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Ekonomi dan Keuangan Indonesia, Vol. 37, No. 4, 1989
Perspektif Ekonomi Institusi dalam Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Alam
Agus Pakpahan
Abstract
Market mechanism is heiieved as an ideai system to solve many aspect of economic behaviour. In fact, according to institutional economist, the system depend on institution on which consumers and producer based their behaviour. So any institutional change very posibie will change their behaviour.
This paper describe institutional impact analysis on performance in resource and environmental economics. Because institutional impact analysis based on individual interdependence, so the impact of institutional change depend on the characteristic of commodities observed, such as its incompatibility, high exclusion cost etc.
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I . Pendahuluan
F u n g s i s u m b e r d a y a a l a m d a l a m s i s t e m e k o n o m i t i d a k d i r a g u k a n l a g i . W a l a u p u n b e g i t u , p e r a n a n s u m b e r d a y a a l a m d i U h a t d a r i s u d u t p a n d a n g i l m u e k o n o m i t e l a b m e n g a l a m i p e r u b a b a n s e s u a i d e n g a n j a m a n n y a . E k o n o m k l a s i k y a n g h i d u p p a d a a b a d k e s e m b i l a n b e l a s , s e p e r t i M a l t h u s d a n R i c a r d o , m e m a n d a n g k e k a y a a n s u b e r d a y a l a b a n y a n g d i m i l i k i s u a t u n e g a r a m e r u p a k a n k u n c i k e m a k m u r a n n e g a r a y a n g b e r s a n g k u t a n . P a d a j a m a n i t u p e m i l i k a n d a n p r o d u k t i v i t a s l a b a n s a n g a t m e n e n t u k a n p r o d u k t i v i t a s n a s i o n a l . P e r a n a n s u m b e r d a y a a l a m t e r h a d a p e k o n o m i t i d a k p e m a b l u p u t d a r i d i s k u s i k e b i j a k s a n a a n d a n t e o r i e k o n o m i .
A k a n t e t a p i b a g i p a r a e k o n o m y a n g h i d u p k e m u d i a n , s u m b e r d a y a a l a m t i d a k l a g j d i p a n d a n g s e b a g a i b a l y a n g s a n g a t p e n t i n g . E k o n o m t e r -n a m a s e p e r t i Hicks b a n y a s e d i k i t s e k a l i m e m b a b a s a t a u m e m a s u k k a n s u m b e r d a y a d a l a m b u k u n y a Value and Capital. D e m i k i a n p u n h a l n y a k i t a t i d a k m e n j u m p a i d i s k u s i y a n g e k s p l i s i t m e n g e n a i s u b e r d a y a a l a m d a l a m b u k u Foundation of Economic Analysis y a n g d i t u b s Samuelson. P e r b e d a a n p a n d a n g a n i n i m u n g k i n d i s e b a b k a n o l e h s i t u a s i j a m a n y a n g b e r b e d a . P a d a b a g i a n p e r m u l a a n d a n p e r t e n g a h a n a b a d k e d u a p u l u b s u m b e r d a y a a l a m t i d a k m e r u p a k a n f a k t o r p e m b a t a s p e n t i n g b a g i s e b a g i a n b e s a r n e g a r a i n d u s t r i s a a t i t u . S u m b e r d a y a a l a m s e c a r a t i d a k t e r -b a t a s d a p a t d i d a t a n g k a n d a r i A s i a , A f r i k a , a t a u A m e r i k a L a t i n y a n g se b a g i a n b e s a r m e r u p a k a n n e g a r a j a j a b a n n e g a r a - n e g a r a i n d u s t r i s a a t i t u . A k a n t e t a p i , s e t e l a b p e r a n g d u n i a k e d u a , y a n g d i t a n d a i o l e b k e m e r d e k a -a n s e b a g i a n b e s a r n e g a r a p e m a s o k s u m b e r d a y a a l a m , s u m b e r d a y a a l a m k e m b a l i d i p a n d a n g p e n t i n g b a i k d a l a m t e o r i m a u p u n k e b i j a k s a n a a n e k o n o m i k a r e n a s u m b e r d a y a a l a m m e n j a d i b a r a n g l a n g k a d a n h a r u s d i b e l i .
P a d a f a s e p e r k e m b a n g a n e k o n o m i s e l a n j u t n y a s u m b e r d a y a a l a m d a n l i n g k u n g a n b e r a l i h f u n g s i n y a d a r i f u n g s i p e n y e d i a a n b a h a n b a k u i n d u s t r i k e f u n g s i j a s a l a i n n y a s e p e r t i r e k r e a s i a t a u a s i m i l a s i s a m p a h d a n b a h a n b e r a c u n y a n g d i b u a n g k e a l a m b e b a s . S i s t e m e k o n o m i t i d a k d a p a t d i p i s a b k a n d a r i s u m b e r d a y a a l a m d a n l i n g k u n g a n ( P e r r i n g s , 1 9 8 7 ) . P e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i y a n g p e s a t t a n p a m e m p e r b a t i k a n d a y a a s i m i l a s i l i n g k u n g a n t e r h a d a p s a m p a h d a n p o l u t a n a k a n b e r b a b a y a . K e r u s a k a n l i n g k u n g a n d i m a s a d a t a n g b u k a n b a n y a a k a n m e n g u r a n g i k a p a s i t a s p r o d u k s i , j u g a l a n g s u n g m e m b e r i k a n d a m p a k n e g a t i f t e r h a d a p k e s e j a b t e r a a n m a n u s i a m e l a l u i p e n u r u n a n m u t u l i n g k u n g a n h i d u p . S e b a g a i c o n t o b , p e n i n g k a t a n p r o d u k s i p e r t a n i a n t a n p a m e m p e r t i m b a n g k a n k e l e s t a r i a n s u m b e r d a y a a l a m s e p e r t i : ( i ) p e n g g u n a a n p u p u k k i m i a y a n g b e r l e b i b a n a k a n m e n c e m a r i s i s t e m t a t a a i r , ( i i ) p e s t i s i d a a k a n m e n c e m a r i r a n t a i s i s t e m p a n g a n , d a n ( i i i ) e r o s i t a n a b a k a n m e n u r u n k a n k a p a s i t a s p r o -
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d u k s i d a n m a s a l a h l i n g k u n g a n l a i n n y a . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , p e m b a n g u n a n p e r t a n i a n y a n g d i t u j u k a n u n t u k m e n c a p a i k e c u k u p a n d a n k e a m a n a n p a n g a n p e r l u d i d a s a r k a n p a d a p e m b a n g u n a n p e r t a n i a n y a n g b e r w a w a s a n l i n g k u n g a n .
* S u m b e r d a y a a l a m u m u m n y a d i c i r i k a n o l e h k a r a k t e r i s t i k g a n d a y a n g m e n y e b a b k a n k o m p l e k s i t a s p e n g e l o l a a n n y a . K a r a k t e r i s t i k s u m b e r d a y a a l a m y a n g r e l e v a n u n t u k a n a l i s i s e k o n o m i i n s t i t u s i a d a l a h k a r a k t e r i s t i k y a n g m e r u p a k a n s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i a n t a r i n d i v i d u d a l a m s u a t u m a s y a r a k a t . I n t e r d e p e n d e n s i y a n g d i s e b a b k a n o l e h inkompatibilitas (incompatibility) a n t a r p e n g g u n a a n a t a u i n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s a n t a r p e n g u a s a a n , ceteris paribus, d a p a t d i k o n t r o l o l e b b a k m i l i k (ownership). O l e b k a r e n a i t u , s u m b e r d a y a t e r s e b u t d a p a t d i a l o k a s i k a n o l e b p a s a r k a r e n a p a s a r d a p a t b e k e r j a b a n y a j i k a b a k m i b k d i d e f i n i s i k a n s e c a r a l e n g k a p , enforcable, d a n b o l e b d i t r a n s f e r (transferable). A k a n t e t a p i , k a r a k t e r i s t i k y a n g l e b i b m e n o n j o l d a l a m k o m o d i t a s s u m b e r d a y a a l a m s e p e r t i joint impact, o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i (high exclusion cost), o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i t i n g g i , t i d a k m e m u n g k i n k a n b a k m i l i k d a p a t m e n g o n t r o l a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a a l a m y a n g m e m i l i k i c i r i s e p e r t i i t u . O l e b k a r e n a i t u , a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i , s e l a i n p a s a r , m e n j a d i s u b y e k p e n e l i t i a n y a n g s a n g a t p e n t i n g . A p a k a h a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i m e n g h a s i l k a n performance y a n g b e r b e d a ?
T u l i s a n i n i d i t u j u k a n u n t u k m e n d i s k u s i k a n a n a l i s i s d a m p a k a l t e r -n a t i f i n s t i t u s i t e r h a d a p performance s e b a g a i m a n a b a l n y a t e o r i p e r m i n t a a n m e m p r e d i k s i d a m p a k p e r u b a b a n b a r g a t e r h a d a p j u m l a b b a r a n g y a n g d i m i n t a . U n t u k d a p a t m e m b u a t p r e d i k s i d a m p a k a l t e m a t i f i n t i t u s i t e r h a d a p performance d i p e r l u k a n s u a t u t e o r i t e r s e n d i r i . P a d a b a g i a n I I d i d i s k u s i k a n k o n s e p d a s a r y a n g m e n u n j u k k a n b a b w a a n a U s i s e k o n o m i i n s t i t u s i m e r u p a k a n d i m e n s i p e n t i n g u n t u k a n a l i s i s k e b i j a k s a n a a n . K e -r a n g k a a n a l i t i k u n t u k m e l a k u k a n p e n e l i t i a n e m p i r i s y a n g t e r d i r i d a r i d i s k u s i m e n g e n a i u n s u r i n s t i t u s i d a n s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i d i d i s k u s i k a n p a d a b a g i a n I I I . B a g i a n I V m e n u t u p t u b s a n i n i d e n g a n s e b u a b i l u s -t r a s i d a n s a r a n u n t u k m e n g u b a b w a w a s a n p a n d a n g a n y a n g d i p e r l u k a n u n t u k m e l a k u k a n a n a h s i s d a m p a k p e r u b a b a n i n s t i t u s i k h u s u s n y a d a n a n a l i s i s k e b i j a k s a n a a n u m u m n y a .
n. Permasalahan Konseptual
P e r k e m b a n g a n s e l a m a d u a d e k a d e t e r a k h i r i n i m e n u n j u k k a n b a b w a b i d a n g e k o n o m i s u m b e r d a y a d i d o m i n a s i o l e b a p l i k a s i k o n s e p - k o n s e p d a s a r e k o n o m i n e o k l a s i k . S c o t t ( I 9 7 3 : v u ) , m i s a l n y a , s e c a r a t e g a s m e n y a t a k a n b a b w a e k s p l o i t a s i s u m b e r d a y a a l a m b a n y a l a b m e r u p a k a n k a s u s k b u s u s d a r i p e n g g u n a a n a s e t p r o d u k t i f d a n k o n s e r v a s i s u m b e r d a y a
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t i d a k a d a b e d a n y a d e n g a n i n v e s t a s i b a r a n g m o d a l . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , t e o r i e k o n o m i y a n g a d a d a p a t l a n g s u n g d i a p l i k a s i k a n u n t u k m e n g a n a h s i s m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h y a n g b e r k a i t a n d e n g a n p e n g e l o l a a n s u m b e r d a y a a l a m d a n l i n g k u n g a n .
