PEZZOTTAITE JOURNALS SJIF (2016): 7.452, IF (2017): 8.989 ... fileVolume 7, Number 2, April – June’ 2018 ISSN (Print): 2279-0934, (Online): 2279-0942 PEZZOTTAITE JOURNALS SJ IF

Volume 7, Number 2, April – June’ 2018

ISSN (Print): 2279-0934, (Online): 2279-0942

PEZZOTTAITE JOURNALS SJIF (2016): 7.452, SJIF (2017): 8.989

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International Journal of Retailing & Rural Business Perspectives © Pezzottaite Journals 3220 |P a g e

REVISITING TRIBAL OF MANIPUR

Dr. Ng. Ngalengnam1

ABSTRACT

Article, “Revisiting Tribal of Manipur” is serious study about the latest condition of Manipur. It is the outcome of an intensive

literature review and study to explore all about Manipur in a shortest paragraph. The objective of the study is to make known

and attract people about the small and beautiful state for further socio-economic. The article covers the land, geographical

location, people covering the whole communities, natural beauty, administrative break up etc. I am confident that whosoever

read this article will be enlightened largely. The study of this article will also make people understand about the strategic

importance of the state for our country India.

INTRODUCTION

Manipur is one of the seven Sister-States of the Northeast. The total geographical area of the state is 22,327 square kilometres. The

small oval-shaped central plain is known as Imphal Valley covering a small area of below 10 % only of the total geographical area

of the state. The hills of Manipur are more than 90 % percent of the total geographical areas.

The Land Manipur comprises of a large hill and a small valley in its middle. Manipur is a home of 27 lacs of peoples as per latest

census. In other words, Manipur consists of two distinct regions the hills region and the valley region. The natural beauty comprises

of the fresh water lakes (Loktak Lake), the beautiful hills, its stream, climatic condition, and colourful tribal peoples with their

traditional dresses etc. induces visitors to feel if she is the “Switzerland of India.” Regarding the origin of the name ‘Manipur’ some

historians explain that, the land specially the Imphal valley was a waterlogged at one point of time. While Lord Shiva and Uma

known as northern king and queen of Manipur were performing Ras Lila Dance on the water, the Snake god known as ‘Ananda’

who came to see the dance lit up the whole valley day and night with the help of his magic ‘Mani’. In their language, ‘Mani’ means

‘diamond’ and ‘pur’ means ‘land’. Thus, the city of Diamond came to be known as Manipur.

The one time princely State Manipur, (the Imphal Valley, excluded the Hills) was annexed by the British since the defeat of the

Manipuri in the Anglo-Manipuri war of 1819. Later the British expanded their rules in the hills too. Since then, the colonial rule

extended until the middle part of the 20th Century i.e. 1947. The British made both the hills and the valley as one for their

administrative convenience. Manipur merged to the Union of India in 1949. She finally attained the status of a full-fledged statehood

in 1972.

As we, all know that the State is situated in the Northeastern side of India. It has a total borderline of about 854 kilometres. The

whole borderline can be broadly divided into two parts. The first is the international boundary line with Myanmar. The international

boundary line with Myanmar is a stretch of 352 kilometres, from the Northeastern part of Ukhrul District to Southeastern part of

Chandel District Manipur. The second one is the inter-state borders. They are, Tamenglong District, bounded by Cachar District of

Assam in the west, Senapati and Mizoram in the South bound Ukhrul Districts, bounded by the Nagaland State in the North, and

Churachandpur District. Thus, Imphal, the only 10% of area lying at the centre of Manipur is surrounded by hill Districts.

CLIME

Manipur has a Sub-Tropical Monsoon type climate. It is hot and wet during summer while the winter months are cold and dry.

Manipur enjoy a healthy and comfortable climate in most of the places of both the hills and the valley. However, we find variation

of climate because of the variation of elevation. Imphal valley is warmer than the hills. In winter season, the average temperature

ranges between 12oc to 18oc. In summer, the temperature lies in between 25oc and 35oc. The average rainfall in the state is 200 cm.

in a year. The forest of Manipur covers an area of 15,154 square kilometres, which is 67 percent of the total geographical areas of

the state. The 50 percent of the forest is a tree forest, 20 percent is the bamboo forest, and 28 percent is the open forest.

Fauna; The fauna of the state can be considered as very rich. The most important one among others is the Brow-antlered deer, locally

known as “Sangai” which is the rarest deer species in the world, whose only home in the world is Keibul Lamjao Floating National

Park in the state.

1Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science & Human Rights, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Regional Campus

- Manipur, Manipur, India, [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]




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THE TRIBAL OF MANIPUR

Traditionally, every tribe of Manipur was an independent village, which had a unique political system of their own at their respective

villages. All types of political systems were found among the tribes in the past. The hill tribes of Manipur remained independence

of any external domination until the coming of British in India. Each village was a republic of its own. Monarchy was also found in

many tribal communities. Traffic, trade, and commerce between villages had been minimal because of the practice of headhunting

(a practice of chopping heads of other villagers in order to elevate his social status as hero). Each village grew in isolation. In fact,

each tribal village existed as an independent administrative unit of their own. Social life, law and order, customs, cultures, morality

etc. were strictly maintained by the village authority. Villages were run by a council of elders headed by the Headman or the Chief

either monarchy or democratic. In such a way both hereditary and democracy in their pure forms were existed in the tribal’s

administrative system.

A CORRECT FIGURE OF SOME OF THE IMPORTANT AREAS

The Geographical Area of Manipur is = 22,3,27 sq. km.

Size of the Hill Areas of Manipur is = 20,5,84 Sq. km.

Size of the Valley Areas of Manipur is = 1,843 sq. km

Population of Manipur as per 2011 Census is =27,21,756

Males Population of Manipur is = 13,69,764

Females Population of Manipur is =13,51,992

The sex ratio of Manipur is 987

The total population of the Hills of Manipur is 10, 96,532. (41%)

The total population of the Valley of Manipur is 16, 26224. (59%)

Job reservation of Manipur for Scheduled Tribes is 33%.

Average Literacy rate of Manipur is =79.95%.

Administrative Break up of Manipur is =15 Districts.

Number of District in the Valley of Manipur is = 5.

Number of District in the Hills of Manipur is = 10.

Total number of Legislative Assembly seat is = 60.

Number of Legislative Assembly seat in the hills of Manipur is = 19.

Number of Legislative Assembly seat in the Valley of Manipur is = 40.

Total number of Lok Sabha seat of Manipur is = 2.

Number of Lok Sabha seat in the Valley is = 1.

Number of Lok Sabha seat in the Hills is = 1.

Number of Raja Sabha seat for Manipur is = 1.

NAME OF THE DISTRICTS IN THE HILLS

Ukhrul District, North East Manipur.

Kamjong District, North East Manipur.

Chandel District, South-East Manipur.

None District, North East Manipur.

Churachanpur District, South Manipur.

Phelzol District, North East Manipur.

Senapati District, North Manipur and,

Kangpokpi District, North East Manipur.

Tamenglong District, West Manipur and

Tengnaopal District, North East Manipur.

PEOPLE OF MANIPUR

Various types of peoples with diverse cultures customs, castes, and traditions inhabit the tiny state Manipur. The people of Manipur

can be broadly classified into four main ethnic groups viz;

The Manipuri speaking people or the Meitei’s (General category) the majority community (settled in the valley).

Manipuri Muslim, 3% of the total population of the state (settled in the valley, came mostly from Silchal, Assam in 18th

century.




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The Nagas (indigenous tribe), the second highest community.

The Kuki-Chin-Mizo group (Tribal).

CLASSIFICATION OF THE HILL PEOPLES OR TRIBES OF MANIPUR

The tribes of Manipur consist broadly into two major tribes, the Nagas Tribe and the Kuki Tribe. There are 36 tribes officially

recognised by the government of Manipur. These 36 tribes are the sub-tribes of the two major tribes, the Nagas and the Kuki Tribe.

The Nagas

It is difficult to define the meaning of the ward ‘Naga’ in one meaningful word. The Nagas belong to Chinese Tai and Tibeto-

Burman and certain elements of Phillipino Borneo blood. Physically the Nagas are predominantly Mongoloid. They are fair in

complexion. The Naga people inhabits in Nagaland, Manipur, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh of the North Eastern part of India. The

Tangkhul Nagas are also found in Mayanmar at Somra tract. The Nagas occupied 60% of the tribal population of Manipur as of

now.

Names of the Naga Tribes in Manipur

Aimol,

Anal,

Angami,

Chothe

Chiru,

Gangte,

Kabui,

Kacha Naga,

Kharam,

Kom,

Koirao,

Kioreng,

Lamkang,

Maram,

Maring,

Mao,

Monsang,

Mayon,

Paomei,

Purum,

Sema,

Simte,

Tangkhul,

Tarao, and

Zemei are the Naga tribes.

The Kuki-Chin-Mizo

The Kukis are the most scattered tribes among the tribes of Manipur. They are regarded as wondering tribes. They are mostly

migrated from Burma now Myanmar. They are heard for the first time in Manipur in between 1830 and 1840 AD. (L. Jeyaseelan,

Christianity and its Impact in Manipur, un-publish Ph.D. Thesis M.U.. 1993, p. 16).

Name of the Kuki tribes in Manipur

Gangte,

Haokip,

Hmar,

Kipgen,

Khongsai,

Mizo-Zomi-Lushai,




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Paite,

Sahlte,

Ralte,

Thadou,

Vaiphei etc.

