denial, temperance, forethought, thrift, sobriety and self-reliance essential to bring these

downtrodden into the national mainstream. Besides their circumstances, the major factor

responsible for the deprivation and/or poverty among the scheduled caste people is their

improvident habits, thriftlessness and mismanagement. Their conditions can be improved

through inculcating in them individualistic and moralistic values of self-denial,

temperance, forethought, thrift, sobriety and self-reliance. These values will help them in

proper utilization of the various developmental schemes, which, in turn lead to the

stability/improvement in their lives.

49. Singh, D., ‘Development of Scheduled Castes In India – A Review’, Journal of Rural

Development, Vol. 28, No. 4, October - December : 2009

142

Importance of the Study:

The Government has implemented several development programmes for the welfare and

empowerment of weaker sections. Economic development programmes are most

important schemes for the income generation and creating employment opportunities to

disadvantaged classes. A large amount of budgetary allocations was ensured under

Special Component Plan for extending benefits to scheduled castes. Effective

implementation and fund utilization under these schemes will definitely be instrumental

in alleviating the poverty and creating job opportunities for scheduled caste largely. In

this context, the present study is an attempt to assess the impact of economic

development scheme on socio-economic status of scheduled castes and to examine the

processes of implementation for larger economic gains to them. The administration and

functioning of Special Component Plan in Assam have also examined through the present

study.