D a l a m a n a l i s i s k e b i j a k s a n a a n p e n g e l o l a a n s u m b e r d a y a a l a m , m e t o d o l o g i e k o n o m i n e o k l a s i k m e n g g u n a k a n n o r m a Pareto optimal s e b a g a i n o m a e f i s i e n s i . A l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a d i k a t a k a n e f i s i e n , m e n u r u t n o r m a i n i , a p a b i l a t i d a k a d a a l t e m a t i f l a i n y a n g d a p a t d i t e m p u b t a n p a m e n g u r a n g i k e s e j a b t e r a a n s e s e o r a n g a t a u s e k e l o m p o k o r a n g s e b a g a i a k i b a t d a r i s u a t u k e b i j a k s a n a a n t e r s e b u t . K a r e n a s e t i a p k e b i j a k s a n a a n a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a h a m p i r s e l a l u m e n y e b a b k a n a d a s e k e l o m p o k o r a n g y a n g k e s e j a h t e r a a n n y a m e n u r u n , H i c k s b e r p a n d a n g a n b a b w a y a n g p e n t i n g i t u b u k a n l a b m a s a l a h a d a a t a u t i d a k a d a n y a i n d i v i d u y a n g b e r -k u r a n g k e s e j a h t e r a a n n y a , m e l a i n k a n a p a k a h k e b i j a k s a n a a n y a n g a k a n d i a m b i l m e n u n j u k k a n a d a n y a potential Pareto improvement, y a i t u s e t e l a b k e l o m p o k y a n g b e r u n t u n g k a r e n a k e b i j a k s a n a a n t e r t e n t u m e n g -k o m p e n s a s i k e l o m p o k y a n g t e r u g i k a n , k e l o m p o k y a n g d i u n t u n g k a n m a s i b m e m p e r o l e h s u r p l u s . A k a n t e t a p i S c i t o v s k y m e n u n j u k k a n b a b w a k r i t e r i a potential Pareto improvement t e r n y a t a t i d a k m e m e n u b i s y a r a t k e c u k u p a n u n t u k d i j a d i k a n n o r m a a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a . H a l i n i d i k e n a l s.ehagsi\ Scitovsky paradox. ( L i h a t B r o m l e y , 1 9 8 2 ) .
D a l a m a n a l i s i s e k o n o m i n e o k l a s i k m a r A ; e r / a z 7 u r e d i p a n d a n g s e b a g a i s u m b e r p e r m a s a l a h a n y a n g m e n j u s t i f i k a s i c a m p u r t a n g a n p e m e r i n t a b . H a l i n i d i d a s a r i o l e b s u a t u k e p e r c a y a a n b a b w a p a s a r a d a l a b s e s u a t u y a n g i d e a l m a k a s e t i a p k e b i j a k s a n a a n p e r l u m e n g h i l a n g k a n s e g a l a i m p e r -f e k s i a g a r k e m u d i a n p a s a r d a p a t b e k e r j a . S h a f f e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) m e n u n j u k k a n b a b w a t i d a k a d a l a n d a s a n l o g i k a y a n g d a p a t d i g u n a k a n u n t u k m e n y a t a k a n b a b w a p a s a r i t u i d e a l . P a n d a n g a n b a b w a p a s a r i t u i d e a l s e m a t a -m a t a b a n y a l a b s e b u a b judgment. H a r g a y a n g d i t e n t u k a n o l e b b e k e r j a -n y a p e r m i n t a a n d a n p e n a w a r a n s e b e n a r n y a f u n g s i d a i i i n s t i t u s i y a n g b e r a d a d i b e l a k a n g k o n s u m e n d a n p r o d u s e n ( l i b a t S c h m i d , 1 9 8 7 ; B r o m l e y , 1 9 8 2 ) . O l e b k a r e n a i t u , i n s t i t u s i y a n g m e n e n t u k a n e f i s i e n s i d a n b u k a n s e b a h k n y a .
D a s a r m a s a l a h d a l a m p e n g e l o l a a n s u m b e r d a y a a l a m a d a l a b m a s a l a h entitlement {Bromley, 1 9 8 2 : 2 0 8 ) . E k s t e m a l i t a s d e n g a n d e m i k i a n a d a l a b p e r m a s a l a h a n i n s t i t u s i d a l a m a r t i p e r s o a l a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i (jurisdictional boundary) k a r e n a e k t e m a l i t a s a d a l a b p e r s o a l a n s i a p a m e n a n g -g u n g a p a . S e b a g a i c o n t o b , a p a b i l a s u n g a i d i m i l i k i o l e b i n d u s t r i a w a n m a k a a p a b i l a m a s y a r a k a t d i s e k i t a r s u n g a i i n g i n m e n g b e n t i k a n p o l u s i y a n g d i b u a t o l e b s i i n d u s t r i a w a n , m e r e k a p e r l u m e m b e r i k a n k o m p e n s a s i t e r h a d a p s i i n d u s t r i a w a n . A p a b i l a k o m p e n s a s i y a n g d i b e r i k a n t e r h a d a p
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s i i n d u s t r i a w a n t e r s e b u t n i l a i n y a k u r a n g d a r i j u m l a b y a n g d i m i n t a o l e b s i i n d u s t r i a w a n , m a k a p o l u s i a k a n t e r u s b e r l a n g s u n g . S e d a n g k a n a p a b i l a b a l y a n g s e b a l i k n y a t e r j a d i , m a k a a g a r s i i n d u s t r i a w a n d a p a t m e m b u a n g s a m p a b p r o d u k s i n y a k e s u n g a i , m a k a i a p e r l u m e n g k o m p e n s a s i m a s y a r a k a t d i s e k i t a r s u n g a i t e r s e b u t . A p a b i l a i a t i d a k d a p a t m e m b e r i k a n k o m p e n s a s i s e j u m l a b y a n g d i m i n t a , m a k a i a p e r l u m e n c a r i a l t e m a t i f p e m b u a n g a n l a i n a t a u t e r p a k s a b e r b e n t i b e r p r o d u k s i d a n p o l u s i a i r s u n g a i a k a n b e r b e n t i . j
D a l a m k a i t a n n y a d e n g a n e f i s i e n s i a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a d i k e n a l a t u r a n Coase y a n g m e n y a t a k a n b a b w a p e r u b a b a n k e p e m i l i k a n t i d a k m e m p e n g a r u b i a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a ( S c b m i d , 1 9 8 7 ) . H a l i n i b e n a r s e l a m a o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i d a p a t d i a b a i k a n . A k a n t e t a p i , a p a b i l a o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i c u k u p b e s a r r e l a t i f t e r h a d a p n i l a i s u m b e r d a y a y a n g d i b i c a r a -k a n , m a k a a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a t e r g a n t u n g p a d a s i a p a y a n g m e m i l i k i a p a p a d a p e r i o d e s e b e l u m m e l a k u k a n t r a n s a k s i . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i d a p a t m e m b u a t p e r b e d a a n p e r f o r m a n c e d a n p e r m a s a l a h a n d a l a m p e n g e l o l a a n s u m b e r d a y a m e n j a d i p e r m a s a l a h a n entitlement.
D a l a m a n a l i s i s e k o n o m i n e o k l a s i k . i n s t i t u s i d i a s u m s i k a n t e t a p . A k i b a t n y a a d a l a b p e r i l a k u p e r u s a b a a n (firm) d i g a m b a r k a n o l e b p e r i l a k u t e k n o l o g i . T e o r i firm i d e n t i k d e n g a n t e o r i p r o d u k s i ( l i b a t H e n d e r s o n d a n Q u a n d t . 1 9 8 8 : B a b I V d a n B a b V ) . P e n d e k a t a n s e p e r t i i t u m e n y e b a b k a n k i t a m e l i b a t p e r u s a b a a n s e b a g a i s u a t u a g r e g a t . P a d a b a l k i t a m e n g e t a h u i b a b w a p e r u s a b a a n a d a l a b s u a t u l e m b a g a d i m a n a p a r a p e m i -l i k i n p u t , m a n a g e r . p B m i l i k m o d a l , d a n t e n a g a k e r j a b e r g a b u n g m e n j a d i s a t u t i m y a n g b e k e r j a s a m a m e m p r o d u k s i o u t p u t p a d a s i t u a s i y a n g m e n g a n d u n g r e s i k o d a n k e t i d a k p a s t i a n ( l i b a t A l c b i a n d a n D e m n s e t z , 1 9 7 2 ) . B a g a i m a n a i n p u t d i a l o k a s i k a n d a n p e n e r i m a a n a t a u o u t p u t d i -d i s t r i b u s i k a n a d a l a b d i t e n t u k a n o l e b ' k o n t r a k ' y a n g d i b u a t s e b e l u m p r o s e s p r o d u k s i d i l a k s a n a k a n . D e n g a n m e l i b a t p e m s a b a a n s e b a g a i s u a t u i n s t i t u s i k i t a t i d a k b a n y a d a p a t m e m p e l ' a j a r i t e k n o l o g i t e t a p i j u g a k i t a d a p a t m e n g a n a h s i s d a m p a k d a r i p e r u b a b a n s t r u k t u r p e r u s a b a a n t e r h a d a p a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a d a n j e n i s p e r f o r m a n c e l a i n n y a . S a t u a n a n a h s i s y a n g s e k a r a n g d i g u n a k a n a d a l a h t r a n s a k s i y a n g t e r d i r i d a r i t r a n s a k s i internal y a n g d i a t u r o l e h s t r u k t u r k o n t r a k d a n t r a n s a k s i eksternal y a n g d i k e n d a l i k a n o l e h p a s a r ( W i l l i a m s o n , 1 9 7 5 ) . A n a h s i s m e n g e n a i d a m p a k p e r u b a h a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i , k e p e m i l i k a n (ownership) d a n a t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i d a l a m p e m b u a t a n k e p u t u s a n m e r u p a k a n b a g i a n p e n t i n g d a l a m p r o s e s p e m b u a t a n s u a t u k e b i j a k s a n a a n . K e g u n a a n a n a h s i s t e r s e b u t t i d a k t e r b a t a s p a d a u n t u k m e n g a n a h s i s p e r u s a h a a n y a n g d i m i l i k i p e m e r i n t a h , p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a , k o p e r a s i , P e r u s a h a a n I n t i R a k y a t a t a u b e n t u k i n s t i t u s i l a i n n y a . K e r a n g k a b e r p i k i r d i a t a s d a p a t d i g u n a k a n u n t u k m e n g -
4 4 9
Pakpahan
a n a l i s i s s e t i a p b e n t u k o r g a n i s a s i b a i k i t u o r g a n i s a s i s o s i a l a t a u p u n o r g a -n i s a s i e k o n o m i .
