PERCEPTION• THE PROCESS BY WHICH WE COME TO KNOW THE WORLD

AROUND US…AN INDIVIDUAL’S WINDOW TO THE WORLD.

ATTITUDES• PREDISPOSITIONS TO RESPOND CONSISTENTLY TO

CERTAIN PEOPLE, IDEAS, OR SITUATIONS.• WE HAVE ATTITUDES ABOUT SPECIFIC “THINGS”• ATTITUDES ARE A RELFECTION OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S

VALUES AND BELIEF SYSTEM• THE WORLD’S WINDOW INTO THAT INDIVIDUAL

PERSONALITY• REFLECTS AN INDIVIDUAL’S VALUES & BELIEF SYSTEM• CHARACTERISTICS THAT CAUSE CONSISTENT PATTERNS

IN BEHAVIOR OVER TIME• MORE ENDURING AND STABLE THAN ATTITUDES

PERCEPTION IN ORGANIZATIONS

• GETTING YOUR ATTENTION• CONSTRUCTING A “REALITY”• INTERPRETING MEANING

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OBJECTNovelty (or it’s yours!)Contrast, color, patternMovement

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERSONAttitudes, values, personalitySalience (sensitized importance)Perceptual set / disposition

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SITUATIONSelection & filteringInformation overloadContrasts

THE PERCEPTUAL GAP BETWEEN SUPERVISORS & WORKERS

LIKERT (61)

SUPERVISORS WORKERSSAY THEY GIVE: SAY THEY GET:

PRIVILEGES 52 % 14 %

MORE RESPONSIBILITY 48 % 10 %

A PAT ON THE BACK 82 % 13 %

SINCERE PRAISE 80 % 14 %

TRAINING 64 % 9 %

INTERESTING WORK 51 % 5 %

PERCEPTUAL ERRORS & ATTRIBUTIONS

• STEREOTYPES– Based on appearance

• HALO (HORN) EFFECTS– One outstanding characteristic noted

• CONTRAST EFFECT– Ordering

• RECENCY EFFECT– Limited recall

• PROJECTION– “Similar to me” Error

• SKEWING ERRORS– Central tendency, leniency, strictness bias

• SELF-FULFILLING PROPHESY– People respond the way you “expected” they would

• SELECTIVE PERCEPTION (MIND SETS)– Filtering, selection, and salience

PERCEPTUAL “MIND SET” ERRORSROSENHAN (73)

Ho: THESE PEOPLE ARE INSANE…(Don’t let them out!)

TRUTHSANE INSANE

SANE -----------------------------------------------------------

OK TYPE I ERROR

OBSERVED ------------------------------------------------BEHAVIOR TYPE II OK

ERRORINSANE -----------------------------------------------------------

35/118 “You’re ok”

TYPE I ERROR = Rejecting HO: when it is true (Alpha Error)

TYPE II ERROR = Acceptin HO: when it is false (Beta Error)

PERCEPTUAL “MIND SET” CONTDROSENHAN (73)

NOTE THE CHANGE IN BIAS, BASED ON SENSITIZATION

Ho: THESE PEOPLE MIGHT BE SANE…(Don’t keep anyone who is ok!)

TRUTHSANE INSANE

SANE -----------------------------------------------------------

OK TYPE II ERROR

OBSERVED ------------------------------------------------BEHAVIOR TYPE I OK

ERRORINSANE -----------------------------------------------------------

41 “Ringers” spotted by staff23 by psychiatrists

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS

• THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR– THE CAUSE OF POOR PERFORMANCE (BY OTHERS) IS

DUE TO PERSONAL FACTORS (LAZY…DIDN’T TRY VERY HARD)

• SELF-SERVING BIAS– THE CAUSE OF POOR PERFORMANCE (BY MYSELF) IS

DUE TO SITUATIONAL FACTORS (POOR SUPPORT), NOT BECAUSE OF A LACK OF EFFORT

ATTRIBUTION THEORYKELLEY (73)

IS THE CAUSE OF THE BEHAVIOR SEEN AS INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL? WE LOOK FOR THREE TYPES OF INFORMATION TO DECIDE:

DISTINCTIVENESSIS THIS PERSON’S PERFORMANCE DIFFERENT ON OTHER TASKS

AND IN OTHER SITUATIONS?

CONSISTENCYOVER TIME, IS THERE A CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR OR RESULTS ON

THIS TASK BY THIS PERSON?

CONSENSUSDO OTHERS PERFORM OR BEHAVE SIMILARLY WHEN IN A

SIMILAR POSITION?