Common Occupations of the People

The main occupation of the almost all the hill tribes of Manipur is agriculture, engaging mainly on traditional way of food crops

cultivation. As a result, the hills peoples / tribals are economically lacking far behind the average economic condition of the state.

Religion

Among the hill tribes, Christianity is the only religion. About 99 percent of the tribal population are Christians at present. The origin

of Christianity in this land can be traced back to the arrival of Rev. William Pettigrew a Christian missionary from Scotland in the

year 1896. He propagated Christian Mission and western education in Ukhrul district of Manipur since his coming.

Language

However, Manipuri is the official language of Manipur every tribe has its own dialects.

Main Festivals: Nagas’ festivals=Lui-ngai-ni, Luira, and Gaan-ngai are the important festivals, which is celebrating as their seed

sowing festivals. After Which the Nagas begin their cultivation like sowing of seeds in the fields.

Kukis’ festivals = kut. It celebrates after the hard year’s labour in the fields.

Tourist Attractions in Manipur

Imphal valley = Loktak Lake, this is the largest fresh water lake in North-East India. Which is located in Bishnupur District, 48

Kms away from Imphal City.

Ukhrul District = Ukhrul is famous for the peculiar type of terrestrial Lily the ‘Siroy Lily’ (Lilium macklinae sealy), which is grown

only on the Siroy peak and bloom fully in the months of May-June. Siroy is situated at 85 Kms away from the Imphal City and 18

kms from Ukhrul District Hqtr.

Senapati District = The District is famous for the Dzuko Lily and its scenic beauty, which is situated at the border area of Senapati

district and Nagaland state.

Details of Hills / Tribal Districts at a Glance

Table-1

District Head Quarter Area

(Sq. km. approx.)

Population

(2011)

Sex Ratio

(Females per 1000 Males)

Density of

Population

Literacy Rate

(2011)

Ukhrul District 4,544 1,83,115 948 40 81.87

Chandel District 3,313 1,44,028 932 42 70.85

Churachanpur District 4,570 2,71,274 969 59 84.29

Senapati District 3,271 3,54,972 939 109 75.00

Tamenglong District 4,391 1,40,143 953 32 70.40

Sources: Authors Compilation

About the Tangkhul Naga Tribe

Tangkhul is a Naga tribe living in the Indo-Myanmar border area occupying Ukhrul district in Manipur, India and the Somra

Tangkhul hills (Somra tract) in Upper. Despite this international border, many Tangkhuls have continued to regard themselves as

"one nation." The population of Tangkhul in Manipur alone is more than 2,00,000 (two lacs).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukhrul_district

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India




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History

By 2nd century A.D., the Tangkhuls were living in Samshok (Thuangdut) in Myanmar. Ptolemy, a Greek astronomer and geographer

of Alexandria in his Geography of India, 140 A.D. referred to the Tangkhul (Nangalogue) at Triglypton (Thuangdut). The Tangkhuls

began to disperse from Samshok after the invasion of Ko-lo-feng and his successor I-mau-shun the king of Nan-chao in the closing

part of the 8th century A.D. and beginning of the 9th century A.D. They further moved towards the north west of Myanmar.

It is also found that their ancestors had some sorts of being associated with the seashore areas or the seashore’s peoples. Because

most of the ornaments of the Tangkhuls were made of seashells, and conch shells a prominent feature of the people who live on the

shore.

Later, the Tangkhuls, with other tribes of the hills, came to Manipur, Nagaland, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh from China through

Myanmar. The Tangkhuls, came together with Maos, Poumeis, Marams and Thangals tribes. All of them have references to their

dispersal from Makhel, a Mao village in Senapati district Manipur. They had also erected megaliths at Makhel in memory of their

having dispersed from there to various directions. In course of time, every Tangkhul village became a small republic like the Greek

city-states. Every village of the Tangkhul had an unwritten constitution made up of age-old conventions and traditions. The Tangkhul

villages were self-sufficient except for salt and self-governing units ruled by hereditary or elected chief assisted by a Council of

Elders. The chief was a judge, as well as an administrated.

Tangkhul Language

Although, the Tangkhul Naga tribe speaks more than a hundred dialects of their respective villages, their lingua franca is the

Tangkhul dialect. Presently they use a slightly modified English alphabet as their script. Tangkhul Language is included in the

CBSE syllabus and is the first Tribal language from North East India to be included in the CBSE syllabus.

The Literacy rate of the Tangkhul tribe is 81.87 percent as per 2011 census report. Culture: Culturally, the Tangkhuls share close

affinities with other Naga tribes. The Tangkhuls are fond of singing, dancing, and festivities. For every season, there is a festival

that lasts almost a week. Luira phanit (Lui-ngai-ni) is a major festival among them.

The life and art of the Tangkhuls are attractive and captivating. Their different costumes and wears, utensils, architecture,

monumental erections and memorial set-ups, depict their dexterity in art, which also speak of their sense of beauty and fineness.

There are common costumes of wears for both male and female and there are costumes on wears, which are exclusively meant for

male and for female. Some of the classifications are given below;

Common = 1. Laokha, 2. Khalang, 3. Thangkang, 4. Raivat Kachon etc. are common for both man and woman.

Man = 1. Haora, 2. Malao, 3. Phangyai, 4. Luirim, 3. Phorei Kachon etc.

Woman = 1. Khuilang Kashan, 2. Khuilang Kachon, 3. Chonkhom, 4. Kongrah Kashan, 5. Kuiying Muka, 6. Luingamla Kashan

etc. for women.

Music and Dance: Tangkhuls are music lovers. Their songs are soft and melodious. Apart from encoding into the music the varied

seasonal, cultural ideas and philosophies, music has been a medium wherein historical events are also expressed. The songs also

expressed the romantic nature of the people. There are varieties of songs, some are mood special, some are festival or seasonal

specials etc. The folksongs and folklores can be played with musical instruments. Some of the musical instruments are 1. Violin

(Tingteila), 2. Trumpet (Tala), 3. Drum (Pung), 4. Woman’s mouthpiece (Mazo), 5. Flute (Sipa), 6. Bamboo pipe (Kaha

Ngashingkhon) etc. There are also some special occasional dances, like the - Dance for the Dead (Kathi Mahon), Virgin Dance

during Luira Festival (Laa Khanganui), War Dance (Rai Pheichak) etc.

Religion / Christianity in the Tangkhul Tribe

Christianity is the only religion of the Nagas in Manipur. Tangkhul Naga people are the first community in Manipur to become

Christian. Christianity was first brought to the Tangkhul people by Rev. William Pettigrew in 1895. Mr. Raihao the chief of Ukhrul

village allowed him to live and work there as a missionary. The chief converted into Christianity. Later the whole villagers as well

as the tribe along with other tribes converted to Christianity. Now Christianity has become the only religion of the Tangkhul Nagas

tribe. Thus, Christianity has shaped a large part of the current Tangkhul Naga culture.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca




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CONCLUSION

To conclude in brief, the tribals of Manipur are hardworking and laborious peoples. However, it is obvious that they are still facing

lot of problems in the form of exploitation and suppression of their rights in the hands of the majority community. The deprivation

of rights to one community by the other on the one side and the protection of the same by the other communities on the other side

are the prevailing business or political game of the Valley and the Hill peoples of the small state Manipur today. As such, people’s

welfare, equality, and development have not been seen in the interior part of the state since many years back.

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INFLUENCE OF BUD CLIPPING ON SEED YIELD

AND SEED QUALITY CHARACTERS IN PETUNIA CV. MIX

Dr. K. Natarajan2 Dr. P. Srimathi3

ABSTRACT

Petunia is a flower crop with indeterminate growth habit and the flowering initiates with 30 days after transplanting, when the

vegetative growth is more, this may lead to reduced flower production, which in turn adversely influences the quality of seed.

Hence, studies were made to trace the influence of clipping off first formed flower bud on seed yield and seed quality characters

with cv. Mix. The results revealed that clipping of first formed flower bud enhanced flower production, pigmentation of flowers,

pod and seed yield and the resultant seed quality characters in terms of germination and vigour.