I I I . Kerangka Analitik Untuk Penelitian Empiris
S c h m i d ( 1 9 8 7 ) m e m b e d a k a n d u a j e n i s p e n e l i t i a n e k o n o m i i n s t i t u s i . Pertama. p e n e l i t i a n e k o n o m i i n s t i t u s i u n t u k m e n j e l a s k a n d a n m e m p r e d i k s i p e r u b a h a n i n s t i t u s i (developmental institutional economics), d a n kedua. p e n e l i t i a n m e n g e n a i d a m p a k d a r i p e r u b a h a n i n s t i t u s i t e r h a d a p p e r f o r m a n c e (institutional impact analysis). D a l a m t u h s a n i n i h a n y a p e n e l i t i a n j e n i s k e d u a y a n g a k a n d i b a h a s .
L a n d a s a n k e r a n g k a a n a l i t i k e k o n o m i i n s t i t u s i t i d a k b e r b e d a d e n g a n , m i s a l n y a , e k o n o m i p r o d u k s i . D a l a m e k o n o m i p r o d u k s i k i t a m e m p e l a j a r i d a m p a k a l t e m a t i f p e m b e r i a n i n p u t t e r h a d a p o u t p u t , d a l a m e k o n o m i i n s t i t u s i k i t a m e m p e l a j a r i d a m p a k p e r u b a h a n a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i t e r h a d a p p e r u b a h a n p e r i l a k u m a n u s i a y a n g p a d a a k h i m y a a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n p e r f o r m a n c e y a n g b e r b e d a . A p a k a h a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i m e n y e b a b k a n p e r b e d a a n p e r f o r m a n c e ? A p a k a h p e r u b a h a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i p e t a n i t e r h a d a p l a h a n n y a m e n y e b a b n y a p e r b e d a a n h a s i l p r o d u k s i , d i s t r i b u s i p e n d a p a t a n , d a n k e l e s t a r i a n s u m b e r d a y a ? P e r u b a h a n i n s t i t u s i h a n y a a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n p e r f o r m a n c e y a n g b e r b e d a a p a b i l a p e r u b a h a n t e r s e b u t d a p a t m e n g o n t r o l s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i a n t a r i n d i v i d u s e p e r t i i n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s , joint impact, o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i (high exclusion cost), o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i , d a n s e t e r u s n y a . O l e h k a r e n a i t u p e n g e t a h u a n m e n g e n a i s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i d a n a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i s a n g a t p e n t i n g k a r e n a k e s a l a h a n d a l a m p e m a h a m a n s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i a k a n m e n y e b a b k a n p e r u b a h a n i n s t i t u s i t i d a k e f e k t i f .
A . Institusi sebagai Subyek
M e n u r u t S c h m i d ( 1 9 7 2 ) " I n s t i t u t i o n s a r e s e t o f o r d e r e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g p e o p l e w h i c h d e f i n e t h e i r r i g h t s , e x p o s u r e t o t h e r i g h t s o f o t h e r s , p r i v i l e g e s , a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s " . K a r e n a i t u , i n s t i t u s i a d a l a h s i s t e m o r g a n i s a s i d a n k o n t r o l t e r h a d a p s u m b e r d a y a . D i p a n d a n g d a r i s u d u t i n d i v i d u , i n s t i t u s i m e r u p a k a n g u g u s k e s e m p a t a n b a g i i n d i v i d u d a l a m m e m b u a t k e p u t u s a n d a n m e l a k s a n a k a n a k t i f i t a s n y a . S u a t u i n s t i t u s i d i c i r i k a n o l e h t i g a h a l u t a m a ; ( i ) b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i , ( h ) property rights, d a n ( i i i ) a t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i (rules of representation) ( S h a f f e r d a n S c h m i d ) . P e m b a h a n i n s t i t u s i d i c i r i k a n o l e h p e r u b a h a n s a t u a t a u l e b i h d a r i u n s u r - u n s u r t e r s e b u t . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , u n t u k m e l i h a t d a m p a k p e m b a h a n a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i k i t a p e r l u t e r l e b i h d a h u l u m e n d i s k u s i k a n u n s u r - u n s u r i n s t i t u s i t e r s e b u t .
4 5 0
Perspektif Ekonomi instituj i
1 . B a t a s j u r i s d i k s i
P e n e n t u a n s i a p a d a n a p a y a n g t e r c a k u p d a l a m s u a t u i n s t i t u s i d a l a n s u a t u m a s y a r a k a t d i t e n t u k a n o l e h b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i . B a n y a k p e r m a s a l a h a r d a n i s u d a l a m e k o n o m i b e r k a i t a n d e n g a n s t r u k t u r d a r i b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i n i . K o n s e p b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i d a p a t b e r a r t i b a t a s w i l a y a h k e k u a s a a n a t a i b a t a s o t o r i t a s y a n g d i m i h k i o l e h s u a t u i n s t i t u s i , a t a u m e n g a n d u n i m a k n a k e d u a - d u a n y a . D a l a m i s t i l a h p e m e r i n t a h p u s a t a t a u p e m e r i n t a h d a e r a h , m i s a l n y a , t e r k a n d u n g m a k n a b a g a i m a n a b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i b e r p e r a n d a l a m m e n g a t u r a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a . D a l a m k a s u s p e n g e l o l a a n d a e r a h a l i r a n s u n g a i b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i j u g a m e n u n j u k k a n h a l p e n t i n g b a g a i m a n a s u a t u i n s t i t u s i m e n e n t u k a n s i a p a y a n g t e r c a k u p d a n a p a y a n g d i p e r o l e h , y a n g p a d a a k h i r n y a a k a n d i r e f l e k s i k a n o l e h p e r f o r m a n c e t e r t e n t u , s e p e r t i l a j u e r o s i , d e b i t a i r , t i p e p e n g g u n a a n l a h a n , d a n s e t e r u s n y a .
A p a k a h p e r u b a h a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i i n i a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n p e r f o r m a n c e s e p e r t i y a n g d i p e r k i r a k a n s e b e l u m n y a , p a d a k o n d i s i h a l - h a l l a i n t e t a p ? H a l i t u a k a n d i t e n t u k a n o l e h p a h n g t i d a k e m p a t h a l : ( i ) p e r a s a -a n s e b a g a i s a t u m a s y a r a k a t (sense of community), ( i i ) e k s t e m a l i t a s , ( i i i ) h o m o g e n i t a s , d a n ( i v ) s k a l a e k o n o m i ( S h a f f e r d a n S c h m i d ) .
Perasaan sebagai satu masyarakat. P e r a s a a n s e b a g a i s a t u m a s y a r a k a t m e r u p a k a n v a r i a b e l p s i k o l o g i p e n t i n g y a n g s e r i n g d i a b a i k a n d a l a m a n a l i s i s e k o n o m i . M a s y a r a k a t b u k a n l a h m e r u p a k a n s u a t u k e l o m p o k m a n u s i a y a n g t i d a k m e m i l i k i h u b u n g a n s a t u d e n g a n l a i n n y a . Sense of community m e n e n t u k a n s i a p a y a n g t e r m a s u k k i t a d a n s i a p a y a n g t e r m a s u k m e r e k a . H a l i n i e r a t k a i t a n n y a d e n g a n k o n s e p j a r a k s o s i a l (social distance) y a n g a k a n m e n e n t u k a n k a d a r komitmen y a n g d i m i l i k i o l e h s u a t u m a s y a r a k a t t e r h a d a p s u a t u k e b i j a k s a n a a n .
M e m a n g b e n a r b a h w a p e r a s a a n s e b a g a i s a t u m a s y a r a k a t m e r u p a k a n k o n s e p y a n g s u l i t d i d e f i n i s i k a n d a n d i k u a n t i f i s i r s e p e r t i h a l n y a k o n s e p w a k t u d a n r u a n g . A k a n t e t a p i p e r a s a a n s e b a g a i s a t u m a s y a r a k a t d a p a t k i t a a l a m i s e p e r t i h a l n y a p e r a s a a n m e n d e r i t a s e a n d a i n y a k i t a s a k i t k e r a s . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , p r o g r a m a t a u k e b i j a k s a n a a n y a n g m e m p e r b a t i k a n f a k t o r sense of community akan m e m p e r o l e h d u k u n g a n d a r i m a s y a r a k a t . S a y a n g n y a , u n s u r i n i j a r a n g d i p e r h a t i k a n d a l a m a n a l i s i s k e b i j a k s a n a a n t e r u t a m a a n a l i s i s k e b i j a k s a n a a n y a n g d i d a s a r k a n p a d a e k o n o m i n e o k l a s i k . T e o r i e k o n o m i n e o k l a s i k u m u m n y a m e n d a s a r k a n a n a l i s i s n y a p a d a a s u m s i b a h w a u t i l i t a s a n t a r i n d i v i d u m a s y a r a k a t a d a l a h b e b a s s a t u d e n g a n l a i n n y a . P e n g e t a h u a n m e n g e n a i i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i u t i l i t a s i n i sa n g a t b e r g u n a d a l a m m e r u m u s k a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i .