“YES” answers lead to EXTERNAL attributions (Environmental causes)“NO” answers lead to INTERNAL attributions (Personal causes)

ATTRIBUTIONAL MODEL OF FAILURE

INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION (Person Responsible?)• LACK OF EFFORT• LACK OF ABILITY

EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION (Environment/situation Responsible?)• DIFFICULT TASK• BAD LUCK

WHAT IS THE SUPERVISOR’S RESPONSE?

NO ABILITY Training or TransferNO EFFORT Reprimand or Motivational StrategyHARD TASK Job RedesignBAD LUCK Sympathy and Support

VALUESPREFERENCES THAT ENDURE

BASIC CONVICTIONS ABOUT WHAT CONDUCT OR END-STATE IS “GOOD” OR RIGHT FOR YOU. (JUDGMENTAL)

VALUES ARE RELATIVELY STABLE AND ENDURING

WE CREATE A HIERARCHY OF VALUES, BASED ON THEIR IMPORTANCE TO US.

HIGHLY INTENSE VALUES MAKE UP THE CORE OF OUR VALUE SUSTEM

CONTENT What exactly is the mode of conduct or end-state being judged?

INTENSITYHow important is this value? Values can be ranked in importance to create a value hierarchy.

VALUES GENERALLY INFLUENCE ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR

TYPES OF VALUESROKEACH

TERMINAL VALUES END STATES OF EXISTENCE

HAPPINESS (SATISFACTION IN LIFE) LASTING FRIENDSHIPSKNOWLEDGE & WISDOM RECOGNITION FROM PEERSPEACE & HARMONY IN THE WORLD SALVATION (ETERNAL LIFE)A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT PROSPERITY & WEALTHSECURITY (FREEDOM FROM THREAT) SELF-RESPECTA WORLD OF BEAUTY FREEDOM (INDEPENDENCE)MATURE LOVE (INTIMACY) EQUALITY

INSTRUMENTAL VALUES PREFERRED WAYS TO ACHIEVE TERMINAL VALUES

AMBITIOUS & HARD-WORKING INTELLECTUALBROAD-MINDED INDEPENDENTCAPABLE & COMPETENT LOGICAL & RATIONALCHEERFUL OBEDIENTCOURAGEOUS POLITEFORGIVING RESPONSIBLEHELPFUL SELF-CONTROLLEDHONEST LOVING

ALLPORT’S SIX VALUE CATEGORIES• THEORETICAL

– INTEREST IN THE DISCOVERY OF TRUTH THROUGH REASONING & SYSTEMATIC THINKING

• ECONOMIC– INTEREST IN THE ACCUMULATION AND USE OF WEALTH

• AESTHETIC– INTEREST IN BEAUTY, FORM, AND ARTISTIC HARMONY

• SOCIAL– INTEREST IN PEOPLE, LOVE AND HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS

• POLITICAL– INTEREST IN POWER AND INFLUENCING OTHER PEOPLE

• RELIGIOUS– INTEREST IN UNITY, SPIRITUALITY, AND IN UNDERSTANDING THE COSMOS AS A WHOLE

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -RANKED VALUE-HIERARCHIES FOR MINISTERS AND EXECUTIVES MINISTERS -- Religious, Social, Aesthetic, Political, Theoretical, Economic

EXECUTIVES -- Economic, Theoretical, Political, Religious, Aesthetic, Social

DOMINANT WORK VALUES TODAYROBBINS (05)

COHORT ENTERED WORKFORCE AGE DOMINANT VALUES

VETERANS1950-60 65+ Hard working, conservativeConforming, loyal to the firmCOMFORTABLE LIFE, SECURITY

BOOMERS 1965-85 40+ to 60+ Success, achievement-orientedAmbition, dislikes authorityLoyal to one’s careerACCOMPLISHMENT, RECOGNITION

XERS 1985-00 Late 20s-40s Work/life balance Team-oriented, dislikes rules Loyal to relationshipsFRIENDSHIP, HAPPINESS, PLEASURE

NEXTERS 2000+ Under 30 Confident, financial successself-reliant but team-orientedloyal to self and relationships MONEY, FREEDOM, COMFORTABLE LIFE

MAGLINO’S VALUES FOR PEOPLE IN THE WORKPLACE

ACHIEVEMENTGETTING THINGS DONE

HELPING & CONCERN FOR OTHERS

HONESTYTELLING THE TRUTH AND DOING WHAT YOU FEEL IS RIGHT

FAIRNESSBEING IMPARTIAL

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Are these values congruent between the leader and the

followers?

WHICH VALUES ARE REALLY IMPORTANT TO YOU?