INTRODUCTION

Apical dominance is one of the factor that exist in plants particularly in tailoring crop and removal of apical dominance by pulling

or removal or jerking induce more number of side shoots. In some of the plants, at flowering phase the central shoot was lacking

compared to others. Hence, if the plants with such apical dominant characters were identified and clipped off, it continued with the

enormous flowering characters. Petunia is a flower crop with indeterminate growth habit and the flowering initiates with 30 days

after transplanting, when the vegetative growth is more, this may lead to reduced flower production, which in turn adversely influences the

quality of seed (Saxena and Yadav, 1975). Hence an experiment was laid out, where on initiation of reproductive phase the first formed

flower bud were clipped off and compared with unclipped plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Seedlings of petunia were raised initially primary and secondary nursery and the seedlings were transplanted to the main field at the age

of 28 days from the secondary nursery. . A field experiment was conducted adopting randomized block design with 13 replications in

plots of size 2 x 2 m2 with the uniform fertilizer dose of 50:25:100 kg NPK ha-1 with two treatments viz., clipping of flower bud on 25 days

after planting and a control without clipping. The crop was grown under normal package of practices and were observed for the

growth,(plant height (cm), number of branches plant-1), flowering ( days to first an 50 per cent flowering), flower (flower number

plant-1, flower diameter (cm), flower length (cm) and calyx diameter (cm)), leaf pigment (chlorophyll content at vegetative and

maturity stage (Yosheda et al., 1971), carotenoids at vegetative, flowering and maturity stage (Jensen, 1978)),flower pigments

(anthocyanin content (Swain and Hillis, 1959) and Xanthophyll content (Pathmanaban et al., 1996)) pod characters (number of pods

plant-1, weight pod-1 (g) pod yield plot-1 (g), and pod yield ha-1 (kg)) and seed characters (seed number pod-1, seed weight pod-1(g)

seed yield plant-1 (g), seed yield plot-1(g) and seed yield ha-1 (kg)) in randomly selected 10 plants replication wise and treatment wise from

initial period to completion of harvest of pods for seeds. The resultant seed quality characters viz., 100 seed weight (ISTA, 1999),

germination (%) (ISTA, 1999), root and shoot length (cm), dry matter production (mg) and vigour index (AbdulBaki and Anderson,

1973) were analysed for both of the treatment in each of the replication. The data gathered were analysed statistically adopting the

procedure described by Gomez and Gomez (1984). Wherever necessary, the percentage values were transformed to angular (arc

sine) values, before carrying out the statistical analysis. The critical difference (CD) was worked out at 5 per cent (P = 0.05) level

and wherever 'F' value is non-significant it is denoted by "NS".

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Highly significant results were obtained due to clipping treatments for all the evaluated growth, flowering and flower characters,

leaf and flower pigments, pod, seed and resultant seed quality characters (Table 1).The plant height was 7 cm less in clipped plant

than unclipped plants. But the number of branches was more in clipped plant (22) than unclipped plant (12).The increased number

of branches in clipped plant could be attributed that terminal bud clipping which encourages the lateral growth enabling higher

production of branches. Similar results were also reported by, Ezedinma (1973) and Patel and Patel (1990) in various crops.

The flower characters viz., number of flowers, flower length, flower diameter and leaf and flower pigment characters viz., anthocyanin and

xanthophyll were also more in clipped plant than unclipped plant. Saxena and Yadav (1975) reported that clipping of young flower bud at a

proper stage encourages branching which ultimately will produce more number of side branches and in turn flowers. Clipping thus served as a

2 Assistant Professor, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Vridhachalam, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu, India,

[email protected] 3Professor, Seed Center, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu, India, [email protected]






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conservative measure and the well spread plant behaved better in putting forth more number of perfect flowers with quality characters. The

results of the present study were also in confirmation with Khanna et al. (1986) in dianthus, Chezhiyan et al. (1986) in chrysanthemum and

Menaka (2000) in amaranthus.

The pod characters viz., number of pods, pod yield plant-1 and seed characters such as number of seeds pod-1, seed yield plant-1 and

100 seed weight were also more in clipped plant than unclipped plant (Table 1). The pod and seed yield of clipped plant based on

single plant was 81 and 73 per cent higher than unclipped plant. The increased yield due to clipped plant could be attributed to

proportionate increase in yield contributing characters such as productive branches and 100 seed weight. Similar results on clipping were

also reported by Sundararajan (1995) in pullipesera, Arulprabhu (1998) in pole bean and Menaka (2000) in amaranthus.

The seeds collected from the plants of apical bud clipping recorded 6 per cent higher germination than unclipped plant and were

associated with higher vigour in terms of root length, shoot length, dry matter production and vigour index. The suppression of

growth due to terminal bud clipping led to the diversion of more photo assimilates to the seed component resulting in improvement

of seed quality, in terms of germination and vigour parameters. The results were also in agreement with the results of Gandhi (1964)

in Bengal gram. Thus, the study highlighted that:

Clipping of first formed flower bud enhanced flower production, seed yield and resultant seed quality characters.

REFERENCES

Abdul-Baki, A. A., & Anderson, J. D. (1973). Vigour determination in soybean seed by multiple criteria. Crop Sci., 13, 630-633.

Arulprabhu, C. (1998). Studies on Certain Aspects of Seed Production and Storage in Pole Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). (M.Sc.

(Ag.) Thesis). Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

Cheziyan, N., Nanjan, K., & Md. Abdul Khader. (1986). Effect of spacing and pinching in chrysanthemum cv. CO1. South Indian

Hort., 34(6), 397-400.

Ezedinma, F. O. C. (1973). Effect of defoliation and topping on semi upright cowpeas in a humid tropical environment. Expt. Agric.,

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Gandhi, R. T. (1964). Nipping and fertilizer studies bengalgram. Agric Res., 4(3), 145.

Gomez, K. A., & Gomez, A. A. (1984). Statistical procedures for agricultural research of legumes seeds of different density.

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Khanna, K., Arora, J. S., & Singh, J. (1986). Effect of spacing and pinching on growth and flower production of dianthus. Indian

J. Hor., 43(1&2), 148-152.

Menaka, C. (2000). Seed Technological Studies in Amaranthus (Amaranthus Tricolor) Cv. CO 5. (M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis. Tamil

Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

Patel, P. S., & Patel, Z. G. (1990). Effect of nipping of gram. Annals. Agric. Res., 1(10), 215-217.

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Saxena, M. C., & Yadav, D. S. (1975). Some agronomic consideration of pigeonpea and chickpea. Report of the International

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Sundararajan, P. (1995). Studies on Certain Aspects of Seed Production in Pillipersara (Vigna trilobus Ait), sunnhemp (Crotalaria

juncea L.) and velvet bean (Stizobolium deeringianum Bort), (M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

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APPENDIX

Table-1: Influence of Clipping on Growth, Flower, Flowering, Leaf Pigments, Flower Pigments,

Pod, Seed and Resultant Seed and Seedling Quality Characteristics

Parameters Clipping Unclipping Mean CD (P=0.05)

Growth characteristics

Plant height (cm) 65 72 69 0.163

Number of branches plant-1 22 12 17 1.846

Flowering characteristics

Days to first flowering 43 38 41 2.789




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Days to 50 per cent flowering 75 70 73 2.873

Flower characteristics

Number of flowers plant-1 909 347 628 8.776

Flower diameter (cm) 7.17 5.26 621 0.317

Flower length (cm) 7.95 6.04 699 0.273

Calyx diameter (cm) 3.25 2.46 286 0.282

Leaf pigments

chlorophyll content (mg g-1)

At vegetative stage 0.956 0.812 0.884 0.028

At flowering stage 1.245 1.120 1.182 0.018

At maturity stage 1.180 0.809 0.994 0.028

Carotenoid content at flowering stage

(mg g-1)

0.323 0.258 0.291 0.031

Flower pigments

Anthocyanin (OD value) 2.108 1.546 1.827 0.048

Xanthophyll (OD value) 0.485 0.390 0.438 0.004

Pod characteristics

Number of pods plant-1 874 226 550 35.684

Weight pod-1 (g) 0.1296 0.0872 0.1088 0.003

Pod yield plant-1(g) 100.5 18.6 59.5 1.990

Seed characteristics

Number of seeds pod-1 (g) 878 604 741 26.265

Seed weight pod-1 (g) 0.0692 0.0478 0.0584 0.003

Seed yield plant-1 (g) 26.98 7.90 17.44 1.817

Resultant seed quality

characteristics

100 seed weight (mg) 9.7 6.3 8.0 0.060

Germination (%) 96

(79.23)

90

(71.73) 93

(75.48)

1.842

Drymatter production

(mg 20 seedlings-1)

1.9 1.7 18 0.127

Vigour index 905 347 626 4.880

Note: Figures in parentheses indicate arc sine values.


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A STUDY ON AGRICULTURE SECTOR: A KEY ISSUE FOR INDIA IN WTO

Dr. Abhishek Tripathi4

ABSTRACT

Agriculture is the foundation of the Indian economy. India is the world's second largest agricultural producer. More than half

of the population depends on the rural economy as a source of employment. Agricultural activities contribute around 17.3% of

gross value added in 2016-2017. The properties of the land are scattered, smaller (almost 3/4 of the properties are less than 2

hectares). Irrigation resources are limited to only 35% of total irrigated agricultural land. Inputs for production are less

developed.

As a result, crop yields are low. In addition, India has a population of 1.3 billion people with an annual growth rate of 1.5%.

The WHI report published in 2015 rated India as one of the leading countries in a hunger situation. In 2013, the Government

of India signed the National Food Security Law (NFSA) to guarantee the availability of subsidized grain for two thirds of the

population. The public distribution system will provide five kilos per person per month at a heavily subsidized price. The degree

of economic development of a country grows in the performance of the agricultural sector. This sector has received special

attention in all areas, be it the food security program, the strong dependence on rural areas, the dominance of the socio-political

landscape and so on. However, the same treatment has led to distorted business practices.

The GATT faces international trade in agricultural products with limited market access due to significant obstacles to imports,

changes in cereals production due to large national subsidies and dumping by export subsidies, etc. Prior to Uruguay,

commodity prices were depressed in agriculture and exporters of agricultural products from developing countries had difficulty

facing the competition in the international market. AOA aims to discipline agricultural trade by calling on member countries to

lower tariffs, convert non-tariff barriers to customs barriers, and demand reductions in domestic support and export subsidies.

This article examines and discusses the problems of its fundamental role in the world economy, the WTO regime, and India's

agricultural prospects.