Ekstemalitas. S e p e r t i h a l n y a t e l a h d i k e m u k a k a n t e r d a h u l u , e k s t e r -n a l i t a s a d a l a h s u a t u k o n s e p i n s t i t u s i . E k s t e m a l i t a s a d a l a h s u a t u s i t u a s i
45'
Pakpahan
d i m a n a a k i b a t d a r i k e p u t u s a n y a n g d i b u a t o l e h s e s e o r a n g a t a u s e b u a h o r g a n i s a s i , p a d a k o n d i s i b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i t e t a p , t i d a k t e r m a s u k d a l a m k a l k u l u s i n d i v i d u a t a u o r g a n i s a s i y a n g m e m b u a t k e p u t u s a n t e r s e b u t . H a l t e r s e b u t d a p a t b e r u p a m a n f a a t y a n g t i d a k d a p a t d i n i k m a t i s e n d i r i , o n g k o s y a n g d i t a n g g u n g o r a n g l a i n , a t a u , o n g k o s a t a u m a n f a a t y a n g t i d a k d i p e r k i r a k a n s e b e l u m n y a s e h i n g g a t i d a k t e r m a s u k d a l a m k a l k u l u s p e n g a m b i l k e p u t u s a n . P e r u b a h a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i a k a n m e r u b a h s t r u k t u r e k s t e m a l i t a s y a n g p a d a a k h i r n y a m e r u b a h s i a p a y a n g m e n a n g g u n g a p a .
Homogenitas. K o n s e p k e t i g a y a n g p e n t i n g d a l a m p e n e n t u a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i a d a l a h h o m o g e n i t a s p r e f e r e n s i d a n k e p e k a a n p o l i t i k e k o n o m i t e r h a d a p p e r b e d a a n p r e f e r e n s i . K o n s e p i n i m e r u p a k a n k o n s e p p e n t i n g d a l a m m e n e n t u k a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i u n t u k m e r e f l e k s i k a n p e r m i n t a a n t e r h a d a p b a r a n g d a n j a s a . A p a b i l a b a r a n g d a n j a s a h a n y a d i k o n s u m s i s e n d i r i , p e r m a s a l a h a n n y a a d a l a h r e l a t i f s e d e r h a n a k a r e n a i n d i v i d u se b a g a i s a t u a n p e n g a m b i l k e p u t u s a n . A k a n t e t a p i , a p a b i l a b a r a n g d a n j a s a t e r s e b u t h a r u s d i k o n s u m s i s e c a r a koiektif, m a k a i s u b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i m e n j a d i p e n t i n g d a l a m m e r e f l e k s i k a n p r e f e r e n s i k o n s u m e r d a l a m a t u r a n p e n g a m b h a n k e p u t u s a n . D a l a m k a i t a n n y a d e n g a n h a l i n i p e r m a s a l a h a n n y a m e n j a d i p r e f e r e n s i s i a p a y a n g m e m u t u s k a n . H o m o g e n i t a s p r e f e r e n s i d a n d i s t r i b u s i i n d i v i d u m a s y a r a k a t y a n g m e m i l i k i p r e f e r e n s i y a n g b e r b e d a a k a n m e m p e n g a r u h i j a w a b a n a t a s p e r t a n y a a n s i a p a y a n g m e m u t u s k a n .
Skaia ekonomi. K o n s e p s k a l a e k o n o m i m e m e g a n g p e r a n a n p e n t i n g d a l a m m e n e l a a h p e r m a s a l a h a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i y a n g t e p a t d e n g a n p e r m a s a l a h a n y a n g d i h a d a p i . D a l a m p e n g e r t i a n e k o n o m i , s k a l a e k o n o m i m e n u n j u k s u a t u s i t u a s i d i m a n a o n g k o s p e r s a t u a n t e r u s m e n u r u n a p a b i l a o u t p u t d i t i n g k a t k a n . B a t a s j u r i s d i k s i y a n g t e p a t a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n o n g k o s p e r s a t u a n y a n g l e b i h r e n d a h d i b a n d i n g d e n g a n a l t e m a t i f b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i y a n g l a i n n y a . M i s a l n y a , b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i y a n g d i b e r i k a n k e p a d a l e m b a g a p e n y u l u h a n m e n e n t u k a n u k u r a n ( d a e r a h m a n a d a n k e l o m p o k m a s y a r a k a t m a n a ) y a n g b e r h a k m e n e r i m a p e l a y a n a n p e n y u l u h . A p a b i l a b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i t e r s e b u t m e n g h a s i l k a n k e l o m p o k m a s y a r a k a t y a n g t e r l a l u k e c i l , m a k a o n g k o s p e r s a t u a n p e n y e b a r a n i n f o r m a s i a k a n l e b i h t i n g g i d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n a p a b i l a p e n y u l u h a n d i b e r i k a n k e p a d a k e l o m p o k m a s y a r a k a t y a n g l e b i h b e s a r s e a n d a i n y a s t m k t u r o n g k o s p e n y e b a r a n i n f o r m a s i a d a p a d a f a s e s k a l a e k o n o m i . P r i n s i p y a n g s a m a j u g a d a p a t d i t e r a p k a n p a d a j a s a p e l a y a n a n K U D , b a n k , r u m a h s a k i t , F I R , p e m e r i n t a h a n , p o h s i , d a n o r g a n i s a s i l a i n n y a .
2 . Property Rights
K o n s e p property rights s e l a l u m e n g a n d u n g m a k n a s o s i a l . K o n s e p property a t a u p e m i l i k a n i t u s e n d i r i m u n c u l d a r i k o n s e p h a k (rights)
452
Perspektif Ekonomi Institusi
d a n k e w a j i b a n {obligations) y a n g d i d e f i n i s i k a n a t a u d i a t u r o l e h h u k u m , a d a t d a n t r a d i s i , a t a u k o n s e n s u s y a n g m e n g a t u r l i u b u n g a n a n t a r a n g g o t a m a s y a r a k a t d a l a m h a l k e p e n t i n g a n n y a t e r h a d a p s u m b e r d a y a . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , t i d a k a d a s e o r a n g p u n y a n g d a p a t m e n y a t a k a n h a k m i l i k t a n p a p e n g e s a h a n d a r i m a s y a r a k a t d i m a n a d i a b e r a d a . I m p h k a s i d a r i h a l i n i a d a l a h : ( i ) h a k s e s e o r a n g a d a l a h k e w a j i b a n o r a n g l a i n , d a n ( i i ) h a k s e p e r t i d i c e r m i n k a n o l e h k e p e m i l i k a n {ownership) a d a l a h s u m b e r k e k u a t -a n u n t u k a k s e s d a n k o n t r o l t e r h a d a p s u m b e r d a y a . H a k t e r s e b u t d a p a t d i p e r o l e h m e l a l u i b e r b a g a i c a r a s e p e r t i m e l a l u i p e m b e l i a n a p a b i l a b a r a n g a t a u j a s a y a n g d i b i c a r a k a n b o l e h d i p e r j u a l b e l i k a n ; h a k t e r h a d a p s e s u a t u d a p a t d i p e r o l e h m e l a l u i p e m b e r i a n a t a u h a d i a h ; d a n h a k t e r h a d a p se-
, s u a t u d a p a t d i p e r o l e h m e l a l u i p e n g a t u r a n a d m i n i s t r a s i s e p e r t i h a l n y a p e m e r i n t a h m e m b e r i k a n s u b s i d i t e r h a d a p s e k e l o m p o k m a s y a r a k a t . D a l a m k a s u s s u m b e r d a y a k i t a d a p a t m e n j u m p a i b e n t u k k e p e m i l i k a n s e p e r t i m i l i k p r i b a d i , m i l i k p e m e r i n t a h , a t a u open access.
3. A t u r a n R e p r e s e n t a s i
A t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i (rules of representation) m e n g a t u r p e r m a s a l a h a n s i a p a y a n g b e r h a k b e r p a r t i s i p a s i t e r h a d a p a p a d a l a m p r o s e s p e n g a m b i l a n k e p u t u s a n . K e p u t u s a n a p a y a n g d i a m b i l d a n a p a a k i b a t n y a t e r h a d a p performance a k a n d i t e n t u k a n o l e h k a i d a h r e p r e s e n t a s i y a n g d i g u n a k a n d a l a m p r o s e s p e n g a m b i l a n k e p u t u s a n . D a l a m p r o s e s i n i b e n t u k p a r t i s i -p a s i t i d a k d i t e n t u k a n o l e h r u p i a h s e p e r t i h a l n y a d a l a m a t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i m e l a l u i p a s a r . P a r t i s i p a s i l e b i h b a n y a k d i t e n t u k a n o l e h k e p u t u s a n p o h t i k o r g a n i s a s i . S e b a g a i c o n t o h , a t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i d a l a m k o p e r a s i d i t e n t u k a n o l e h u n d a n g - u n d a n g k o p e r a s i d i m a n a k e p u t u s a n a n g g o t a m e n e n t u k a n k e b i j a k s a n a a n p e r u s a h a a n . A d a p u n d a l a m p e r u s a h a a n p e r -s e r o a n t e r b a t a s , r e p r e s e n t a s i d i t e n t u k a n o l e h p e m e g a n g s a h a m .
A t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i m e n e n t u k a n j e n i s k e p u t u s a n y a n g d i b u a t . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , a t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i m e n e n t u k a n a l o k a s i d a n d i s t r i b u s i s u m b e r d a y a y a n g l a n g k a . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n , a t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i m e r u p a k a n s u b y e k a n a l i s i s e k o n o m i . D i p a n d a n g d a r i s e g i e k o n o m i , a t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i m e m p e n g a r u h i o n g k o s m e m b u a t k e p u t u s a n . O n g k o s m e m b u a t k e p u t u s a n i n i p e r l u d i p e r h i t u n g k a n k a r e n a a k a n m e n g u r a n g i n i l a i o u t p u t . O n g k o s t r a n s a k s i y a n g t i n g g i d a p a t m e n y e b a b k a n o u t p u t t i d a k b e m i l a i u n t u k d i p r o d u k s i . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , p e r l u d i c a r i s u a t u m e k a n i s -m e r e p r e s e n t a s i y a n g e f i s i e n d a l a m a r t i a n m e n u r u n k a n o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i . D i p i h a k l a i n , p e r l u j u g a d i p e r h i t u n g k a n b a h w a p e n e k a n a n o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i a k a n m e n i n g k a t k a n e k t e m a l i t a s a t a u p e r l u d i d u k u n g o l e h i n f o r m a s i y a n g m e m a d a i . D i s i n i l a h l e t a k n y a b a h w a a n a h s i s i n s t i t u s i m e n g e n a i a l t e m a t i f a t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i a k a n b e r g u n a u n t u k m e m e c a h -k a n m a s a l a h e f i s i e n s i d a l a m p e n g a m b i l a n k e p u t u s a n .
