Personality Theories:

Trait/Dispositional Perspectives

Definition

• A trait is any readily-identifiable, stable quality that characterizes an individual from other individuals

• Traits serve three major functions:– To summarize, predict, and

explain a person’s conduct

Basic Assumptions

• Traits present specific ideas about a person’s disposition (the way a person is likely to behave across situations as well as over time)

• Human behavior and personality traits can be placed on a continuum or organized into a hierarchy

Theorists

• Gordon Allport (1897-1967)

• Raymond B. Cattell (1905-1998)

• Hans J. Eysenck (1916-1997)

Gordon Allport

Allport’s Disposition Theory

• Allport suggested that each individual has a unique set of personality traits– He called these personal dispositions– Allport divided traits into three

categories: • Cardinal, • Central, • Secondary

Allport’s Theory (con’t)

• Cardinal Traits– A trait so

dominant a person’s entire life revolves around it.

– Most people do not have one.

• Secondary Traits– Characteristics

that are exhibited in specific situations

– Secondary traits are more easily modified than central traits

• Central Traits– Qualities that

characterize a person’s daily interactions

– Most people have 5 to 10 central traits

– To understand a person, one should look at the pattern of central traits

Allport’s Theory (con’t)

• Allport claimed that everyone are unique everyone has a different combination of traits

• Allport recommended an in-depth study of the individual, through analyzing diaries and use of interviews

• Secondary traits are more easily modified than central traits

• Most people have many more secondary traits than central traits

Raymond B. Cattell

Cattell’s Trait Theory

• Three sources of data are required to uncover all the major dimensions of personality:– L-data

• Gathered from one’s life records– Q-data

• Information gathered from questionnaires and interviews

– T-data• Information obtained from objective testing

situations

• These 3 sources must be incorporated to capture the full complexity of human personality.

Cattell’s Theory (con’t)

• Cattell used factor analysis to discover which traits tend to cluster together

• Cattell termed obvious, day-to-day traits, “surface” traits and higher-order, “deep” traits, source traits

• Cattell came up with a list of sixteen factors of personality (each a continuum from one extreme to the other), and developed a questionnaire that could be used to measure each of these factors in an individual or a group.

• The factors identified by Cattell were: – sociable-unsociable, intelligent-unintelligent, emotionally stable- unstable,

dominant-submissive, cheerful-brooding, conscientious-undependable, bold-timid, sensitive-insensitive, suspicious-trusting, imaginative-practical, shrewd-naïve, guilt proclivity-guilt rejection, radicalism-conservatism, self- sufficiency-group adherence, self-disciplined-uncontrolled will, and tense- relaxed.

Hans J. Eysenck

Hans J. Eysenck

• Eysenck's early work took place at approximately the same time as Cattell's and used an almost identical method.

• However, Eysenck used factor analysis slightly differently, and came up with only two factors: extroversion-introversion and neuroticism-stability.

• He focus on higher levels of trait organization called types:-– Types incorporate lower-level elements (traits)– Each trait incorporates even lower-order qualities (habits)

• Eysenck argues that all personality traits can be grouped under three bipolar dimensions: Extraversion-Introversion (E), Neuroticism-Stability (N), Psychoticism-Superego Function (P)

• Extraversion charatcterizes people based on their orientation toward external sources of stimulations from the environment versus an orientation inward at the opposite extreme.– Extroversion- introversion refers to a person's tendency to seek

stimulation and novelty: a person who is highly extroverted is more likely to take risks, to have many friends, and to be outgoing than someone who is highly introverted.

• Psychotism includes a disposition toward psychosis and a degree of sociopathy.

• Neuroticism is basically a measure of emotional stability-instability. – Neuroticism-stability refers to a person's tendency to become

emotionally upset. Eysenck believed that these two traits were heavily influenced by biology.

Five Factor Model

Many theorists agree there are five broad categories of traits:

1. Extraversion-introversion

2. Agreeableness-antagonism

3. Conscientiousness-undirectedness

4. Neuroticism-stability

5. Openness to experience

Belief Regarding Basic Nature

• Resulting from a biological basis & neuro-psychological functioning within the environment.

• Eysenck’s found that introverts are more easily aroused by events and learn social prohibitions more easily than extroverts they are more restrained and inhibited.

• Eysenck hypothesized that individual differences along this dimension have both hereditary and environmental origins.

Methods in Assessing Personality

• Interviews• Projection Tests• Situational Tests• Self Reports• Reputational Reports

Examples of instruments used in assessing traits

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory( MMPI)– the most widely researched and

clinically used of all personality tests– developed to identify emotional

disorders

Evaluating Trait Theory

• Trait theory, especially the Big 5 model, is able to describe personality

• Cross-cultural human studies find good agreement for the Big 5 model in many cultures– Appear to be highly correlated not only in

adulthood, but also in childhood and even late preschoolers

– Three dimensions (extraversion, neuroticism and agreeableness) have cross-species generality

• Problems with trait theory include:– Lack of explanation as to WHY traits develop– Issue of explaining transient versus long-lasting

traits

References

• Costa, P. & McCrae, R. (2003). Personality in Adulthood.NewYork: Guildford Press.

• Lahey, B. (2001). Psychology an Introduction (8th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.

• Lawrence, P. & Oliver, J. (2001). Personality Theory and Research (8th Edition). United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

• Liebert, L. & Libert, R. (1998). Personality Strategies & Issues (8th Edition). Pacific grove, Publishing Company: Brooks/Cole.