Agriculture: A key issue for India in the WTO

Agriculture has been the backbone of the Indian economy for a long time. Agriculture is and may remain for some time a key issue

in the WTO. The criticality and sensitivity of the Indian agricultural sector has been demonstrated around the world and plays a key

role in the country's economic position. The share of agriculture in the national GDP is 24% and about 66% of the population

depends on the rural economy for their livelihood. Nearly 60% of the arable land, about 100 million hectares out of 167 million

hectares, remains vulnerable to the monsoon. Crop yields in India are still very low relative to crop yields in some other countries.

Agriculture and agricultural industries in rural areas play an important role in preventing migration from rural areas to urban areas

and, as a result, reduce the workload in cities with surplus population.

Issues of Concern for India

Agriculture is a big problem for India in the WTO negotiations. The following reasons focus on India's concerns:

The plight of farmers in developing countries is directly related to the level and nature of subsidies to the agricultural

sector in industrialized countries.

Exporters of agricultural products from developing countries are four to seven times more protected than the

manufacturing sector and export to developed countries.

Agricultural subsidies granted by creditor countries are more than six times what they spend on developing countries'

development aid.

Governments support sugar producers with $ 6.4 billion annually, almost the same as all exports from developing

countries.

Distortions in agricultural trade caused by high subsidies in industrialized countries exclude potentially more competitive

agricultural products from developing countries such as India. This poses a high livelihood risk to more than 650 million

people in India who depend solely on agriculture,

4Assistant Professor, Marketing Management, Prestige Institute of Management, Madhya Pradesh, India, [email protected]





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The legitimate concerns of millions of farmers in India, where farming means survival and non-commercial operation

cannot be sacrificed to serve the profits of a few agribusiness millions in the developed world, is being held over a thousand

million dollars a day in subsidies in the OEED countries.

Issues of Special and Differential Treatment (S & D) for developing countries, including the need for all S & D provisions,

are specific, operational and effective, relevant to India.

Imperfect Competition Prevailing in Global Agricultural Trade

Increased trade for countries in the agrarian reform process based on the assumption that in a fully competitive world, the benefits

of improved terms of trade will be fully transferred to developing farmers. However, the evidence shows that international

agricultural markets, as reported by Gill and Brar (1996), are not perfectly competitive. Table 3.2 shows that some large

multinational corporations and commercial agencies dominate agricultural exports. Empirical studies also indicate that multinational

corporations enjoy some market power in agricultural export markets (Deodhar and Sheldon 1995, 1996). It is possible for many

countries to import and export agricultural products in the international market, but what counts is the structure of the market and

the performance of each of these export markets. Trade liberalization eliminates tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade. However, this

does not guarantee perfectly competitive market structures. The existence of economies of scale and of significant range, and the

irreversibility of investment, can lead to market imperfections, even after liberalization (WTO, 1997). Multinational companies and

commercial agencies enjoy a unique position as oligopolists and oligopsonists in international agricultural markets. Economic theory

tells us that these oligopolists in the export market demand a price higher than the marginal cost.

The developing countries will pay these oligopsonists a much lower price than they would have paid under conditions of perfect

competition. In addition, multinational corporations and commercial agencies belong to Western Europe, the United States and

Japan. Because of agricultural trade reforms, as many studies predict, the increase in international prices cannot be entirely passed

on to farmers and / or developing countries

The Impact of WTO Agreements on Indian Agriculture

The impact of the WTO agreements on Indian agriculture is as follows:

Impact of the tariff application process of the Agreement on Agriculture on agricultural imports from India. One of the main features

of the Agreement is that all quantitative restrictions on agricultural products are replaced by an appropriate amount of tariffs, in

order to promote greater transparency in international trade. The 1986-88 reference period was chosen because world prices for

food grains and other agricultural products were very low and, therefore, the difference between national and world prices would

provide sufficient protection for the domestic products of all the countries against the increase in imports.

The appropriate level of tariff is calculated by using the following formula:

T= [(Pd - Pw)/ Pw] x 100,

T is the tariff equivalent or base rate of duty

Pd is the domestic price of the product and Pw is the average world price during the three-year base period of 1986-88.

However, many countries have used an inflated domestic price to benefit from a much higher level of protection than the current

level. In addition, countries they have arbitrarily tied their tariffs, which go against the objective of switching from quantitative

restrictions to tariffing. This process of arbitrary binding of tariffs at the top is called "Sale Sale". For example, the EU has applied

70 percent of the tariff on sugar and increased tariffs on rice from 153 to 361 percent. UU It was from 14 to 32 p. In addition, in

Canada, customs and cheese are 351 percent. 100 and 289 p. India has established a collective agreement of 300% for edible oils,

150% cotton, 150% for processed food, 150% for sugar and 100% for milk and milk. Cream. "Until the results of dirty pricing are

questioned during the examination process, everything will remain fair and India, as in other countries, will continue to protect

sensitive agricultural products because of the high tariff. However, as soon as these irrational "dirty prices" are questioned and

reviewed, it will be difficult for India to restrict its agricultural imports. This could lead to a very difficult situation for Indian

agriculture.

Impact on India's Farm Sector Due to Tariff Reduction

To facilitate international trade, tariffs imposed by countries should be reduced. In this sense, developed countries under the AoA

have the basic right to an unweighted average of 36 percent discount, which for each collective line (each product) was exceeded

by at least 15 percent of the six-year period between 1995 and 2000 and developing countries by 24%, for each tariff line by at least

10% during the ten years 1995-2004. However, these reduction commitments were due to the fixed part of the basic pricing process

of the lower tariff. The country reduced the duty of its sensitive products to a lower percentage (subject to the minimum requirement




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for each tariff line of 15 percent for developed countries and 10 percent for developing countries) and for products that were less of

a threat to other countries. For example: If there are five products in the case of developing countries, two of which are susceptible

and three resistant, it can be done in each of the non-sensitive products for the three sensitive products, a reduction of 10 percent

and a 45 percent reduction for placing the unweighted average of (10 + 10 + 10 + 45 + 45) / 5 = 120/5 = 24%. This reduction is

related to the increase in the base rate in the tariff classification. Therefore, the benefit of the agricultural sector of India is expected

to decrease because of the reduction of tariffs of developed countries that has not been entirely possible. India can also protect its

agricultural markets, and India has done it with some agricultural products.

Impact on India's Farm Sector, Due to Imports, because of the Minimum Market Access Provisions

Market access for agricultural products is regulated under the "tariff only" regime, so that there can be no restrictions on trade in

agricultural products except through customs duties. This means that non-tariff barriers, such as quantitative restrictions on imports,

i.e. quotas, import restrictions on licenses, import licenses, etc., which should be replaced by tariffs prior to the establishment of the

agreement. Imports in order to ensure the same level of protection and then a gradual reduction of customs duties should be India

indicated in its WTO statement at the time of the Uruguay Round that it was not obliged to grant minimum market access because

that was a problem with the balance of payments. ). Even if the Quantitative Restrictions (QRS) remaining in the balance of payments

were abolished during the transposition period (195-2004), India would not be required to have minimal access to the market.

However, now that India is in the balance of payments, it has to adhere to the market access standard.

The market access regime is divided into two parts, namely. Minimum access and current access.

Minimum Access: The minimum access requirement is applied based on the "tariff quota" (TRQ), which allows the entry

of a certain import quota in a country below the normal tariff rate or in a country. Nominal interest rate according to the

most-favored-nation principle. It is 3% of average demand during the three-year base from 1986 to 1988, at the beginning

of the implementation period in 1995, and increased to 5% by the end of the implementation period in 2004.

Current Access: The volume of exports to a given country under preferential conditions under a bilateral trade agreement.

AOA protects existing existing access.

Both the minimum access and the current access rules can coexist and are not cumulative. Therefore, in a country where the current

access situation exists, total imports will be higher than those of 3 to 5%. India currently has no access to its agricultural products,

either with the EU or with the United States. UU or the nations of Southeast Asia, etc., who import agricultural products in which

India has a comparative advantage. Therefore, India needs to speed up the process of accession to a free trade agreement such as

ASEAN in order to gain access to these markets at a preferential price. Countries are also exempt from market access for agricultural

products that are their staple food. In the case of India, for example, rice and wheat are classified as staple foods and there is no

market access for these products. The issue of market access will still be negotiated in the Doha Round Negotiations, which is

currently at a standstill. India has set its import duties at 100 percent for primary agricultural products and 150 percent for processed

products agricultural products and 300% for edible oils, with the exception of certain goods, which comprise about 119 tariff lines.

It would be unaffordable and would make imports extremely impractical. 119 of bond coverage, bindings are successfully negotiated

15 tariff lines, including skim milk powder, spelled, paddy rice, rice, corn, millet, sorghum, oilseed rape and mustard, grape editions,

etc. GATT Article XXVIII of December 1999 and the mandatory quantities have been sufficiently corrected upwards in order to

provide adequate protection for domestic producers. For example, for milk and dairy products, India had committed to apply a zero

percent tariff, which was renegotiated 100 percent.

In the case of sugar, the bound rate is 150%, but the applied import duty is currently applied 60% Although India is not entitled to

use the special safeguard mechanism of the Agreement, which can only be used by the countries that use it, it can take protective

measures in accordance with the Agreement. WTO on safeguard measures. Serious threat or serious threat to domestic

manufacturers.