453
Pakpahan
B . Situasi sebagai Sumber Interdependensi
P e n g e t a h u a n t e n t a n g s i t u a s i d a r i k o m o d i t a s y a n g d i b i c a r a k a n s a n g a t d i p e r l u k a n d a l a m m e m p r e d i k s i d a m p a k a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i t e r h a d a p performance. S i t u a s i d i s i n i d i d e f i n i s i k a n s e b a g a i k a r a k t e r i s t i k i n h e r e n y a n g m e l e k a t p a d a k o m o d i t a s y a n g d i b i c a r a k a n . K a r a k t e r i s t i k t e r s e b u t m e r u p a k a n s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i . P e n g e t a h u a n m e n g e n a i h u b u n g a n a n t a r a a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i d e n g a n s i t u a s i y a n g k i t a p e r o l e h d a r i p e n g a l a m a n a t a u p e n e l i t i a n t e r d a h u l u d a p a t d i g u n a k a n s e b a g a i d a s a r a n a l o g i , y a i t u a p a b i l a k i t a t e l a h m e m i l i k i p e n g e t a h u a n m e n g e n a i d a m p a k s u a t u i n s t i t u s i t e r h a d a p p e r i l a k u p e l a k u e k o n o m i d a l a m s u a t u s i t u a s i t e r t e n t u , m i s a l n y a , i n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s , k i t a d a p a t m e m p r e d i k s i b a h w a a p a b i l a j e n i s i n s t i t u s i y a n g s a m a d i b e r l a k u k a n t e r h a d a p k o m o d i t a s y a n g b e r b e d a n a m a n y a ( l a b e l n y a ) t e t a p i m e m i l i k i k a r a k t e r i s t i k i n h e r e n y a n g s a m a , i n s t i t u s i t e r s e b u t a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n performance y a n g s a m a d e n g a n y a n g k i t a j u m p a i p a d a k o m o d i t a s t e r d a h u l u . A t a u s e b a l i k n y a . A p a b i l a k i t a m e n g e t a h u i b a h w a s u a t u b e n t u k i n s t i t u s i y a n g d i t e r a p k a n u n t u k m e n g k o n t r o l s u a t u s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i d i g u n a k a n u n t u k m e n g k o n t r o l j e n i s s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i l a i n y a n g m e m i l i k i k a r a k t e r i s t i k i n h e r e n y a n g b e r b e d a , m a k a k i t a a k a n m a m p u m e m p r e d i k s i s e j a u h m a n a p e r f o r m a n c e y a n g d i h a s i l k a n a k a n b e r b e d a . O l e h k a r e n a i t u p e n g e t a h u a n t e n t a n g s i t u a s i d a r i s u a t u k o m o d i t a s s a n g a t l a h p e n t i n g d a l a m a n a h s i s d a m p a k p e r u b a h a n i n s t i t u s i .
1 . I n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s
D u a a t a u t i g a a k t i f i t a s d i k a t a k a n m e m i l i k i s i f a t i n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s a p a b i l a s a t u a k t i f i t a s d i p i l i h , k a r e n a p e r s y a r a t a n t e k n o l o g i , a k t i f i t a s l a i n n y a t i d a k d a p a t d i s e r t a k a n . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n s a t u a k t i v i t a s s e c a r a l e n g k a p m e n g e l u a r k a n a k t i v i t a s l a i n n y a . A p a b i l a a k t i f l t a s - a k t i f i t a s t e r s e b u t m e r u p a k a n a k t i f i t a s d a r i d u a o r a n g y a n g b e r b e d a a t a u l e b i h m a k a " O n e p e r s o n ' s u s e i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h a t o f a n o t h e r " ( S c h m i d , 1 9 8 2 : 7 9 ) . M i s a l n y a , a p a b i l a k e b u n A n d a t i d a k d i p a g a r d a n s a p i t e t a n g g a m e n g h a b i s k a n t a n a m a n A n d a . F a k t o r k e p e m i l i k a n s e p e r t i y a n g d i u r a i -k a n t e r d a h u l u d a p a t m e n g k o n t r o l m a s a l a h i n i s e l a m a o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i r e n d a h . K e p e m i l i k a n m e n d e f i n i s i k a n s i a p a y a n g b e r h a k b e r p a r t i s i p a s i d a l a m k e p u t u s a n p e n g g u n a a n s u m b e r d a y a d a n s i a p a y a n g t i d a k b e r h a k b e r p a r t i s i p a s i d a l a m p e n g g u n a a n s u m b e r d a y a y a n g s a m a .
F a k t o r k e p e m i l i k a n d a n k o m p e t i s i m e r u p a k a n v a r i a b e l u t a m a d a l a m e k o n o m i n e o k l a s i k . P e r a n a n n y a d a l a m m e n g a l o k a s i k a n s u m b e r d a y a y a n g d i c i r i k a n o l e h s i f a t i n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s t i d a k p e r l u d i p e r t a n y a -k a n l a g i . A k a n t e t a p i , i n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s h a n y a l a h s a l a h s a t u k a r a k t e r i s t i k s u m b e r d a y a . S u m b e r d a y a a l a m u m u m n y a m e m i l i k i k a r a k t e r i s t i k g a n d a .
4 5 4
Perspektif Ekonomi Institusi
O l e h k a r e n a i t u , f a k t o r k e p e m i l i k a n h a n y a m a m p u m e n g e n d a l i k a n i n -k o m p a t i b i h t a s t e t a p i t i d a k m a m p u m e n g e n d a l i k a n k a r a k t e r i s t i k l a i n n y a s e p e r t i o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i d a n l a i n - l a i n y a n g a k a n d i d i s k u s i k a n b e r i k u t i n i .
2 . O n g k o s E k s k l u s i T i n g g i (High Exclusion Cost Goods)
M e m i l i k i s e s u a t u t i d a k s e l a l u b e r a r t i b a h w a p e m i l i k a k a n s e l a l u m e m p e r o l e h ( m e n a n g g u n g ) m a n f a a t ( o n g k o s ) d a r i a p a y a n g d i m i l i k i n y a . P e m i l i k a n h a n y a l a h b e r u p a g u g u s k o s o n g a p a b i l a o n g k o s u n t u k m e n c e g a b p i h a k l a i n m e m a n f a a t k a n s u m b e r d a y a y a n g d i m i h k i s e s e o r a n g j a u h l e b i h b e s a r d a r i n i l a i n y a . S i t u a s i i n i d i s e b u t k a r a k t e r i s t i k o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i .
S i t u a s i o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i m e n d a t a n g k a n m a s a l a h free rider y a i t u k e l o m p o k i n d i v i d u y a n g m e n i k m a t i s e s u a t u y a n g d i h a s i l k a n o l e h o r a n g l a i n t a n p a m e m b e r i k a n k o n s t r i b u s i t e r h a d a p p r o d u k s i k o m o d i t a s t e r s e b u t . A d a n y a k e l o m p o k free rider a k a n m e n g h a m b a t t e r s e l e n g g a r a -n y a p r o d u k s i s u a t u k o m o d i t a s y a n g s e b e n a r n y a d i k e h e n d a k i o l e h m a s y a r a k a t . S e t i a p o r a n g a d a k e c e n d e r u n g a n u n t u k m e n j a d i free rider. P a d a s i t u a s i s e p e r t i i n i p a s a r t i d a k d a p a t m e m p r o d u k s i k o m o d i t a s y a n g d i b i c a r a k a n k a r e n a p a s a r h a n y a a k a n b e k e r j a a p a b i l a a d a j a m i n a n " k a l a u s a y a y a n g m e n a n a m m a k a s a y a y a n g m e m a n e n " .
S a l a h s a t u c a r a u n t u k m e n g u r a n g i free rider d a n m e m b u a t m e r e k a b e r p a r t i s i p a s i u n t u k m e n g h a s i l k a n k o m o d i t a s y a n g m e m i l i k i s i f a t o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i a d a l a h m e l a l u i p a j a k . A k a n t e t a p i , m e m a n g b e n a r b a h w a d e n g a n c a r a p a j a k k i t a m e m e c a h k a n s a t u m a s a l a h t e t a p i d i p i h a k l a i n k i t a m e n g b a d a p i m a s a l a h b a r u . O r a n g y a n g t i d a k m e m b e r i k a n k o n t r i b u s i m u n g k i n b u k a n o r a n g y a n g d e n g a n s e n g a j a t i d a k i n g i n m e m b e r i k a n k o n t r i b u s i m e l a i n k a n m e m a n g o r a n g t e r s e b u t t i d a k m e n g i n g i n k a n k o m o d i t a s y a n g d i b i c a r a k a n . A p a b i l a k e l o m p o k i n i d i p a k s a u n t u k m e m b e r i k a n k o n s t r i b u s i k i t a m e n c i p t a k a n k e l o m p o k y a n g d i s e b u t u n w i l l i n g r i d e r . A t u r a n r e p r e s e n t a s i , b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i , Am property rights m Q m p a -k a n h a l p e n t i n g d a l a m m e m e c a h k a n m a s a l a h i n i , y a i t u b a g a i m a n a p e r t e n t a n g a n k e p e n t i n g a n d i p e c a h k a n d a n a p a a k i b a t n y a t e r h a d a p performance.
K i t a m e n j u m p a i b a h w a b a n y a k p r o d u k s u m b e r d a y a a l a m d a n l i n g k u n g a n y a n g m e m i l i k i k a r a k t e r i s t i k o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i . K e b e r s i h a n l i n g k u n g a n m e r u p a k a n c o n t o h n y a t a y a n g s e d a n g d i g a l a k k a n s a a t i n i . W a l a u p u n k i t a m e m b e r i k a n h a k m i l i k k e p a d a k e l o m p o k r e s i k , k i t a d a p a t m e m p r e d i k s i b a h w a p a s a r t i d a k a k a n b e k e r j a k a r e n a a k a n s a n g a t m a h a l b a g i k e l o m p o k r e s i k u n t u k m e n a r i k b a y a r a n a t a u m e n g e n a k a n d e n d a t e r h a d a p o r a n g y a n g m e m b u a n g s a m p a h s e e n a k n y a . H a l y a n g s a m a j u g a
4 5 5
Pakpahan
a k a n t e r j a d i a p a b i l a k e b e r s i h a n i n i d i b e r i k a n k e p a d a s u a t u l e m b a g a a d m i n i s t r a s i .