• PROFESSIONAL/CAREER

• FINANCIAL

• FAMILY

• SOCIAL/FRIENDSHIP

• COMMUNITY SERVICE

• SPIRITUAL/RELIGIOUS

• PHYSICAL/FITNESS

• INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Can your most important (intense) values be supported by your organization (in your career)? Is there a good “fit” between your values and your company/organization?

VALUES ACROSS CULTURESHOFSTEDE (80) n=116,000

POWER DISTANCEACCEPTANCE OF HIERARCHICAL DIFFERENCESTOLERANCE OF AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP

INDIVIDUALISM / COLLECTIVISMPERSONAL ACCOUNTABILITY vs GROUP COOPERATION AND COLLABORATIONTO WHAT EXTENT IS INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM & INDEPENDENCE VALUED?

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCEFEELING THREATENED BY AMBIGUOUS SITUATIONS?DO PEOPLE WANT STRUCTURE, STABILITY, RULES & CLEAR PERFORMANCE MEASURES?

ACHIEVEMENT / NURTURING (MASCULINITY / FEMININITY)ASSERTIVENESS, COMPETITION, THE ACQUISITION OF MONEY AND MATERIAL GOODSOR ARE RELATIONSHIPS, SENSITIVITY AND CONCERN FOR OTHERS MORE IMPORTANT

LONG-TERM / SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION (COFUCIAN DYNAMISM)DO YOU LOOK TO THE FUTURE: IS PERSISTENCE, THRIFT AND HARD WORK IMPORTANT? OR IS THE PAST, RESPECT FOR TRADITION, & FULFILLING OBLIGATIONS IMPORTANT?

ORIGINAL HOFSTEDE FINDINGS

POWER DISTANCE16 46 54 68 81 104

Austria USA Japan France Mexico Malaysia

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE8 46 65 82 92 112

Singapore USA Germany Mexico Japan Greece

INDIVIDUALISM / COLLECTIVISM6 30 46 67 71 91

Guatemala Mexico Japan Germany France USA

MASCULINITY / FEMININITY5 43 62 66 69 95

Sweden France USA Germany Mexico Japan

CONFUCIAN DYNAMISM10 29 31 80 96

Pakistan USA Germany Japan Hong Kong

THE G.L.O.B.E. FINDINGSJAVIDAN & HOUSE (01)

DIMENSION LOW MODERATE HIGHUNCERTAINTY Russia USA AustriaAVOIDANCE Bolivia Mexico Germany

Hungary Israel Denmark

POWER Denmark France RussiaDISTANCE Netherlands England Spain

South Africa Brazil Thailand

INDIVIDUALISM Singapore Hong Kong GreeceCOLLECTIVISM Denmark Egypt Hungary

Japan USA Germany

ASSERTIVENESS Sweden Ireland Spain(Masculinity?) New Zealand Philippines USA

Switzerland Egypt Greece

HUMANE Germany Hong Kong IndonesiaORIENTATION France Taiwan Malaysia(Nurturing?) Spain Sweden Egypt

FUTURE Russia Slovenia DenmarkORIENTATION Argentina Egypt Canada(Long-term?) Poland Ireland Netherlands

ATTITUDESFISHBEIN (67)

EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS WHICH REFLECT HOW ONE FEELS ABOUT SOMETHING (objects, people, or events)

CONSIST OF THREE COMPONENTS:

AFFECTIVEFEELINGS AND EMOTIONS

COGNITIVERATIONAL BELIEFS, BASED ON KNOWLEDGE, FACTS, INFORMATION

BEHAVIORALEXPRESSED BEHAVIOR, OR INTENTION TO TAKE ACTION

Attitudes are less stable than values. In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behavior and satisfaction.

COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY vs DISSONANCE

FESTINGER (57)

EXPLAINS THE LINKAGE BETWEEN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORCONSISTENCY DISSONANCE

When the 3 elements… Are in Harmony Conflict

We feel… At Peace and Content Uncomfortable

Attitude change is… Not Likely Possible- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ATTITUDE CHANGE IS MOST LIKELY WHEN THE ELEMENTS ARE

IMPORTANT TO YOU, THEY APPEAR TO CONFLICT, YOU HAVE SOME CONTROL OVER THEM, AND THERE AREN’T LARGE REWARDS TO YOU FOR HOLDING THIS ATTITUDE/BEHAVIOR.