Impact of WTO Agreement on India’s Public Distribution System (PDS)

PDS operations in India do not have subsidies for the fan or producers, but these are consumer subsidies, which are aimed at poor

people in rural and urban areas to meet their food needs. These consumer subsidies are exempt from WTO discipline and this is

clearly stated in the agreement. India has also indicated in its WTO Repository of Commitments that the concessional sale of food

grains through PDS and other systems to satisfy basic food needs as a social safety net, with the provisions of the agreement are in

conformity. The calendar has been reviewed and accepted by our business partners. India is also not a signatory to the plurilateral

agreement, which includes public procurement. Therefore, the fear that the WTO agreement affects our public distribution system

(PDS) is unfounded. Annex 2 of the Agreement on Agriculture contains provisions on the participation of enterprises in food safety,

facilitates the implementation of public programs for maintaining stocks for food security in developing countries, whose operations




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are transparent and carried out objective criteria or guidelines officially published in accordance with the provisions of WTO. The

agreement establishes that the difference between the purchase price and the external reference price is indicated in the AMS.

Therefore, the operation of our public distribution system under the Agreement on Agriculture has no restrictions.

Impact of WTO on India’s Ability to Follow Her Own Agricultural Policies and Programs

All our development projects can be continued under the WTO Agriculture Agreement. These are subsidies for research, pest

control, marketing and promotion, infrastructure services, including investments in electricity, roads and other means of transport,

port facilities and marketing, dams, etc. For a developing country like India, there are agricultural subsidies that are also eligible

and need not be reduced; these are investment grants, which are usually available to low-income and resource-poor farmers. The

above types of subsidies represent the majority of planned agricultural subsidies in India, for example, the government announced

in 2001-02 the National Agricultural Policy, which should stimulate growth to promote better management of the food industry,

eliminate restrictions on the dissemination of Crops in the country, increased lending to the agricultural sector through institutional

channels (2001 to Rs. 64,000,000 rupees) -2002, an increase of 24% over the previous year), special initiatives such as the credit

subsidy for the construction of refrigerated chambers and rural deposits , lowering the interest rate (10% to 8.5%) to finance the

storage of plants. In the 2008 budget, the Minister of Finance announced a loan exemption for agricultural loans totaling one million

rupees. Therefore, the agreement does not require a development policy in agriculture.

Impact of the WTO Agreement on Agriculture on Aid for Domestic Support to the Agricultural Rudder Sector

In line with the Agriculture Agreement, national support measures aim to identify acceptable measures to support farmers and

reduce unacceptable support to traders who distort trade. These measures are aimed primarily at the industrialized countries, where

the level of agricultural support at national level is extremely high.

Internal support is divided into two categories, namely:

Minimum or minimum trade distorting support often referred to as "green boxing" and "blue boxing".

Trade distorting support, often referred to as "Amber Box Measures".

Domestic trade-distorting support is measured by the so-called "total aid" (total AMS), expressed as a percentage of the total value

of agricultural production, and includes both product-specific support and nonspecific. The agreement provides for a 20% reduction

in the total cost of AMS for industrialized countries in 6 years (1995-2000) and 13.33% for developing countries in 10 years (1995-

2004). 1986-88 as base period. Domestic support to the agricultural sector of up to 10% of the total value of agricultural products.

Developing countries and 5% in industrialized countries are allowed. In other words, AMS is not subject to any reduction obligation

within this limit.

There was general concern that subsidies to Indian farmers were no longer possible under the WTO Agriculture Agreement. This

concern is false because India has no obligation under the WTO Agreement on Agriculture to reduce subsidies to our farmers. In

fact, the total value added of subsidies to farmers, i.e. subsidies for fertilizers, electricity, seeds, pesticides and the credit costs for

all crops and agricultural products is good. Less than the Uruguay Round. In fact, some sort of support is needed, both product-

specific and product-specific, to achieve the goal of food security and to be self-sufficient in food production. Calculations were

carried out by eminent experts such as AVGanesan who, in 1986-87 and 1988-89 1987-1988, claim special subsidies for nonspecific

products and products supplied by the Government of India to agriculture without claiming concessions in the agreement provided

for a negative Rs 19 billion Rs. This means that we should. In addition, agriculture will be subsidized for Rs. 19,000 crores to even

reach the range of positive subsidies, let alone 10 percent, which is almost impossible in the future.

Developing countries have also benefited from three additional exemptions, namely.

Investment grants generally available for agriculture.

Agricultural subsidies, generally available for low-income or low-income producers.

Internal support to producers to promote the diversification of the culture of illegal narcotics.

Impact of the WTO Agreement on Agriculture on Food Security

The Preamble to the Agreement on Agriculture (AOA) stipulates that obligations under the agricultural reform program should be

treated fairly with respect to non-trade concerns, including food security, among all its members. Article 20 of the agreement, which

mandates negotiations on the continuation of the reform process, also recognizes that non-trade concerns, such as food security,

should be taken into account in the negotiations. "The social and economic vulnerability of agriculture in developing countries

generally leads to parameters such as the important contribution of agriculture to GDP, low commercialization of agriculture, low




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productivity, low market orientation, overweight operations small and marginal unprofitable properties, lack of infrastructure,

depending on the monsoon, resistance to natural disasters and dependence of a large percentage of the population on agriculture for

subsistence, etc. this vulnerability justifies the extension of special provisions to members of Developing countries to ensure their

food security Therefore, food security is not only of great economic importance but also a very important socio-political concern in

the main agricultural economies, such as India and India

Benefits Granted to Developing Countries under the WTO Agriculture Agreement

The agricultural agreement is seen as an opportunity for India's agricultural exports. For this, the industrialized countries must

substantially reduce their subsidies and enable better market access. However, the OECD countries have increased their support for

agriculture as a whole. In 1986-88, the OECD countries granted the agricultural sector a subsidy of 361 billion dollars, which

increased to 381 billion dollars in 1999. Cutting their subsidies will increase prices for agricultural products on the world market,

which will make our exports more competitive. Liberalization in agriculture around the world creates market openings that we use

every time to seize opportunities. Ashok Gulati and Tim Kelley said, "India would be a net winner of trade liberalization and increase

in rural incomes, and countries like India could benefit not only from improved market access opportunities in developed and

developing countries, but also from reduced subsidized exports and incentives.

Status of Implementation of the Agricultural Agreement

It is now a fact that the Uruguay Round has not achieved the liberalization of trade in agriculture to the extent desired. In the

industrialized countries, there have been no significant reductions in domestic support and export subsidies. Although the Agreement

on Agriculture has achieved much in establishing standards for international trade, its success in terms of immediate market opening

has been limited. Developing countries have not yet achieved the expected benefits of agricultural trade liberalization.

Present Status of the Implementation of Agreement on Agriculture

It was also expected that the fair trade regime considered would help efficient manufacturers to obtain higher prices for their

products. By contrast, the prices of most agricultural products are falling in world markets, mainly due to the export of subsidized

agricultural products from Western countries. It is expected that the production of cereals will pass from the developed countries to

the developing countries due to the decrease of the national production in the industrialized countries. However, empirical evidence

shows that the structure of global cereal production and export has not changed much. Several industrialized countries have

continued to provide high levels of domestic support to their agricultural sectors, encouraging overproduction in these countries and

resulting in low international prices. The guidelines developed in many. Countries have only been modified cosmetically by

changing support from one to another "Box" to another.

Access to markets in developed countries is also hampered by the maintenance of high tariffs on products of interest to developing

countries and a series of non-tariff barriers to trade. In a recent study conducted in 14 countries, the Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concluded that the quantity exported or the diversification of products and destinations

has hardly changed. Tariff peaks continue to block exports from developing countries to industrialized countries. In some sectors,

particularly cereals, sugar and dairy products, tariff rates remain very high. Tariff escalation (increased tariffs in successive stages

of processing) is blocking the export of value-added products from developing to industrialized countries. Strict sanitary and

phytosanitary measures continue to be a major obstacle to the diversification of horticultural and meat products exports. As the

accession of new participants to the tariff quota is difficult, India requests a significant increase in tariff quotas until its final

abolition. It is also important that the management of tariff quotas be more transparent and equitable.

CONCLUSION

The expectations that prevailed in the industrialized countries at the time of the conclusion of the Agreement on Agriculture with

respect to a reduction of domestic support or export subsidies did not occur. Access to markets was effectively denied to developing

countries. In the case of India, domestic policy instruments for the promotion of agriculture or the specific supply of subsidized

food grains could be kept unimpeded. National policies, such as the implementation of the Minimum Promotion Price (MSP), the

Public Distribution System (PDS) and the provision of agricultural subsidies were not limited by the agreement. Some provisions

of Annex 2 of the agreement, known as the "green box", which gives us the flexibility to support research and extension services,

pest and disease control, marketing and promotion services, infrastructure development and payments for relief of natural disasters,

payments under the regional aid program for disadvantaged regions and payments under environmental programs.

As agriculture is an important part of the Indian economy, one of the main challenges of the negotiations would be to find better

market access for Indian agricultural products, especially in industrialized countries. Food security of our people, protecting the

interests of local farmers and their livelihoods.




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of organizations. The contributions can be conceptual, theoretical and empirical in nature, review papers, case studies,

conference reports, relevant reports & news, book reviews and briefs; and must reflect the standards of academic rigour.