S a t u - s a t u n y a c a r a t e r m u r a h u n t u k m e n a n g g u l a n g i m a s a l a h p r o d u k s i k o m o d i t a s y a n g d i c i r i k a n o l e h o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i a d a l a h d e n g a n m e n c i p t a k a n s u a t u k e b i a s a a n b a r u (internalized habits). K a r e n a s u d a h m e r u p a k a n k e b i a s a a n m a k a m e m b u a n g s a m p a h p a d a t e m p a t n y a b u k a n m e r u p a k a n s u a t u k e p u t u s a n y a n g d i h a s i l k a n d a r i h a s i l p e r h i t u n g a n o n g k o s d a n m a n f a a t a t a u b u k a n k a r e n a a d a t i d a k a d a n y a p o l i s i y a n g m e n g -a w a s i , m e l a i n k a n s u d a h m e n j a d i k e b i a s a a n y a n g d i d a s a r i o l e h " i t u l a h y a n g s e h a r u s n y a d i l a k u k a n " . T e n t u s a j a k e b i a s a a n i n i t i d a k d a t a n g d e n g a n s e n d i r i n y a . T e t a p i m a s a l a h n y a a d a l a h k i t a p e r l u m e n e m u k a n f a k t o r - f a k t o r a p a y a n g p a h n g e f e k t i f d a l a m m e l e m b a g a k a n s u a t u k e b i a s a a n b a r u . I l m u e k o n o m i m e m e g a n g p e r a n a n p e n t i n g d a l a m m e n e m u k a n f a k t o r e k s t e r n a l s e p e r t i i n s e n t i f a t a u d i s i n s e n t i f y a n g m e m p e n g a r u h i k e p u t u s a n s e d a n g k a n i l m u p s i k o l o g i a k a n b e r p e r a n d a l a m m e n e m u k a n f a k t o r - f a k t o r i n t e r n a l y a n g m e n e n t u k a n s i s t e m p r e f e r e n s i y a n g j u g a a k a n m e n e n t u k a n k e p u t u s a n m a n a y a n g d i b u a t . B i d a n g - b i d a n g i l m u l a i n p u n a k a n m e m b e r i k a n k o n t r i b u s i p e n t i n g t e r h a d a p p e m b e n t u k a n k e b i a s a a n b a r u . D i s i n i k i t a m e l i h a t b a h w a k e p u t u s a n a d a l a h s u b j e k y a n g b e r s i f a t m u l t i d i s i p l i n .
3. S k a l a E k o n o m i
S e p e r t i h a l n y a d a l a m p e m b a h a s a n b a t a s j u r i s d i k s i p a d a b a g i a n t e r d a h u l u , s k a l a e k o n o m i i n i p e r l u p u l a d i p a n d a n g s e b a g a i k a r a k t e r i s t i k i n h e r e n y a n g d i m i l i k i o l e l i b e b e r a p a k o m o d i t a s . P e r s o a l a n p e l i k m u n c u l a p a b i l a f u n g s i p r o d u k s i d i c i r i k a n o l e h a p a y a n g b i a s a d i s e b u t decreasing cost a t a u increasing return to scale.
A n d a i k a n p e m b a n g k i t l i s t r i k d i k o t a Z m a s i h b e r a d a p a d a f a s e k u r v a o n g k o s y a n g m e n u r u n , a r t i n y a d e n g a n m e n a m b a h l a n g g a n a n o n g k o s p e r s a t u a n d a p a t d i t u r u n k a n . H a l i n i a k a n m e n d o r o n g a d m i n i s t r a t u r u n t u k m e n i n g k a t k a n p e l a y a n a n d e n g a n m e n c a r i l a n g g a n a n b a r u y a n g d i k e n a k a n h a r g a p e l a y a n a n p e r s a t u a n y a n g l e b i h r e n d a h . P e r m a s a l a h a n y a n g t i m b u l a d a l a h p e r m a s a l a h a n k e a d i l a n , s i a p a y a n g h a r u s m e n a n g g u n g b e b a n y a n g l e b i h r e n d a h ? A p a k a h k e l o m p o k l a n g g a n a n b a r u a t a u k e l o m p o k l a n g g a n a n l a m a ?
S e k a r a n g a n d a i k a n p u l a h a r g a d i t e n t u k a n b e r d a s a r k a n n o r m a p a s a r y a n g b e r s a i n g s e m p u m a . B e r d a s a r k a n n o r m a i n i m a k a h a r g a y a n g d i t e t a p k a n m e m e n u h i k r i t e r i a h a r g a = o n g k o s m a r g i n a l . A p a b i l a t e k n o l o g i d i c i r i k a n o l e h s i f a t decreasing cost, m a k a a g a r p e m b a n g k i t l i s t r i k d i k o t a Z d a p a t h i d u p t e r u s , h a r u s a d a p i h a k l a i n y a n g m e n s u b s i d i p e m b a n g k i t l i s t r i k t e r s e b u t . S e d a n g k a n a p a b i l a h a r g a d i t e t a p k a n b e r d a s a r k a n o n g k o s
456
Perspektif Ekonomi Institusi
r a t a - r a t a ( h a r g a = o n g k o s r a t a - r a t a ) , m a k a a d a k e c e n d e r u n g a n p e r u s a h a a n m e l a k u k a n e k s p a n s i . E k s p a n s i p e r u s a h a a n t e r s e b u t d a p a t m e n i m b u l k a n b e r b a g a i f a k t o r , m i s a l n y a , p e r u b a h a n t a t a g u n a l a h a n . P e l a j a r a n y a n g p e n t i n g d a r i d i s k u s i i n i a d a l a h s k a l a e k o n o m i m e r u p a k a n s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i p e n t i n g d i m a n a a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n p e r b e d a a n performance.
4. J o i n t I m p a c t G o o d s ( J I G )
J I G a d a l a h k a r a k t e r i s t i k k o m o d i t a s d i m a n a s e k a l i d i p r o d u k s i m a k a s e m u a o r a n g m e m i l i k i k e s e m p a t a n y a n g s a m a m e n g k o n s u m s i k o m o d i t a s t e r s e b u t t a n p a m e n g u r a n g i u t i l i t a s o r a n g l a i n y a n g m e m p e r o l e h j a s a y a n g s a m a , d a n s e b a l i k n y a . O n g k o s m a r g i n a l s e t i a p p e n a m b a b a n i n d i v i d u k o n s u m e r s a m a d e n g a n n o l ( M C = 0 ) . S e k i l a s t a m p a k b a h w a s i t u a s i J I G a d a l a h s i t u a s i i d e a l . A k a n t e t a p i a p a b i l a k i t a t e l u s u r i l e b i h m e n d a l a m i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i i t u t e t a p a d a , y a i t u i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i d a l a m a n d i l b i a y a t e t a p . K a r e n a M C = 0 , m a k a p a s t i a d a o r a n g l a i n y a n g h a m s m e m b a y a r o n g k o s t e t a p {fixed cost).
F a s i l i t a s p e n g e n d a l i b a n j i r a d a l a h c o n t o h n y a t a d a r i J I G . A p a b i l a s e b u a h d a m d i b a n g u n u n t u k m e i i n d u n g i s u a t u w i l a y a h , o n g k o s m e m b a -n g u n d a m t e r s e b u t t i d a k l a h b e r u b a b s e a n d a i n y a d a m t e r s e b u t d i b a n g u n u n t u k m e i i n d u n g i s a t u o r a n g , d u a o r a n g a t a u s e l u r u h o r a n g d i w i l a y a h t e r s e b u t . P e r t a n y a a n n y a a d a l a h s i a p a y a n g h a r u s m e m b a y a r p e m b u a t a n d a m ?
S e l a n j u t n y a , f a s i l i t a s p e n g e n d a l i b a n j i r j u g a d i c i r i k a n o l e h o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i . J i k a s e k e l o m p o k o r a n g m e m p e r o l e h p e r l i n d u n g a n t e r h a d a p b a h a y a b a n j i r , s u l i t b a g i k i t a u n t u k t i d a k m e m b e r i k a n j a s a p e r l i n d u n g a n t e r h a d a p o r a n g y a n g t i n g g a l d i w i l a y a h t e r s e b u t t e t a p i t i d a k m a u b e r p a r t i s i p a s i d a l a m p e m b i a y a a n . W a l a u p u n k i t a m a m p u m e n g e l u a r k a n m e r e k a s a m p a i h a t i k a h k i t a m e l a k u k a n n y a ? S e b a l i k n y a , a p a k a h a d i l a t a u f a i r m e m b i a r k a n o r a n g y a n g t i d a k a d a k o n t r i b u s i n y a m e n i k m a t i k o n t r i b u s i o r a n g l a i n ? K o m p l e k s i t a s p e r m a s a l a h a n a k a n b e r t a m b a b a p a b i l a d a m y a n g t a d i n y a h a n y a b e r f u n g s i s e b a g a i p e n g e n d a l i b a n j i r s e k a r a n g m e m i l i k i f u n g s i g a n d a . B a g a i m a n a k i t a m e n g a l o k a s i k a n fixed cost a n t a r a p e n g e n d a l i b a n j i r d e n g a n r e k r e a s i ? A l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i a k a n m e n e n t u k a n s i a p a m e n a n g g u n g ( m e m p e r o l e h ) a p a b e r a p a b a n y a k .
5 . O n g k o s T r a n s a k s i
T r a n s a k s i b e r l a n g s u n g b u k a n t a n p a o n g k o s . A p a b i l a o n g k o s t e r s e b u t m e r u p a k a n f a k t o r i n h e r e n d a r i s i t u a s i y a n g d i b i c a r a k a n , i n s t i t u s i m e n e n t u k a n s i a p a y a n g m e n a n g g u n g o n g k o s t e r s e b u t . D a l a m k a s u s l a i n k i t a m e n j u m p a i b a h w a i n s t i t u s i y a n g m e n c i p t a k a n o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i .