YOU CAN:Change your behavior (stop polluting the river)Conclude the dissonant behavior isn’t so important after all (I have to make decisions in the best interest of the company, besides it’s within legal limits)Change your attitude (there isn’t anything wrong with this pollution)Seek out more consonant elements (the benefits to society of our products outweigh the cost of this minor pollution)

REASONS ATTITUDES ARE EXPRESSEDKELMAN (61)

COMPLIANCETO GET REWARDS TO AVOID PUNISHMENT

IDENTIFICATIONTO MAINTAIN RELATIONSHIPS WITH PEOPLE WE ADMIRE

INTERNALIZATIONBECAUSE WE BELIEVE IT IS CORRECTIT’S THE “RIGHT THING TO DO”

This model also helps us understand why people behave as they do, and why people conform to “norms”

THE ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR RELATIONSHIP

DOES ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR?(Sometimes attitudes don’t seem to predict behavior very well).

DOES THE ATTITUDE REFLECT AN IMPORTANT (FUNDAMENTAL) VALUE?

SPECIFIC ATTITUDES AND SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS ARE STRONGLY LINKED. “Do you intend to stay/quit in the next six months” is clearly more specific than “…are you satisfied with your work?”

FREQUENTLY REMEMBERED (AND EXPRESSED) ATTITUDES ARE MOST LIKELY TO PREDICT BEHAVIOR. If you talk about it enough, you’ll act on it.

IF YOU’VE HAD DIRECT PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH THE SITUATION, YOUR ATTITUDE WILL BE STRONGLY LINKED TO YOUR SUBSEQUENT BEHAVIOR

DISCREPANCIES IN THE ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR LINK ARE MOST LIKELY WHEN:

THERE ARE STRONG SOCIAL PRESSURES APPLIED EXTERNALLY, AND/ORTHERE ARE LARGE REWARDS FOR “GOING ALONG” WITH THE CROWD.

JOB SATISFACTION AND PRODUCTIVITY

• JOB SATISFACTION IS AN ATTITUDE

Conference Board Study 1990 = 58.6% satisfied, by 2002 = down to 50.4 %35-44 yr old group 1995 = 61 % satisfied, by 2002 = 47 % satisfied

Decline may be due to attempts to restructure, increase productivity and contain coststhrough heavier workloads, tighter schedules, meager raises and cut benefits. Another factormay be the feeling that workers have less control over their work today than in the past.

RESEARCH SHOWS…Happy workers aren’t necessarily productive workers…the reverse may be trueProductive workers tend to be the happiest workers At the individual level: (Productivity Satisfaction)

At the organizational level, the firms with the most satisfied workers (aggregated),tend to be more effective than firms with fewer satisfied workers. In other words, “happy organizations” are the most productive ones! (Satisfied workers Productive Organizations)

JOB SATISFACTION, ABSENTEEISM, TURNOVER, AND OCBs

ABSENTEEISM AND JOB SATISFACTIONA CONSISTENT, NEGATIVE CORRELATION (-.20 to -.40)

Absenteeism is impacted by the liberal use of “sick day” benefitsEven highly satisfied workers may not come to work…to enjoy this benefit!

TURNOVER AND JOB SATISFACTIONA NEGATIVE CORRELATION, STRONGER THAN WITH ABSENTEEISM

Turnover is related to work performance as well as job satisfaction. Poor performers may be forced to leave, regardless of their level of job satisfaction. Outstanding performers may also leave to seek even better job opportunities elsewhere.

ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS & SATISFACTIONSATISFIED WORKERS ARE MORE LIKELY TO “GO THE SECOND MILE” BUT THIS CAN BE EXPLAINED BY PERCEPTIONS OF “FAIRNESS”

We don’t voluntarily do more than our jobs require if we think we’re not fairly treated.

JOB SATISFACTION AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

SATISFIED WORKERS ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE FRIENDLY, UPBEAT, ANDRESPONSIVE TO CUSTOMER NEEDS THAN LESS-SATISFIED WORKERS.

BECAUSE SATSIFIED WORKERS ARE LESS PRONE TO TURNOVER, CUSTOMERSARE MORE LIKELY TO ENCOUNTER FAMILIAR FACES AND RECEIVEEXPERIENCED SERVICE.

SIGNS OF EMPLOYEE DISSATISFACTION

COMPLAINTS AND GRIEVANCESINSUBORDINATE TALK AND FREQUENT ARGUMENTSSTEALING ORGANIZATIONAL PROPERTYSHIRKING WORK RESPONSIBILITIES (they don’t do it)ACTIVELY LOOKING FOR A NEW POSITION ELSEWHERECHRONICABSENTEEISM AND LATENESSREDUCED EFFORTAN INCREASE IN ERRORS/MISTAKES ON THE JOB SUDDEN RESIGNATION