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‘IMPROVED BREAD WHEAT CULTIVATION - A NEW HORIZON IN

AGRICULTURAL DIVERSIFICATION PRACTICES’

A STUDY AMONG MARGINAL FARMERS IN AWBARE DISTRICT OF

SOMALI REGIONAL STATE IN ETHIOPIA

Muktar Mahamoud Habane5 Dr. Partha6

ABSTRACT

Africa is the only continent whose share of reported disasters has increased over the past decade. Hydro-meteorological hazards

(drought, flood, windstorms, particularly tropical cyclones, landslides and wildfire), occur most pervasively and account for

most of the people affected by disasters (UNISDR, 2004). Africa is particularly prone to drought and flood episodes that are

associated with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomena. These have resulted in the loss of lives and livelihoods,

the erosion of assets, mass migration and conflict (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2008). Together, drought and

floods account for 80% of loss of life and 70% of economic losses linked to natural hazards in Sub-Saharan Africa (Economic

Commission for Africa, 2008). Most livelihoods strategies on the continent, however, rely heavily on agriculture. The majority

of the continent is poor live in rural areas, and is estimated that 70% to 80% of Africans depend on agriculture for consumption

and as a source of income. The diversification of agricultural products played a pivotal role particularly in Awbare district in

Somali region of Ethiopia has proved significant to this study. This paper has tried to focus the relevant issues and challenges

faced by the marginal farmers while adopting diversification practices at that region.

PRELUDE

Africa is the only continent whose share of reported disasters has increased over the past decade. Hydro-meteorological hazards

(drought, flood, windstorms, particularly tropical cyclones, landslides and wildfire), occur most pervasively and account for most

of the people affected by disasters (UNISDR, 2004). Africa is particularly prone to drought and flood episodes that are associated

with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomena. These have resulted in the loss of lives and livelihoods, the erosion of

assets, mass migration and conflict (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2008). Together, drought and floods account for

80% of loss of life and 70% of economic losses linked to natural hazards in Sub-Saharan Africa (Economic Commission for Africa,

2008). Famine has also affected millions in East, West and to a lesser extent, Central Africa, with the Sahelian and Ethiopian famines

of the 1980s amongst the most publicized of these. While the causes of famines and lesser food shortages are complex, drought,

flooding and conflict have often served as catalysts for acute food insecurity.

Figure-1

Sources: UN Report: 2016

Most livelihoods strategies on the continent, however, rely heavily on agriculture. The majority of the continent is poor live in rural

areas, and is estimated that 70% to 80% of Africans depend on agriculture for consumption and as a source of income – although

the proportion of the population engaged in agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa is shrinking rapidly (Tacoli, 2002). The sector is an

5Senior Lecturer and Head Department of Rural Development and Agriculture Extension, College of Dry Land Agriculture, Jigjiga

University, Jigjiga-Somali Region, Ethiopia, [email protected] 6Assistant Professor (Development Studies), Department of Rural Development and Agriculture Extension, College of Dry land

Agriculture, Jigjiga University, Jigjiga-Somali Region, Ethiopia, [email protected]





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important source of work. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates, for instance, that 65% of all of the employed in

sub-Saharan Africa - 192 million people - work in agriculture. In many cases, the rural poor also depend wholly or in part on natural

resources, such as fish, wood and thatch, and in many areas, wild foods represent an important food source where other livelihood

sources fail. Dependence on the agricultural sector is not confined to rural areas, however, and many of those living in urban areas

derive food and income from agriculture (Tacoli, 2002).

Wheat is one of the most important cereal crops in the world in production, the latest production prospects for 2016 and the projected

utilization in 2016/17, world wheat stocks by the close of crop seasons in 2017 are seen to increase for the fourth consecutive season,

reaching 215.5 million tones, about 2.4 percent (5 million tons) higher than their already above-average opening level. Total wheat

output in 2016 is put at around 724 million tons, down 1.4 percent, or 10 million tons, from the 2015 record (FOA, 2016). Wheat

provides more nutrients to the world than any other single food source, supplying approximately 19% of the world’s caloric needs

annually, while being produced on nearly 217 million hectares of land worldwide (FAO, 2012).

In all African countries, wheat consumption steadily increased during the past 20 years because of growing population, changing

food preferences and socioeconomic change associated with urbanization.

The average wheat productivity in SSA is 1.7 tons/ha, nearly 50% below the world average. The national average wheat productivity

in SSA varies across countries and the yield data from experimental stations and crop models indicate a very high yield potential,

among the highest reported for spring wheat. Therefore, the yield gap can be filled by use of improved technologies.

Ethiopia wheat ranks second to South Africa in terms of total wheat area and production. In Ethiopia, wheat ranks fourth after Teff,

Maize and Sorghum in area coverage and third in total production (CSA, 2012). Wheat is one of the major staple crops in Ethiopia

in production and consumption, in terms of caloric intake and it is the second most important food in the country behind maize.

(Berhane et al., 2011).

Wheat production in agro-pastoral households of Somali Region had started before 1970; however, the introduction and

dissemination of improved bread wheat at farmer level were started the Regional Agricultural Bureau with the collaboration of

Somali Regional Pastoral and Agro pastoral Research Institute (SoRPARI) and Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE) in 1999 (SoRPARI,

2010).

In the agro-pastoral farming system, the introduced technologies were not widely accepted by farmers, especially the farmers in

Awbare district. This indicates that there are different factors directly or indirectly influencing the adoption of technologies that are

believed to bring change in smallholder farmers’ productivity.

SELECTIVE STUDIES

Dasgupta (1989) defined adoption as the continued use of recommended idea or practice by individuals over a reasonably long

period. Rogers (1983) described accepted model of diffusion of new technology and categorized adopters as Innovators, Early

adopters, Early and late majority and Laggards, where innovators are very small group of people, educated rich to invest and can

afford to take risk whereas early adopters are less prone to take risk, Nkala et al. (2011) adoption defined as not only a binary

outcome, but also as a continuous process by conducting a meta-analysis of Conservation Agriculture (CA), focusing mainly on the

constraints to successful implementation of CA projects in Southern Africa. innovation system approach offers a more holistic,

multidisciplinary and comprehensive framework for analyzing innovation process, the roles of science and technology actors and

their interactions, emphasizing on wider stakeholder participation, linkages and institutional context of innovation and

processes(Agwu et al., 2008). Sasakawa Global 2000 (SG-2000) promoted the use of productivity enhancing technologies and

access to inputs and credit, coupled with training using 1/4 to 1/2 ha demonstration plots that were closely supervised by research

and extension. SG-2000s goal was to increase food production and stimulate links between research and extension, via their on-

farm demonstration plots, SG-2000 showed that with sufficient inputs and supervision and management farmers could double or

triple their cereal yields of maize and wheat (Davis et al., 2010) The result of several studies (Tiamiyu et al., 2014; Leake and Adam,

2015; Ogutu and Obare, 2015) respectively titled Adoption of On-farm and Post-harvest Rice Quality Enhancing Technologies in

Nigeria and the study titled Factors determining allocation of land for improved wheat variety by smallholder farmers of northern

Ethiopia indicated that credit availability positively affects the adoption of improved technologies such as technology packages

comprising improved varieties and chemical fertilizers. Several findings on extension contact indicated that positive influence of

extension contact to the adoption of new technologies (Paudel and Matsuoka, 2008; Tura et al., 2010; Umeh and Chukwu, 2013;

Tiamiyu et al., 2014; Leake and Adam, 2015). Regular contact with extension agents make farmers being aware of new technologies

and how they can be applied. In 2012, the largest volumes of wheat were produced in Oromia (57.5 percent) and Amhara (26.4

percent), followed by the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR, 9 percent) and Tigray (6.9 percent).

Although wheat is a major crop in Ethiopia, less than 8 percent of farmers are using improved disease resistant seed varieties (USDA,

2013).




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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

The major challenge confronting most developing countries including Ethiopia is improving rural as well as urban food security

and stimulating underlying food system development. There is an ever-increasing concern that it is becoming more and more

difficult to achieve and sustain the needed increase in agricultural production with the present extension efforts, because there are

limited opportunities for further area expansion (Techane, 2002).

The vast majority of Ethiopian farmers are small-scale producers and the goal of development is undoubtedly changing the scope

and efficiency of food production. However, majority of Ethiopia’s farmers have been using traditional way of agricultural practices,

this has contributed for low productivity of the agricultural sector, the estimates show about 94% of Ethiopian farmers rely on less

than 5 hectares of land, of which 55% cultivate less than 2 hectares. Crop productivity remains very low relative to its potential

yields, only averaging 2.21 t/ha between 2010 and 2014 (World Bank, 2014). According to (CSA, 2014), low productivity could be

attributed to many factors including land degradation, lack of improved varieties, small farm size, recurrent drought and poor farm

technology. High food prices since 2008 also affected food security for the poor and net-buying households. Whereas much of the

recent production growth is often attributed to area expansion, there is significant potential for increasing productivity of food crops

in Ethiopia through the introduction of promising crop technologies like improving the varieties.

Wheat has assumed its importance as an important staple in Ethiopia and accounts for about 15% of the total cereal production and

20% of the cereal consumption. However, Ethiopia still deficient in terms of wheat production to meet the national requirements.

In 2009, the country had about 10% wheat production deficit, which led to its imports of about 40% of its total supply (FAO,

2014).Ethiopia is the only country in sub-Saharan Africa where smallholder wheat production meets more than 70% of the national

consumption demand (Shiferaw et al., 2011).