4 5 7
Pakpahan
O n g k o s t r a n s a k s i y a n g t i n g g i a k a n m e n g h a m b a t v o l u m e t r a n s a k s i . K a r e n a p r o s e s e k o n o m i a d a l a h p r o s e s t r a n s a k s i , m a k a o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i y a n g t i n g g i a k a n m e n u r u n k a n n i l a i e k o n o m i . O n g k o s t r a n s a k s i d a p a t d i b e d a k a n k e d a l a m : ( i ) o n g k o s m e m b u a t k o n t r a k (contractual cost), ( i i ) o n g k o s i n f o r m a s i , d a n ( i n ) o n g k o s p e m a n t a u a n d a n p e l a k s a n a a n h u k u m (policing costs).
O n g k o s k o n t r a k a d a l a h o n g k o s u n t u k m e n c a p a i k e s e p a k a t a n d e n g a n p i h a k l a i n . J a s a p e l a y a n a n h u k u m , b r o k e r , d a n w a k t u n e g o s i a s i b e r h u b u n g a n l a n g s u n g d e n g a n o n g k o s k o n t r a k . O n g k o s i n f o r m a s i a d a l a h o n g k o s m e n g u m p u l k a n i n f o r m a s i m e n g e n a i p r o d u k a t a u i n p u t b a i k b e r u p a h a r g a , k u a h t a s , a t a u j u m l a h . S e b a g a i c o n t o h , b a g i p e t a n i a k a n s a n g a t m a h a l b i a y a n y a u n t u k m e m p e r o l e h i n f o r m a s i m e n g e n a i k a n -d u n g a n k i m i a p e s t i s i d a , p u p u k , a t a u k e m u m i a n g e n e t i k b e n i h . A d a p u n policing cost a d a l a h i s t i l a h u m u m d a r i exclusion cost.
U n t u k m e l a k u k a n s u a t u t r a n s a k s i d i p e r l u k a n i n f o r m a s i . A p a b i l a i n d i v i d u y a n g a k a n m e l a k u k a n t r a n s a k s i m e n g b a d a p i o n g k o s y a n g b e r b e d a u n t u k m e m p e r o l e h i n f o r m a s i a t a u m e n a n g g u n g b e b a n y a n g b e r b e d a s e b a g a i a k i b a t m e m b u a t k e s a l a h a n , m a k a i n i j u g a m e m p a k a n s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i y a n g d i k o n t r o l o l e h i n s t i t u s i . S i a p a y a n g s e h a r u s n y a m e m b e r i k a n i n f o r m a s i t e n t a n g d a m p a k p e m a n t a a t a n t e k n o l o g i b a r u , p e m b u a t t e k n o l o g i , p e n j u a l j a s a t e k n o l o g i a t a u p e m a k a i t e k n o l o g i ? D i l e m b a g a k a n n y a A n a l i s i s D a m p a k L i n g k u n g a n ( A M D A L ) u n t u k s e t i a p r e n c a n a i n v e s t a s i y a n g m e m a n f a a t k a n s u m b e r d a y a a l a m d a n l i n g k u n g a n m e n e n t u k a n b a h w a p e r e n c a n a d i w a j i b k a n m e m b e r i k a n i n f o r m a s i .
S u m b e r d a y a s t o k (stock resources) m e m i l i k i k a r a k t e r i s t i k k h u s u s d i l i h a t d a r i s e g i k e t i d a k p a s t i a n (uncertainties). K e t e r s e d i a a n m i n y a k b u m i , b a t u b a r a , l a h a n , d a n a i r s e c a r a t o t a l a d a l a h t e t a p (fixed). P a l i n g t i d a k a d a d u a j e n i s k e t i d a k p a s t i a n s e b a g a i s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i : k e t i d a k p a s t i a n m e n g e n a i v o l u m e s t o k y a n g s e b e n a r n y a d a n k e t i d a k p a s t i a n t e n t a n g p e r m i n t a a n d i m a s a m e n d a t a n g . K a r e n a i t u s a n g a t s u l i t m e n g g u n a k a n h a r g a s a a t i n i s e b a g a i s u m b e r i n f o r m a s i u n t u k m e n g g a m -b a r k a n n i l a i s u m b e r d a y a d i m a s a m e n d a t a n g . D a l a m t e o r i e k o n o m i s u m b e r d a y a d i k e n a l k o n s e p option demand. T e t a p i , k a r e n a a d a n y a o n g k o s t r a n s a k s i d a n o n g k o s e k s k l u s i y a n g t i n g g i a k a n s a n g a t s u h t m e n g g u n a k a n p a s a r u n t u k m e n g a t u r option demand.
6 . S u r p l u s
H a m p a r a n l a h a n y a n g b e r b e d a m e m i h k i t i n g k a t p r o d u k t i v i t a s y a n g b e r b e d a . H a l i n i d i s e b a b k a n o l e h k a r a k t e r i s t i k i n h e r e n d a r i l a h a n s e p e r t i t i n g k a t k e s u b u r a n a t a u l o k a s i d a r i p a s a r . P e r b e d a a n p r o d u k t i v i t a s i n i m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a a p a b i l a p e n g g u n a a n l a h a n t e r s e b u t b e r k e m b a n g k e
4 5 8
Perspektif Ekonomi Institus
l a h a n m a r g i n a l , m a k a l a h a n i n t r a m a r g i n a l m e m p e r o l e h r e n t e ( p e n g e m b a l i a n d i a t a s o n g k o s p r o d u k s i ) . R e n t e i n i , t i d a k s e p e r t i k e u n t u n g a n t i d a k d a p a t d i h i l a n g k a n d e n g a n m e n g g u n a k a n a t u r a n ( m e k a n i s m e k o m p e t i s i k a r e n a k e t e r s e d i a a n l a h a n s e c a r a a l a m i a d a l a h t e t a p . A k s e s t e r h a d a p s u r p l u s t e r s e b u t d i c i r i k a n o l e h s i f a t i n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s d a n k e p e m i l i k a n , s e p e r t i t e l a h d i d i s k u s i k a n t e r d a h u l u , d a p a t m e n g k o n t r o l i n i .
L a h a n y a n g b e r d e k a t a n d e n g a n p u s a t - p u s a t p e r t u m b u h a n a t a v d e k a t f a s i l i t a s l a i n n y a s e p e r t i j a l a n r a y a a t a u t e m p a t r e k r e a s i nilainy£ t e r u s m e n i n g k a t w a l a u p u n t a n p a a d a s e d i k i t p u n u s a h a d a r i p e m i l i k l a h a n t e r s e b u t . S i a p a y a n g m e m i h k i r e n t e t e r s e b u t ? J i k a r e n t e d i m i l i k : o l e h p e m i l i k l a h a n m a k a a d a i n s e n t i f y a n g b e s a r u n t u k m e n i n g k a t k a r p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i d i w i l a y a h t e r s e b u t w a l a u p u n m a s a y r a k a t m e n g i n g i n k a n a d a n y a open space. K o n v e r s i l a h a n s a w a h k e b e n t u k p e n g g u n a a n l a i n n y a a d a l a h k o n s e k u e n s i a d a n y a s u r p l u s d e n g a n b e r a l i h d a r i s a w a h k e n o n p e r t a n i a n . W a l a u p u n zoning d i t e r a p k a n u n t u k m e m p e r t a h a n k a r s a w a h , policing cost d i p e r l u k a n . P a j a k y a n g d i k e n a k a n t e r h a d a p s u r p l u m e m b u a t zoning l e b i h b e r h a s i l .
7 . I n t e r d e p e n d e n s i A n t a r G e n e r a s i
P e n g g u n a a n s u m b e r d a y a a l a m d a n l i n g k u n g a n j u g a m e n c i p t a k a n m a s a l a h i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i a n t a r a g e n e r a s i m a s a k i n i d e n g a n g e n e r a s i p e n e r u s y a n g s a a t i n i b e l u m h a d i r a t a u y a n g s a a t i n i p r e f e r e n s i n y a b e l u m t e r w a k i l d a l a m D e w a n P e i w a k i l a n R a k y a t a t a u M P R , m i s a l n y a , k e l o m p o k a n a k a n a k . I n t e r d e p e n d e n s i a n t a r a g e n e r a s i m a s a k i n i d e n g a n g e n e r a s i m a s a m e n d a t a n g b e r s i f a t l e b i h k o m p l e k s m e n g i n g a t g e n e r a s i y a n g h i d u p d i m a s a d a t a n g b e l u m d a p a t b e r b i c a r a s e k a r a n g . D i s a m p i n g i t u , g e n e r a s : y a n g h i d u p d i m a s a d a t a n g a d a l a h a n a k - c u c u k i t a . U n t u k s e o r a n g i b u s a n g a t m u n g k i n i a r e l a m e n g o r b a n k a n k e p e n t i n g a n d i r i n y a s a a t i n i d e m i k e b a h a g i a a n a n a k n y a d i m a s a m e n d a t a n g . P e m y a t a a n : " K u s i s i h k a n d u a p e r t i g a u p a h h a r i a n k u u n t u k u a n g s e k o l a h a n a k k u s e h i n g g a a k u h a n y a c u k u p m a k a n d e n g a n g a r a m d a n c a b e " a d a l a h c e r m i n a n n i l a i y a n g m e -m e n t i n g k a n k e h i d u p a n o r a n g l a i n d i m a s a m e n d a t a n g d e n g a n m e n g o r b a n k a n k e p e n t i n g a n d i r i n y a . P e r m a s a l a h a n n y a a d a l a h n i l a i t e r s e b u t m u n g k i n s a n g a t b e r s i f a t m i k r o d a l a m a r t i a n t e r b a t a s p a d a a n g g o t a k e l u -a r g a s e n d i r i . I n t e r d e p e n d e n s i d e n g a n p i h a k l a i n t e r l e t a k p a d a p e r s o a l a n b a g a i m a n a k e l u a r g a y a n g b e r b e d a m e m b i a y a i m a s i n g - m a s i n g k e t u r u n a n -n y a . U n t u k m e m p e r o l e h p e n d a p a t a n y a n g m e m a d a i u n t u k m e m b i a y a i k e p e n t i n g a n k e t u r u n a n n y a m u n g k i n s a j a d i p e r o l e h d e n g a n m e l a k u k a n h a l - h a l y a n g b e r s i f a t d e s t r u k t i f k a r e n a n i l a i d i a t a s t i d a k m e m e n u h i s y a r a t k e c u k u p a n u n t u k d i t e r a p k a n p a d a t i n g k a t m a s y a r a k a t . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n p e r m a s a l a h a n n y a s a n g a t k o m p l e k s t i d a k h a n y a m e n c a k u p p e r s o a l a n e k o n o m i a t a u t e k n o l o g i , m e l a i n k a n m e l i p u t i p e r s o a l a n m o r a l d a n
45S
Pakpahan
p s i k o l o g i . T i d a k a d a p r e t e n s i p e n u l i s u n t u k m e m e c a h k a n m a s a l a h i n i . H a l i n i d i m a s u k k a n d a l a m t u h s a n h a n y a l a h u n t u k m e n g i n g a t k a n b a h w a d i m e n s i i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i a n t a r g e n e r a s i a d a l a h m a s a l a h y a n g s a n g a t k o m p l e k s .