Wheat yield in Ethiopia which was 1.83 ton/ha in 2009 and has increased by around 30% to 2.4 ton/ha in 2013 (FAO, 2013). In

addition to this, according to Rashid (2010), total production of major cereals including maize, wheat and teff has jumped from 5.7

million tons in 2004 to 9.3 million tons in 2007, representing an overall growth of 63.5%. This growth was linked to area expansion

and yield improvement. The corresponding increase in acreage and yield for the three crops combined was 25.6%, 27.4 and 30.2%,

respectively. On the other hand, productivity remains below potential and estimates suggest that the gap between potential and

actual yields, as percentage of actual yield, was 80% to 90% for major cereals in the country. However, the primarily rain fed wheat

yields for smallholder farmers in Ethiopia are still low and lagging behind by about 33% and 60% below Kenyan and South African

averages between 2009 and 2013. Meeting the current and fast growing future demand for food stables in Ethiopia will require

better crop-breeding, better crop resistance to diseases, pest, resilience and adaption to climate shocks and reduced use of external

inputs (Shiferaw et al., 2011a, Shiferaw et al., 2013).

Wheat is one of the most important cereal crops grown in Awbare district, as well as in the country. Farmers in the area grow both

the improved and local varieties and become the staple food of rural agro pastoral households in Awbare district; it contributes a

cash source for a household and raw material for flour factories. However, there are some farmers that produce maize, sorghum and

barley, which has less benefit than bread wheat in terms of market and consumption (ADAO, 2015). In adoption category the farmers

of the study area preferred and adopted Kubsa, Pavon 76 and Hawi varieties in little amount by separating the varieties in different

criteria (SoRPARI, 2010).

Even though there is a tremendous and continuous effort made by livestock, crop and rural development bureau of Somali region

in collaboration with Somali region pastoral and agro pastoral research institute on the introduction and dissemination of improved

bread wheat varieties, still the status of adoption is not yet known. Therefore, assessing the adoption status and factors affecting the

adoption of improved bread wheat by involving and participating farmers in the study area can help to get reliable information that

was useful and also as an input in promotion of improved bread wheat varieties within the study area as well as other areas having

similar socio-economic and geographical conditions and widely adopted disease resistant and drought tolerant varieties are very

important to achieve these objectives.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Agricultural scientists on research stations were frequently successful in dramatically increasing yields per hectare, but their varieties

often were not adopted by farmers because of the constraints faced the farmers or because the varieties did not meet farmers’ needs.

Any varieties used by farmers represent a particular way to solve one or several problems. Each variety responds to farmers’

concerns in specific ways, which may be regarded as the characteristics that define the varieties.The result of the model revealed

that the explanatory variables such as extension service, farm size and perception of farmers about the yield of the improved bread

wheat variety were important variables which had positive and statistically significantly influence adoption of improved bread wheat

varieties, whereas sex, age, distance from DA office and distance from nearest market were found to have a significant and negative

influence on the adoption decision of improved bread wheat varieties.




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The study also revealed that that farm size significantly affects improved bread wheat adoption. The result shows that the new

improved bread wheat variety is more likely to be adopted by farmers with large farms. This implies need of research, extension,

and planning agencies to be sensitive to the needs of smaller farmers through developing and disseminating technologies and

strategies that are relevant to their needs.

The study also revealed that that farm size significantly affects improved bread wheat adoption. The result shows that the new

improved bread wheat variety is more likely to be adopted by farmers with large farms. This implies need of research, extension,

and planning agencies to be sensitive to the needs of smaller farmers through developing and disseminating technologies and

strategies that are relevant to their needs.

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RURAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN INDIA: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Veronica P. Sheela7

ABSTRACT

In India, the Urban population is growing tremendously and maybe by the next decade two thirds of the Indian population may

move to Urban areas unlike the existing scenario of the majority being in rural areas. It is crucial to create an awareness among

the rural youngsters that Rural entrepreneurship is a major opportunity and it is much better to look for opportunities in rural

areas rather than migrating from rural and semi urban to urban areas.

India is known to be an agriculture-based economy. The focus and strength of our country is building up efficient techniques to

improve agricultural productivity so that more and more people are attracted to settle in rural areas. The major concern in the

rural areas is the non-availability of primary amenities to accommodate the rural population. Proper education to the children

and exposing the youngsters in developing their areas and starting new ventures in the villages can encourage and self-initiate

the rural population to develop their villages.

This paper would highlight on the various opportunities and threats that exists in Rural Entrepreneurship by understanding and

addressing major components like lack of education, financial problems, technical inabilities and insufficient conceptuality.

KEYWORDS

Rural Entrepreneurship, Technology, Government, Challenges and Opportunities etc.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of entrepreneurship across the globe has immense recognition from many year due to its influence on economic growth

and sustenance (Le &Nguyen, 2009:867) in developed and developing countries. To some it is all about risk taking and being

innovative while for other it may be new products, new markets finding new sources and taking advantages of the market

opportunities and along creating new combinations. To identify business opportunities for exploitation however still remain as one

of the oldest Stimulants of economic activities.

Entrepreneurship is generally focused as an action-oriented phenomenon with immense creativity and innovativeness that ranges

from opportunity of necessity entrepreneurship due to its global recognition as a driver for economic growth (Mokaya, Namusonge

& Sikalieh, and 2012: 128). Currently, there are approximately 400 million entrepreneurs across 54 countries around the globe that

operate start-up businesses.

In an economic survey of India in 2017, according to OECD reports, around 70% of Indian population is still living in rural areas.

However poverty in rural areas is very high, particularly among the landless labourers and marginal farmers who operate on very

small land plots. It was found that lack of coordination in land use planning, poor connectivity, fragmented labour markets and

infrastructure provision weights on agglomeration benefits. Moreover, the potential productivity gains associated with urbanisation

are high.

Rural industrialisation may be one of the solutions to solve the present challenges. If rural entrepreneurship is really encouraged in

rural areas, it can solve major problems of poverty, unemployment, low standard of living, economics disparity which may be

instrumental in changing the face of rural India. This can happen if we encourage young entrepreneur to imitate their start-ups in

villages and by encouraging villages to be as major hubs for the industries. By introducing new schemes for generating income and

retaining the rural population, Government can play an important role in rural industrialisation and announcing new incentives and

initiatives to ask people to return back to their own villages.

On the other hand, the slums in Urban areas are tremendously increasing as marginal landless farmers are migrating in large numbers

to urban areas for prospective employment wherein the ratio of unemployment is drastically increasing. India as we know is an

agricultural based country but overcrowding the limited land, the farm produce has diminished significantly which in turn breeds

poverty. To curtail this situation, entrepreneurship can play an important role in rural development. Economic development also

depends on the development of both rural and urban areas and it is individuals who shape up a society and decide its progress and

performance.

7Research Scholar, Rayalaseema University, Andhra Pradesh, India, [email protected]





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OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

1. To analyse the impact of entrepreneurship in Rural India.

2. To review the evil effects of urbanisation in India.

3. To assess the perceived challenges and success of the participating rural small businesses.

4. To analyse the potential in rural entrepreneurship.

RURAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN INDIA

The definition of Entrepreneurship that defines this study appropriately is “the force that mobilises other resources to meet unmet

market demands”; “the ability to create and build something from practically nothing; the process of creating value by pulling

together a unique package of resources to exploit opportunity” (Bahl, 2012:90). Kamffer, 2004:1 stated that “Much entrepreneurial

thinking besides entrepreneurial actions and business activities are carried out across the globe”. This indicates the inclusion of all

market segments including the rural sector. Antoncic & Hisrich, 2003:8; Urban, 2008:91 validated the same in their statement

“Entrepreneurship has gained enormous global recognition as very significant towards economic growth through a sustained

competitive nature with positive financial gains”.

Entrepreneurship can be defined as trails and attempts to create and add value by bringing in new business avenues while handling

and managing related risk which is appropriate to the opportunities. The process model involves mobilising various resources which

include material, financial and human capital to usher in new things in to the economy. Emphasis on creating and developing

establishments and businesses in the rural areas drives the growth of Entrepreneurship in the rural sector. This model encourages

rural entrepreneurs as it brings in a new dimension of economic progress through new employment and business opportunities. It

has high potential for income generation in rural areas as there are more employment opportunities. Globally it has been noted that

it’s not the major industry that contributes to the economic growth and employment but the small and medium scale industries which

actually contribute. Having said this, research indicates that these small businesses, for instance, contribute a minimum of one third

to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and generate about 40% of all forms of economic activities while adding the creation of an

employment capacity of 50% (Rwigema & Venter, 2008:10; Perks & Struwig, 2005:171; Berry, Von Blottnitz, Cassim, Kesper,

Rajaratnam & Van Seventer, 2002:4; Cornwall & Naughton, 2003:61). Antonites and Van Vuuren (2005) reiterate that the

increasing rate of entrepreneurial activity in any specific country is most likely to directly influence existing levels of unemployment

in a positive way.

It is very critical that every individual takes responsibility of utilising the government policies and schemes for the betterment of

rural people. Indian Government has prioritised and has started realising the importance of few specific industries which can make

the rural sector thrive. They have given special attention to Agro based Industry while Textile Industry, Engineering Industry and

Chemical based Industry are also given equal importance. The local leadership along with the regional NGO’s should be committed

to the cause of the development of villages and act as catalysts for development. They should be the torch bearers of this cause in

their respective regions. Various marketing and awareness campaigns have to be conceptualised to bring in a conscious change in

the minds of the local young minds. A vision of being the employer instead of being an employee has be imbibed. This would attract

people to villages and reverse the outflow of villages or the rural sector. The need for rural entrepreneurs should well defined and

strategized. Only then will the young people consider rural areas as places of opportunities. Proper support systems along with

robust mentorships would definitely motivate a person despite all the inadequacies in rural areas to outweigh the challenges and

assess the strengths and build on them to make the rural areas as places of opportunities.