IV. Pemifup
D a r i u r a i a n t e r d a h u l u d a p a t d i t a r i k p e l a j a r a n b a h w a p r o p o s i s i y a n g m e n d a s a r i a n a l i s i s d a m p a k p e r u b a h a n i n s t i t u s i a d a l a h i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i a n t a r i n d i v i d u a l d i t e n t u k a n o l e h k a r a k t e r i s t i k k o m o d i t a s y a n g d i b i c a r a k a n s e p e r t i i n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s a t a u o n g k o s e k s k l u s i t i n g g i . D a m p a k p e r u b a h a n i n s t i t u s i t e r h a d a p p e r f o r m a n c e d i t e n t u k a n o l e h s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i a p a y a n g d i k o n t r o l o l e h p e r u b a h a n i n s t i t u s i t e r s e b u t . T a b e l 1 b e r i k u t i n i m e n c o b a m e n g g a m b a r k a n h u b u n g a n a n t a r a s i t u a s i , i n s t i t u s i , d a n p e r f o r m a n c e , s e b a g a i p e n u t u p t u l i s a n i n i .
T a b e l 1 : Ilustrasi hubungan antara situasi, institusi dan performance
S i t u a s i A l t e m a t i f I n s t i t u s i P e r f o r m a n c e
1 . I n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s
a. P e n g g u n a a n l a h a n H a k m e m i l i h t a n a m a n P e n g g u n a a n l a h a n s a w a h u n t u k t e b u s e p e n u h n y a d i b e r i k a n d i t e n t u k a n o l e h d a n p a d i pada T R l k e p a d a p e t a n i besar i n s e n t i f .
P e t a n i d i w a j i b k a n m e - K e p e n t i n g a n p e t a n i n a n a m a n t e b u t a n p a d i k e l u a r k a n , s e m u a s y a r a t l a h a n d i t a n a m i t e b u .
b . A i r sunga i u n t u k A i r d i b e r i k a n k e p a d a I n d u s t r i m e m b e l i jasa p e m b u a n g a n l i m - p e r i k a n a n . H a k dapat sunga i d a r i p e r i k a n a n . b a h i n d u s t r i dan d i p e r j u a l b e l i k a n A p a b i l a r i g h t s d i b e l i , p e r i k a n a n m a k a p o l u s i a k a n t e r
j a d i d a n k u a l i t a s a i r m e n u r u n .
P o l u s i d i l a r a n g o l e h A i r b e r s i h t e t a p i k e p e n h u k u m . H a k t i d a k t i n g a n k o n s u m e r ba rang dapa t d i p e r j u a l b e l i y a n g d i p r o d u k s i i n d u s t r i k a n d i k e l u a r k a n . D e m i k i a n
p u l a h a l n y a dengan i n d u s t r i .
c . A l o k a s i t a m b a k H a k d i b e r i k a n kepada M a s y a r a k a t l o k a l i n v e s t o r besar t e r s i n g k i r
P r o d u k s i m e n i n g k a t . M a s a l a h sos ia l t i m b u l .
4 6 0
Perspektif Ekonomi institusi
( Lanjutan )
Situasi Aixernaiii insiiiusi Performance
Hak dialokasikan ber Orang luar tersingki r. dasarkan sejarah, yaitu Produksi tergantung kepada orang yang tu kepada performance run temurun berada masyarakat setempat di wilayah yang bersangkutan, tidak dapat diperjual belikan.
2. Ongkos Eksklusi Tinggi Pengendali banjir Hak milik diberikan Free rider.
kepada seseorang atau Apabila ini parah tidak organisasi (mekanisme ada insentif bagi pemilik pasar) untuk membangun pe
ngendali banjir. Pengendali banjir tidak pernah terwujud.
Hak milik + otoritas Dam terwujud menarik pajak Unwilling rider
Banjir terkendali Kebersihan Hak milik diberikan Orang jorok kota masih
kenada resik membuang sampai di mana saja.
ICenentinoari re ik di- Idem dito . Hndiinei oleh neraturan
Internalized habits, Jalan-jalan bersih. learned
T Dnolfrrft Tranftfllffti
Perubahan tata guna Lahan dimiliki oleh Semakin banyak populasi, lahan: pembangunan penduduk, pemerintah semakin tinggi ongkos dam dan jaringan perlu membeli transaksi. Apabila ongkos irigasi ini melebihi nilai proyek,
proyek tidak berjalan. Lahan dimiliki oleh Murah tetapi akan menimpenduduk, police power bulkan konflik sosial.
Proyek terwujud.
4 6 1
Pakpahan
I l u s t r a s i d a m p a k a l t e m a t i f i n s t i t u s i p a d a T a b e l 1 t e n t u s a j a t i d a k l e n g k a p a p a l a g i k a l a u d i i n g a t b a h w a s u m b e r d a y a a l a m d a n l i n g k u n g a n u m u m n y a m e m i h k i d i m e n s i k a r a k t e r i s t i k g a n d a . T u j u a n d a r i i l u s t r a s i t e r s e b u t h a n y a l a h u n t u k m e m p e r l i h a t k a n b a h w a d a m p a k p e m b a h a n i n s t i t u s i t e r h a d a p p e r u b a h a n p e r f o r m a n c e a d a l a h f u n g s i d a r i s u m b e r i n t e r d e p e n d e n s i m a n a y a n g d i k o n t r o l o l e h p e m b a h a n i n s t i t u s i t e r s e b u t . H a l l a i n y a n g p e n t i n g u n t u k d i t e k a n k a n a d a l a h hahwa ownership b u k a n l a h s a t u - s a t u n y a c a r a u n t u k m e r u b a h p e r f o r m a n c e . K i t a m e h h a t b a h w a ownership h a n y a d a p a t m e n g k o n t r o l i n k o m p a t i b i l i t a s t e t a p i t i d a k d a p a t m e n g k o n t r o l k a r a k t e r i s t i k l a i n n y a . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n a d a b a i k n y a a p a b i l a k i t a m e n g a l i b k a n p a n d a n g a n b a h w a p a s a r ( y a n g m e k a n i s m e k e r j a -n y a t e r g a n t u n g p a d a b e r l a k u n y a nonattenuated property rights) s e b a g a i o b y e k r e g u l a s i k e p a n d a n g a n b a h w a p a s a r a d a l a h s a l a h s a t u c a r a r e g u l a s i . B e r d a s a r k a n p a n d a n g a n i n i w a w a s a n a n a l i s i s e k o n o m i d a p a t d i p e r l u a s y a i t u t i d a k t e r b a t a s h a n y a m e m a n d a n g p a s a r s e b a g a i s a t u - s a t u n y a a l a t a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a .
4 6 2
Perspektif Ekonomi institus
Daftar Pustaka
Anderson, 1982. "Tlie New Resource Ekonomics: 01s Ideas and New Applications AJAE, Vol. 64, No. 5, Dec. 1982: 928-946.
Alchian, A., 1969. Corporate Management and Property Rights. Dalam H.Manne (Ed.): Economic Policy and the Regulation of Corporate Securities, Americar Enterprise Institute, Washington, D.C.
dan H. Demsetz, 1972. "Production, Information Costs, and Economic o:' Organization", The American Economic Review, 62 (1972): 777-795.
Bartlett, R., 1973. Economic Foundations of Political Power. The Free Press New York.
Bromley, D.W. 1982. "Land and Water Problems: An Institutional Perspective' AJAE 64: 834-844.
Buchanan, J . 1975. The Limits of Liberty.The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Coase, R.H. 1960. "The Problem of Social Cost", The Journal of Law and Econo mics, Vol. I l l , October 1960: 1-44.
Comes, R. and T. Sandler, 1986. The Theory of Externalities, Public Goods, and Oub Goods. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Dasgupta, P.S. dan GM. Heal, 1979. Economic JJieory and Exhaustible Resource Cambridge Economic Handbooks. James Nisbet and Company Limited, Digs well Place, Welwyn, Herts, and Cambridge University Press, Great Britain.
Hicks, J.R. 1939. Values and Capital. Oxford University Press, London.
Langlois, R.N. (Ed.). 1986. Economics as a Process, Essays in the New Institutional Economics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Samuels, W.J. 1982. Welfare Economics, Power, andProperty. Dalam W J . Samuel dan A.A. Schmid (1982) (Eds.): Law and Economics: An Institutional Per spective, Kluwer. Nijhoff Publishing, Boston, The Hague, London.
Samuelson, P.A. 1963. Foundations of Economic Analysis. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Schmid, A.A. 1982. Predicting the Performance of Altemativelnstitutions. Dalam W.J. Samuels dan A.A. Sclunid (1982) (Eds.): Law and Economics: An Institutional Perspective, Kluwer. Nijhoff Publisliing, Boston, The Hague, London
, 1987. Property, Power, and Public Choice: An Inquiry into Law anq Economics (2nd). Praeger, New York.
, 1971. Impact of Alternative Federal Decision Making Structures fo -Water Resource Development. Paper prepared for the National Water Commission, 800 North Quincy Street, Arlington, Virginia.
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Scitovsky, T. 1981. "A Note on Welfare Propositions in Economics", Review of Economic Studies 9: 77-88.
Shaffer, J.D. 1979. "Observations on the Political Economics of Regulations", AJAE, Vol. 61, No. 4, Part 2, Nov. 1979: 721 -731 .
, dan A.A. Schmid. Community Economics: A Framework for Analysis of Community Economic Problems. Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University. Mimeo.
Sharp, BM.H. dan D.W. Bromley. 1979. "Agricultural Pollution: The Economics of Coordination", AJAE, Nov. 1979: 591-600.
Stocking, G.W. 1959. "Institutional Factors in Economic Thinking", American Economic Review, Vol. X L I X , No. 1, March 1959: 1-21.
Williamson, O.E. 1975. Markets and Hierarchies. A Study in the Economics of Internal Organization. The Free Press, New York.
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