In an ever changing environment, rural entrepreneurship as a micro concept can encourage areas to change the welfare of the

economy and address questions about the ability of traditional and small scale business in rural areas to share the potential benefits

and meet the ever increasing demand.

For example in the agro industry, the main goal of a rural agro entrepreneur should be to utilise the available resources optimally

by distribution of the farm produce rationally so that it results in the area’s prosperity. In addition, while avoiding discrimination at

all levels the entrepreneur can also help the rural population by providing them alternative occupations. It also encourages the rural

areas to use machinery extensively. Thus the other principal of entrepreneurship ‘Integrity’ is also validated.

As stated earlier, rural entrepreneurship is an attempt to create value through recognition of business opportunities and related

management skills to mobilise various resources which include Finance, Human and Material. Since most of the total population

lives in rural areas is can be a sure turnaround for creating employment opportunities in rural areas along with the basic amenities

of life.

Rural entrepreneurship also adds in improving the living standards and the literacy rate of the villagers. New ideas, new methods

and a new way of life is always welcomed as it brings in progress.




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A balanced development and structured approach needs to be understood and implemented which will be ideal for that particular

rural areas to flourish. Rural industries may stress on handloom, handicraft, khadi, Coir and Sericulture industry etc.

CHALLENGES FACED BY THE RURAL ENTREPRENEURS

The scope of failure has been huge among the rural entrepreneurs. There has been many contributing factors which have affected

adversely the growth. A highly competitive local business environment in addition to the environment induced by strong competitive

global businesses have added serious economic problems to the rural sector along with the growing population. Lack of strong

business plans, inadequate capital management skills, persistent growth of over expansion and sometimes lack of competition have

contributed heavily to the failure of rural entrepreneurship. Lack of competition has made many to become complacent in their

approach.

In India to the challenges faced by the local young rural entrepreneurs are almost similar to the ones as their global counter parts.

As per few research and survey conducted it has been noted that Finance, Purchasing power, Skill sets, Competition and Lack of

infrastructure are the main reasons for the failure of rural entrepreneurship

Finance: The major sources of finance in India in the rural areas are loans from scheduled and regional rural banks. While these

loans have lot of procedural and administrative modalities, availing loans at the right time becomes difficult. This has an adverse

effect in supporting the business at the right time. The other source of loans are from the local landlords which are unregulated and

come with a high interest rate. This has also proven to be a burden some option to many businesses. In both the cases we also have

to note that the young entrepreneurs have challenges of availing finance due to the absence of collateral security.

Low Skill Set: Rural markets have always a dearth of needed skill sets. Finding and hiring workers with the required skill sets

comes at a huge costs. Alternatively hiring and training people with low skills takes time and money which can have adverse effects

on the business.

Purchasing Power: Businesses in the rural areas have to reduce their prices in accordance to the low purchasing power of the rural

consumer. Hence the volumes on the cost do not justify the capital input. Extending the services or products to the urban market

involves additional expenditure which could include additional marketing, transportation, storage costs.

Lack of Infrastructure: The quality of products has always been effected in the rural sectors as the rural entrepreneurs have always

suffered from the lack of proper resources which include IT and Information Technology and technical skills.

Competition: Rural businesses and entrepreneurial have to fight and compete with established and larger bands. They would have

to fend off competition from urban entrepreneurs. They would also have to face the threat of new entrants while struggling to build

their own brand the new entrepreneur struggles with finances as cost of advertising in creating awareness is high.

Regional Culture: According to Taormina & Lao, 2007 Entrepreneurship has always been challenged by two main schools of

thoughts. The first one being psychological elements detailing the entrepreneurial efforts while the second one emphasis on other

business environmental factors. They also stated that “entrepreneurship suffers from cultural settings; within a specific cultural

background where self-employed individuals harvest success, it is likely that entrepreneurship is bound to be accepted or suffer

rejection due to the inability of the extant culture to generate entrepreneurial ideas as such lower entrepreneurial activity is recorded.”

Availability of resources for a specific industry might not ensure success as a culture of that particular region would adversely affect

the business. Hence a proper balance of culture and resources should be planned.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDIAN RURAL ENTREPRENEURS

It has been noted that Finance, Lack of Skill sets, purchasing power of the regional markets, inadequate infrastructure, regional

culture and competition from established and larger brands, Urban brands and threat of new entrants have played an adverse role in

the performance of new rural entrepreneurship set ups.

To counter many of the challenges mentioned above the government had imitated various support systems including variable and

extended financial scheme. Rural entrepreneurs have started identifying and taking advantages of cheap labour from the local

markets. They have started training uneducated villagers with the needed skill sets which in turn has brought in additional

employment opportunities.

New organisations have started educating villagers about new products and thus helping in improving the literacy rate as they

understand the advantages of the new products.




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Funding: Government has come up with very innovative schemes and initiatives to encourage rural entrepreneurs. The youngsters

are shown many avenues to earn money and in fact give employment to many unemployed youth. Globalisation to some extent does

help in improving the productivity in the industry but these new policies help the rural youth to take up the risk and challenges.

Optimum Utilisation of Resources: In India, the local rural resources are available freely. It needs to be utilised properly. As

Mahatma Gandhi rightly quoted “the real solution to India’s economic problem is not mass production but production by masses”

Rural entrepreneurship would in fact help in creating employment to the masses.

Standard of Living: The entrepreneurial initiatives would generate income and automatically the purchasing power will improve.

This enables an increase in the demand for goods and services. When the purchasing power improves the standard of living also

improve.

Artistic Activities: India is known for its heritage. The rich age old heritage of India can be preserved by protecting and promoting

art and handicraft. Rural entrepreneurship would enable to promote these artistic activates and in turn can attract tourism and

generate wealth in the economy.

Balanced Regional Growth: In India the industrial units are concentrated in urban areas and hence the development of power,

road, bridges etc., are all done in these areas. Rural Entrepreneurship would in fact create a balanced regional development and can

bring in these modern infrastructural facilities to rural areas and can stop people migrating from rural to urban areas in search of

jobs.

There is a need to enable reforms in land ownership laws, improve the land registry and step up the digitisation of land records.

Need to improve the infrastructure to provide non- farm activates greater push both in rural and urban areas.

NEED FOR ENTREPRENEURS IN INDIA:

According to a recent study India needs around 8000 new business to achieve its target of building US $87 billion IT Sector. There

may be around 100 million people who would be searching for jobs in the next 10 years. With these estimates it is rightly believed

that India is a fertile ground for entrepreneurs and we also have extraordinary talent with huge potential to build up young

entrepreneurs.

The following figures shows the huge regional disparities that is increasing fast. A recent study conducted by Economic Survey

2017 (OECD) has shown alarming rates of rural poverty which is growing every year.

Figure-1





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Based on the above facts, India should focus on developing rural entrepreneurs by identifying and moulding the youngster to become

entrepreneurs. Create the right environment for success and encouraging them to take up risk. The support from Government is very

crucial to ensure that the entrepreneurs have access to the capital, infrastructure and all the schemes and initiatives being announced

for rural development.

Even though the Indian Government has introduced many institutions and support systems to help new set up financially the results

are not up to the expected level. Even many private institutions have come forward to extend help as part of their CSR it is quite

difficult as the terms and conditions are very strict to be handled.

The lack of trust on products from new and rural industries has always taken a longer period of time to be acknowledged.

CONCLUSION

Rural entrepreneurship certainly plays a very important role in the economic progress of the country. They can help in manufacturing

indigenous substitutes to the imported products and in fact can change the present situation of importing goods and depending on

the foreign countries. Our nation can become self-reliant and can also start exporting these goods to earn more foreign exchange. It

may have challenges initially but sustaining all difficulties will definitely reap good results. Rural evil like the middlemen,

Politicians, illiteracy rate etc., have to be discouraged and encourage the rural youth to become young entrepreneurs. Government

can support by giving concessional rate of interest on funds, offering training facilities, proper supply of scarce raw materials giving

subsidy on essential would encourage the young enterpriser to take risk. Government should also set up Cooperatives which can

help in buying their manufactures products so that they avoid the middlemen who take away the major share of their income.

We can also encourage women entrepreneurs as they are the major population in India and have a very strong network among the

villagers. They can be given assistance to start off their units at home and encourage to give employment to the other women in the

villages. Rural youth have to be educated about the advantages of starting a new venture. Standardization of the products needs to

be promoted so that their products can be in demand in the market. Rural entrepreneurship can be the best answer to remove the

rural poverty and discourage migration from the rural areas to the urban areas. NGO should also be supported to encourage them to

create awareness among the rural youth. A synergy needs to be developed between education, Innovation and Entrepreneurship.

Rural entrepreneurship would act as the major force for economic growth and contributes in the country’s national income and it’s

GDP.

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of organizations. The contributions can be conceptual, theoretical and empirical in nature, review papers, case studies,

conference reports, relevant reports & news, book reviews and briefs; and must reflect the standards of academic rigour.









